Behavior Modification What It Is and How To Do It, 9E Garry L Martin Test Bank & Instructor Manuals

Instructor’s Manual with Tests and Practicum Exercises for

Martin and Pear

Behavior Modification What It Is and How to Do It Ninth Edition

CONTENTS Part I Thinking Levels

2

Bloom’s Taxonomy: A Modified Form

2

Uses of the Taxonomy

3

Levels of Study Questions in the Text

4

Parts II and III

Answers to Study Questions in the Text

OptionBased Questions

Chapter 1.

Introduction

14

113

Chapter 2.

Areas of Application: An Overview

17

118

Chapter 3.

Getting a Behavior to Occur More Often with Positive Reinforcement

20

121

Chapter 4.

Developing and Maintaining Behavior with Conditioned Reinforcement

24

125

Chapter 5.

Decreasing a Behavior with Extinction

26

127

Chapter 6.

Developing Behavioral Persistence Through the Use of Intermittent Reinforcement

29

130

Chapter 7.

Intermittent Reinforcement to Decrease Behavior

34

134

Chapter 8.

Doing the Right Thing at the Right Time and Place: Stimulus Discrimination and Stimulus Generalization

37

136

Chapter 9.

Changing the Control of a Behavior with Fading

41

139

Chapter 10.

Getting a New Behavior to Occur With Shaping

44

142

.. iii

Answers to Study Questions in the Text

OptionBased Questions

47

144

Chapter 12. Eliminating Inappropriate Behavior Through Punishment

50

147

Chapter 13.

Establishing Behavior by Escape and Avoidance Conditioning

54

150

Chapter 14.

Procedures Based on Principles of Respondent Conditioning

56

152

Chapter 15.

Respondent and Operant Conditioning Together

61

155

Chapter 16.

Transferring Behavior to New Settings and Making It Last: Generality of Behavior Change

63

157

Chapter 17.

Antecedent Control: Rules and Goals

67

160

Chapter 18.

Antecedent Control: Modeling, Guidance, and Situational Inducement

70

162

Chapter 19.

Antecedent Control: Motivation

72

165

Chapter 20.

Behavioral Assessment: Initial Considerations

75

168

Chapter 21.

Direct Behavioral Assessment: What to Record and How

78

171

Chapter 22.

Doing Research in Behavior Modification

81

174

Chapter 23.

Functional Assessment of the Causes of Problem Behavior

85

177

Chapter 24.

Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Behavioral Program

88

179

Chapter 25.

Token Economies

91

182

Chapter 26.

Helping an Individual to Develop Self-Control

94

185

Chapter 11.

Getting a New Sequence of Behaviors to Occur with Behavioral Chaining

.. iv

Chapter 27.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy, Self-Directed Coping Methods, and ACT

98

189

Chapter 28.

Areas of Clinical Behavior Therapy

102

193

Chapter 29.

Giving It All Some Perspective: A Brief History

106

197

Chapter 30.

Ethical Issues

109

201

Part IV Practicum Exercises 1.

Positive Reinforcement

205

2.

Extinction

207

3.

Schedules of Reinforcement

209

4.

Stimulus Control

211

5.

Escape and Avoidance Conditioning

213

6.

Respondent and Operant Components of Emotions

215

7.

Programming for Generality

217

8.

Rule-Governed Control Over Behavior

219

9.

Short-Cut Tactics with Stimulus Control

221

10.

Behavioral Assessment

223

11.

Planning a Treatment Program

225

12.

Token Reinforcement in a Self-Improvement Program

227

13.

Causes of Problems of Self-Control

229

14.

Task Analysis, Behavioral Progression, and

15.

Mastery Criteria

231

Planning Coping Self-Statements

233

.. v

PREFACE Considering the extensive study aids already incorporated into the text, as well as our own experience in using the first eight editions of the text during the past 31 years, we believe that the most helpful additional material we can give an instructor is our detailed answer key to all of the study questions in the text, including the study questions on the Notes & Extended Discussion (N&ED) sections. Having such an answer key available can be a tremendous time-saver for instructors and can greatly facilitate accurate and consistent grading by teaching assistants. This manual, therefore, contains answers to all of the study questions. The form of the suggested answers varies somewhat according to the type of question asked.

As mentioned in the Preface to the text itself, the N&ED sections contain information that might be used by instructors as springboards for lecture material. Our suggested answers to the study questions on the N&ED sections, besides being helpful to course graders, may also prove useful to instructors when elaborating or expanding on the material in the N&ED sections.

For instructors who wish to use option-based questions, a pool of multiple-choice and true/false questions has been provided on a chapter-by-chapter basis. The multiple-choice and true/false questions were chosen so as to be closely related to the material contained in the answers to the study questions. This was a deliberate tactic so that students who master the textual material by learning answers to the study questions will perform well on the multiplechoice and true/false questions. These questions were prepared by Nickie Martin, Brunata Smyk, Nicole Duy, and Garry Martin.

Included in the Instructor’s Manual are fifteen in-class practica or mini-lab exercises that have been developed and field tested. Each exercise is designed to be completed by a group of two or three students during a regularly scheduled class. After students have studied and been examined on relevant chapters, completion of a practicum helps them learn to talk about and apply behavior modification principles. Feedback from students indicates that the exercises constitute an excellent teaching tool.

Also in this edition of the Instructor’s Resource Manual is a section on the Thinking Levels required by the Study Questions in the text. The information in this section is based on research carried out by Joseph Pear using the Study Questions in a Computer-Aided Personalized System of Instruction approach (see www.capsi.org). As mentioned in this section, there are a number of uses instructors can make of this information.

Garry Martin and Joseph Pear

.. vi

Part I Thinking Levels

1 ..

THINKING LEVELS BLOOM’S TAXONOMY: A MODIFIED FORM One goal of education is to teach students to think at higher levels. However, this has always been a problem. One of the difficulties that instructors encounter is operationally defining higher-level thinking. In the 1950s a tremendous step was made by Benjamin S. Bloom, who identified six major levels of questions: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Joseph Pear and his students applied a modified form of Bloom’s taxonomy to the study questions in Behavior Modification: What It Is and How to Do It (see www.capsi.org). In this section, we provide the levels at which the study questions in the text are rated. These ratings have good inter-rater reliability. The definitions of the levels are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Modified Definitions of the Major Categories in Bloom’s Taxonomy (Adapted from Crone-Todd, Pear, J.J., & Read, C. N. Operational definitions for higher-order thinking objectives at the post-secondary level. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 4, 99-106.)

Levels 1 and 2 The answers to these types of questions will always be found in the assigned material.

Answers may be memorized or closely paraphrased from the assigned material.

1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension

Answers must be in the student’s own words, while still using terminology appropriate to the assigned material.

Levels 3, 4, 5, and 6 These questions go beyond the textual material in that they must be inferred or extrapolated from the information in the assigned material.

May require recognition, identification, or application of a concept or principle learned at Category II in a new situation or solve a new problem. Questions in this 3. Application category may present or require examples not found in the assigned material.

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 2 ..

4. Analysis

5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation

Requires breaking down concepts into their constituent parts, or the identification or explanation of the essential components of concepts, principles, or processes.

Questions in this category may require the student to compare and contrast concepts or explain how an example illustrates a given concept, principle, etc.

Requires the putting together of parts to form a whole. Questions may require the generation of definitions not identified in the assigned material (i.e., going from specific to general), or to explain how to combine principles or concepts in a novel way or to produce something new.

Requires the presentation and evaluation of reasons for and against a particular position, and to come to a conclusion regarding the validity of that position. The most important part of the answer is the justification or rationale for the conclusion, rather than the answer per se. A good discussion in this category involves the use of all preceding levels.

USES OF THE TAXONOMY

The following are some of the uses that instructors may make of the question levels given below.

•

To generate higher-order thinking in students.

•

To ensure a balanced distribution of thinking levels on tests.

•

To equate alternate forms of a test with regard to thinking levels required.

•

To ensure that the first questions on a test are at the lowest thinking level, since the higher levels tend to be more difficult for most students.

•

To ensure that earlier tests in a course have a higher proportion of lower level questions than later tests.

•

To test for particular types of competencies (e.g. one would give predominantly knowledge and comprehension level questions if the primary goal is to develop knowledge of what behavior modification is as opposed to how to apply it).

•

To construct tests that are appropriate for the level of the course being taught (e.g. more advanced courses should have more higher-level questions than less advanced courses).

•

To provide a basis for awarding bonus points.

•

To provide scales for individuals conducting research in the area of higher-order thinking.

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 3 ..

THINKING LEVELS OF STUDY QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT CH 1 MAIN TEXT

1 N&ED

2 MAIN TEXT

QU #

Thinking Level

QU #

Thinking Level

QU #

Thinking Level

1

C; K

4

K; K; C

8

Ap; Ap

2

C; Ap

5

C; K

9

C

3

C; Ap

6

K

10

Ap; Ap

4

K; C

7

C

11

C; C

5

K; C

8

K

12

An

6

C; C

9

K

13

Ap; Ap

7

K; C

10

K

14

Ap

8

K; Ap

11

C

15

E

9

K; Ap

12

K

16

K; C

10

C

13

K

17

K; C

11

K; Ap

14

C

18

K; An

12

K; A

15

K

19

K; E

13

C

16

K

20

An; E

14

K; Ap; C

17

K

21

An

15

K

18

K

22

Ap; E

16

K

19

K

23

Ap

17

K

20

K; An

24

Ap

18

An

21

K

25

K; K; C

19

K

22

C; C

26

C; C; C

20

K

2

1

K; E

27/25

An

21

K

N&ED

2

C

28/27

An; E

1

K; C

3

K; E

29/28

C

2

C

1

C: C

30/29

K; C

3

C

2

C

31/30

C

4

K; K

3

C

32/31

C; An

5

K; C

4

K

33/32

Ap

1

K

5

K

34/33

K; C

2

K

6

K; Ap

35/34

C

1

C

3

K

CH 2 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

3 MAIN TEXT

7

C

CH 3 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

3 N&ED

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 4 ..

CH 3 N&ED (CONT.) 4 MAIN TEXT

4 N&ED 5 MAIN TEXT

QU #

Thinking Level

QU #

Thinking Level

2

C

15

K

3

C; C

16

C; C

1

C; C

17

An; E

2

C; C

13

K; C

18

K

3

C; An

14

C

19

C

4

K

15

C; C

20

C; Ap

5

Ap; Ap; C

16

C; C

21

An; An

6

K

17

C

22

C; Ap

7

C

18

Ap; An

23

C

8

Ap; E

19

C; Ap

24

C

9

Ap; An

20

C; C; C

25

Ap

10

C; Ap

21

C

26

C; Ap

1

An

27

Ap; E; Ap;

CH 5 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

5 N&ED

QU #

Thinking Level

10

C

11

Ap; E;

12

K; C

CH 6 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

11

An; C

12

Ap; E

2

K; C

28

C

13

Ap; E

3

C; C

29

C

14

K

1

K; C

30

C; C

15

C

2

K; C

31

Ap; E

16

C; C

3

K; C

32

C; C

1

Ap

4

C

33

C

2

Ap; Ap

5

C; C

34

C; C

1

K

6

C; C

35

C

2

Ap; E

7

C; Ap; Ap

36

K

1

K; K

6 MAIN TEXT

6 N&ED

3

Ap; E

8

C

4

Ap; E

9

K

2

C

5

C

10

C; Ap; Ap

3

C

6

An

11

An; An

4

C; E

7

K

12

C

5

C

8

An

13

C; Ap

1

C

9

Ap; Ap

14

C; C

2

C; C

7 MAIN TEXT

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 5 ..

CH 7 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

QU #

Thinking Level

3

C; C

4

C; C

5

An

6

An

7

7 N&ED 8 MAIN TEXT

CH 8 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

Ap

QU #

Thinking Level

QU #

Thinking Level

14

C; C; C

13

C; C

15

Ap; C; E

14

K; Ap

16

C; C

14

K; Ap; Ap

17

An

18

CH

16

K; Ap; Ap

C

9 MAIN TXT (CONT.)

17

C

9 ED&N

1

Ap; E

2

An

1

C; C

2

C

8

C; C

19

Ap; Ap; Ap

9

Ap

20

K

10

K; C

21

C; Ap

11

C; C

22

C; Ap

12

C

23

C

3

K

13

An

24

An

4

An

14

An

25

Ap; E

5

C

15

C; C

26

C

6

Ap

1

Ap

7

C; C

8 ED&N

10 MAIN TEXT

16

K

1

Ap

2

C

8

Ap; Ap

2

Ap; E

3

K; C

9

An

1

K; Ap

4

Ap

10

K; C

2

K

1

C; C

11

K; C

3

K

2

C

12

C

4

K; Ap

3

C

13

C

5

C; C; Ap

4

C; C

14

C; C

6

C; C; Ap

5

Ap

15

C; Ap

7

An

6

Ap

16

K

8

Ap

7

Ap

17

C

9

Ap

8

Ap

18

Ap

10

C; C

9

Ap

19

Ap

11

C

10

C; C

20

An

1

C

2

C

9 MAIN TEXT

12

C; C

11

K; C

13

An

12

K; Ap

10 ED&N

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 6 ..

CH 10 ED&N (CONT.)

11 MAIN TEXT

QU #

Thinking Level

3

C

4

An

5

C

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

11 ED&N 12 MAIN TEXT

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

CH 12 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

C

QU # 8 9 10 11

C; Ap

12

C

13

An; An; E

14/15

C

16

C

17

C

18

Ap

19

An; Ap

20

C

21

An

22

Ap; E

23

C; Ap

24

C

25

C

26

An

27

Ap; An

Thinking Level Ap; E C; C C

C

C

30

C

12 ED&N

1

E

13 MAIN TEXT

1

K; C K C C; C C; C

2 3 4 5 6

E

C; C An; An; An An; An Ap K; C C; C

An Ap C C C Ap Ap

17 13 ED&N

3 14 MAIN TEXT

C

1 2

C

C

An

16

An; Ap

C

An; An

15

An; Ap

C

9

14

Ap

C; Ap; E

K

8

13

C

K; Ap

K

7

12

C/E

E; Ap

Thinking Level

11

An

C

QU #

10

C

Ap; Ap

Ap

13 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

C

28 29

C

CH

Ap; Ap C; Ap; Ap C

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

C; C C; C C; C C: Ap; K C; C C; C C

8

Ap

9 10 11

C; Ap C; Ap Ap

12

C

13

C

14 15

C; C

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 7 ..

CH 14 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

QU # 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

14 ED&N 15 MAIN TEXT

1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

15 ED&N

1

Thinking Level Ap C C C

QU #

Thinking Level

15 ED&N (CD.)

2

C

16 MAIN TEXT

1

CH

3

Ap

4

C; Ap

5

C; C

6

C

7

C; Ap

8

C; Ap

9

C; C

10

Ap

11

Ap

12

Ap

13

C; Ap

14

C; Ap

15

C

16

C

17

Ap

18

An

19

C

20

C; C

21

Ap

22

Ap

23

C C Ap

16 ED&N

C C

2

17 MT

C; Ap An; Ap

CH 17 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

An; C

15

C

18

C; C

C An C; Ap; Ap An C C; Ap C C

20

C; C

C; Ap

C

19

C; C

1

C

17

C; C

Ap

C

16

C; C

3

C

14

C; An; Ap

An

Ap; Ap

13

C; E

2

An

12

C; C

Ap

C; C

11

An

24 1

C; C

10

C; C

C

Ap; Ap; Ap

9

C

C

4

8

C

C

Ap

7

C; C

C; C

C

3

6

C; C

Thinking Level

2

5

An

C; C

QU #

17 ED&N 18 MAIN TEXT

C

21 1

C

1

K; Ap

2

C

3

Ap; Ap

4

C; C

5

S; An

6

Ap; Ap; Ap

7

C; C

8

C; An

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 8 ..

CH 18 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

QU #

Thinking Level An; Ap

4

10

C; C

1

11

C; An C

20 MAIN TEXT

14 15 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 19 ED&N

QU #

19 ED&N (CT.)

13

19 MAIN TEXT

CH

Ap; Ap

9

12

18 ED&N

Thinking Level

17 1

3

Ap;Ap;Ap;Ap

4

Ap; Ap; Ap

5

Ap; Ap

6

C; An

7

C; C

8

C; C

9

C; C

10

C

11

Ap

12

C; Ap

13

An

14

C; Ap

15

C; Ap

16

E

17

E

18

E

19

K; Ap

20

K; Ap

21

K; Ap

22

Ap Ap Ap K

2

C

3

C; Ap; E

2

23 20 ED&N

1 2

21 MAIN TEXT

1 2 3

K; Ap K

CH 21 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

K

11

C

C K C; Ap K; C K; C K

12

An

C

13

C

C

14

C

15

C

K; Ap Ap

16

C

17

C

K; Ap K

18

C

C

19

K; C

C

20

K; C

21

K; C

22

C

K; C K; Ap C

23

C

C

24

An

Ap

25

An

26 21 ED&N

3 22 MAIN TEXT

K; C An

1 2

An

K; Ap

C

6

10

C

K

Ap

5

9

C

K; Ap

C

4

8

K

K

Thinking Level

7

K

An

QU #

1

C; C C; C K; C

2 3

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 9 ..

C An

CH 22 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

QU # 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

22 ED&N 23 MAIN TEXT

1 1 2 3 4

Thinking Level K; C K; C C

CH 23 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

C

11

C

12

C

13

C; C

14

C

15

C

16

C

17

C

C C; K C An Ap C K; C C C C An Ap; Ap

7

10

Ap

C

6

9

C

C

5

8

C; K

C

QU #

23 ED&N 24 MAIN TEXT

18 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Thinking Level C C Ap

CH 24 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

C

S C; C Ap C C; C C Ap C C; C C Ap; E C C C C C C C C K K

K

15

C

16

C

17

K C

19

C; Ap

C; C

Thinking Level

18

C

C; C

QU #

24 ED&N 25 MAIN TEXT

K

20 1

C

2

C

1

K

2

C

3

C K

4

K

5

K

6

C

7

C

8 9

K; C

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 10 ..

K K S K C C K K K C C C

CH

QU #

Thinking Level

25 MT (CT.)

22

C

25 ED&N

1

C

2

An

3

26 MAIN TEXT

QU #

Thinking Level

25

C; C

26

C; C

27

C; C

Ap; E

28

4

C

1

C; E

2

C

3

C

4

C

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

C C C C Ap C C C C C C C C C; Ap C; Ap C; C C C E K

CH 26 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

26 ED&N 27 MAIN TEXT

CH 27 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

QU #

Thinking Level C

22

C

23

C

C; C

24 25

C

29

C

26

C

30

E

1

C; C

2

C; C

2 3

1

C

4

C

2

K

5

S

3

C

1

C

2

C

3

K

4

K; K

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

C C C C; K C C; C C An E C C C C C C An S S

27 ED&N

28 MAIN TEXT

C

1

C C

C

5

C

6

C

7

An

8

Ap

9

Ap

10 11 12

C; Ap K; C

13 14 15 16 17 18 19

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 11 ..

C An C C C C C

CH 28 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

QU # 20 21 22 23 24 25

28 ED&N

29 MAIN TEXT

Thinking Level C; S An; E An

CH 29 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

An

26

C

27

18 19 20 21

C; K C

QU #

29 ED&N

22 1

Thinking Level C; C C; K K; K

C C C

C

3

K; K

28

C

4

C

1

C

5

K; C

2

C

6

K; C

3

C; An; An

1

C; Ap

1

C

2

Ap

2

K

3

C

3

C

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

C K C C C C C C C C An K K C

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

30 MAIN TEXT (CONT.)

C

2

30 MAIN TEXT

CH

30 ED&N

QU #

Thinking Level

19

C

20

C

21

K

22

C

1

C

2

C

3

C

C C; Ap C C; C C C K C C; Ap E C C C C K

K=Knowledge; C=Comprehension; App=Application; A=Analysis; S=Synthesis; E=Evaluation 12 ..

Part II Answers to Study Questions in the Text

13 ..

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Generally, behavior is anything a person does or says. Technically, behavior is any muscular, glandular, or electrical activity of an organism. Synonyms include: activity, action, performance, responding, response, and reaction.

2.

Behavior is anything that a person says or does. Products of behavior are the consequences produced by the behavior. For example, studying effectively and writing the correct answers to questions on an exam are behaviors. Getting an “A” is a product of those behaviors.

3.

Overt behaviors are behaviors that could be observed and recorded by an individual other than the one performing the behavior. For example, walking and talking are overt behaviors. Covert behaviors are private or internal activities that cannot be readily observed by others. For example, thinking particular words to oneself or feeling nervous (increased heart rate, etc.) would be private behaviors.

4.

Thinking in words (private self-talk) and imagining can also be referred to as cognitive behaviors. For example, a hockey player may think before stepping on the ice at a game, “I am going to play my best game yet” (private self-talk), or a teacher may tell the class to close their eyes and picture a beach (imagining).

5.

Any two dimensions can be described. Duration of a behavior is how long it lasts. For example, measuring how long an individual can tread water in a swimming pool.

Frequency of a behavior is the number of instances that occur in a given period of time.

For example, a figure skater counting the number of times that she or he lands a new jump in a practice session. The intensity or force of a behavior refers to the physical effort or energy involved in emitting the behavior. For example, the force of a person’s grip when shaking hands.

6.

Although their meanings vary from speaker to speaker, they always refer to ways of behaving. An intelligent person, for example, solves problems quickly; a creative person frequently emits behaviors that are novel or unusual and have desirable effects.

7.

(a) They may lead to pseudo explanations of behavior; (b) they can negatively affect the way a labeled individual might be treated; and (c) they may influence one to focus on an individual’s problem behaviors rather than on his or her strengths.

8.

Too little behavior of a particular type. For example, a child might not pronounce words clearly, nor interact with other children. Any other two appropriate examples are acceptable.

9.

Too much behavior of a particular type. For example, a child frequently plays with the dials on the television set, and throws food on the floor at mealtime. Any other two appropriate examples are acceptable.

10.

(a) To avoid the problems of using general labels to refer to individuals; (b) because it is behavior that causes concern and behavior that must be treated to alleviate the problems; and (c) specific procedures are available to overcome behavior problems.

14 ..

11.

Stimuli are the people, objects, and events currently present in one’s immediate surroundings that impinge on one’s sense receptors and that can affect behavior. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

12.

First, it places strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some way and accepting changes in the behavioral measure of the problem as the best indicator of the extent to which the problem is being helped. Second, its treatment procedures and techniques are ways of altering an individual’s environment to help that individual function more fully in society. Third, its methods and rationales can be described precisely. Fourth, the techniques of behavior modification are often applied by individuals in everyday life. Fifth, its techniques stem from basic and applied research in the psychology of learning in general, and in the principles of operant and Pavlovian conditioning in particular. Sixth, it emphasizes scientific demonstration that a particular intervention was responsible for a particular behavior change. Seventh, it places high value on accountability for everyone involved in behavior modification programs: client, staff, administrators, consultants, etc.

13.

Behavior modification involves the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to assess and improve individuals’ covert and overt behaviors in order to enhance their daily functioning.

14.

Target behavior is a behavior to be improved in a behavior modification program. A student might identify a target behavior of studying more. This would be a behavioral deficit that needs to be increased. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

15.

Behavioral assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Identify and describe target behaviors; Identify possible causes of the behavior; Guide the selection of an appropriate behavioral treatment; and Evaluate treatment outcome.

16.

Behavior analysis is the scientific study of laws that govern the behavior of human beings and other animals. It is the science on which behavior modification is based.

17.

The dimensions of applied behavior analysis include: (a) a focus on measurable behavior that is socially significant; (b) a strong emphasis on the learning principles frequently referred to as operant conditioning, to develop treatment strategies; (c) an attempt to clearly demonstrate that the treatment that was applied was responsible for the improvement in the behavior that was measured; and (d) a demonstration of generalizable and long-lasting improvements in behavior.

18.

(a) Behavior modification uses the principles of both operant and Pavlovian conditioning, while applied behavior analysis relies largely on operant conditioning; (b) behavior modification encompasses both behavior therapy and cognitive behavior therapy, and therefore has acquired a broader meaning than applied behavior analysis.

19.

Behavior therapy is behavior modification carried out on dysfunctional behavior.

20.

Cognitive behavior therapy focuses on treating dysfunctional behavior by changing unproductive, debilitating thought patterns that were considered to be responsible for the dysfunctional behavior.

15 ..

21.

Any four of the following myths or misconceptions: (a) Use of rewards by behavior modifiers to change behavior is bribery; (b) Behavior modification involves the use of drugs, psychosurgery, and electroconvulsive therapy; (c) Behavior modification only changes symptoms; it doesn’t get at the underlying problems; (d) Behavior modification is not applicable for changing complex problems such as low self-esteem or depression; (e) Behavior modifiers are cold and unfeeling and don’t develop empathy for their clients; (f) Behavior modifiers deal only with observable behavior; they don’t deal with thoughts and feelings of clients; (g) Behavior modification is outdated.

Answer to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

DSM-IV-TR stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. It is a manual to help therapists to diagnosis or classify clients based on categories of problem behaviors observed.

2.

First, it is based primarily on research. Second, individual disorders are based on categories of problem behaviors. Third, it uses a multidimensional recording system that provides extra information for planning treatment, managing a case, and predicting outcomes. Fourth, official DSM-IV-TR diagnoses are often required by clinics, hospitals, schools, and social service agencies before treatment can be offered. Fifth, health insurance companies reimburse practitioners on the basis of the diagnoses in the DSMIV-TR.

3.

A DSM-IV-TR diagnosis may lead to an individual being labeled (e.g., autistic), and labeling can lead to several disadvantages, such as the implication that all individuals with the same label are the same, even though they are not.

4.

People-first language helps us to focus on the problem and to avoid labeling. For example, in the case of autism, we should describe the client as a child with autism rather than an autistic child.

5.

No. Although John B. Watson overemphasized the importance of the environment for influencing behavior, Skinner and other modern-day behaviorists do not disregard the importance of genetics. Their appreciation of genetics was indicated by the publication of a mini-series on behavioral genetics in the journal Behavior Therapy. However, even though the influence of heredity may increase the susceptibility of an individual to certain behavioral problems such as obesity or alcoholism, an individual’s environment still plays a major role in the development and maintenance of behaviors that lead to such problems.

16 ..

CHAPTER 2 AREAS OF APPLICATION: AN OVERVIEW Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Any five of the following areas: education, parenting, child management, social work, nursing, clinical psychology, psychiatry, community psychology, medicine, rehabilitation medicine, gerontology, business, industry, and sports. Other areas might also be acceptable.

2.

Any four of the following: learning to walk, learning to talk, toilet training, doing household chores, decreasing nail-biting, decreasing temper tantrums, decreasing aggressive behaviors, following rules, complying with parents’ requests, and decreasing arguing. Other behaviors might also be acceptable.

3.

Any four of the following: oral reading, reading comprehension, spelling, handwriting, mathematics, English composition, creativity, science concepts, out-of-seat behavior, tantruming, aggressive behavior, and excessive socializing. Other behaviors might also be acceptable.

4.

PSI stands for Personalized System of Instruction. It was founded by Fred S. Keller. Its characteristics include: (a) identifies the target behaviors or learning requirements for a course in the form of study questions, such as the questions at the end of the chapters in this book; (b) requires students to study only a small amount of material before demonstrating mastery, such as the amount of material contained in a chapter or two and that might be studied in a week or two; (c) has frequent tests (such as once every week or two) in which students are required to demonstrate their knowledge of the answers to the study objectives; (d) has mastery criteria so that students must demonstrate mastery at a particular level before going on to the next level; (e) is nonpunitive, in that students are not penalized for failing to demonstrate mastery on a test but simply restudy and try again; (f) uses a number of student assistants (called proctors) to assist in immediately scoring tests and providing feedback to students concerning test performance; (g) incorporates a “go-at-your-own-pace” feature in which students are allowed to proceed through the course material at rates that suit their own particular abilities and time demands; and (h) use lectures primarily for motivation and demonstration, rather than as a major means of presenting new information.

5.

Some instructors have used computers to automate PSI, thus making it more efficient.

Moreover, some instructors have added electronic backup components, such as interactive video discs. In addition, telecommunications enable: (a) tests to be marked without having graders at the same location; and (b) students to take courses while living far away from the university.

6.

Intellectual disability.

7.

(a) Normalization advocates argued that developmentally disabled persons should be helped to lead the most normative lives possible, and that traditional institutionalization is simply not normative. (b) Civil rights advocates and parents of developmentally disabled persons successfully secured their legal right to receive an education. (c) Behavior modifiers developed a technology that made it possible to dramatically improve the behavior of severely and profoundly developmentally disabled persons.

17 ..

8.

Toileting, feeding, dressing, personal hygiene, social skills, communication skills, vocational skills, leisure time activities, and community survival behaviors. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

9.

Social behaviors, language skills, play behaviors, and (elimination of) self-stimulatory behaviors. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

10.

Social skills, communication skills, assertiveness, and job finding skills. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

11.

There are definite problem areas (e.g., phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorders, depression) in which specific behavioral procedures are superior to other forms of psychotherapy. There are also problem areas (e.g., eating disorders, phobias, etc.) for which behavior therapy is more effective than drug treatment. In some cases, however, the treatment of choice may be a combination of behavior therapy and drug treatment.

12.

Speaking up in class, increasing exercise behavior, improving study habits, and eliminating tooth grinding. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

13.

Health psychology is the study of how psychological factors can influence or cause illness, and how people can be encouraged to practice healthy behavior in order to prevent health problems such as heart disease.

14.

Areas of application of health psychology include: (a) direct treatment of medical problems such as headaches; (b) establishing treatment compliance such as taking medications as prescribed; (c) promoting healthy living such as eating well-balanced meals and getting adequate exercise; (d) improving the management of caregivers, such as the behavior of nurses and other medical personnel who provide services; and (e) teaching use of behavioral strategies for coping with stress.

15.

Any four of the following: coping with loss of skills, functioning independently during old age, learning new routines because it’s impossible to perform tasks in previously learned ways, overcoming anxiety or fear about possible failure to cope, learning new relationships with professional care staff, and decreasing disruptive behaviors in nursing homes. Other behaviors might also be acceptable.

16.

Behavioral community psychology refers to applications to socially significant problems in unstructured community settings where the behavior of individuals is not considered deviant in the traditional sense.

17.

(a) They include greater involvement of the target populations in all aspects of the intervention process. (b) There is increased fostering of the target subjects’ personal control (versus control by professionals). (c) There is increased inclusion of subjective assessments when evaluating treatment outcomes. (d) There is increased emphasis on antecedent behavior change procedures versus consequence management. (e) There is greater interdisciplinary collaboration among professionals.

18.

Littering, recycling, energy conservation and job skills training. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

18 ..

19.

Organizational behavior management is the application of behavior modification techniques to individual or group performance within an organizational setting.

20.

Improved productivity, decreased tardiness and absenteeism, increased sales volume, creation of new businesses, improved worker safety, reduced theft by employees, reduced shoplifting, and improved management-employee relations. Sales volume is an outcome. The other items could be considered as behaviors. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

21.

Improving skills of athletes, motivating practice and endurance training, changing the behavior of coaches, and helping athletes prepare for serious competition in sport.

22.

Cultural characteristics can influence the effectiveness of treatment. It is helpful, for example, for therapists to know that many Asian-American clients prefer to be told specifically what to do by the therapist (as opposed to a more non-directive approach).

On the other hand, with many Hispanic-American clients, compliance with goaldirected suggestions is likely to be more effective if they are preceded by a period of familiarizing small talk.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

(a) In a number of studies that have compared the conventional teaching approach to PSI, PSI has produced a statistically significant average learning advantage of 19 percentile points; and (b) students taking courses by PSI strongly praise the system.

2.

Two important research needs in EIBI programs for children with autism are: (a) quality assessment systems to evaluate the effectiveness of specific components of EIBI interventions; and (b) the development of effective rapid training procedures for teaching parents and instructors to conduct discrete-trials teaching.

3.

Behaviorism is the philosophy behind behavior modification. Wyatt and others argued that it is very much alive, based in part on the abundance of journals that are primarily behavioral in orientation.

19 ..

CHAPTER 3 GETTING A BEHAVIOR TO OCCUR MORE OFTEN WITH POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

A baseline is a measure of behavior in the absence of a treatment program. For example, in Danny’s case, his cooperative and commanding behaviors were assessed before Danny’s mother was instructed to react to them differently than she had in the past. Other examples may be appropriate.

2.

Behavior (or instances of cooperative behavior).

3.

Time (or sessions, or sessions in 10-minute intervals).

4.

A positive reinforcer is an event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency.

5.

This principle states that if, in a given situation, somebody does something that is immediately followed by a positive reinforcer, that person is more likely to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.

6.

Operant behaviors are those that operate on the environment to generate consequences, and are in turn influenced by those consequences. For example, if a person walks into a dark room and emits the behavior of turning on a light switch, then the consequence of the light going on increases the likelihood that flipping the light switch will occur in a similar situation in the future. Flipping the light switch is therefore an operant behavior.

7.

They are both laws of nature.

8.

Students can describe any plausible example, such as the following: Situation: A student in class did not understand a part of a lecture of one of the authors.

Response of student: Approached professor after class to request help.

Immediate consequence: Professor smiled warmly, and said, “Of course! How can I help you?”

Long-term effect: Student is more likely to approach professor (and perhaps other professors) for help in the future.

9.

(a) To help increase the reliability of recording the behavior; and (b) to increase the likelihood that the reinforcement program will be applied consistently.

10.

No. A positive reinforcer is an event that, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency. In this example, the behavior of washing the dishes led to the removal of parental nagging. Stated differently, doing the dishes enabled the teenager to escape from the nagging. This is an example of escape conditioning (described in Chapter 14).

11.

The PREMACK principle states that the opportunity to engage in a behavior that has a high probability of occurring can be used to reinforce a behavior that has a low probability of occurring. For example, a depressed student increased the frequency of positive self-statements by imagining a positive thought (a low probability behavior) just before each instance of urinating (the high probability behavior).

20 ..

12.

It means that, when an item is presented immediately following the behavior of an individual on a few trials, and the individual begins to emit that behavior more often, then the item is a reinforcer because it has caused the person’s behavior to increase.

13.

(a) Identify a behavior that occurs once in a while and record its occurrence without reinforcement over several trials; (b) then present a consequence immediately following the behavior over several trials; and (c) finally, compare the results of (a) and (b). If the behavior increases in frequency during the second phase relative to the first phase, then the consequence is a reinforcer. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

14.

The same way that you test any stimulus to see if it is a reinforcer. That is, identify a behavior that a withdrawn child emits once in a while (e.g., glancing at an adult), and measure the frequency of this behavior during a period of time (e.g., a one-half hour period). Next, have the adult give attention to the child following each instance of the behavior that was measured (e.g., the adult should now attend to the child after each glance to an adult). If glances to adults increase, then the adult attention was a reinforcer.

15.

Research indicates that the answer is no. Moreover, the notion that extrinsic reinforcers undermine intrinsic interest flies in the face of common sense. If extrinsic reinforcers undermine intrinsic motivation, for example, then those people who genuinely enjoy their jobs should be refused to be paid for fear that their paychecks will destroy their enjoyment of their work.

16.

Behavior modifiers use the term deprivation to indicate the time during which an individual does not experience a reinforcer.

17.

Behavior modifiers use the term satiation to refer to the condition in which an individual has experienced a reinforcer to such an extent that it is no longer reinforcing.

18.

Motivating operations (MOs) are events or conditions that (a) temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer, and (b) increase the frequency of a behavior reinforced by that reinforcer. Two examples would be food deprivation and water deprivation.

19.

Yes. Instructions may speed up the learning process for individuals who already understand them. Instructions may influence an individual to work for delayed reinforcement. Instructions may also teach the individual something about instructionfollowing.

20.

Not necessarily. Bribery is defined as a reward or gift offered to induce one to commit an immoral or illegal act. Provided that the behavior to be reinforced does not so qualify, instructing someone about a positive reinforcement for that behavior would not be bribery.

21.

The direct effect of a positive reinforcer is the increased frequency of a response because of its immediate reinforcing consequences. The indirect effect is the strengthening of a response that is followed by a reinforcer even though the reinforcer is delayed (by more than approximately 30 seconds).

22.

The reinforcer of the fun activity in Coach Keedwell’s program was indirect because it was delayed by more than 30 seconds following the desirable swimming behaviors that occurred earlier in the practice.

21 ..

23.

If a teenager in a family is required to mow the lawn at the family home on Monday in order to use the family car on Friday, then use of the car is a contingent reinforcer even though it is delayed. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

24.

If a teenager is allowed to use the family car every weekend independent of behavior that the teenager emits during the week, then use of the family car is a non-contingent reinforcer. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

25.

When a behavior is accidentally followed by a reinforcer, even if that behavior did not produce the reinforcer, it is referred to as adventitious reinforcement. Superstitious behaviors are the behaviors that are strengthened by adventitious reinforcement. An example of adventitious reinforcement would be a gambler winning a jackpot on a slot machine just after scratching his/her nose. The superstitious behavior would be the nose scratching.

26.

Natural environment: any place, other than a structured training setting, where a behavior might occur. Natural reinforcers: reinforcers that follow behavior in the natural environment without specific planning and intervention on the part of the trainer. Programmed reinforcers are reinforcers that are deliberately manipulated by individuals in behavior modification programs.

27.

Any three examples that involve natural reinforcers are acceptable. Students should justify their choices by indicating that the reinforcers occurred without specific planning by the trainer. Rather than being contrived or manipulated reinforcers, they should occur naturally in the natural environment.

28.

(a) Specifying a behavior precisely; (b) selecting an appropriate reinforcer; (c) depriving the individual of the reinforcer; (d) ensuring that the reinforcer is of a sufficient magnitude or amount; (e) utilizing instructions to explain the program before and during reinforcement, especially if the reinforcer is delayed; (f) presenting the reinforcer immediately following the desired behavior; (g) ensuring that the reinforcers are presented contingent upon the desired behavior, rather than being presented noncontingently; and (h) appropriately weaning the individual from the program.

29.

No. When an adult asks something of a child, a withdrawn reaction on the part of the child may get even more attention from the adult. If the withdrawn behavior subsequently increases, then the adult attention was functioning as a reinforcer, and it is reasonable to infer that the child liked the attention.

30.

A child is noisily playing while his or her sibling is trying to study (situation); the sibling gives the child a lollipop so that he/she will be quiet (response). The child is immediately quiet and enjoys the lollipop (immediate consequence). The chance that the child will be more likely to play noisily around that sibling in the future increases (longterm effect). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

31.

Pitfall Type 2: A person may know the principle but not realize some ramification that interferes with applying it effectively. For example, Coach Keedwell thought that providing a fun activity at the end of each swimming practice would strengthen desirable swimming behaviors. That didn’t occur, however, because the fun activity was not contingent on specific swimming behaviors.

22 ..

32.

This exemplifies Pitfall Type 3 because it is an overly simplistic explanation for the college student’s behavior, as the consequence of receiving the A did not immediately follow studying. There must have been more immediate reinforcing consequences that “bridged the gap” from the time of studying (behavior) to the time of receiving the A (consequence). For example, the student may have been anxious about the test and studying (behavior) may have relieved some of the anxiety (immediate consequence).

33.

Pitfall Type 4 states that individuals without behavioral knowledge sometimes attempt to “explain” behavior or the lack of it by inappropriately giving people a label. For example, if a teenager consistently leaves his room in a mess and never helps his parents around the house in any type of clean-up activity, his parents might “explain” his behavior by saying “he’s lazy.”

34.

(a) Is readily available; (b) can be presented immediately following the desired behavior; (c) can be used over and over again without causing rapid satiation; and (d) does not require a great deal of time to consume.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

(a) Greenspoon demonstrated that students could be influenced to increase the frequency with which they said plural nouns in an experimental context, even though they were not aware of such a change in their behavior when asked about the experiment afterwards. (b) Even the most profoundly intellectually disabled individuals who cannot speak have been shown to be affected by reinforcement.

2.

A behavior change is likely due to indirect acting effects of reinforcement if: (a) the critical response precedes the reinforcer by more than 30 seconds (such as in the case of Fernando, where the critical response was leaving for work earlier than usual); (b) the behavior that is measured shows some increase in strength prior to the first occurrence of the consequence (such as Fernando arriving for work on time the very first morning of the program before he had received the 2 peso consequence): and (c) a single occurrence of a consequence produces a large change in behavior (such as Fernando maintaining 100% arrival from the onset of treatment). If the students clearly make the above three points, it’s not necessary for them to illustrate with reference to Fernando.

3.

Thompson and Iwata used the term direct reinforcement contingency to refer to a situation where a behavior modifiers hands a reinforcer to a client following a correct response, and they used the term indirect contingency of reinforcement to refer to a situation where a client’s behavior acted on the environment (such as by lifting a box) to enable the client to discover a reinforcer. To avoid confusion between direct reinforcers referring to immediate reinforcers and indirect effect of referring to delayed reinforcers, the authors suggest that the situation described by Thompson and Iwata be referred to as a reinforcement discovery contingency.

23 ..

CHAPTER 4 DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING BEHAVIOR WITH CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Unconditioned reinforcers are stimuli which are reinforcing without prior learning, or without having to be associated with any other reinforcers. Food for someone who has not eaten for several hours, or water for someone who has not had a drink for several hours, are unconditioned reinforcers. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

2.

A conditioned reinforcer is a stimulus which was not originally reinforcing but which acquired reinforcing power through association with a stimulus that is reinforcing. For example, a piece of green paper that constitutes a dollar bill is not likely to be a reinforcer for an infant or a young child who has had no experience with money.

However, after the dollar bill is paired with a variety of backup reinforcers while making various purchases in stores, the dollar bill becomes a powerful reinforcer. Any two appropriate examples are acceptable.

3.

A backup reinforcer is a reinforcer on which a conditioned reinforcer is based. In a token system it is a reinforcer for which tokens can be exchanged in order to maintain their reinforcing power. For example, at the end of a poker game, poker chips can be exchanged for money. In this case, the money is the backup reinforcer. Any two appropriate examples are acceptable.

4.

The backup reinforcers included time on Facebook or YouTube.

5.

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

6.

Tokens are conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for other reinforcers.

7.

A token system is a behavior modification program that uses tokens to reinforce desirable behavior. The tokens can be exchanged for more powerful reinforcers called backup reinforcers.

8.

Yes, money is a token because it can be accumulated and exchanged for a variety of backup reinforcers (the things that money can buy).

9.

Examples might include two of the following: praise, a call to dinner, the sight of a loved one, or a friendly greeting. These are all associated with more powerful reinforcers.

10.

A conditioned punisher is a stimulus which is not originally punishing, but which acquires punishing power through association with a stimulus that is punishing.

Examples might include criticism, scoldings, a failing grade, and the sight of a mugger in a dark alley. These are all typically punishers because they have been paired with other aversive events.

11.

A simple conditioned reinforcer is one that is paired with a single backup reinforcer. A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that is based on a number of different backup reinforcers. At any given time at least one of the backup reinforcers should be powerful enough to maintain the reinforcing effectiveness of the generalized reinforcer.

24 ..

12.

Yes, praise is likely a generalized reinforcer for most of us. That is because when people praise us, they are disposed to favor us in a variety of ways so that praise is paired with a variety of backup reinforcers. Also, positive adult attention (which might be considered a form of praise) is provided by parents when they feed their infants, wash them, play with them, and meet their needs in other ways.

13.

The points in Erin’s program were likely a generalized reinforcer because they were paired with two backup reinforcers, time on Facebook and time on YouTube, both of which provide a variety of conditioned reinforcers.

14.

The three factors influencing the effectiveness of conditioned reinforcers include: (a) the strength of backup reinforcers; (b) the variety of backup reinforcers; and (c) the number of pairings of the conditioned reinforcer with a backup reinforcer.

15.

If a conditioned reinforcer is presented a number of times without being associated with other reinforcers, it will eventually lose its reinforcing effectiveness.

16.

Pitfall Type 1 states that people who are unfamiliar with the principle of conditioned reinforcement may unknowingly misapply it in various ways. For example, if an adult scolds a child and then gives the child a treat because the adult “feels guilty,” the scolding may become a conditioned reinforcer. Pitfall Type 2 states that individuals who are not aware of the principle of conditioned reinforcement may cease to pair a conditioned reinforcer with a backup reinforcer causing the conditioned reinforcer to lose its effects. For example, a teacher who awards stars for good behavior, but fails to use effective backup reinforcers, will cause the stars to lose their value as conditioned reinforcers.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Suppose that a parent says, “goo-goo-goo” frequently while feeding an infant. Because of the pairing of “goo-goo-goo” with the food reinforcement, the sound “goo-goo-goo” should become a conditioned reinforcer. Later, when the infant is in the crib alone, the infant may say “goo-goo.” Because this sound has become a conditioned reinforcer, the infant is likely to repeat that sound. Thus, conditioned reinforcement appears to be involved in strengthening babbling of babies in their native language even when no adults are around to reinforce this behavior.

2.

Because sensations like the smell and taste of cigarettes are paired with the reinforcing effects of nicotine in the bloodstream, the former stimuli become conditioned reinforcers. When smokers try to quit smoking by smoking de-nicotinized cigarettes, they still receive the powerful conditioned reinforcers of the taste and smell of cigarettes. This can interfere with the progress of treatment.

25 ..

CHAPTER 5 DECREASING A BEHAVIOR WITH EXTINCTION Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

(a) If, in a given situation, an individual emits a previously-reinforced response that is not followed by the usual reinforcing consequence, then (b) that person is less likely to do the same thing again in that situation.

2.

No. With extinction, a behavior decreases in frequency because instances of that behavior are no longer followed by a reinforcer. With candy eating, the reinforcer is the good taste. If the child ate the candy, the good taste would still be there. Thus, the behavior (eating candies) stopped because of the consequence of being told to stop, not because the reinforcer was withheld following instances of the behavior.

3.

It would be extinction only if the attention of the parent was the reinforcer that was maintaining the behavior that was being ignored. However, if the child’s behavior was maintained by some other reinforcer, such as attention from another child, then ignoring the behavior by the parent would not be extinction.

4.

No, this would not be extinction, as the swearing behavior was not previously reinforced by receiving an allowance. Removal of the allowance contingent upon swearing is called response-cost punishment.

5.

Forgetting and extinction both lead to a decrease in behavior, but they do so for different reasons. In forgetting, a behavior is weakened as a function of time following the last occurrence of the behavior. With extinction, a behavior is weakened because instances of the behavior go unreinforced.

6.

The procedure for the loss of value of a conditioned reinforcer is presenting the conditioned reinforcer without further pairings with a backup reinforcer. The result is the loss of value of the conditioned reinforcer. The procedure of extinction is allowing a previously-reinforced behavior to occur but no longer following it with a reinforcer. The result is that the behavior decreases in frequency.

7.

It will decrease to a very low level. (Some students might be aware that behavior can be maintained through escape and avoidance conditioning and that some reflexive behaviors are elicited by prior stimuli).

8.

The taste of the cookies, not the mother’s attention, was the reinforcer that was maintaining the behavior.

9.

Example 4 appears to involve positive reinforcement for an alternative response. For the other examples, the student should describe plausible methods for reinforcing desirable alternative behavior.

10.

So as to (a) minimize the influence of alternative reinforcers for the undesirable behavior, and (b) maximize the chances that the behavior modifier(s) will persist in carrying out the program.

26 ..

11.

Any appropriate example is acceptable, provided that the student indicates whether or not a special setting would be required and the reason. For example: (a) Behavior to be decreased is using a spoon to throw (catapult) food around the room while sitting in a high chair. (b) To the extent that allowing the behavior to occur is not likely to be harmful to the child, a special setting would not be required. However to the extent that such behavior might be highly disruptive to others in the immediate vicinity, such as individuals in a restaurant who would likely interfere with the extinction program, a special setting would be required.

12.

Continuous reinforcement is an arrangement in which each instance of a particular response is reinforced. For example, each time that you raise a glass of a beverage to your lips and take a sip, you experience the taste of the beverage.

13.

Intermittent reinforcement is an arrangement in which a response is reinforced only occasionally rather than every time it occurs. For example, when a person is playing a slot machine at a casino, pressing the button is reinforced by winning only occasionally, not every time that it occurs.

14.

A behavior is less resistant to extinction if it has been reinforced continuously rather than intermittently.

15.

An extinction burst is an increase in responding during extinction. For example, suppose that each time a child snapped her fingers to gain the attention of her teacher, the teacher responded, thereby reinforcing finger-snapping. Suppose further that the teacher decides to ignore that behavior on all future occasions. At the beginning of extinction, finger-snapping may increase before it begins to decrease. The increase would be an example of an extinction burst.

16.

A behavior that has completely disappeared during an extinction session may reappear, after some time has passed, at the next session or opportunity for the behavior to occur. The reappearance of an extinguished behavior following a rest is called spontaneous recovery. Suppose that a child has learned to snap his fingers to gain his teacher’s attention. Suppose further that the teacher decides to extinguish that behavior. If the behavior decreases to zero during the first day of extinction, but fingersnapping reappears at the beginning of the next day, the reappearance of the behavior would be an example of spontaneous recovery.

17.

Extinction of a particular behavior is likely to be more effective if: (a) it is combined with positive reinforcement of a desirable alternative behavior; (b) alternative possible reinforcers for the behavior that is to be decreased are controlled; (c) the setting is chosen so as to minimize potential factors interfering with the extinction program; (d) instructions are given to explain the program to the individual before implementing it; (e) behavior to decrease was on a continuous rather than an intermittent schedule of reinforcement prior to the extinction program; (f) the person applying the program is aware that the behavior being extinguished may get worse before it gets better; (g) the person applying the program is aware that extinction may produce aggression that interferes with the program; and (h) the person applying the program is aware that spontaneous recovery may occur. This is the reappearance of an extinguished behavior following a rest or the passage of time.

18.

Any two appropriate examples involving extinction of a desirable and an undesirable behavior are acceptable.

27 ..

19.

Suppose that, in the case of two roommates living together, one might spontaneously clean the living quarters and the other person might not think to express appreciation.

This example illustrates Pitfall Type 1, which occurs when individuals unknowingly fail to reinforce desirable behaviors of others.

20.

Situations in which behavior is harmful to the individual or others, and situations in which extinction cannot be carried out successfully because of outside influences. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

21.

(a) The reinforcer you are withholding following the undesirable behavior is not the reinforcer that was maintaining the behavior; (b) the undesirable behavior is receiving intermittent reinforcement from another source; (c) the desirable alternative behavior has not been strengthened sufficiently.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

The extinction program focused on Louise’s complaints of pain. Although there was no self-monitoring of actual headaches, she did report at a twelve month follow-up that she had experienced only two headaches over the previous several months. Thus, presumably her “feelings” of pain also decreased.

2.

Unauthorized reinforcement provided for a behavior being subjected to an extinction program. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

3.

Suppose a child with severe developmental disabilities frequently yells loudly, and suppose further that the staff unknowingly reinforces that behavior by attending to it.

One strategy for decreasing that behavior would be for staff to provide frequent staff attention (e.g., every few minutes) noncontingently. A potential limitation of such noncontingent reinforcement is that it might reduce the child’s motivation to participate in teaching sessions (since he/she would receive staff attention for essentially doing nothing).

28 ..

CHAPTER 6 DEVELOPING BEHAVIORAL PERSISTENCE THROUGH THE USE OF INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Intermittent reinforcement is an arrangement in which a behavior is reinforced only occasionally rather than every time it occurs. For example, Jan was not reinforced after each math problem that she solved, but rather she was reinforced after every two problems solved.

2.

A schedule of reinforcement is a rule specifying which occurrences of a given behavior, if any, will be reinforced. For example, Jan’s initial schedule of reinforcement was that she would be reinforced after correctly solving two math problems.

3.

Continuous reinforcement is a schedule of reinforcement in which each instance of a particular response is reinforced. For example, if Jan had received reinforcement for each math problem solved, then she would have been on a continuous reinforcement schedule.

4.

(a) The reinforcer remains effective longer than with continuous reinforcement because satiation takes place more slowly; (b) behavior that has been reinforced intermittently takes longer to extinguish than behavior that has been continuously reinforced; (c) individuals work more consistently on certain intermittent schedules than on continuous reinforcement; and (d) behavior that has been reinforced intermittently persists more when transferred to reinforcers in the natural environment.

5.

A free-operant procedure is one in which the individual is “free” to respond repeatedly in the sense that there are no constraints on successive responses. For example, when doing a crossword puzzle, an individual is “free” to solve the clues at any given rate (e.g., one clue per minute, one clue per 2 minutes, etc.).

6.

A discrete-trials procedure is one in which a distinct stimulus is presented prior to an opportunity for a response to occur and be followed by reinforcement. For example, when playing Jeopardy (on TV), individuals are given a clue and then must respond correctly to receive reinforcement (money).

7.

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. Any two plausible examples, at least one of which is not in the text, are acceptable. For example, during piece-rate pay in industry, a worker is paid for each fixed number of items produced.

8.

(a) A high steady rate until reinforcement; (b) a post reinforcement pause; and (c) high resistance to extinction.

9.

Ratio strain refers to the deterioration of responding from increasing a ratio schedule too rapidly.

10.

Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses, where the number varies around some mean value. For example, a door-to-door salesperson is reinforced on a VR schedule in that a sale is made after some unpredictable number of responses. After a certain number of sales, the average number of houses contacted to make a sale could be determined. Any two plausible examples, at least one of which is not in the text, are acceptable.

29 ..

11.

In both FR and VR, reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses are emitted.

In FR the number is fixed; in VR it varies.

12.

(a) A high rate of responding; (b) little or no pausing after reinforcement; and (c) a high resistance to extinction.

13.

For example, a teacher might reinforce a child for correctly performing addition or subtraction problems on a VR schedule in order to generate a high rate of correct performance. As another example, a parent might reinforce a child on a VR for picking up toys and putting them away. Any two plausible examples of FR or VR are acceptable.

14.

A PR (Progressive Ratio) schedule is like an FR schedule but the ratio requirement increases by a specified amount after each reinforcer. Eventually, the ratio requirement reaches a level called the breakpoint at which the individual stops responding completely.

The main application of PR is to determine how potent or powerful a particular reinforcer is for a particular individual.

15.

Reinforcement is contingent upon the first instance of a specific response occurring after a fixed period of time.

16.

Ask: (a) Does reinforcement require only one response after a fixed interval of time? and (b) Does responding during the interval affect anything? If the answer to (a) is “yes” and the answer to (b) is “no,” this indicates that the behavior is reinforced on a fixed-interval schedule.

17.

On an FI schedule, the first instance of a specific response after a fixed period of time will be reinforced. But in this case, the students can’t wait around all week, then study briefly and be reinforced. Rather, the more they study, the greater the likelihood they will receive a good grade. Their studying is probably influenced, in part, by avoidance conditioning in that they study to avoid failing.

18.

Reinforcement is contingent upon the first instance of a specific response occurring after a variable period of time, where the time period varies around some mean value.

19.

They generate relatively long pauses at the beginning of the interval.

20.

Reinforcement is contingent upon the first instance of a specific response occurring within a limited period of time following the expiration of a fixed interval of time. For example, waiting for a bus at a bus stop on a regular city route is probably reinforced on an approximation of an FI/LH schedule. The response is going to or being at the bus stop. The fixed interval is the length of time between bus arrivals (such as every 15 minutes). The limited hold is the amount of time the bus waits at the bus stop after it arrives. Any two plausible examples, one of which is not in the text, are acceptable.

21.

In both FI and FI/LH, reinforcement is programmed to occur after the first response occurring after a fixed period of time. In FI/LH, however, the reinforcer remains available only for a limited period of time, rather than indefinitely, after it has been “set up.”

30 ..

22.

Reinforcement is contingent on the first response occurring within a limited period of time following the expiration of another interval of time which varies around some mean value.

For example, watching a television program is reinforced on a VI/LH schedule.

Occasionally, at rather unpredictable intervals, something reinforcing happens and maintains our watching behavior. The limited hold aspect is present in that you will miss the reinforcer if you are not attending when it occurs. Any two plausible examples, one of which is not in the text, are acceptable.

23.

(a) A high steady rate of response; (b) no post reinforcement pause; and (c) a high resistance to extinction.

24.

Any two plausible applications of VI/LH are acceptable, such as the example of influencing the two boys to play cooperatively during car trips. The details of the VI/LH should be described in each case.

25.

If a high school basketball coach told his team “If you can each do 20 push-ups in a minute, then we will have a scrimmage,” then that would be an example of a FR 20/LH 1 minute schedule.

26.

Reinforcement occurs after the behavior has been engaged in for a continuous, fixed period of time. For example, parents might use an FD schedule to reinforce their child practicing a musical instrument by allowing the child a certain amount of TV time following a fixed duration of practice. Any two plausible examples are acceptable.

27.

It is not an FD schedule because there is no behavior that must occur continuously for 30 seconds. Rather, it is a fixed interval schedule in that, after thirty seconds, the behavior of taking the bread from the toaster will be reinforced (the toast will be ready). It might be an FD schedule if you had to hold the lever down continuously for 30 seconds because of the catch not working. It would not be an FD if the catch that keeps the lever down works but the timer that releases it doesn’t. Rather, in the latter case, it would be an FI/LH. After 30 seconds the response of releasing the lever would pay off, and if you waited too long your toast would be burnt.

28.

It is difficult to monitor the time spent in productive studying behavior (relative to monitoring, for example, the number of problems completed or the number of pages read).

29.

For example, a physical education teacher might use an FD schedule to strengthen performance of various exercises. The children who participate in the exercise program continuously during the fixed duration could be reinforced by an opportunity to participate in a game of their choice. Any two plausible applications of FD are acceptable.

30.

Reinforcement occurs after the behavior has been engaged in for a continuous period of time, where the specified time period varies around some mean value. For example, the behavior of waiting in line tends to be reinforced on a VD schedule in that, after a variable period of time (depending upon the length of the line and how fast it moves), the individual gets to the end of the line and can then engage in some reinforcing activity (such as purchasing a ticket to enter the theatre). Any plausible examples are acceptable.

31 ..

31.

The watching for one’s luggage photo illustrates a VI/LH. After an unpredictable period of time, one’s luggage will appear on the conveyer (the VI portion), and the traveller has a certain period of time to collect it before airport employees put it in storage (the LH portion).

The child and the pegboard photo illustrates an FR schedule. After a fixed number of pieces are stacked, the reinforcer occurs. Taking the clothes out of the dryer illustrates an FI schedule. After a fixed period of time, the first response will be reinforced. Watching TV illustrates a VI/LH. After an unpredictable period of time, the response of watching TV will be reinforced by an enjoyable scene (the VI portion), but the individual must be watching at the exact time that the enjoyable scene occurs (the LH portion).

32.

When two or more behaviors are each reinforced on different schedules at the same time, the schedules of reinforcement that are in effect are called concurrent schedules of reinforcement. For example, a student might have the options of watching TV (which would likely be reinforced on a VI/LH) or talking on the phone (which would likely be reinforced on a VD).

33.

(a) The types of schedules that are operating; (b) the immediacy of reinforcement; (c) the magnitude of reinforcement; and (d) the response effort involved in performing the different options.

34.

The inconsistent use of extinction, resulting in highly persistent undesirable behavior, is probably the most common misuse of intermittent reinforcement. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

35.

Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, fixed-interval with limited hold, variable interval, variable-interval with limited hold, fixed-duration, and variable-duration.

36.

Variable schedules.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Ferster and Skinner: Schedules of Reinforcement.

2.

It appears that the presence of rule-governed behavior in humans generates behavioral patterns that are different from those caused by the schedules when applied to animals.

3.

The fixed ratio pattern shows a pause after reinforcement followed by a high rate of response until the next reinforcer is presented. In the case of Irving Wallace, he typically stopped writing immediately after completing each chapter of the book he was working on.

After a brief pause of a day or so, he resumed writing at a high rate, which he maintained until the next chapter was completed. In addition, longer pauses typically occurred after a draft of a manuscript was completed. Thus, it appears that completed chapters and completed drafts of manuscripts are reinforcements for novel writing that occur according to a fixed ratio schedule.

4.

Evidence indicates that when FR and FD both appear to be applicable, the former schedule is preferable in that it generates more (and higher quality) work. For example, it has been shown that students who are required to read for a fixed period of time and to answer questions on what they have read do not perform as well as students who are required to read a fixed number of pages and then to answer questions on what they have read.

32 ..

5.

Sometimes we postulate motivation as some sort of thing within us that explains differences in the rate of behavior between two individuals, such as between a student who studies a great deal (whom we might describe as highly motivated) as compared to one who studies very little (whom we might describe as not motivated). But it may be that the first student initially received frequent reinforcement for academic behavior from parents and teachers, and the reinforcers may have been gradually shifted to intermittent schedules that continue to maintain high rates. The second student may not have experienced the same history of reinforcement. Studying behavior in the second individual may not have been reinforced adequately initially; the schedule may have shifted abruptly, causing ratio strain, or other possibilities might account for the lack of studying. Thus, differences in rate of responding are not necessarily due to inner motivational states.

33 ..

CHAPTER 7 INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT TO DECREASE BEHAVIOR Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

(a) Tommy received instructions about a procedure. (b) According to the procedure, 5 minutes of play at the end of the day was made available to Tommy for each 50-minute session where he had 3 or fewer “talk-outs.” Thus, frequent talk-outs were not consequated by a special reinforcer. Infrequent talk-outs were consequated by a special reinforcer.

2.

DRL is a schedule of reinforcement where the reinforcer is presented only if a behavior occurs at a low rate, and not if the behavior occurs at a higher rate. For example, a student visiting a professor in his office is likely to be reinforced by the professor if such visits occur at a reasonably low rate but not if they occur at such a high rate as to amount to pestering.

Any plausible example is acceptable.

3.

In limited responding DRL, an individual is reinforced if fewer than a certain number of responses occur during a session, or during a separate interval within a session. Thus, from zero to the maximum allowable number of responses might occur and the subject will still be reinforced. For example, in Tommy’s case, an interval of 50 minutes was specified, and reinforcement occurred at the end of the interval if it contained three or fewer talk-outs

by Tommy.

4.

In spaced-responding DRL, an instance of a behavior must occur for reinforcement, and that instance must be separated from a previous instance of that behavior by a specified period of time. For example, this type of schedule might be used with a child who asks a parent for a drink of water every few minutes. The child might be put on a spacedresponding DRL one response per hour schedule, meaning that a request for a drink will be reinforced only if it has not occurred during the preceding hour.

5.

In spaced-responding DRL and on an FI schedule, the first response following some interval of time is reinforced. In spaced-responding DRL, the interval of time is measured from the previous response, whereas in FI it is measured from some other event, usually the previous reinforcer. Spaced-responding DRL is different from an FI schedule in that in the former responding before the specified interval has passed causes a recycling of the time interval. On an FI schedule, responding by the individual before the time interval has passed has no programmed consequence.

6.

In spaced responding DRL, a fixed time must pass in which the response does not occur in order for a response to produce a reinforcer. On an FD schedule, the response must occur continuously for a fixed period of time in order for reinforcement to occur.

7.

(a) Students might describe Tommy’s case, or any other example from the text. (b) Any other example of uses of DRL not in the text, in which a behavior occurs at greater than desired rates and it would be convenient to program a DRL, are acceptable. For example, suppose that a young couple with a two-year-old child are entertaining guests. Suppose further that the child runs into the room where the adults are talking every few minutes with a different toy, saying, “See my new toy!” With cooperation from the guests, it might be appropriate for the parents to place the child on a spaced-responding DRL in order to retain some interaction between the child and the guests, but to reduce them to a more reasonable frequency.

34 ..

8.

A reinforcer is presented if a specified period of time passes and a particular behavior does not occur during that time. For example, a child is allowed to watch a particular TV program, providing that he does not argue with his siblings for a half-hour period prior to the program. Any plausible example is acceptable.

9.

(a) Students might describe the example in the text of the grade school teacher using DRO to eliminate the running-around-the-room behavior of a “hyperactive” child in a classroom. (b) Any other case, not described in the text, in which a DRO might be appropriate. For example, a staff member in a group home for developmentally disabled persons might provide praise and edibles contingent upon a 10-minute period of zero self-abusive behavior of a client who is periodically self-abusive.

10.

For other responding, in which case a DRO might be thought of as reinforcing any behavior other than the specified response; or zero responding, in which case the DRO might be thought of as a schedule for reinforcing no responding of a particular type.

11.

DRI is a schedule for decreasing a response by withholding reinforcers for it and reinforcing an alternative response that is incompatible with the response to be eliminated. For example, if a teacher wanted to eliminate the hand-waving behavior of a child in the classroom, she might ignore hand-waving and reinforce the incompatible response of keeping the hands on the desk. Any plausible example is acceptable.

12.

When using a DRO schedule to decrease a problem behavior, the problem behavior might be replaced by an incompatible behavior that is also undesirable. A DRI would prevent this possibility by specifying the incompatible behavior that is to be reinforced.

13.

DRI involves decreasing a target behavior by withholding reinforcers for it and reinforcing an incompatible response to the target behavior. DRA involves extinction of a problem behavior combined with reinforcing a behavior that is topographically dissimilar to, but not necessarily incompatible with, the problem behavior.

14.

The behavior is likely to increase in frequency to its level of occurrence prior to the introduction of the schedule.

15.

People sometimes inadvertently reinforce on a DRL schedule a behavior that is highly desirable and that they would prefer to maintain at a high rate. An example is students giving correct answers in class. Although teachers typically prefer that students are always prepared to give the correct answers, they inevitably reinforce correct answers on a DRL (in order that all students might have a chance to respond). Any other plausible example is acceptable.

16.

The schedules in Chapter 6 are used to maintain high rates of behavior. DRL, DRO, DRI and DRA are used to maintain low or zero rates of behavior.

35 ..

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

First, praise from the teacher when she informed Tommy about the free play that he had earned may have been presented immediately following the 50-minute session, and may have helped to reinforce Tommy’s behavior that was incompatible with talking out. Second, rule-governed behavior may account to some extent for the effectiveness of the delayed reinforcement contingency. That is, Tommy might have spent a good deal of time thinking something like, “If I don’t have very many talk-outs, I’m going to have lots of fun during my extra play time.” This rule describing the contingency may have helped evoke some desirable behavior of Tommy that was incompatible with talking out.

2.

Tommy’s saying of the rule to himself was likely reinforced on a continuous reinforcement schedule with the reinforcer being the excitement that Tommy felt when he thought about how much fun he was going to have, a conditioned reinforcer.

36 ..

CHAPTER 8 DOING THE RIGHT THING AT THE RIGHT TIME AND PLACE: STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION AND STIMULUS GENERALIZATION Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

A stimulus is any physical event or object in the environment that can be detected by one’s sense receptors and can affect behavior. For example, the sound and sight of an airplane passing overhead are stimuli.

2.

An ABC assessment involves the identification of the antecedents and consequences of a behavior.

3.

Stimulus control refers to the degree of correlation between an antecedent stimulus and a subsequence response. For example, the likelihood of your stopping your car at red traffic lights is an expression of the degree of stimulus control of the red light over your behavior of stopping.

4.

Good stimulus control refers to a strong correlation between the occurrence of a particular stimulus and the occurrence of a particular response. For example, good stimulus control would be displayed if an individual consistently stops the car at red traffic lights. Any plausible example is acceptable.

5.

If a response has been reinforced only in the presence of a particular stimulus, then that stimulus is an SD. For example, when two people are eating dinner, the request by one person, “Please pass the salt” would be an SD for the other person to emit the response of passing the salt. Any plausible example is acceptable.

6.

If a response has been extinguished only in the presence of a particular stimulus, then that stimulus is an SΔ. For example, an “out-of-order” sign on a vending machine is an SΔ for the response of putting in money. Any plausible example is acceptable.

7.

A stimulus is anything that can be detected by one’s sense receptors and can affect behavior. A discriminative stimulus is a stimulus in the above sense, but it is also a cue that a response will pay off.

8.

If you ask someone, “What time is it, please?” that would be an SD for the person to check their watch and tell you the time; it would be an SΔ for that person to tell you the date of that particular day.

9.

Any two of each of the following: (a) Table 3-1: mother ironing, car in the alley, assignment to complete, father shopping, bland soup, underwear on floor, tape recorder not working; (b) Table 3-3: TV set, no clean shirt, father ironing, mother shopping, empty glass, father watching TV, wife dancing with another man; (c) Table 5-1: parents talking to guests, having finished main course, wife saying, “Yes, that’s too bad,” having finished an assignment, a piece that won’t fit; (d) Table 5-2: TV room, two staff members talking to each other, a man with arms full walking towards a door, baby lying quietly in crib and/or mother preparing bottle.

37 ..

10.

Stimulus discrimination training refers to the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of an SD and extinguishing that response in the presence of an S Δ. For example, when teaching a child to correctly name the colors of objects, you would reinforce the child for saying “Red” when you point to a red object, but you would not reinforce the child for saying “Red” after you have pointed to a green object.

11.

After sufficient stimulus discrimination training, the effects are: (a) stimulus control—a high correlation between a stimulus and a response; and (b) a stimulus discrimination—a response occurs to an SD and not to an S Δ.

12.

Stimulus generalization occurs when a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of one stimulus or situation as a result of having been reinforced in the presence of another stimulus or situation. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

13.

In stimulus generalization, an individual makes the same response to two different stimuli, while in stimulus discrimination, an individual makes a different response to two different stimuli.

14.

A stimulus common-element class is a set of stimuli, all of which have some physical characteristic in common. For example, red objects would constitute a stimulus commonelement class. Conceptual behavior is emitting an appropriate response to all the members of a stimulus common-element class, and not emitting that response to stimuli that do not belong to the class. For example, when faced with several red objects and several green objects, a child would be showing conceptual behavior if the child identified only the red objects when asked, “Which ones are red?”

15.

To teach the concept “honest,” you might reinforce a particular response (such as the word “honest”) to many different examples of honest behavior and extinguish that response (and perhaps reinforce a different response, such as “dishonest”) to examples of dishonest behavior. This procedure teaches a child to recognize instances of honest and dishonest behavior. It does not necessarily teach a child how to “be honest.” For example, a child might have been taught that lying is dishonest, but still lie (and be fully aware that he or she is doing so).

16.

An equivalence class is a group of stimuli that are physically different, but all control the same behavior. For example, for individuals for whom the word “three,” the numeral “3,” and the Roman numeral “III” all control the same behavior, those three stimuli would constitute an equivalence class.

17.

With stimulus generalization involving a stimulus common-element class, the stimuli to which generalization occurs have at least one physical characteristic in common with the original SD. With stimulus generalization involving an equivalence class, the members of the equivalence class are physically different from one another.

18.

(a) Is the stimulus sufficiently different from other stimuli on more than one dimension?(b) Can it be presented primarily on occasions on which the response should occur? (c) Is there a high probability the person will attend to it? (d) Does it currently control any undesirable responses?

38 ..

19.

Suppose that you want to teach your neighbor’s child to understand the significance of a “Block Parent” sign that you have in your window. A “Block Parent” sign is different from other stimuli in the window in both shape and color; it can be presented in the window when adults are home to respond to children in the streets who may knock on the door as a function of the sign; it is quite distinctive and therefore is likely to be attended to by children who have been instructed about its function; and it is not likely to control any undesirable responses.

20.

A response to an S∆ (or an incorrect response to an SD).

21.

In general, a contingency is an “if-then” type of arrangement. For example, if you press the button on the water fountain, then a stream of water will appear. Any appropriate example that was not in the chapter.

22.

A three-term contingency of reinforcement describes both the antecedents and consequences of a behavior. For example, at the dining room table during dinner, a person says “Pass the salt please” (the antecedent), another person passes the salt (the response), and the first person says “Thank you” (reinforcer).

23.

A rule describes a situation in which a behavior will lead to a consequence.

24.

Contingency-shaped behavior is behavior that has been strengthened simply because it has been immediately followed by reinforcement. For example, if little Johnny swears while playing with friends in the street and his friends laugh at his swearing, swearing would likely be strengthened. Rule-governed behavior is behavior that occurs to a rule which describes a contingency of reinforcement. For example, if Johnny’s parents say, “If you talk without swearing all day long, you can stay up for an extra half-hour tonight,” and if as a result little Johnny talks without swearing during the day (at least in their presence), then Johnny would be showing rule-governed behavior.

25.

The high on-task behavior to the posted rule in the Auckland classroom was likely rulegoverned behavior. The reason is that the children showed high on-task behavior during the very first session after the teacher explained the new set of rules, whereas contingencyshaped behavior usually takes a number of trials before a sizeable change in behavior occurs.

26.

One might reinforce responses in the presence of highly inappropriate stimuli. For example, parents with a child who has just learned to walk might follow the child around closely when they visit someone else’s house and pick the child up each time the child attempts to grab ornaments or other breakable objects. The parents may in fact be teaching the child to immediately walk towards and grab ornaments in other people’s houses. Any plausible example is acceptable.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Reflexivity involves matching two exemplars of an object or event, such as matching a 3 to a 3. Symmetry refers to bi-directional matching of two objects, such as matching A to B and then matching B to A. Transitivity occurs when an individual has learned to match A to B and B to C, is then able to match A to C without specific training to do so.

39 ..

2.

Psycholinguists have argued that children appear to learn more about language than is directly reinforced, or that can be explained through stimulus generalization due to physical similarity. That is, children learn that physically different sounds can mean the same thing as other sounds, even though some of those sounds have not been directly paired with each other. However, stimulus equivalence enables us to account for this phenomenon and thereby provides support for a behaviorist view of language development.

3.

Contextual control is a complex type of stimulus control in which the general setting or context may alter the manner in which an individual responds to particular stimuli. For example, in North America the left side of the car is an SD for the designated driver to open the door and sit down. In Britain, the right side of the car is an SD for the designated driver to open the door and sit down. In this example, the country in which driving occurs is the context.

4.

In England, car drivers drive on the left side of the road. Just before stepping onto the street, therefore, the closest approaching car would come from the right. In Canada, however, car drivers drive on the right side of the street. Thus, just before stepping onto the street, the closest approaching car would be at one’s left. In this example, the country that the pedestrian was visiting was the context, and in the context of Canada, stepping onto a street should be preceded by looking left. Unfortunately, the pedestrian was not under the contextual control of the country, and looked right.

40 ..

CHAPTER 9 CHANGING THE CONTROL OF A BEHAVIOR WITH FADING Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Fading is the gradual change, on successive trials, of a stimulus that controls a response, so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimulus.

For example, a parent might teach a child to hold a pencil and make a line on a piece of paper by physically guiding the child’s hand. Over successive trials, the physical guidance might gradually be lessened to the point where the child will be able to draw a line without any help whatsoever. Any plausible example is acceptable.

2.

Errorless learning is the use of a fading procedure to establish a stimulus discrimination so that no errors occur.

3.

(a) Errors consume valuable time; (b) If an error occurs once, it tends to occur many times even though it is being extinguished; (c) The absence of reinforcement when errors are being extinguished often produces emotional side effects (e.g., tantrums, aggressive behavior) and/or attempts to escape from the situation.

4.

A dimension of a stimulus is any characteristic that can be measured on some continuum.

For example, the loudness of a particular sound.

5.

Any three, such as: (a) intensity of an auditory stimulus (“Peter”); (b) the amount of pressure exerted by a teacher to physically guide a student during tracing; or (c) the number of dots on a piece of paper for tracing.

6.

Any appropriate example, such as teaching Peter to say his name. The training room and situation did not change, but the intensity of the auditory stimulus was faded.

7.

Any appropriate example, such as teaching children appropriate “classroom” behavior. The physical characteristics of the classroom (the number and location of desks and chairs and students, etc.) were gradually changed.

8.

Any appropriate example, such as the following: To teach a dog to raise a paw upon command, a trainer might present the command to a dog, physically guide a paw-raising response, and then provide reinforcement (such as a small piece of dog biscuit). After several trials, the trainer might raise the paw about three-quarters of the way and require the dog to raise the paw the rest of the way on each trial in order to be reinforced. After a number of reinforced trials at that level, the guidance of the paw-raising might be gradually decreased until the dog raises the paw on command with no physical guidance from the trainer.

9.

We will assume that the child likes to eat potato chips. The procedure to be used would be essentially the same as the procedure described in this chapter to teach Peter to say “Peter” when asked, “What’s your name?” Specifically, you might hold up a potato chip, and say to the child very quietly, “What’s this?” and then, very loudly and quickly before the child can respond, say “chip!” When the child mimics the word “chip,” you would reinforce the child by handing the child the potato chip and allowing the child to eat it. Then, over several trials, you would begin asking the question, “What’s this?” more loudly and begin supplying the answer “chip” more quietly. Eventually, the child should correctly respond “chip” when asked, “What’s this?” while you hold up a potato chip.

41 ..

10.

The final desired stimulus is the stimulus that you want to eventually control the target behavior in a fading program. Any plausible example is acceptable.

11.

The starting stimulus is the initial stimulus that reliably evokes the desired behavior at the start of a fading program. Any plausible example is acceptable.

12.

In a program to develop stimulus control, such as a fading program, supplemental stimuli may initially be used to help control the desired behavior. The supplemental stimuli are called prompts. For example, a parent may want to teach a young child to fill a sink approximately 1/4 full with water before the child washes her hands. A felt marker might be used to place a mark in the sink to initially indicate the appropriate level. The mark would be a prompt. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

13.

(a) Physical prompts—the teacher touches the student to guide him. (b) Verbal prompts— verbal hints or verbal cues that the teacher presents to evoke the correct response; (c) Gestural prompts—gestures or motions that the teacher makes (without touching the student) in order to evoke the desired behavior; (d) Modelling prompts—the teacher demonstrates (i.e., models) the correct behavior. Also, any appropriate examples are acceptable.

14.

Environmental prompts are alterations to the physical environment in a manner that will evoke a desired behavior. For example, someone who is focusing on getting into shape may place pictures around his or her home of people lifting weights or doing other physical activity to serve as motivation or reminders for getting into shape.

15.

A within-stimulus prompt is an alteration in the characteristics of an SD or an SΔ to make them more noticeable, and therefore easier to discriminate. For example, suppose that a teacher has placed several brown objects and several blue objects in front of a child. When teaching the child to respond correctly when the teacher asks, “brown or blue,” the teacher might initially exaggerate the difference in the words by saying “brown” in a loud, highpitched voice, and saying “blue” in a soft, low-pitched voice. This is a teacher-behavior prompt.

16.

An extra-stimulus prompt is something that is added to the environment to make a correct response more likely. For example, suppose that a teacher is attempting to teach a child to discriminate between brown and blue objects when the teacher says, “brown or blue.” On successive trials, the correct object (e.g., a brown object when the teacher says “brown” could be placed closer to the child, and the incorrect object could be placed farther away).

The position prompt (of the objects) in this case would be an extra-stimulus prompt, and could be faded across trials. This is an environmental prompt.

17.

The number might vary with the step, the behavior being taught, and the student being taught. For example, several reinforced trials at each step were used when teaching Peter to say his name. There is no definitive answer since fading is still somewhat of an art.

42 ..

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Suppose a staff member in an agency for persons with developmental disabilities decides that it would be desirable to take a person with severe developmental disabilities on a walk outside the agency on a warm summer day. Suppose further that the client resists going on a walk. Suppose further that the staff decides to use physical guidance to influence the client to go on a walk. But perhaps such an intrusive procedure is not necessary to prompt the desired behavior. Perhaps simply showing the client a photograph of the outside scene in which walking will occur might be sufficient to prompt the desired behavior. Such an environmental prompt would be considered less restrictive than physical guidance. Because it is generally agreed that behavior modifiers should use the least intrusive and restrictive interventions wherever possible, use of physical guidance in the above instance might require ethical approval. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

2.

The definition of fading given at the beginning of the chapter is: the gradual change on successive trials of a stimulus that controls a response so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimulus. Decreasing assistance is the only prompt-removal procedure that fits this description. In increasing assistance the “starting” stimulus—a stimulus that consistently evokes the response—is not presented at the beginning of the procedure. In graduated guidance, the level of prompting is changed within rather than across trials. In time delay, the starting stimulus is not changed; instead, the time interval between the final desired stimulus and the starting stimulus is gradually increased.

43 ..

CHAPTER 10 GETTING A NEW BEHAVIOR TO OCCUR WITH SHAPING Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

(a) Specify the final desired behavior (e.g., Frank jogging a quarter of a mile each day); (b) Identify a response which can be used as a starting point in working toward the desired behavior (e.g., Frank walking around the outside of his house once); (c) Reinforce the starting response, and then closer and closer approximations towards the final desired response (e.g., Frank was reinforced for walking further and further, and finally for jogging, until his goal was reached).

2.

Shaping is a procedure for developing new behavior by successively reinforcing closer approximations, and extinguishing preceding approximations to achieve a final desired behavior.

3.

The method of successive approximations.

4.

Approximation 1 is reinforced for a number of trials until Approximation 2 occurs, then Approximation 1 is extinguished and Approximation 2 is reinforced until Approximation 3 occurs, and so on.

5.

Positive reinforcement can be used to increase behavior that already occurs once in a while.

Shaping is necessary to develop a behavior that is not yet occurring, or that occurs rarely.

6.

(a) The final desired behavior is saying “dog.” (b) Starting response is imitating “d.” (c) Reinforcement of successive approximations to the final desired response. Child says “d” and parents hug child (several trials). Child says “do” and parents hug child (several trials).

Child says “dog” and parents hug child (several trials). Other appropriate examples are also acceptable.

7.

(a) Topography, such as shaping a child to say, “Mommy” instead of “Mama”; (b) Frequency, such as shaping the number of steps (distance) that Frank walked; (c) Duration, such as the time spent studying before taking a break; (d) Latency, such as shaping a runner to react more and more quickly to the sound of the gun at the start of a race; and (e) Force (or intensity), such as shaping the boy to use more and more force to move the pump handle.

Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

8.

Any appropriate example. An example from the text was the example of the increasing rust on the pump shaping the boy to use more and more force to move the pump handle.

9.

Shaping involves the gradual change of a response while the stimulus stays about the same, and fading involves the gradual change of a stimulus while the response stays about the same.

10.

The target behavior in a shaping program is the final desired behavior, such as Frank’s target behavior of jogging a quarter of a mile each day, described at the beginning of the chapter.

11.

The starting behavior of a shaping program is a behavior that occurs once in awhile and that approximates the final desired behavior. For example, the starting behavior in Frank’s program was walking around the house once, described at the beginning of the chapter.

44 ..

12.

You don’t. You simply give it your best guess and then try out the program. Two guidelines that are sometimes helpful for selecting successive approximations include: (a) the teacher might imagine what steps she herself would go through; and (b) the teacher might observe students who can already emit the terminal behavior and ask them to emit several approximations.

13.

Too few reinforcements at any one step means that the behavior will be weak, and is likely to extinguish when the trainer attempts to move on to the next step.

14.

Too many reinforcements at one step may over-strengthen that behavior and make the behavior persist when the trainer attempts to move on to the next step.

15.

Any appropriate example is acceptable, such as a mountain climber being shaped to make increasingly more dangerous climbs.

16.

Pitfall Type 5 is the failure to apply shaping to develop desirable behavior.

17.

Any appropriate example of a failure to apply shaping is acceptable, such as the following: Some parents may not be very responsive to their child’s babbling behavior. If they expect too much from the child and do not reinforce approximations to normal speech, then the child might stay at the babbling level for a long time and thereby fail to acquire normal speech.

18.

An example could be any behavior that consists of separate responses linked together in some kind of complex series, e.g., making a bed, baking a cake, etc. Shaping would not likely be effective because the problem is not one of modifying the characteristics of some behavior; rather it is a problem of linking together in a consistent sequence specific separate responses that the client can already emit individually. This is more effectively accomplished by a procedure known as chaining that is described in a later chapter.

19.

A guideline is: move to the next step when the student performs the current step correctly in 6 out of 10 trials (usually with one or two trials less perfect than desired, and one or two trials in which the behavior is better than the current step).

20.

Positive reinforcement and extinction would appear to be single processes that are not composed of more basic principles. Shaping clearly is composed of both positive reinforcement and extinction. In that sense, shaping is a procedure that involves two basic principles (namely, positive reinforcement and extinction).

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

While a man watched television, the sound was on continuously, but the video portion appeared only when the individual’s heart rate decreased by a few beats per minute from the initial baseline rate. When the subject’s heart rate remained at a new level for three consecutive sessions, the video portion was used to reinforce further change in heart rate.

In this way, the investigators shaped several decreases in the client’s heart rate below the initial level.

2.

Biofeedback uses techniques to monitor individuals’ physiological processes, such as heart rate or muscle tension. The results are usually displayed on a screen and made available to individuals immediately. Biofeedback enables people to gain control over their own physiological processes that are being monitored.

45 ..

3.

A TV camera could be focused on the specified limb of a paralyzed person. The camera could be hooked up to a computer that might record limb movements, set reinforcement for small shaping steps, backtrack to earlier steps if progress slows, and operate reinforcer mechanisms. Other plausible answers are acceptable.

4.

Computers may be useful in precisely specifying shaping parameters such as step size and amount of reinforcement at the end of each step. This should be helpful in studying the relative effectiveness of various step sizes, various amounts of reinforcement at each step size, etc.

5.

Over trials, they reinforced laboratory rats for extending their noses further and further over the edge of a platform until eventually the rats actually fell off the platform. (A net below the platform kept them from being injured.)

46 ..

CHAPTER 11 GETTING A NEW SEQUENCE OF BEHAVIORS TO OCCUR WITH BEHAVIORAL CHAINING Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

First, Steve’s pre-putt routine was divided into 7 sequential steps. Second, over a series of 10 trials, Steve was required to perform each of the 7 steps in the appropriate sequence.

Third, on each trial, a friend of his checked off the steps as they were performed, and prompted him to perform any missing steps before continuing. Fourth, a friend of Steve’s prompted him to perform each step of the pre-putt routine on every putt during a practice round of golf. Finally, during tournament rounds, his caddy frequently reminded him to follow his pre-putt routine.

2.

A sequence of SDs and Rs, in which each R produces the SD for the next R and the entire sequence, is typically followed by a reinforcer. Any example in which the sequence of behaviors and the reinforcer are briefly described.

3.

Because it is a sequence of responses that consists of stimulus-response “links” that are connected or “chained” together.

4.

A behavioral chain is a consistent series of stimuli and responses in which each stimulus (except the last) is a conditioned reinforcer for the previous response and serves as an SD for the next response. The sequence also typically terminates in a reinforcer. An example might be the specific sequence of steps that one typically goes through in brushing one’s teeth, in that most people do so in a very consistent manner. Other general sequences might consist of a series of responses that tend to occur in the same order on successive occasions, such as the sequence of studying for an exam, writing an exam, and attending the next class to get the exam back from the professor. But such general sequences are not specific behavioral chains because there are many variations to each response on successive occasions, and there are frequent “breaks” in between responses (such as studying, then sleeping, then going to class, etc.) Thus, a general behavioral sequence does not necessarily fit the definition of a specific stimulus-response chain.

5.

Total task presentation: the client is required to attempt each of the steps in the chain from the beginning to the end on each trial, and to continue with total task trials until all steps are mastered.

6.

Backward chaining: the last step is established first, then the next to the last step is taught and linked to the last step, then the third from the last step is taught and linked to the last two steps, and so on, progressing backward toward the beginning of the chain.

7.

Forward chaining: the initial step of a sequence is taught first, then the first and second steps are taught and linked together, then the first three steps, and so on until the entire chain is acquired.

8.

First, bed-making would be task analyzed into a number of steps, the specific number depending upon the level of functioning and skills of the person to be taught how to make beds. The task analysis might produce the following steps: (a) put on the bottom sheet; (b) straighten the bottom sheet; (c) tuck in the bottom sheet; (d) put on the top sheet; (e) straighten the top sheet; (f) tuck in the top sheet; (g) put on the spread; (h) straighten the spread; (i) pull the top of the spread back for the pillow; (j) put the pillow on the bed and (k) pull the spread over the pillow and smooth the wrinkles. In total task presentation, the client would be required to go through each of the above steps on every trial. Correct 47 ..

performance of a step would be reinforced with praise. If a client performed a step incorrectly, assistance would be provided to correct that step, but praise would not be provided. Praise would also be presented following the completion of the chain. In backward chaining, training would start with the bed completely made except for the last step. Over several trials, the client would be taught to perform step (k), pulling the spread over the pillow and smoothing the wrinkles. As with total task presentation, praise would be used to reinforce correct performance and incorrect responses would be corrected but would not be praised. When the client had mastered step (k), the client would be taught to perform steps (j) and (k) using the same procedures. When the last two steps had been mastered, the client would be taught to perform steps (i), (j), and (k). In this way, teaching would progress backwards until the entire chain had been mastered. In forward chaining, training would start with the first step of the sequence and the client would be taught to perform step (a), putting on the bottom sheet. As with the previous two procedures, correct responses would be reinforced while incorrect responses would be corrected, but not reinforced. When step (a) had been mastered, steps (a) and (b) would be taught. When these were performed together and correctly, training would progress through steps (a), (b), and (c). In this way, training would progress through the steps until the entire chain had been mastered.

9.

Consider the chain for teaching a person with developmental disabilities to put on a pair of slacks (described in Figure 11-2). After doing up the snap in Step 6, the last step was to do up the zipper, which was followed by a reinforcer. Therefore, the “snap done up” became an SD for “doing up the zipper” (i.e., “snap done up” was a cue in the presence of which “doing up the zipper” would be reinforced). Also, across a number of trials, “snap done up” was paired with receiving a reinforcer and would become a conditioned reinforcer for the preceding response of “doing up the snap.” In other words, “snap done up” was the stimulus, which when presented after a response (doing up the snap), served to strengthen that response, and “snap done up” had that effect because of appropriate pairings with the reinforcer at the end of the chain. Thus, “snap done up” was both an SD and a conditioned reinforcer.

10.

The authors recommend that the total task presentation method be used. This recommendation is based on two considerations. First, Bellamy et al. concluded that total task presentation has several practical advantages over the other two chaining formats for teaching persons with developmental disabilities. Specifically, it requires the trainer to spend less time in partial assembly or disassembly to prepare the task for training; it appears to focus on teaching response topography and response sequence simultaneously and therefore should produce results more quickly; and it appears to maximize the learner’s independence early in training, especially if some steps are already familiar to the learner. Second, several studies demonstrated that total task presentation was at least as good as, or better than, backward chaining or forward chaining for teaching assembly tasks to persons with severe developmental disabilities persons.

11.

In fading, the target behavior is some new stimulus control of a particular behavior. In shaping, the target behavior is some new behavior along some physical dimension, such as topography, amount, or intensity. In chaining, the target behavior is a new sequence of responses, with a “clear-cut” stimulus signalling the end of each response and the start of the next.

12.

Changing a tire involves performing an appropriate series of steps including getting the jack out of the car, inserting the jack at the appropriate place on the side of the car, raising the side of the car so that the tire can be removed, etc. In other words, changing a tire on a car is a sequence of responses with a “clear cut” stimulus signalling the end of each response and the start of the next response. Therefore, chaining would be used.

48 ..

13.

Task analysis refers to the process of breaking a task down into smaller steps or component responses to facilitate training. For example, you might require the child to be seated at a desk with a completed laced shoe facing away from her. The child might then be guided through the following steps: (a) The child takes the end of a lace in each hand; (b) the right end of the lace is placed on the desk pointing straight out from the child; (c) the left end of the lace is laid across the right end; (d) the child’s left hand grabs the laces where they form a loop, and her right hand puts the top lace around and through the loop from behind; (e) both ends of the lace are now pulled, thus forming a knot. Any plausible task analysis of tying a shoelace knot is acceptable.

14.

(a) Prepare a written task analysis of the chaining steps; (b) For individuals who are unable to read, use a series of picture prompts to guide completion of the chain(s); (c) Teach individuals to recite self-instructions to prompt correct performance of chaining steps.

15.

An adventitious chain is a chain that has subcomponents that are functional in producing the reinforcer, and at least one component (called a superstitious component) that is not functional in producing the reinforcer.

16.

They are similar in that both occur because they have been accidentally reinforced. They differ in that an adventitious chain has some components that are functional in producing the reinforcer, whereas superstitious behavior is non-functional in producing the reinforcer.

17.

For example, a pitcher in baseball might consistently engage in the following sequence: watch the catcher for the signal; tug on his belt buckle; wind up, and throw the pitch.

Tugging on his belt buckle would not be necessary for the reinforcer of throwing a strike.

18.

For example, a behavioral chain manifested by some overweight people consists of watching TV until a commercial comes on, going to the kitchen during a commercial, getting a snack, and returning to the TV program where the snack is eaten (and reinforced by the taste of food and the observation of the program). This chain could be broken by requiring the individual to separate the two activities and to eat only in the kitchen and watch TV only in the TV room without combining the two.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

It’s an oversimplification because, in a long behavioral chain with many components, the stimuli at the beginning of the chain are a considerable distance in time from the primary reinforcer at the end of the chain, and their property as SDs decreases and they begin to take on the property of SΔs.

49 ..

CHAPTER 12 ELIMINATING INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR THROUGH PUNISHMENT Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

A punishment program was used with Ben and was implemented by the teacher and teacher aids at the public school he attended. The punisher for Ben’s aggressive behavior consisted of contingent exercise. When Ben hit someone else, an adult said, “Ben, no hitting. Stand up and sit down 10 times.” The adult then held Ben’s hand above his head to prompt him to stand up, and then pulled his upper body forward to prompt him to sit down. After the first day, only verbal reminders were necessary to prompt Ben to perform the contingent exercise following aggressive behavior. The program was highly successful.

2.

The punisher for Ben was a behavior that Ben had to engage in (namely, exercise). Because it was necessary that the exercise occur immediately following an undesirable aggressive behavior, it was important that the exercise be under the stimulus control of the verbal commands and prompting by the staff, (e.g., “stand up, sit down”).

3.

A punisher is an event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to decrease in frequency. For example, if you speed while driving your car and you get a traffic ticket (the punisher) for speeding (the response), you are less likely to speed.

4.

The principle of punishment states: If, in a given situation, somebody does something that is immediately followed by a punisher, then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.

5.

First, in many instances for laypersons, punishment is not immediate, such as when a person goes to jail for committing a crime. Second, many laypersons believe that punishment should involve retribution, as in the saying “the punishment must fit the crime.” Third, in the general culture, punishment is applied, in part, as a deterrent to potential “wrongdoers.” For behavior modifiers, however, punishment is simply a technical term referring to the application of a consequence immediately after a response that has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of future instances of that response.

6.

An unconditioned punisher is a stimulus that is punishing without any prior training or conditioning. Examples include spankings and pinches.

7.

(a) Pain-inducing punishers (also called physical punishers): this category includes all punishers that activate pain receptors or other sense receptors that typically evoke feelings of discomfort; (b) Reprimands: these consist of strong negative verbal stimuli; (c) Time out: this involves transferring an individual to a less reinforcing situation, i.e., it involves a “time out” from the opportunity to earn a reinforcer; (d) Response cost: this involves the removal of a specified amount of a reinforcer. Any appropriate examples are acceptable in all of the above categories.

8.

Arguments could be made for considering it to be either physical punishment or time out.

It might be considered to be physical punishment in that exercise often produces feelings of discomfort. It might be considered to be time out in that exercising was probably a less reinforcing state for Ben than whatever he was doing when he was not exercising. (Other arguments might also be acceptable; the student should justify his or her choice.)

50 ..

9.

A conditioned punisher is a stimulus that was not originally punishing, but that acquired punishing power through association with other punishers. For example, the verbal stimulus “No!” is probably not a punisher for an infant or a very young child. However, it acquires punishing value because it is paired with other punishers, such as the loud sound of the parent’s voice when saying “No!” Any appropriate example is acceptable.

10.

Exclusionary time out consists of removing the individual from the situation in which reinforcement is occurring for a short time. Non-exclusionary time out consists of introducing into the situation a stimulus associated with less reinforcement.

11.

Any appropriate example is acceptable, such as taking away a child’s allowance, suspending TV-watching privileges, etc.

12.

Extinction involves withholding a reinforcer following a previously reinforced response.

Response cost involves taking away a reinforcer (that is already in the client’s possession) following a response. Exclusionary time-out involves removing the individual for a short period of time, contingent upon a response, from a situation in which reinforcement was occurring (or could be earned).

13.

The direct-acting effect of punishment is the decreased frequency of a response because of its immediate punishing consequence (within 30 seconds). The indirect-acting effect of punishment is weakening of a response that is followed by a punisher even though the punisher is delayed. An example of the direct-acting effect of punishment would be a child learning not to tease dogs because doing so is immediately followed by being bitten by the dog. An example of the indirect-acting effects of punishment would be an individual decreasing the time he/she spends in the sun after he/she develops a severe sunburn from a day spent in the sun.

14.

Delayed punishers may be effective in decreasing a behavior because: (a) there may be instructions about the behavior that lead to the punisher, (b) self-statements (thoughts) may intervene between the behavior and the delayed punisher, or (c) there may be immediate conditioned punishers that intervene between the behavior and the back-up punisher.

15.

The first factor influencing the effectiveness of punishment consists of presenting SDs prior to, and providing reinforcement following, a desirable alternative response. This alternative response hopefully is incompatible with, and will decrease the probability of, the undesirable behavior. The second factor influencing the effectiveness of punishment consists of minimizing the causes of the response to be punished. This is typically done by eliminating the SDs that prompt the undesirable behavior and identifying and eliminating reinforcement contingencies that have been maintaining it. Careful attention to these first two factors may yield some desirable alternative behavior that competes so strongly with the behavior to be decreased that punishment will never have to be used.

16.

A mild punisher can be effective if the reinforcer for the undesirable behavior is withheld following instances of the behavior, and if a desirable alternative behavior is reinforced with a strong reinforcer.

17.

Stimuli are identified as punishers on the basis of an experimental test. To determine if a verbal reprimand is a punisher for a particular child, you would choose a behavior of that child that occurs once in a while and keep track of it during a period of time when the verbal reprimand is not presented. Once a base rate of that particular behavior has been obtained, the verbal reprimand would then be introduced as a consequence of the behavior each time it occurs. After several such trials, when the behavior is consequated by the 51 ..

verbal reprimand, the performance will tell you if the verbal reprimand is a punisher. If the behavior preceding the verbal reprimand has decreased relative to the base rate, then the verbal reprimand is a punisher for that particular child.

18.

An SD is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be reinforced. For example, a good report card received by a child is an SD that showing it to a parent will be reinforced with praise. An SDp is a stimulus in the presence of which response will be punished. For example, seeing the red and blue lights from a police car behind you on a highway is an SDp that behavior of speeding will be punished by receiving a speeding ticket.

19.

An SΔ (“ess-delta”) is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will not be reinforced.

For example, an “out-of-order” sign on a vending machine is an SΔ for the behavior of inserting money. An SDp is a stimulus in the presence of which response will be punished.

For example, seeing the red and blue lights from a police car behind you on a highway is an SDp that behavior of speeding will be punished by receiving a speeding ticket.

20.

(a) The punisher should be presented immediately following of the response to be decreased; (b) the punisher should be presented following every instance of the undesirable behavior; (c) the individual administering the punisher should do so in a calm and matterof-fact manner; (d) the administering individual should take care not to pair punishment with reinforcement during instances when a punisher is delivered.

21.

(a) First, intermittent punishment is less effective than continuous punishment. Second, unless the teacher can deliver the punisher on each occasion, those occasions where the punisher is not present may be ones where the behavior is followed by positive reinforcement. This would make the procedure even less effective. (b) The teacher can present SDs for desirable alternative behavior, present SΔs for the behavior to be decreased, reinforce the client on a DRL for the response to be decreased, reinforce the client on a DRO for the response to be decreased, or reinforce the client on a DRI with respect to the response to be decreased.

22.

Lemon Juice Therapy: Sandra, a six-month-old baby, consistently brought up the milk that was given to her. During treatment, Sandra’s mouth was filled with lemon juice immediately following an instance of rumination. After 16 feedings with lemon juice punishment, the rumination decreased to a very low level. Ice Cube Therapy: Jerry was a 16-year-old girl with profound intellectual disability who consistently ground her teeth.

During treatment, following an instance of teeth grinding, a staff member touched her face with an ice cube for a few seconds. Within a few days of treatment, her teeth grinding had almost completely ceased.

23.

Pica is the ingestion of inedible objects or non-nutritive substances. The program by Johnson et al. included the following factors that influenced the effectiveness of punishment: (a) Maximizing the conditions for a desirable alternative response; they did this by presenting SDs (edible food on the yellow placemat) and providing reinforcement (both the taste of the food and staff praise for eating the edible items). (b) Selecting an effective (but humane) punisher; the client’s face was washed with a cool damp cloth for 15 seconds. (c) Delivering the punisher immediately following each instance of a problem behavior; items that were ingested that were not on the placemat were immediately punished.

24.

Mathews et al. taught mothers to use reprimand combined with time-out to decrease dangerous behaviors (e.g., touching an electrical cord outlet) of their one-year-old children.

A mother would praise her child for playing appropriately, and say “No” and place the child in a playpen for a brief period immediately contingent on the occurrence of a dangerous 52 ..

behavior. Placing the child in the playpen would be considered an exclusionary time-out because it removed the child for a short time from the situation in which reinforcement was occurring to another situation.

25.

(a) Punishment may elicit undesirable emotional behaviors that interfere with desirable behavior to be developed; (b) Punishment may elicit aggressive behavior; (c) Anything associated with punishment may become a punishing stimulus so that the child will learn to avoid stimuli associated with punishment (such as educational materials, if the individual is punished often in situations associated with education); (d) Punishment does not establish new behavior, it only suppresses old behavior; (e) Children often model or imitate adults. If adults supply punishment frequently, children might use it on others. (f) Because punishment results in quick suppression of undesirable behavior, it can tempt the user to rely heavily on it and neglect the use of positive reinforcement for desirable alternative behaviors.

26.

The “right to effective treatment” position is that a client’s right to effective treatment, might, in some cases, require the use of quicker-acting punishment procedures rather than slower-acting procedures involving reinforcement of alternative behavior. The “freedom from harm” position is that non-aversive methods for eliminating unacceptable behavior are always at least as effective as punishment and that, therefore, there is never any justification for using pain-inducing punishment.

27.

A child was taught a simple communicative response (e.g., ringing a bell) as an alternative to self-abuse in order to obtain staff attention.

28.

(a) The behavior is very maladaptive and it is in the client’s best interest to bring about rapid behavior change; (b) clear steps are taken to maximize the conditions for a desirable alternative response and to minimize the causes of the response to be punished before resorting to punishment; (c) the client or the client’s parent or guardian provides informed consent; (d) the intervention meets ethical standards; (e) punishment is applied according to clear guidelines; and (f) the program includes safeguards to protect the client.

29.

Students may take different positions on this. Issues they might consider in their answers are: (a) Was a procedure that did not involve punishment attempted first, and if not, why not? (b) Was the use of a punishment procedure justified by the seriousness of the problem? (c) How aversive was the contingent exercise procedure? (d) Was the procedure carried out in a humiliating or demeaning manner to Ben, and if so, could it have been made less so (e.g., by telling Ben that the purpose of the contingent exercise was to calm him down)? (e) Could the positive effects of the procedure have been achieved just as well or better with a non-aversive procedure? (How the student approaches these issues will probably determine the position he or she takes.)

30.

For example, parents with good intentions might say to their teenage child, “That was good, but...” and then proceed to find fault with the behavior. Although they probably hope to be instructional, they are likely applying punishment. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Parents may have to use punishment at times if a child’s behavior is so severe that he/she may hurt themselves or someone else (e.g., siblings or playmates). If parents use punishment, however, they should be aware of the effects and the most appropriate methods for using punishment. Moreover, use of punishment by parents does not necessarily imply administering spankings or other forms of pain-inducing punishers.

53 ..

CHAPTER 13 ESTABLISHING BEHAVIOR

BY ESCAPE AND AVOIDANCE CONDITIONING Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

In escape conditioning, the removal of stimuli immediately after the occurrence of a response increases the likelihood of that response. When the tone came on, Jason could escape it by displaying good posture.

2.

They are similar in that both involve an aversive stimulus. Differences in procedure: (a) with regard to antecedents, in escape conditioning, the aversive stimulus must be present prior to a response, whereas the aversive stimulus is not present prior to a response that is punished; (b) with regard to consequences, in escape conditioning the aversive event is removed immediately following a response, whereas in punishment the aversive stimulus is presented immediately following a response. Their effects differ in that punishment leads to a decrease in the punished response, whereas escape conditioning leads to an increase in the target response.

3.

Differences in procedure: (a) In escape conditioning, an aversive stimulus is present prior to the response being conditioned, whereas in positive reinforcement, the reinforcer is not present prior to the response; (b) In escape conditioning, the stimulus is removed contingent on the target response, whereas in positive reinforcement, the stimulus is presented contingent on the response. Similarity in effects: Both procedures increase the likelihood of the target response.

4.

Any two appropriate examples, such as a person squinting to escape from the aversiveness of bright sunlight.

5.

Another name for escape conditioning is negative reinforcement. The term reinforcement indicates that the procedure is analogous to positive reinforcement in that both strengthen behavior. The term negative indicates that the strengthening effect occurs because the response leads to the removal (the taking away or subtraction) of an aversive event.

6.

Avoidance conditioning states that a behavior will increase in frequency if it prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. In the presence of the ticking sound (a warning stimulus), Jason quickly learned to show good posture in order to avoid the backup aversive stimulus, the loud tone.

7.

Warning stimulus can also be referred to as a conditioned aversive stimulus.

8.

Discriminated avoidance conditioning.

9.

(a) Both a warning stimulus and an SD are cues that are a response will pay off. (b) The nature of the payoff differs. With a warning stimulus, the payoff for an appropriate response is avoidance of an aversive event. With an SD, the payoff for an appropriate response is receipt of a positive reinforcer.

10.

A warning stimulus is a cue that an appropriate response will enable an individual to avoid an aversive event. An SDp is a cue that the occurrence of a response will be followed by a punisher.

54 ..

11.

In avoidance conditioning, (a) the aversive stimulus is not present prior to the occurrence of the response, and (b) the response prevents (or postpones) the aversive stimulus rather than removing it. Also, avoidance conditioning usually involves a warning signal, whereas escape conditioning does not.

12.

Any two appropriate examples, such as a person dressing warmly in the winter in order to avoid getting cold, after observing on the television weather report that the temperature is below zero.

13.

One possibility is that the avoidance response is strengthened because it terminates the warning stimulus. A second possibility is that the warning stimulus causes an individual to feel anxious, and immediately following an avoidance response, the individual feels less anxious. A third possibility is that the warning stimulus causes an individual to think unpleasant thoughts about the possible forthcoming punisher, and following a successful avoidance response, these thoughts cease.

14.

For example, one study indicates that parents of children labelled as antisocial frequently strengthened aggressive behavior by “giving in” when the aggressive behavior occurred.

15.

For example, if a coach frequently criticizes athletes, the athletes may show improved skills to avoid the wrath of the coach, but they are now also likely to avoid the coach off the athletic field.

16.

The undesirable behavior is an aversive event that reinforcement terminates (for awhile).

For example, in the first case illustrated in Table 13-1, it is aversive to the adult when the child screams, “Candy! Candy!” The adult is reinforced through escape conditioning for giving the screaming child a candy in the sense that when the child receives the candy, the child stops screaming (and the adult escapes from the aversive noise). Unfortunately, the candy serves as a reinforcer for the screaming response. Other appropriate examples are also acceptable.

17.

A child’s extreme social withdrawal is likely to be aversive to an adult. Therefore, when a child shows this behavior in the presence of an adult, the adult may shower the child with attention in the hope of influencing the child to be less withdrawn. If the child does begin to show more appropriate interactions with the adult in that situation, then the adult has escaped the aversiveness of the child’s withdrawal behavior. Unfortunately, the extra attention may serve to reinforce social withdrawal in the long run.

Answer to Study Question on N&ED Section 1.

Briefly, it is an avoidance schedule in which occasional aversive events are postponed by the emission of a response, and in which no warning stimulus signals the impending occurrence of an aversive event.

2.

Suppose that you are about to start a game of golf. There are no mosquitoes buzzing around on the first tee that might serve as a warning stimulus. However, you apply insect repellent anyway. This would enable you to avoid being bitten by a mosquito later on during the round. Another example from every day life might be returning to check your parking meter (assuming that you were not wearing your watch or had forgotten to check the time when you parked your car) to avoid a parking ticket.

3.

Escape conditioning occurred when a hermit crab that had received a small electric shock in its original shell left that shell. Avoidance conditioning was demonstrated in that the crab would subsequently select another shell rather than returning to its original shell.

55 ..

CHAPTER 14 PROCEDURES BASED ON PRINCIPLES OF RESPONDENT CONDITIONING Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

That behavior can be modified by its consequences.

2.

Behaviors that operate on the environment to generate consequences, and are in turn controlled by those consequences, are called operant behaviors. Three examples of operant behaviors include: (a) putting gas in your car—you know that last time you didn’t you ran out and were forced to walk (punisher); (b) asking for directions—last time you did, you found out where to go (reinforcer); (c) writing an exam—you know you need to complete the exam in order to pass the course (which will be reinforcing).

3.

Respondent behaviors are behaviors that are elicited by prior stimuli and not affected by their consequences. Examples include salivating when smelling dinner cooking, feeling frightened when watching a scary movie, and blushing when told when your fly or blouse is undone.

4.

An unconditioned reflex is a stimulus-response relationship in which a stimulus automatically elicits a response apart from any prior learning. For example: Response Stimulus a. food in the mouth -----------> salivation b. pepper in the nose -----------> sneezing c. cinder in the eye -----------> tears

5.

If a neutral stimulus (that does not elicit a particular response) is closely followed in time by a second stimulus that elicits a particular response, then the neutral stimulus will come to elicit the response that was elicited by the second stimulus. Another name for respondent conditioning is Pavlovian conditioning, or classical conditioning. The diagram of the example should be modelled after Figure 14-2.

6.

A conditioned reflex is a stimulus-response relationship in which a stimulus elicits a response because of prior respondent conditioning. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment after a tone had been paired with food (that elicited salivation) several times, the presentation of the tone along came to elicit salivation. The tone-salivation sequence was a conditioned reflex.

7.

An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning. For example, presentation of food elicits salivation. An unconditioned response is a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus, for example, salivation to food. A conditioned stimulus is one that did not previously elicit a response, but has come to do so because of appropriate pairings with another stimulus that elicits a response. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the bell did not elicit salivation, but it came to do so because of appropriate pairings with food. The bell was therefore a conditioned stimulus. A conditioned response is a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. In the example of Pavlov’s experiment, when the bell eventually came to elicit salivation, salivation to the bell would be a conditioned response.

56 ..

8.

(a) The greater the number of pairings of a CS with a US, the greater is the ability of the CS to elicit the CR; (b) Stronger conditioning occurs if the CS just precedes the US by up to a few seconds, rather than by a longer time or rather than following the US; (c) A CS acquires greater ability to elicit a CR if the CS is always paired with a given US, than if it is only occasionally paired with the US; (d) When several neutral stimuli precede a US, the stimulus that is most consistently associated with the US is the one most likely to become a strong CS; (e) respondent conditioning will develop more quickly and strongly when the CS or US, or both, are intense rather than weak.

9.

Conditioning of the First Order

Pairings

{

NS

(Classical music)

US

(Food) ---------------% UR (Salivation)

CS1

(Classical music) ---------------%CR (Salivation)

Conditioning of the Second Order

Pairings

{

NS

(Yellow light)

CS1

(Classical music ------------% CR (Salivation)

CS2

(Yellow light)

------------% CR (Salivation)

10.

If a conditioned stimulus is presented without further pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus will gradually lose its capability of eliciting the conditioned response. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

11.

A conditioned response may be eliminated more effectively if a new response is conditioned to the conditioned stimulus at the same time that the former conditioned response is being extinguished. This process is called counterconditioning. For example, suppose that a young gymnast has learned to fear being on the balance beam because of a number of bad falls when attempting her routine on the beam. Extinction might involve having the gymnast stand on the beam repeatedly on numerous occasions. Counterconditioning might involve having the young gymnast lick an ice cream cone (that would elicit responses to compete with fear) while standing on the beam. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

57 ..

12.

Any plausible examples, such as: (a) digestion, the smell of a certain food that causes a person to feel nausea; (b) circulation, such as the smell of a certain perfume causing someone to feel sexually excited; (c) respiration, such as the appearance of a certain person causing an individual to cough and wheeze as part of an asthmatic reaction.

13.

For example, when one of the authors was a teenager, he drank several ounces of lemon gin in a short period of time, and became violently ill approximately an hour later. Since that time, the smell or taste of lemon gin causes him to feel instant nausea.

14.

Because it has survival value. If tasting a potentially damaging substance can cause us to be violently ill after tasting it just once, then it decreases the likelihood that we would consume such a substance repeatedly, which could have disastrous consequences.

15.

The predisposition of members of a species to be more readily conditioned to some neutral stimuli as CSs than to others. For example, humans will more quickly learn fears to stimuli that may have posed a threat to survival, such as snakes and insects, than to stimuli that were likely non-threatening in our ancestors’ history, such as pictures of flowers.

16.

We have evolved so that some stimuli (such as snakes and insects) are more readily established as CSs for fear because they may have posed a threat to survival, as compared to stimuli that were likely non-threatening in our ancestors’ history, such as pictures of flowers. Thus, not all stimuli are equally capable of becoming CSs.

17.

Any three of the following: Respondent Responses

Operant Responses

1. Occur automatically to prior stimuli

1. Controlled by consequences

2. Said to be involuntary

2. Said to be involuntary

3. Said to be elicited

3. Said to be emitted

4. Involve smooth muscles and glands

4. Involve skeletal muscles

5. Important in the functioning of internal bodily processes

5. Important in enabling us to interact with the external environment

18.

Respondent Reinforcement

Operant Reinforcement

Procedure: Pairing of a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

Procedure: Presentation of a positive reinforcer following a response (or the removal of an aversive stimulus following a response)

Result: Neutral stimulus acquires capability of eliciting a conditioned response

Result: Behavior increases in frequency

58 ..

19.

Respondent Extinction

Operant Extinction

Procedure: Conditioned stimulus is presented without further pairings with the unconditioned stimulus

Procedure: Reinforcement is withheld following a previously reinforced response

Result: Conditioned stimulus loses capability of eliciting conditioned response

Result:

Response frequency

decreases

in

20.

CSs are like SDs in that both produce responses that have been conditioned to them. They differ in the procedures to establish them as CSs and SDs. Also, responses controlled by CSs seem to be more automatic or consistent, and are referred to as elicited responses, whereas responses to SDs appear to be less automatic or consistent, and are said to be evoked by the SD.

21.

For problems of people who emit behavior that leads to undesirable reinforcers (such as over-indulging in cigarettes, alcohol, etc.). An example not given in the text might be excessive coffee drinking. Any three plausible examples, one of which is not in the text, are acceptable.

22.

Basic procedure: repeatedly (over a number of trials) pairing an undesirable reinforcer with an aversive event. Rationale: the undesirable reinforcer becomes less reinforcing because it will come to elicit a response similar to that elicited by the aversive stimulus. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

23.

Because it involves the use of aversive stimulation and, as indicated in the chapter on punishment, there are serious dangers in the use of aversive stimulation. Therefore, it should be used only by qualified experts who know when and how it is most likely to be effective, and how to guard against potentially harmful side effects.

24.

Subjects were given a laxative to elicit defecation. Just before defecating, subjects stimulated themselves with a mild electrical current. Over a number of days, the laxative was gradually decreased until defecation was elicited by the electrical stimulus alone.

25.

A special pad was placed on the child’s bed so that when the child urinated, the urine caused a buzzer to sound, which awakened the child. In this way, awakening was consistently preceded by the pressure of a full bladder. Eventually, the pressure of a full bladder became a conditioned stimulus eliciting the response of awakening. The child could then voluntarily urinate in the toilet. The US was the buzzer. The UR was awakening in response to the buzzer. The CS was the pressure or feeling of a full bladder after it had come to elicit awakening. The CR was awakening in response to the pressure of a full bladder.

59 ..

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Psychoimmunology is the study of the effects of conditioning processes on the functioning of the body’s immune system. Such studies have the potential to use respondent conditioning to help our immune system to be more effective in battling invaders.

2.

Respondent conditioning seems mainly to be involved in the efficacy of the urine alarm with nocturnal enuresis, whereas operant conditioning seems mainly to be involved in its efficacy with diurnal enuresis. With nocturnal enuresis, the US is the sound of the alarm, the UR is waking up (to the alarm), the CS is the pressure on the bladder, and the CR is waking up (to the pressure on the bladder). With diurnal enuresis, at least in the case study cited in the text, the alarm seemed to be an aversive stimulus because of the embarrassing social attention it evoked from others, and the operant response was escape from and avoidance of this stimulus by going to the washroom. (This is the interpretation given in the text, although students should be credited if they argue plausibly for alternative interpretations.)

60 ..

CHAPTER 15 RESPONDENT AND OPERANT CONDITIONING TOGETHER Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

For most of us, we have a history of being punished for failing to meet deadlines. As a consequence of prior pairings with punishment (which elicits feelings of anxiety), stimuli associated with missing a deadline are likely to be CSs eliciting anxiety as a CR.

2.

As a consequence of prior pairings of missing deadlines with punishment, stimuli associated with missing a deadline were likely CSs eliciting anxiety as a CR in Rick. As the deadline approached, and Rick began to emit relevant operant responses (looking up references, taking notes, etc.) to meet the deadline, his anxiety likely decreased. Thus, stimuli associated with the deadline likely caused Rick to feel anxious, a respondent response, and responding to meet the deadline, operant responses, were maintained by escape conditioning related to the decrease in Rick’s anxiety.

3.

The students should reproduce the behavioral sequence, the diagram of respondent conditioning, and the diagram of operant conditioning presented in Figure 15-1, or they should model their answer after Figure 15-1.

4.

The students should reproduce the behavioral sequence, the diagram of respondent conditioning, and the diagram of operant conditioning presented in Figure 15-2, or they should model their answer after Figure 15-2.

5.

Students might list any of the physiological activities described in the text under the topic “The Respondent Component of Emotions: Our Feelings.”

6.

(a) Sudden loss of support, loud sounds, and a sudden push elicit the unconditioned responses of a sudden catching of breath, a clutching or grasping response, puckering of lips, and crying that characterize fear; (b) hampering an infant’s movements elicits crying, screaming, and body stiffening that characterize anger; (c) tickling, gentle rocking, and patting elicit responses of smiling, gurgling, and cooing that characterize joy.

7.

The US was the loud noise. The UR was the fear reaction (crying, trembling, and showing the facial expression for fear) to the loud noise. The CS was the white rat (after it had been paired with the loud noise). The CR was the fear reaction to the white rat.

8.

There is not a contradiction because there are two components of emotions. The respondent components appear to be universal, the operant components appear to be culture specific.

9.

Presentation of reinforcers produces the emotion called joy. Withholding or withdrawing reinforcers produces the emotion called anger. The presentation of aversive stimuli produces the emotion called anxiety. Withdrawal of aversive stimuli produces an emotion called relief.

10.

Emotions include: (a) the autonomic reaction that you feel inside during the experience of an emotion (and which is typically accompanied by visible signs), which is influenced by respondent conditioning; (b) the way that you learn to overtly express an emotion, which is influenced by operant conditioning; and (c) the way that you become aware of, and describe your emotions, which is also influenced by operant conditioning.

61 ..

11.

Any appropriate example, such as the words “at the beach,” causing you to visualize waves splashing on a sandy shore.

12.

Any appropriate example, such as thinking to yourself, “This behavior modification book is fun to read.”

13.

An individual’s private self-talk and/or imagery and/or the autonomic reactions that make up our feelings.

14.

Except for being more difficult to “get at,” private behavior is the same as public behavior, i.e., the principles and procedures applicable to private behavior are fundamentally the same as those that apply to public behavior.

15.

Any appropriate example, such as a person thinking, “If I win a multi-million dollar lottery, I will buy a condo on the ocean in Florida,” which causes the respondent components of excitement such as increased heart rate, etc.

16.

No they do not. They recognize that people engage in private verbal behavior (i.e., they talk silently to themselves), they experience imagery (i.e., covert seeing and other types of covert sensing), and they experience feelings (the respondent component of emotions). They also recognize that such covert behavior often influences overt behavior, for example, when a person solves a problem by privately verbalizing and imagining certain aspects of the problem.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

It is assumed that if a client imagines an undesirable reinforcer and then imagines it being paired with an aversive stimulus, then thoughts of the undesirable reinforcer will come to elicit the unpleasant reactions elicited by thoughts of the aversive stimulus. It is further assumed that after such respondent conditioning occurs, the negative reactions now elicited by the imagined undesirable reinforcer will generalize to the real stimuli.

2.

Any appropriate example is acceptable, such as imagining smoking a cigarette, and then imagining becoming violently ill and vomiting over several people in the immediate vicinity.

It is assumed that, after several such pairings, nausea will occur when an individual attempts to smoke a real cigarette.

62 ..

CHAPTER 16 TRANSFERRING BEHAVIOR TO NEW SETTINGS AND MAKING IT LAST: GENERALITY OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Stimulus generalization occurs when a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of one stimulus or situation as a result of having being reinforced in the presence of another stimulus or situation. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2.

Stimulus generalization occurs when a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of one stimulus or situation as a result of having been reinforced in the presence of another stimulus or situation. Stimulus discrimination occurs when the probability of the behavior is different in the presence of two different stimuli or situations. Thus, in stimulus generalization an individual makes the same response to two different stimuli. In stimulus discrimination, an individual makes a different response to two different stimuli. Any example illustrating the difference is acceptable.

3.

Unlearned stimulus generalization occurs when a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of one stimulus or situation as a result of having been reinforced in the presence of another stimulus or situation. The more similar the two stimuli (or situations) are, the more stimulus generalization there will be. For example, an infant learns to say “doggie” to a large, hairy, four-legged creature with floppy ears and a friendly bark. Later, the infant sees a different kind of large dog and says “doggie.” Stimulus generalization might also occur from one stimulus to another because we have learned that the two stimuli are members of a stimulus common-element class—a set of stimuli that have some physical characteristic in common. For example, because of learning, we can recognize red objects even though the specific objects are very different in many respects.

4.

With stimulus generalization involving a stimulus common-element class, the stimuli to which generalization occurs have at least one physical characteristic in common with the original SD. With stimulus generalization involving an equivalence class, the members of the equivalence class are physically different from one another.

5.

With unlearned response generalization due to physical similarity, a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of a situation as a result of a physically similar behavior having been strengthened in that situation. For example, if you learn a forehand shot in racquetball, you could likely show response generalization due to physical similarity and perform a forehand shot in squash.

6.

With response generalization due to minimal physical similarity of responses, a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of a situation because that behavior has a characteristic in common with another behavior that has occurred in that situation. For example, when a child learns to add “s” to the end of words pertaining to an object in order to express plurality, the child will likely show response generalization and add “s” to describe several examples of a new object.

7.

With learned response generalization due to functionally equivalent responses, a response is likely to occur because you have learned that it will produce the same consequence as a different response. If you are asked to pass a message along to a friend, for example, you might send that person an email, call them on the phone, send them a letter, etc.

63 ..

8.

The training situation is the situation in which a behavior is initially strengthened. The target situation is a situation to which we want the behavior to generalize.

9.

(a) Stimulus generalization. For example, the children who were taught to respond correctly to a stranger’s lures in the school yard also responded correctly when approached by strangers in the community. (b) Response generalization. This would take place if, for example, improvement of articulation of specific words in a clinical setting led to improvement in the articulation of untreated words in that setting. (c) Behavior maintenance. For example, in the study of self-protection skills to children, two of the three children continued to respond correctly to stranger’s lures twelve weeks after the study.

10.

Stimulus generalization was demonstrated in the program on teaching self-protection to children in that some children responded correctly to a stranger’s lures in a community setting even though they had not been trained to do so in that setting. Behavior maintenance was demonstrated in two of the three children in that they continued to respond appropriately to stranger’s lures twelve weeks after training. Response generalization was not demonstrated in the study.

11.

(a) Make the training situation as similar as possible to the test situation, and if possible, train in the test situation. (b) Vary the conditions of training so that the target behaviors are brought under the control of a greater variety of stimuli. (c) Program common stimuli deliberately by developing the target behavior to specific stimuli that are present in both the training and test situations. (d) Train sufficient stimulus exemplars to ensure generalization. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

12.

All four of the strategies for programming stimulus generalization appear to capitalize on stimulus generalization due to physical similarity. In all four strategies, a response is likely to generalize to a target situation because some aspect of the target situation is similar to the training situation.

13.

In the example of teaching self-protection of children to stranger’s lures, Stan might have been taught the rule, “If someone approaches me whom I don’t know, I should tell them that I have to go to my teacher and then run to the school building.” Rehearsal of this rule when Stan is approached by strangers in novel settings might increase the likelihood that Stan will show stimulus generalization and will resist the stranger’s lure. The general factor is that of “programming common stimuli.”

14.

To help her to land her double axel consistently at both practices and competitions, she said the word “easy” just before stepping onto her take off foot, as a prompt to control the speed of the takeoff.

15.

In general case programming, a teacher identifies a range of relevant stimulus situations to which a learner will be expected to respond, and the response variations that might be required. During training, the learner’s behavior (and acceptable variations) are brought under the control of samples of the range of relevant stimuli. For example, to teach a student driver proper behavior at all 4-way stops, the teacher should expose the student driver to all possible 4-way stop situations (i.e., in different locations, etc.) and require appropriate behavior from the student.

16.

(a) Train sufficient response exemplars to ensure response generalization. (b) Vary the responses that are acceptable during training to increase the probability of a variety of responses occurring in the test situation. (c) Capitalize on behavioral momentum. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

64 ..

17.

Behavioral momentum is a momentary increase in the probability of some response occurring as a result of one or more functionally equivalent responses having been reinforced. For example, to increase the probability that a child will follow an instruction that the child normally does not follow, it is often effective first to give the child an instruction that the child is likely to follow, and to reinforce compliance with that instruction.

18.

In a behavioral trap, reinforcers in the natural environment maintain a behavior that was initially developed by programmed reinforcers. For example, during mealtimes, if you use extra reinforcers to teach a child to respond appropriately when somebody at the table asks the child to “Please pass me the (an item such as salt),” then once the passing behavior has been established, it is likely to be maintained by the requestor saying “thank you” after the child responds to the request.

19.

(a) Try to ensure that the target behavior comes under the control of reinforcers in the natural environment, perhaps involving behavioral trapping. (b) Teach people in the natural environment to maintain the target behavior of the subject. (c) Reinforce the target behavior in the test situation on an intermittent schedule of reinforcement in order to make it more persistent. (d) Teach the individual behavioral self-control to maintain the target behavior in the natural environment, perhaps by teaching the individual how to recruit reinforcement from others for emitting the target behavior. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

20.

When programming for generality of operant behavior, we often want the behavior to occur to new stimuli (stimulus generalization), we want improvements to transfer to related behaviors (response generalization), and we want the behavior to be maintained over time.

For most treatments involving respondent conditioning, however, we are typically concerned only with maintenance of a conditioned reflex over time. For example, in the example in the text in which adults suffering from chronic constipation were conditioned to have a bowel movement at a particular time of day as a CS, it would have been very inconvenient if bowel movements generalized to a variety of different times (stimulus generalization) or if there was an increase in a variety of bowel movements such as diarrhea (response generalization). Rather, they were simply concerned with maintaining that particular time of day as a CS for a bowel movement.

21.

(a) For example, a child is taught to say “Isn’t this fun?” at family gatherings, and then says it at a family funeral. (b) For example, a child is taught to use swear words when playing with friends on the street, and then emits those swear words when talking to grandma and grandpa.

22.

Any plausible example is acceptable, such as the case of a young child who, after getting his own way with his parents by yelling in a restaurant, yells even more loudly the next time they are in a restaurant.

23.

Sometimes individuals fail to program for desirable generalization.

24.

For example, some parents of a young child might ignore their child’s temper tantrums at home, but they give into the tantrums if they occur in stores or restaurants (perhaps because they don’t want to seem like mean parents), thereby failing to program for stimulus generalization of desirable behaviors.

65 ..

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Welch and Pear found that developmentally disabled children showed better stimulus generalization for naming objects in their natural environment when they were trained with the objects rather than with pictures or photographs of the objects. It might be argued that this exemplifies the third rule for programming stimulus generalization, namely program common stimuli, in that the objects were present in both the training environment and in the test setting. However, it also might be argued that this is an example of the first rule for programming stimulus generalization, training in the target situation, in that the actual object to be named was the target stimulus.

2.

One meaning of behavioral momentum is that, as a result of some responses being emitting and reinforced, the probability of other functionally equivalent responses occurring momentarily increases. A second way in which behavioral momentum has been used is to refer to the fact that the more reinforcement that occurs in a given situation in which a response is reinforced, the more resistance to disruption that response will be in that situation.

3.

Suppose that a person with developmental disabilities had been taught to restock a salad bar in a fast food restaurant. Suppose, further, that this individual tended to stop working each time a customer entered the restaurant. Providing extra reinforcement to that individual’s training program should produce behavioral momentum, and influence that individual’s work behavior to be more resistant to the disruptive effects of customers entering the restaurant. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

66 ..

CHAPTER 17 ANTECEDENT CONTROL: RULES AND GOALS Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

A rule describes a three-term contingency of reinforcement (antecedents, behavior, consequences). For example, the statement by a parent to a child, “If you do your homework from 6 to 7 P.M., then you can watch TV,” is a rule. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2.

The skater said to herself, “If I take it one step at a time, and if I focus on the things that I do when I’m skating well at practices, I will skate well here.”

3.

It is likely that following the rule by the children is not reinforced, and emitting behavior contrary to the rule is reinforced and/or not punished. Other plausible answers are also acceptable.

4.

A partial rule would be “Look both ways!” The antecedent (crossing the street) and the consequence (to avoid getting hit by a vehicle) are implied. The behavior is to look both ways, which is identified.

5.

Contingency-shaped behavior is behavior that has been strengthened by immediate consequences. For example, a person might learn to drink coffee after it has cooled off rather than when steam is rising from the cup, through trial and error. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

6.

Rule-governed behavior is behavior that is controlled by the statement of a rule. For example, if someone tells you, “Don’t drink that coffee for 3 or 4 minutes until it cools off,” and if you wait for a few minutes before drinking the coffee, your behavior is rulegoverned. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

7.

Contingency-Shaped Behavior a. Strengthened by immediate consequences a. Typically strengthened gradually through trial and error

Rule-Governed Behavior b. Frequently involves delayed consequences b. Frequently occurs on the first opportunity after the rule is presented

8.

Students can give any two plausible examples of direct acting reinforcers and any two plausible examples of indirect acting reinforcers with respect to their behavior. The direct acting reinforcers should immediately follow the specified behaviors, the indirect acting reinforcers should be delayed (by at least 30 seconds) following the specified behaviors.

9.

(a) When rapid behavior change is desirable; (b) when consequences that one might provide for a behavior are too delayed to directly reinforce that behavior; (c) when one would like to maintain a behavior for which natural reinforcers are immediate but highly intermittent; and (d) when a specific behavior will lead to immediate and severe punishment, and therefore some alternative behavior is desired. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

67 ..

10.

(a) Although the reinforcer identified in a rule might be delayed for an individual, other people might provide immediate consequences if the individual follows (or does not follow) the rule. (b) An individual might follow a rule and then immediately make reinforcing statements to him or herself. (c) Because of our history of being punished for failing to follow rules with deadlines, rehearsal of the deadline may cause us to feel anxious, and responding to a rule to beat the deadline will then make us feel a lot better (through escape conditioning). Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

11.

When individuals give us instructions, the content of the instructions usually determines our instruction-following behavior. But sometimes the tone of voice of the person giving the instructions provides a context that will determine whether or not we will do as they say.

That’s because people who give instruction in a pleasant tone of voice are more likely to positively reinforce compliance. We are less likely to follow the instructions given in a neutral or harsh tone (although possible punishment contingencies operating in the latter case may cause us to follow the instructions, if the person giving them is in a position to administer such punishment).

12.

There are two reasons. First, there may be immediate mild punishers for wearing a helmet (e.g., it may be hot and uncomfortable). Second, rules are very ineffective if they identify a behavior that has a low probability of being associated with consequences.

13.

There are two reasons. First, there are immediate consequences for behavior that are incompatible with the behavior specified by the rule (e.g., extra deserts are very reinforcing and flossing one’s teeth is likely to be mildly aversive). Second, the consequences for complying with the rule are too small to be effective on any one instance, and are only cumulatively significant (it takes many extra deserts to have hazardous health effects, and many missed instances of flossing one’s teeth to be harmful).

14.

Rules that describe specific circumstances and deadlines for specific behavior that will lead to sizeable and probable outcomes are often effective, even when the outcomes are delayed.

On the other hand, rules that describe behavior and the circumstances for it vaguely, that do not identify a deadline for the behavior, and that lead to small or improbable consequences for the behavior are often ineffective.

15.

A goal describes a level of performance towards which an individual or group should work.

For an example of a behavioral goal, a student might set a goal of studying two hours each day. For an example of an outcome goal, a person might set a goal of losing 2 pounds in a week.

16.

No. Goal setting is essentially rule-governed control over behavior. Most goals might be viewed as partial rules in that they typically identify the desired behavior, while the circumstances and consequences are usually implied.

17.

Any 6 of the following: (a) Specific goals are more effective than vague goals; (b) goals with respect to learning specific skills should include mastery criteria; (c) goals should identify the circumstances under which the desirable behavior should occur; (d) realistic, challenging goals are more effective than “Do your best” goals; (e) public goals are more effective than private goals; (f) goal setting is more effective if deadlines are included; (g) goal setting plus feedback is more effective than goal setting alone; and (h) goal setting is most effective when individuals are committed to the goals.

18.

A mastery criterion is a specific guideline for performing a skill such that if a guideline is met, the skill is likely to be mastered. For example, a mastery criterion for shooting foul shots in basketball might be to make 10 in a row.

68 ..

19.

If you set a specific goal for an individual, you are more likely to consistently provide backup reinforcers for meeting that goal than when you simply tell someone to “Do your best.”

The reason is that, with a specific goal, you and the individual will agree on whether or not the goal has been met. But you may not always agree that the individual has done their best, and may therefore be less likely to reinforce that person’s behavior in such situations.

20.

Public goals may be more effective than private goals because public goals result in a public standard against which performance can be evaluated, and they imply social consequences for achieving or not achieving the goals.

21.

Commitment refers to statements or actions by the learner that indicate that the goal is important to the learner, that the learner will work toward it, and that the learner recognizes the benefits of doing so.

Answers to Study Question on N&ED Section 1.

Five rules that are part of behavioral sleep therapy include: (1) exercising regularly, but not in the late evening; (2) relaxing before going to bed; (3) not consuming caffeine or alcohol in the late evening; (4) going to bed only when feeling tired; (5) if not tired within 10 minutes of going to bed, leave the bedroom and read a book until sleepy.

69 ..

CHAPTER 18 ANTECEDENT CONTROL: MODELING, GUIDANCE, AND SITUATIONAL INDUCEMENT Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Modeling is a procedure whereby a sample of a given behavior is demonstrated to an individual to induce that individual to engage in a similar behavior. With James, the therapist modeled the behavior of “feeling the soles of his feet,” smiling, and then walking away from the situation.

2.

(a) Arrange for peers (of the person to be influenced) to be models; (b) Model both the behavior and its consequences; (c) Use more than one model; and (d) Combine modeling with rules.

3.

Any two appropriate examples are acceptable. For each example, students should indicate which of the following were present: (a) Were peers used as models? (b) Did the model show both the behavior and its consequences? (c) Were multiple models used? and (d) Were both modeling and rules involved?

4.

Symbolic modeling is the presentation of modeling scenes through film, videotape, and other media. Symbolic modeling that might teach a child to fear snakes probably occurs naturally as a result of the child watching various jungle films or horror films. For example, if a child watches actors jumping back and screaming at the sight of a snake, the child is likely to model that behavior if a snake is ever encountered.

5.

Any appropriate modeling procedure is acceptable, such as the following: Have the child observe a model (either in vivo or symbolic) who initially exhibits extreme withdrawal (of course, “withdrawal” has to be precisely defined). Next, the model begins to gradually interact with other children (the desired behavior) and is strongly reinforced (e.g., by peers, adults, etc.) for doing so.

6.

The therapist: (a) modeled appropriate phrases; (b) instructed the client to practice similar behavior; (c) reinforced successive approximations to the desired behavior (e.g., saying “That was better,” when the client expressed himself better).

7.

In behavior rehearsal, a client plays a role that enables him or her to practice particular behaviors in a practice setting, in order to increase the likelihood that those behaviors will occur appropriately in the real world. In the example in the text, a client rehearsed the behavior of asking for a date in the presence of the therapist.

8.

Physical guidance: applying physical contact to guide someone through the appropriate behavior. Differs from gestural prompting in that the latter does not involve physical contact.

9.

Any appropriate example involving physical guidance, plus a brief description of how guidance was involved.

70 ..

10.

Generalized imitation - after having been reinforced for imitating a number of behaviors, an individual emits a completely new behavior, without reinforcement, the first time that the behavior is modeled. For example, using prompting, shaping, fading, and reinforcement procedures, a child might be taught to imitate several behaviors (such as raising the left arm) when the teacher says, “Do this.” Generalized imitation would be demonstrated if the child then correctly imitated a new response (such as tapping the arm of a table) the first time it was modeled, even though that response had not been previously reinforced.

11.

“Situational inducement” involves influencing a particular behavior by using situations and occasions that already exert control over the behavior. A close synonym is “environmental prompting.”

12.

Rearranging the surroundings; moving the activity to a new location; relocating people; changing the time of the activity.

13.

Any four appropriate examples that are not from the text.

14.

(a) Rearrange the surroundings; (b) rearrange the surroundings; (c) relocate people; (d) change the time of the activity; (e) move the activity to a new location. In each case, it should be indicated why that category is appropriate.

15.

(a) Positive reinforcement; (b) fading and shaping.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Bandura defined observational learning (also called vicarious learning) as the increase or decrease of an observer’s behavior that is similar to that of a model, as a result of watching a model’s behavior be reinforced or punished.

2.

(a) Other people’s actions become SDs for engaging in similar actions (because the response of imitating often results in reinforcement); (b) other people’s actions are often paired with reinforcement for us, so that those actions acquire conditioned reinforcing properties; hence, we may receive conditioned reinforcement when we perform the same actions; (c) individuals may learn (perhaps by the above processes) to imitate simple responses; later, they can imitate more complex responses, which are composed of these simple responses; (d) imitative behavior is (in itself) an operant class that can be learned. That is, reinforcement for imitating some behaviors increases the probability of imitating in general.

Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

71 ..

CHAPTER 19 ANTECEDENT CONTROL: MOTIVATION Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Many people who are not behaviorists or behavior modifiers conceptualize motivation as some “thing” inside us that causes our actions. For example, Brittany’s hockey coach says that she is highly motivated because she puts forth a great effort at practice, shows up on time, and is eager to practice more than the other players. The coach is conceptualizing motivation as the cause of Brittany’s behavior.

2.

A conceptual limitation of the traditional view of motivation is that it involves circular reasoning. The causal “thing” (drive, motivation, etc.) is inferred from the behavior that it is supposed to explain (e.g., Why does Brittany put forth a lot of effort at hockey practice?

Because she is a motivated player. How do we know she is a motivated player? Because she puts forth a great effort.).

3.

(a) The idea that the cause of our behaviors is within us may cause us to ignore the behavioral principles for changing behavior and the data that supports the effectiveness of those behavioral principles; (b) it may influence some people to blame individuals for inferior performances (e.g., “Shawn is just not motivated enough to play baseball”), vs. trying to help individuals improve their performance; (c) it may influence some to blame themselves for failure to emit certain behaviors (e.g., “I am just not motivated enough to get an A+ in this course”) rather than examining self-management strategies for improving performance.

4.

Rules, goals, modelling, guidance, and situational inducement.

5.

Motivating operations (MOs) are events or operations that (a) temporarily alter the effectiveness of consequences as reinforcers or punishers (value-altering effect), and (b) influence behaviors that normally lead to those reinforcers and punishers (behavioraltering effect). For example, depriving someone of food increases the effectiveness of food as a reinforcer and increases the likelihood of behaviors that have produced food in the past.

6.

Motivating establishing operations (MEOs) increase the effectiveness of a consequence as a reinforcer and increase behavior that has produced that consequence. Motivating abolishing operations (MAOs) decrease the effectiveness of a consequence as a reinforcer and decrease behavior that has lead to that consequence.

7.

The value-altering effect of a UMO is innate. For example, deprivation of food is a UMO that increases the effectiveness of food as a reinforcer without prior learning. The behavioraltering effects of a UMO are learned. For example, when someone is hungry, the behaviors of looking in the refrigerator or going to a fast food outlet are learned.

8.

The value-altering effect of a CMO is learned. For example, Coach Dawson’s announcement of the points program for the basketball players established points as conditioned reinforcers because of prior learning. The behavior-altering effects of CMOs are learned. For example, the hard work of the basketball players and the praising of each other were learned behaviors that occurred as a result of the CMO.

9.

The explanation of the points program by Coach Dawson was a CMO. It established the points as reinforcers and it influenced the players to work for points, both because of prior learning.

72 ..

10.

The football coach’s request to get the water is an SD because the players are already thirsty and want water. The coach’s request is a cue that tells the players what to do (go to the car) to get what they already want (water).

11.

The rule that the pianist sets for herself is more like a CMEO than an SD because the rule temporarily alters the value of the conditioned reinforcer of playing the piece without making a mistake, and increases practice behavior that will lead to that reinforcer.

12.

An echoic is a vocal imitative response that is typically reinforced by a social reinforcer. For example, when a mother is teaching her baby to say “Mama” she might say to her child, “Say Mama.” If later the child mimics “Mama,” the mother would praise the child by hugging him or her and saying “Yeah, that’s right, Mama!”

13.

A tact is a naming response that is typically reinforced by a social reinforcer. For example, a preschool teacher is teaching a student shapes and points to a square saying, “What’s that?” If the child answers correctly, “square,” he or she will be praised by the teacher.

14.

A mand is a verbal response that is under the control of a motivating operation, and is reinforced by the corresponding reinforcer (or removal of corresponding aversive stimulus).

A mand is a request or demand for something that a person “wants,” and the person is reinforced by receiving whatever it is that he/she wants. For example, a child who is very hungry and has limited speech says “food please,” and is given a snack. The child’s saying “food please” was a mand.

15.

For example, in teaching verbal behavior to a child with disabilities, training may begin with having the child mand for a reinforcer that has high motivational value (i.e., candy).

The child is given a piece of candy on the first trial and then in full view of the child, the teacher may hide the candy and ask the child “What do you want? Say candy.” If the child says “candy,” he is given another piece of candy. On subsequent trials, the teacher asks, “What do you want?” and reinforces asking for “candy.” It’s hoped that after a certain amount of such training, the child will generalize manding for “candy” to other situations (e.g., at the store, in the kitchen, etc.).

16.

The signs “Buckle Up Stay Safe” that were placed around the town of Pleasant Oaks were a CMO that increased the reinforcing value of wearing a fastened seatbelt, and increased the behavior of buckling up.

17.

Brenda’s staff introduced a schedule of non-contingent reinforcement in which they gave Brenda attention every 10 seconds. This served as an MAO for staff attention because it satiated Brenda on attention, and her self-injurious behavior that had been previously reinforced by attention immediately dropped to a low level.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Jack Michael.

2.

For example, not only does food deprivation increase the reinforcing value of food and lead to various food-seeking behaviors, it also increases the reinforcing value of water and increases the likelihood of water-seeking behavior.

3.

For example, amphetamines may function as UMAOs, decreasing the reinforcing effectiveness of food.

73 ..

4.

An intraverbal is a verbal response under the control of a preceding verbal stimulus, and there is no point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response. For example, an adult asks a child, “Where do you live?” and the child responds, “Winnipeg.”

An echoic is also a verbal response, but there is point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response. For example, if the adult says, “Say Winnipeg,” and the child responds correctly, “Winnipeg.”

74 ..

CHAPTER 20 BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT: INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

A target behavior is a behavior to be improved in a behavior modification program. For example, in the lead case in Chapter 3, the target behavior was Darren’s cooperative behavior towards his mother. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2.

Behavioral assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to identify and describe target behavior, identify possible causes of the behavior, select appropriate treatment strategies to modify the behavior, and evaluate treatment outcome.

3.

(a) A screening or intake phase, for clarifying the problem and determining who should treat it; (b) a pre-program assessment phase, to assess the behavior to determine its level prior to the introduction of a program, and to analyze the individual’s current environment to identify possible controlling variables of the problem behavior; (c) a treatment phase to bring about the desired behavior change; (d) a follow-up phase to evaluate the persistence of the desirable behavioral changes following termination of the program.

4.

The 5 functions of the intake phase are to: (a) determine if a particular agency is the appropriate one to deal with the individual’s behavior; (b) inform the client about the agencies or practitioners’ policies and procedures regarding service provision; (c) screen for the presence of a crisis condition; (d) gather sufficient information to diagnose the client; and (e) determine which behaviors should be baselined.

5.

The behavior modifier (a) assesses the target behavior to determine its level prior to the introduction of treatment, and (b) analyze the individual’s current environment to identity possible controlling variables of the behavior to be changed.

6.

The term training program is typically used in educational settings, and the terms therapy program and intervention strategy are typically used in community and clinical settings.

7.

The purpose of the follow-up phases is to determine whether the improvements achieved during treatment are maintained after the termination of the program.

8.

Defining target behaviors clearly, completely, and in measurable terms is an important prerequisite to the design of a behavior modification program.

9.

Direct assessment procedures involve direct observation and measurement of some aspect of a behavior as the behavior occurs. The concern is to produce a record of what a client is doing. With indirect assessment, the behavior modifier typically relies on a verbal description of the behavior of a student. The description may come from the client and/or others through interviews and/or formal questionnaires.

10.

(a) It may be impractical for you to observe your clients regularly in the situations in which the target behaviors occur; (b) Some clients may want to change some of their thoughts and feelings that others can’t observe.

75 ..

11.

Advantages of indirect assessment procedures: (a) they are convenient; (b) they don’t require a substantial amount of time; (c) they can be used to provide information about covert behaviors.

Disadvantages of indirect assessment procedures: (a) the person providing the information may not remember the observations accurately; (b) the person providing the information might have particular biases that would influence that individual to provide inaccurate data.

12.

Interview with the client and significant others, questionnaires, role-playing, information from consulting professions, and client self-monitoring.

13.

(a) Life history questionnaires: these provide background data such as work, sexual, and educational histories. (b) Problem checklists: these have the client indicate which problem applies to him or her among detailed lists of problems. (c) Survey schedules: these are designed to provide specific information needed to implement a particular program with a client (e.g., the reinforcement survey shown in Chapter 2 is useful in applying positive reinforcement procedures). (d) Third party rating scales: these are used by a therapist to ask significant others or professionals involved with a client to indicate on a checklist the frequency and/or quality of certain behaviors that the client may emit.

14.

The main advantage of direct assessment procedures is that they are likely to be more accurate than indirect assessment procedures. The disadvantages are: (a) they are timeconsuming; (b) they require that observers be appropriately trained; and (c) they cannot be used to monitor covert behaviors.

15.

(a) An accurate behavioral assessment provides a description of the problem that will help the behavior modifier to decide whether or not he or she is the appropriate one to design a treatment program; (b) an accurate Baseline will sometimes indicate that what someone thought was a problem is actually not a problem;(c) the initial assessment process often helps the behavior modifier to identify possible causes of the problem behavior and the best treatment strategy; (d) accurate baseline data provides means for clearly determining whether the program has produced or is producing the desired change in behavior; (e) publicly posted results can be both prompts and reinforcers for the behavior modifier for carrying out a program; (f) the displayed data may lead to improvements apart from any further treatment program.

16.

Assuming that the procedure was not working, when in fact it was. Careful assessment of collected data enabled Dr. Caldwell to point out to the mother that the behavior has decreased from a baseline of 123 door slams to 87 door slams during the first three days of the program.

17.

Assuming that a procedure is working, when in fact it is not. Harris et al. used the data collected to convince the teachers that the level of pinching during the initial program was at the same level as during baseline.

18.

Reactivity refers to the observation that displayed data of the behavior of an individual may lead to improvements in that behavior apart from any further treatment program. That is, when people know their behavior is being observed, their observed behavior may change.

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

76 ..

19.

A chart was prepared showing a picture of a rabbit moving toward a carrot patch. With days depicted across the bottom and the amount of time spent in the cloakroom up the side of the chart, decreases in time spent in the cloakroom by the child were signified by moving the rabbit down the green grass on the chart toward the carrot patch at the bottom.

20.

Each of the authors kept daily records of the number of pages written when working on books. Trollope and Hemingway also kept track of the number of words written daily. While Trollope recorded his output in a diary, Hemingway and Wallace maintained charts of their output. In all three cases, their daily self-recordings helped to maintain their work output at what they considered to be reasonable levels.

21.

A behavioral approach assumes that performance on a checklist is a sample of a person’s response to specific stimuli. Traditional approaches view test performance as a sign of an enduring, intrapsychic trait, or person variable.

22.

Behavioral Goals of Assessment 1. To identify behavioral excesses or deficits

Traditional Goals of Assessment 1. To diagnose or classify individuals

2. To identify causes of current problem behaviors

2. To identify intrapsychic or trait causes of behavior

23.

Methods of Traditional Assessment Direct assessment is impossible (by definition)

Methods of Behavioral Assessment Preference for direct observation of specific behaviors

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

To provide information necessary to design effective interventions for remediating behavioral deficits or excesses in specific situations with individual athletes.

2.

Unlike traditional psychological tests, behavioral checklists do not have norms and they are not designed to measure character or personality traits.

77 ..

CHAPTER 21 DIRECT BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO RECORD AND HOW Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Topography refers to the form or specific movements involved in a particular response. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2.

Frequency and duration.

3.

Frequency: the number of instances of a behavior that occur in a given period of time, such as the frequency of foul shots in a basketball practice.

4.

The four mentioned in the text are: (a) Have a helper record the data; (b) Use a wrist counter; (c) Transfer beads from one pocket to another; (d) Use an electronic calculator.

Other plausible examples are also acceptable.

5.

Consecutive data points on the cumulative graph would correspond to the following numbers on the vertical axis: 3, 10, 29, 29, 29, 29, 56, 68, 80, 86.

6.

Differences that might be mentioned: (a) Each point on a cumulative graph indicates the sum of all the data obtained up to and including that point, whereas each point on a frequency graph indicates only the data obtained at that point; (b) Each point on a cumulative graph can never be lower than the corresponding point on a frequency graph; (c) A cumulative graph can never decrease, whereas a frequency graph can; (d) Changes in rate of behavior are indicated by changes in the slope of the line connecting data points on a frequency graph; (e) The vertical scale on a cumulative graph must necessarily be smaller than that for the corresponding frequency graph.

7.

(a) A high rate (or frequency); (b) a low rate; (c) a zero rate.

8.

(a) Successive occurrences of the given behavior are relatively distinct and easy to count; (b) the amount of time it takes to perform the behavior is relatively similar from one occasion to the next.

9.

The relative duration of a behavior is the length of time the behavior occurs within some period. For example, duration is more appropriate than frequency when measuring how long a child is attentive to a story being read by the teacher. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

10.

Force. For example, force is measured in various sporting events, such as inferring force from the amount of weight that is lifted in a weightlifting competition.

11.

Stimulus control refers to the degree of correlation between a stimulus and a response. For example, if a driver always stops at an intersection when the traffic light shows red, then the red light exerts good stimulus control over the behavior of stopping.

78 ..

12.

Imitation, position discrimination, visual discrimination, visual match-to-sample discrimination, auditory discrimination, and auditory-visual combined discrimination.

13.

When assessing Level 4 of the ABLA, a client is allowed to view a yellow can and a red box in randomized left-right positions, and is presented sequentially with either a yellow cylinder or red cube. Stimulus control is demonstrated when the client consistently places the yellow cylinder in the yellow can and the red cube in the red box.

14.

To assess ABLA Level 6, a client is presented with a yellow can and a red box in randomlyalternated left-right positions, and is given a non-matching object. Stimulus control is demonstrated if the client puts the object in the appropriate container when the tester randomly says “red box” or “yellow can.”

15.

Latency refers to the amount of time an individual takes to begin to respond to a particular stimulus after it is presented. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

16.

Topography, amount, intensity, stimulus control, and latency can all be used to assess quality in that a “good” response is a somewhat arbitrary designation of one or more of the other characteristics. In terms of topography, a figure skating jump that is landed on one foot is considered better than one that is landed on two feet. With respect to frequency, a student who shows a high frequency of studying and answering test questions correctly is likely to be considered as a better student than one who shows a low frequency of such behaviors. Similar examples might be given for the other characteristics.

17.

Continuous recording is recording every instance of a particular behavior during a specified time segment, for example, counting each instance that a person swears during a one-hour interval. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

18.

With interval recording, a behavior is recorded as either occurring or not occurring during short intervals of equal duration (e.g., intervals of 10 seconds) during the specified observation period (e.g., 30 minutes). With partial interval recording, the target behavior is recorded a maximum of once per interval regardless of how many times the behavior occurs during each interval and regardless of the duration of the behavior. With whole interval recording, the target behavior is recorded as occurring during an interval only if it persists throughout the entire interval.

19.

A continuous recording system is commonly used when successive responses are quite similar in duration.

20.

One would likely select an interval recording system over a continuous recording system if successive responses are of variable duration.

21.

Any appropriate example in which the observation time is scored as occurring or not occurring during very brief observation intervals, each of which is separated from the others by some longer period of time. For example, a parent might check whether or not a child is watching TV by observing the child for a few seconds each hour on the hour throughout a day.

22.

With momentary time-sampling, a special case of time-sampling, a behavior is recorded as occurring or not occurring at specific points in time, such as every hour on the hour, rather than during specific brief intervals.

79 ..

23.

(a) Response definition might be vague, subjective or incomplete; (b) the behavior might be difficult to detect because it is very subtle or complex, or because of distractions or other obstructions to the observing process in the observational situation; (c) the observer might be poorly trained, unmotivated, biased, or generally incompetent; (d) data sheets might be poorly designed; and (e) recording procedures might be cumbersome.

24.

Interobserver reliability refers to the amount of agreement between independent observers (i.e., observers who do not influence each others’ judgments) on the occurrence of specific instances of a particular behavior.

25.

IOR =

26.

80–100%; “by convention” means that it is an arbitrary but generally accepted standard.

x 100% = 32% 7 7 + 15

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Observations are obtrusive when the observational method affects the behaviors being observed. Observations are unobtrusive when the observational method does not cause those being observed to deviate from their typical behavior.

2.

When very few instances of the behavior have been recorded. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

3.

It would occur when one is interested in decreasing a behavior, because then one would like to have agreement that the behavior did not occur.

80 ..

CHAPTER 22 DOING RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

A screening or intake phase for clarifying the problem and determining who should treat it; an assessment phase for determining the causes of the problem behavior and the initial level of the behavior prior to the program; a treatment phase, in which the intervention strategy is initiated; and a follow-up phase in order to evaluate the persistence of the desirable behavior changes following termination of the program.

2.

In any program where a treatment phase is introduced to modify some behavior, it is quite possible for some uncontrolled variable or influence to occur concurrently with the treatment such that the change in behavior is due to the uncontrolled variable rather than the treatment itself. A minimal behavior modification program does not enable one to conclude if the above has occurred.

3.

A minimal behavior modification program demonstrates that, during treatment, behavior improves as compared to baseline (and hopefully persists during follow-up). In behavior modification research, additional phases are conducted to demonstrate that the behavior improvement was indeed due to the particular treatment that was applied.

4.

The dependent variable is a measure of the behavior being studied or treated. For example, in Billy’s program, the dependent variable was his rate of correctly solving math problems.

5.

The independent variable is the treatment or intervention applied to bring about a change in the dependent variable. In Billy’s case, for example, the independent variable was the reinforcement of an extra minute of recess for each math problem correctly solved.

6.

A finding is said to be internally valid if the independent variable did, in fact, cause observed changes in the dependent variable.

7.

A finding is said to be externally valid to the extent that it can be generalized to other behaviors, individuals, settings, or treatments.

8.

(a) A baseline phase to determine the initial level of the behavior being studied; (b) a treatment phase in which the intervention strategy is first introduced; (c) a reversal phase in which the treatment is withdrawn and the baseline conditions are reinstated; and (d) replication of the treatment phase in which the treatment is once again applied, in order to confirm its effects as compared to the baseline and reversal phases. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

9.

Ideally, until the pattern of performance is stable or until it shows a trend in the direction opposite to that predicted when the treatment is introduced.

10.

(a) Baseline 1 is not stable; (b) Baseline 2 shows a trend in the same direction as that observed during the independent variable phase; a continuation of that trend cannot be reliably attributed to the independent variable; (c) Baseline 3 is too brief to allow conclusions about stability or trends to be drawn.

81 ..

11.

(a) Scientific: one might accept shorter baselines for dependent variables that have been thoroughly explored in other studies, than for dependent variables that might have received little or no consideration. (b) Practical: baselines might be shortened because of limitations on the time of the experimenter, availability of observers, availability of individuals being studied, etc. (c) Ethical: baselines of behaviors of critical importance to the individual might be lengthened or shortened for ethical reasons, such as shortening a baseline of selfabusive behavior because of potential harm that an extended baseline might cause to the subject.

12.

If a very large effect is observed when the independent variable is introduced, and if the area is one that has been explored before, then one replication may be sufficient. However, other combinations of factors might influence one to conduct several replications in order to convincingly demonstrate a cause-effect relationship.

13.

(a) Conducting a reversal might be undesirable for ethical reasons, if it might hinder the individual being studied; (b) it might not be possible to obtain a reversal. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

14.

It is not necessary to revert back to baseline conditions following the assessment of a treatment.

15.

First, a baseline is taken concurrently on two or more behaviors. Second, the treatment is introduced to one of the behaviors while the other behavior(s) continues on baseline. Third, the first behavior continues on treatment and the treatment is introduced to the second behavior. In this way, the design calls for the introduction of the treatment sequentially across two or more behaviors. An example is shown in Figure 22-3, or any other appropriate example is acceptable.

16.

(a) If two or more behaviors are not independent, so that the introduction of the treatment to one of the behaviors generalizes to the other behaviors that are still on baseline (which makes it impossible to conclude a cause-effect relationship between the treatment and the dependent variable); (b) if it is not possible to find two or more suitable behaviors; or (c) if there are insufficient observers to gather the necessary data on several behaviors.

17.

First, baseline a behavior of an individual across two or more situations. Second, introduce the treatment for that behavior in one of the situations while continuing the baseline on the behavior in the other situations. Third, continue with the treatment for the behavior in the first situation and apply the treatment to the behavior in the second situation. In this way, the design calls for the introduction of the treatment of a behavior sequentially across situations. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

18.

(a) When the introduction of the treatment to the behavior in one situation causes the behavior to improve in other situations (which makes it impossible to conclude a causeeffect relationship between the treatment and the dependent variables); (b) when the behavior occurs in only one setting; or (c) if there are insufficient observers to gather the necessary data.

19.

First, take a baseline of a particular behavior in two or more individuals. Second, introduce the treatment to the behavior on one person while continuing the baseline on the other(s).

Third, while continuing the treatment on the behavior of the first person, begin the treatment for that behavior with the second person as well. In this way, the treatment is introduced on a particular behavior sequentially across two or more individuals. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

82 ..

20.

(a) When the individuals involved might deliberately communicate or otherwise influence other individuals who are being baselined, and thereby cause each other to show a change in behavior prior to the introduction of the treatment program (which makes it impossible to conclude a cause-effect relationship between the treatment and the dependent variables); (b) when there is only one individual who shows the problem or target behavior; or (c) if there are insufficient observers available to monitor the behavior of all individuals.

21.

First, take a baseline of a behavior to be changed. For example, DeLuca and Holborn assessed a boy’s pedaling rate on a stationary bicycle during several 30-minute exercise sessions. Next, set a criterion for application of treatment. For example, DeLuca and Holborn reinforced the boy if the pedaling rate on the stationary bicycle increased approximately 15% above baseline. Third, introduce successive changes in the behavioral criterion for treatment. For example, in the DeLuca and Holborn study, each time the pedaling rate stabilized at the new level, the criterion for reinforcement was increased by approximately another 15%. In this way, if the behavior changes in a consistent direction each time a change is made in the criterion for application of the treatment, then we can conclude that the treatment was responsible for the change in behavior.

22.

(a) First, identify two different treatments to be compared. Second, identify a behavior that occurs at some frequency for which both increases and decreases in frequency of the behavior are possible. Third, apply the two separate treatments to the behavior in randomly alternating sessions. In this way, the effects of the treatment can be compared directly on a single behavior of a single individual. Any appropriate example is acceptable. (b) Multielement design. This name is sometimes preferred when two different treatments are applied to two different behaviors or “elements,” or when the conditions compared are not actually therapeutic treatments.

23.

The two treatments may interact; i.e., one of the treatments may produce an effect either because of a contrast to the other treatment in alternating sessions or because of generalization of treatment across conditions.

24.

Scientific criteria: those guidelines used to evaluate whether or not there has been a convincing demonstration that a particular treatment was responsible for producing a reliable effect on the dependent variable. Practical criteria: those subjective values used to judge whether or not a particular treatment has significantly improved the client’s life as judged by the personal satisfaction of the client or those responsible for caring for the client.

25.

In graph 3, the first treatment appears to be simple continuation of the trend observed in baseline. The effects of the reversal and second treatment do not sufficiently counteract this possibility. In graph 4, the baselines are not stable and there are many overlapping data points in the baseline and reversal phases as compared to each of the two treatment phases, so that one cannot reliably conclude that the treatment produced a significant change from the baselines. In graph 5, effects of the treatment are questionable because there is only one data point shown for each of the baseline conditions and the treatment conditions.

26.

(a) The greater the number of replications of an effect; (b) the fewer the overlapping data points between baseline and treatment phases; (c) the sooner effects are observed following introduction of a treatment; (d) the larger the effects observed when comparing treatment effects to baseline; (e) the more precisely the treatment procedures are specified; (f) the more reliable the response measures; and (g) the more consistent the findings with the existing data and accepted behavioral theory.

83 ..

27.

(a) To examine the extent to which target behaviors identified for treatment programs are really the most important for the client and/or society; (b) to examine the acceptability to the client of the particular procedures used, especially when alternative procedures can accomplish approximately the same results; (c) to ensure that the consumers (the clients and/or their caretakers) are satisfied with the results of treatment. These levels of social validation are important to ensure that behavior modifiers do the best job that they can in helping individuals function fully in society.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

(a) Single-case designs focus on repeated measurement of an individual’s performance across a number of sessions, and therefore provide potentially valuable information on individual variation in performance. Group designs, with their emphasis on the average performance of groups, typically gather data at a single point in time, and do not focus on continuous monitoring of individual clients over time. (b) Because experiments using single-case designs typically include three to five individuals, a researcher needs to locate only a few individuals with the same performance problem in order to evaluate an intervention. With group designs, it is often difficult to locate enough individuals with the same performance problem to form the different groups. (c) Because all individuals in a single-case design receive the intervention at one time or another, an applied researcher is not faced with resistance from clients (or their significant others) to participate in a notreatment control group. (d) Because single-case designs rely on replication logic rather than the sampling logic of the group design, they are not hampered by some of the assumptions required of group designs, such as the assumption that the dependent variable is normally distributed in the population, or that the samples are randomly selected.

84 ..

CHAPTER 23 FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE CAUSES OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

(a) What are the antecedents or the eliciting stimuli or the motivating operations of the behavior, and (b) what are the immediate consequences of the behavior?

2.

(a) Ask people familiar with the client a series of relevant questions to try and discover antecedents and consequences that control the client’s problem behavior (a questionnaire assessment); (b) Observe a client’s problem behavior in its natural settings and describe the antecedents and immediate consequences that occur (an observational assessment); (c) Experimentally assess which antecedents and consequences have a direct influence on the problem behavior of a client (an experimental functional analysis).

3.

Functional assessment refers to a variety of approaches for attempting to identify antecedents and consequences for behavior, while a functional analysis refers to the systematic manipulation of environmental events to experimentally test their role as antecedents or as consequences in controlling and maintaining specific problem behaviors.

4.

In Susie’s case, the staff directly compared the rate of Susie’s self-abusiveness under three conditions: (a) when it was followed by attention from well-meaning adults; (b) when it enabled Susie to escape from performing various tasks; and (c) when there were no programmed consequences. Susie’s self-abusiveness was highest when it allowed her to escape from a demand condition. The conclusion that her abusiveness was maintained by escape conditioning was confirmed through an escape extinction program. Instead of backing off from demands placed on Susie following instances of self-abuse, staff continued to require Susie to respond to the demands. Under these conditions, self-abuse decreased to near zero.

5.

(a) If the problem behaviors occur at low frequencies, experimental functional analysis requires a great deal of time before sufficient data can be obtained to draw valid conclusions; (b) it cannot be applied to extremely dangerous behaviors, such as suicide threats; (c) because they require a number of observational sessions, the expense and manpower requirements may be prohibitive.

6.

(a) Attention reliably follows the behavior; (b) the individual looks at or approaches a caregiver just before engaging in the behavior; and (c) the individual smiles just before engaging in the behavior.

7.

Each staff member pinned a card to his or her shirt or dress that was red on one side and green on the other. When the card was red staff would tell Lori that they were busy and couldn’t talk and quickly walk away. When the card was green, the staff would point it out to Lori and engage her in small talk. Lori quickly became under the stimulus control and engaged in “pestering” only when the staff member’s card was green.

8.

An indicator that a problem behavior is being maintained by self-stimulatory reinforcement is that the behavior continues unabated at a steady rate although it has no apparent effect on other individuals or the external environment.

85 ..

9.

Rincover and Devaney applied extinction to a face-scratching problem that was maintained by internal sensory positive reinforcement by eliminating the tactile sensations produced by the scratching. The young girl’s hands were covered each day with rubber gloves that did not prevent her from scratching, but eliminated sensory stimulation (and skin damage).

There was an immediate decrease in scratching rate (and it was eliminated in 4 days).

Follow up consisted of removing the gloves for 10 minutes a day, then for longer and longer periods of time until they were no longer needed.

10.

The behavior continues undiminished even though it appears to have no social consequences over numerous occasions. For example, in the case of the child who flushed jewelry down the toilet, she appeared to enjoy doing so even when she was all alone.

11.

(a) It may have been maintained because of external sensory positive reinforcement (i.e. the appearance of the jewelry swirling around the toilet bowl may have functioned as a sensory reinforcer). It may have been maintained as a link in a behavioral chain that was reinforced by the mother’s attention when the child told the mother about flushing the jewelry down the toilet. (b) The treatment procedure accounted for both possibilities in that it established a new chain that included taking jewelry and placing it in a jar in the kitchen (instead of flushing it down the toilet), which produced an audible tinkling sound as a sensory reinforcer, and the new chain was highly reinforced by the mother’s attention.

12.

The individual engages in the behavior only when certain types of requests are made of him or her. For example, Suzy was self-abusive when staff requested her to do things, but not when she was left alone. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

13.

(a) Remove the escape function of the behavior by continuing to place demands on the child until the child stops screaming; and (b) teach the child an alternative way of communicating (such as by hand raising) that the task is aversive and that she does not want to perform it.

14.

The behavior consistently occurs in a certain situation or in the presence of certain stimuli and is never followed by any clearly identifiable reinforcing consequence. An example might be an individual who consistently shows signs of nervousness when asked a question in a wide variety of settings and irrespective of the consequences of doing so. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

15.

For example, a child might repeatedly remove her shoes because they squeeze her toes too tightly.

16.

The main component in the treatment of Joel’s anger was counterconditioning. Joel was taught how to relax, and in a state of relaxation, a CS for anger from one of the several categories was presented. A second component was that, within each of several categories, the CSs that elicited anger were arranged in a hierarchy ranging from those that caused least anger to those that caused the most anger, and the CSs were counterconditioned in hierarchical order.

17.

Behavioral diagnostics is an approach to behavioral assessment in which the therapist diagnoses the problem after examining antecedents, consequences, and medical and nutritional variables as potential causes of problem behaviors. This concept is broader than functional assessment because it not only includes the external environment, but also internal medical factors.

86 ..

18.

Problem behaviors might be increased and maintained by: (a) attention from others (social positive reinforcement); (b) internal sensory positive reinforcement (positively reinforced self-stimulation); (c) escape from internal sensory events (self-stimulation maintained by escape conditioning, as discussed under medical causes of problem behaviors); (d) external sensory positive reinforcement (external environmental consequences); (e) escape from demands (social negative reinforcement); and (f) respondent conditioning (elicited problem behaviors).

Answer to Study Question on N&ED Section 1.

For example, it is important to know that non-contingent reinforcement as a strategy for decreasing a problem behavior is not likely to be effective if the problem has been maintained on a ratio-like schedule, and the non-contingent reinforcement rate is quite different from the reinforcement rate that maintained the problem behavior.

87 ..

CHAPTER 24 PLANNING, APPLYING, AND EVALUATING A BEHAVIORAL PROGRAM Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

On the basis of answers to such questions as: Will solving the problem lead to more positive reinforcement for the client or others? Will solving the problem likely stimulate other desirable behaviors, either directly or indirectly? If the problem is an undesirable behavior, does it usually lead to much immediate aversiveness for the client or others?

2.

Specifies component behavior(s) that can be assessed behaviorally and determines whether dealing with the component(s) will solve the problem to the satisfaction of the referring agent or agencies. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

3.

If the problem is an undesirable behavior, consider such factors as its stimulus control (narrow or broad), its schedule of reinforcement (degree of intermittency), the length of its history, and whether there are desirable behaviors that can replace it. The student should briefly explain each of them. If the problem is to teach a new behavior, does the client have the prerequisite skills?

4.

For the problem that the student describes, if it is an undesirable behavior to be decreased, the student should consider its stimulus control (narrow or broad), its schedule of reinforcement (degree of intermittency), the length of its history, and whether there are desirable behaviors that can replace it. If the problem is to teach a new behavior, does the client have the prerequisite skills? The answer to such questions will determine whether or not the problem will be easily manageable.

5.

Consider whether the improved behavior can be managed in the natural environment, whether it is possible to devise a special training setting that can be faded easily into the natural environment, whether there are natural contingencies that will likely maintain the behavioral objective after it has been achieved, whether the behavior modifier can change the people in the natural environment so that they will help maintain the desired behavior, and whether it is possible for the client to learn a self-control program.

6.

An answer of “no” to any of the 8 questions listed under the subsection “A Problem Has Been Referred: Should You Design a Program?” Student should list at least four of these, and state them in a way that indicates that the referral would not be accepted.

7.

An appropriate Baseline procedure should enable you to: (a) monitor the problem behavior, (b) identify its current stimulus control, (c) identify its maintaining consequences, (d) monitor relevant medical/health/personal variables, and (e) identify an alternative desirable behavior.

8.

(a) What daily times can the mediators schedule for this project? (b) Will others in the situation help or hinder data collection? (c) Will the surroundings make your assessment difficult? (d) How frequent is the problem behavior? (e) How rapidly should the behavior change? (f) Is the presenting problem a behavioral deficit or can it be reformulated as such?

88 ..

9.

(a) Is the description precise? (b) On what grounds was the goal chosen, and how is that in the client’s best interests? (c) Has the client been given all possible information about the goal? (d) Have steps been taken to increase the client’s commitment to accomplish the goal? (e) What are potential side effects of accomplishing the goal, for both the client and others? (f) Do the answers to the above questions suggest that you should proceed? If so, then continue.

10.

Rules, goal setting, modelling, physical guidance, situational inducement, and motivating operations.

11.

(a) Can you remove SDs for the problem behavior? (b) Can you withhold reinforcers that are maintaining the problem behavior, or present abolishing operations (MAOs) for those reinforcers? (c) Can you apply DRL to reduce the rate of the behavior to a low, but acceptable rate? (d) Can you apply DRO, DRI, or DRA?(e) Should punishment be used?

12.

Can you apply any of the following? i) training in the test situation ii) varying the training conditions iii) programming common stimuli iv) training sufficient stimulus exemplars v) establishing a stimulus equivalence class

13.

Can you apply any of the following? i) training sufficient response exemplars ii) varying the acceptable responses during training iii) using behavioral momentum to increase low probability responses within a response class

14.

Can you apply any of the following? i) using natural contingencies of reinforcement ii) training the people in the natural environment iii) using schedules of reinforcement in the natural environment iv) giving the control to the individual

15.

A behavioral contract provides a clear statement of what behaviors of what individuals will produce what reinforcers and who will deliver those reinforcers.

16.

A treatment contract is a written agreement between the client and behavior modifier that clearly outlines the objectives and methods of treatment, the framework of the service to be provided, and contingencies for remuneration that may be forthcoming to the therapist.

17.

(a) Does the client fully understand and agree with the goals of the program? (b) Is the client aware of how the program will benefit him or her? (c) Has the mediator spent sufficient time with the client so as to gain the client’s trust and confidence? (d) Has the program been designed so that the client will experience some success early? and (e) Will the client come into contact with reinforcers early in the program?

18.

Main points: Monitor the data, consult people who must deal with the behavioral handicap, and consult the behavioral journals and experienced behavior modifiers concerning related cases. (See guidelines 1, 2, and 3 under “Program Maintenance and Evaluation.”)

89 ..

19.

Answer the following questions and make the appropriate adjustment for any “yes” answer: (a) Have the reinforcers lost their effectiveness? (b) Are competing responses being reinforced? (c) Are the procedures being applied correctly? (d) Is there outside interference disrupting the program? (e) Are there any subjective variables (e.g., staff enthusiasm) that might be adversely affecting the program? If none of the answers is “yes,” then check to see if additional programming steps need to be added or removed. Another option is to consult with a colleague and to consider redesigning a major aspect of the program.

20.

Main points: Identify a strategy to maintain desired behavior and conduct follow-up observations and social validity assessments. (See guidelines 8 and 9 under “Program Maintenance and Evaluation.”)

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

In an urban setting, there are likely to be a number of behavior modifiers available to help clients. In a rural setting, however, although you might not be the ideal person to treat the problem, you may be the best person available.

2.

They introduced two groups of overweight children to a behavioral weight reduction program. At the end of the eight week treatment program, both groups of children had lost approximately the same amount of weight. However, after a one-year follow-up, the children whose parents had been introduced to the child management procedures showed better maintenance of improved weight status.

90 ..

CHAPTER 25 TOKEN ECONOMIES Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

A token is an object or symbol that can be accumulated and exchanged for goods and services.

2.

A token economy is a behavioral program in which a group of individuals can earn tokens for a variety of desirable behaviors, and can exchange the tokens earned for backup reinforcers.

3.

(a) They can be given immediately after a desirable behavior occurs and cashed in at a later time for a backup reinforcer. This helps to “bridge” long delays between the target response and a backup reinforcer that is difficult to present immediately after the behavior. (b) Tokens are generalized conditioned reinforcers and therefore do not depend on a specific motivating operation for their strength. This makes it easier to administer consistent and effective reinforcers when dealing with a group of individuals who may be in different motivational states.

4.

Classrooms, homes for pre-delinquents, prisons, in the military, in nursing homes (or any other appropriate settings).

5.

To decrease littering, increase recycling of wastes, increase energy conservation, decrease noise pollution, increase self-help behaviors in developmentally disabled persons (or any other appropriate behaviors).

6.

Achievement Place was designed to help boys from 10 to 16 years of age who were typically from difficult home environments and who had been referred by the courts for committing minor crimes such as petty theft and fighting.

7.

(a) Deciding on the target behaviors: these are the specific behaviors to be reinforced with tokens, and they depend on both the short range and the long range objectives for the individuals in the token economy and on the specific behavior problems that should be decreased with those individuals. (b) Taking baselines: one should obtain baseline data onthe specific target behaviors before initiating a token economy. (c) Selecting backup reinforcers: one must select backup reinforcers for the token system and also plan a simple store for aiding in dispensing them. (d) Selecting the type of tokens to use: the tokens to be used will depend mainly on the type of client involved and must be appropriate for the client who will participate in the token economy. (e) Identifying available help: it is desirable, and in the case of a large token economy, essential to have help from other individuals in implementing the token economy. Help may come from a variety of sources. (f) Choosing the location: the type of location chosen will depend on the specific needs of the particular token economy.

8.

Any three desirable behaviors and any three undesirable behaviors listed in Table 25-1.

9.

This is a place in which to keep backup reinforcers and from which they can be dispensed.

For example, the store in a classroom might be a box located on the teacher’s desk. In a large token economy in a mental institution, a store might occupy one or more rooms.

Other appropriate examples are also acceptable.

91 ..

10.

Tokens should be attractive, lightweight, portable, durable, easy to handle, and not easy to counterfeit.

11.

(a) Members of civic organizations and community action groups, friends and acquaintances, university students; (b) Volunteers (e.g., senior citizens); (c) Behaviorallyadvanced individuals within the institution where the token economy is being developed, teacher aides or teaching assistants or other workers who may be employees of the institution who could participate as part of their job; (d) the clients themselves.

12.

Helping to manage the token economy may be one way of mastering the behaviors that are influenced by the contingencies within the token economy. (Other appropriate answers are also acceptable.)

13.

(a) Students who master an assignment can help evaluate the performance of other students who subsequently mastered that assignment. (b) Another option is to give the students a test during the first part of the course, and those students who do well can be put in charge of a small group of students whom they can tutor.

14.

(a) Procedures for keeping data; (b) deciding who is going to administer reinforcement, and for what behaviors; (c) how often and how many tokens will be dispensed; (d) how backup reinforcers will be managed; (e) what punishment contingencies will be used, if any; (f) how staff in the token economy will be supervised; (g) how various problems that may arise will be handled; (h) preparing a manual.

15.

Advantages are that one person can then be held responsible for appropriate management of the token economy, and can become an “expert” at reinforcing that response.

Disadvantages are that there may be too much dependence on one person to carry out a particular job and that such a procedure may not be optimal for programming generalization of behavior. As described in Chapter 12, stimulus generalization will be enhanced if more than one stimulus exemplar is used. (Other appropriate answers are also acceptable.)

16.

Tokens should always be presented in a positive and conspicuous manner immediately following a desired response. Also, smiling approval should be administered at the same time the token is given, and the client should be told (at least in the initial stages) why he or she is receiving the token.

17.

Stainback et al. recommend that for classroom use, a teacher should have on hand about 100 tokens for a child when starting a token economy.

18.

They recommend that store time be held once or twice per day for the first three or four days.

19.

Any three of the following: (a) Confusion, especially during the first few days; (b) staff or helper shortages; (c) attempts by individuals to get tokens that they have not earned or backup reinforcers for which they do not have enough tokens; (d) individuals manipulating tokens in distractible ways; and (e) failure to purchase backup reinforcers.

92 ..

20.

(a) Gradually eliminate the tokens. This might be done by gradually making the schedule of token delivery more and more intermittent, or by gradually decreasing the number of behaviors that earn tokens, or by gradually decreasing the delay between the target behavior and token delivery; (b) Gradually decrease the value of the tokens. This might be accomplished by gradually decreasing the amount of backup reinforcement that a given number of tokens can purchase (i.e., programming inflation), or by gradually increasing the delay between token acquisition and the purchase of backup reinforcers.

21.

(a) Identify those behaviors that have come under the control of natural reinforcers; (b) identify those behaviors that have a long history of intermittent reinforcement under the token contingencies; (c) identify those behaviors that are less important and would not cause any lasting difficulties if the behavior is decreased during the token withdrawal stage.

22.

Make the system completely open to public scrutiny, provided that such openness is subject to the approval of clients or their advocates.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Each time a buzzer rang in the work setting, the workers marked an “X” on a sheet of paper if they were on-task. The buzzer rang at six random times during a half-day. When a worker earned six “X”s, they could be exchanged for a token. The tokens could be cashed in for items in the workshop cafeteria.

93 ..

CHAPTER 26 HELPING AN INDIVIDUAL TO DEVELOP SELF-CONTROL Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

For many people, “will power” seems to refer to some sort of a magical force within us that makes it possible to show self-restraint and refrain from behaviors that have immediate gratification (such as excessive eating), or to show an increase in behaviors (such as studying) that lead to delayed reinforcers. It does not appear to be a useful concept because the persons using it typically don’t tell us how we can get more of so-called will power.

(Other appropriate answers might also be acceptable.)

2.

For example, for many university students, the immediate reinforcer of fun with friends for excessive alcohol drinking wins out over the delayed punisher of a hangover.

3.

For example, the immediate reinforcer of the good taste for excessive eating of junk food often wins out over the delayed punisher of weight gain that occurs only from the cumulatively significant effects of excessive eating many times.

4.

For example, for many students, the immediate reinforcers of enjoyable scenes from spending time on Facebook win out over the delayed reinforcer of a good grade for the alternative behavior of studying.

5.

For example, the immediate small punishers (getting hot and sweaty and tired) from exercising often win out over reinforcers (e.g., being in good shape) that occur only after exercising many times.

6.

For example, the immediate small punishers (being hot and uncomfortable) from wearing a helmet while bicycle-riding might win out of over the improbable punisher of brain injury from a serious accident.

7.

For example, the immediate small punisher (such as the dentist’s drill hurting your teeth) for having a dentist repair you teeth often wins out over the delayed major punisher (your teeth fall out) if dental check ups do not occur.

8.

The model consists of doing something (emitting controlling behavior or applying techniques of behavior change) to increase the chances that you will do something else (change a behavior to be controlled, such as a problem behavior). Thus, the model involves emitting a controlling behavior to effect a change in a behavior to be controlled.

9.

We assume that the society in which we live teaches us various controlling behaviors such as setting goals for ourselves, giving ourselves reminders to meet those goals, and keeping track of our progress in doing so. If such controlling behaviors are successful, the natural consequences of success will maintain them.

10.

(a) Write out the goal; (b) make a list of the things that you should say or do that clearly indicate that you’ve met the goal; (c) given a number of people with the same goal, how would you decide who had met the goal and who hadn’t? (d) if your goal is an outcome, (rather than something that you do) such as achieving a certain weight, then make a list of specific behaviors that will help you to achieve that outcome.

94 ..

11.

Commitment refers to your statements or actions that indicate that it is important to change your behavior, that you will work toward doing so, and that you recognize the benefits of doing so.

12.

(a) Make your commitment public by reminding many people about your goal and your program; (b) arrange your environment to provide frequent reminders of your goal; (c) remind yourself often of the positive benefits of reaching your goal; (d) prepare a list of statements related to your investment of time and energy in your project, and use your statements about your investment to help maintain commitment; (e) plan ahead for various ways to deal with temptation.

13.

Any two of the following:(a) Give your friends control over some of your reinforcers (such as your spending money) and request them to return it to you only if you take data consistently; (b) frequently tell your friends about your self-modification project and ask them if they would like to see the data;(c) keep your recording chart or graph in an obvious place to increase the likelihood of feedback from friends; and (d) frequently tell your friends about your progress.

14.

For example, recording and graphing instances of repetitive scratching by a 52-year-old woman was sufficient to eliminate the scratching (and the unsightly lesions that occurred because of it). Any of the other cases described in the chapter are acceptable.

15.

Because Al ate in a wide variety of situations in which he encountered naturally reinforcing events, those natural reinforcers frequently immediately followed eating (although the relationship was accidental). For example, taking a bite of a potato chip while watching TV might be immediately followed by seeing something interesting or exciting. This might inadvertently reinforce eating of potato chips.

16.

(a) Instructions; (b) desirable behavior modelled by others; (c) physical guidance; (d) immediate surroundings or circumstances that prompt particular desirable behaviors; (e) the presence of other people who typically behave appropriately and desirably; (f) the time of day at which desirable behavior on your part is highly probable; (g) motivating operations.

17.

For example, to decrease his donut consumption when having coffee with Mary in the campus cafeteria, Al ate a couple of carrots before going to the cafeteria.

18.

A mastery criterion is a performance requirement for practicing a skill such that if the criterion is met, the skill has been learned. For example, a novice basketball player might practice shooting foul shots until she can make 5 in a row.

19.

For example, because of the effort in locating a water fountain throughout the day, David did not consume as much water as he would like. To solve the problem, he purchased a water bottle and carried water in the bottle with him during the day. His water consumption increased. This would be a motivating operation that decreased the punishing aspects of getting water.

20.

(a) Specify the problem; (b) make a commitment to change; (c) take data and analyze causes of the problem; (d) design and implement a program; and (e) prevent relapse and make it last.

95 ..

21.

(a) Eliminate certain reinforcers that may inadvertently strengthen a particular undesirable behavior in a particular situation; (b) self-record and self-graph the target behavior; (c) arrange for specific reinforcers to be earned for showing improvement or even for just sticking to the program.

22.

(a) Asking others to manage them for you; (b) reminding yourself of delayed natural reinforcers that will occur if you emit the target behavior; and (c) managing reinforcers yourself.

23.

If you decide that you will apply self-reinforcement in the sense that you will emit some behavior and then allow yourself to have a reinforcer, it is always possible for you to consume the reinforcer without emitting the behavior. Because of this possibility, some researchers have questioned the effectiveness of self-reinforcement. When it does seem to be effective, it is likely that other contingencies are operating.

24.

By relapse, in a self-control program, we mean going back to the unwanted behavior at approximately the same level it was at before the individual started the self-control program.

25.

(a) Failure to anticipate avoidable set-back situations where one is at risk for returning to earlier unwanted behavior patterns. The solution is to plan for such situations and to avoid them. (b) Failure to anticipate unavoidable set-back situations and to take steps to cope with them. These can be handled by anticipating such situations and preparing to deal with them in a reasonable manner. (c) Overreaction to occasional set-backs, such as quitting a self-control program altogether because of a set-back. These can be handled by treating them as occasional set-backs, setting new goals, and making a renewed commitment to stick with the program. (d) Counterproductive self-talk. This can be handled by identifying the types of self-talk that exacerbate a problem and may lead to a relapse, and planning alternative self-talk to take its place.

26.

(a) A fuzzy or vague target behavior. This can be handled by following the steps for “unfuzzifying” a target behavior as described in the self-control chapter. (b) Having a target behavior or goal that is too long term or delayed. This can be handled by setting up a series of short-term goals to provide progress checks toward the long-term goal. (c) Trying too much too soon. This can be handled by prioritizing one’s goals, and dealing with them in order of priority.

27.

(a) Failure to incorporate everyday rewards into programs. This can be solved by linking everyday natural reinforcers to aspects of the self-management program. (b) Failing to recognize that some consequences are only cumulatively significant. These might be handled by setting specific dates for meeting with a friend to monitor progress and to identify strategies to follow if progress is unfavorable.

28.

A behavioral contract is a clearly written statement of what behaviors in which individuals will produce what reinforcers, and who will deliver those reinforcers. It usually involves two or more people, although “self-contracts” have also been used. The essential features of a contract are: (a) a clear statement of the target behaviors and/or goals; (b) the method of data collection; (c) steps to manage antecedents and consequences; (d) a schedule of review for progress; and (e) signatures of all involved and the date of the agreement.

96 ..

29.

The SD functions of a contract help to: (a) ensure that all parties agree on the goals and procedures; (b) ensure that all parties agree throughout the program on how close they are to the goals; (c) provide a realistic estimate of the cost of the program in terms of time, effort, and money; (d) ensure that all parties who sign the contract will faithfully follow the specified procedures.

30.

Yes. Many people can learn how to take data, design a program, and apply behavior modification principles and techniques to many of their own problems.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Correspondence training is training that establishes a correspondence between what a person says he or she is going to do and what he or she does in fact do at a later time. It was demonstrated in kindergarten children by: (a) first teaching one group of children to play at the workbench after being prompted to say that this is what they were going to do; and (b) then showing that compared with a group that did not receive correspondence training, the group that received correspondence training showed more instances of following through on stated intentions to engage in another activity.

2.

Self-help manuals have been most successful for treating poor study habits, depression, parenting skills, social skills, and overcoming anxiety and fears. Self-help manuals have been less effective for treating alcohol drinking, smoking, and overeating.

97 ..

CHAPTER 27 COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY, SELF-DIRECTED COPING METHODS, AND ACT Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Cognitive processes refer to covert verbalizations and/or imagery that are frequently called “believing,” “thinking,” “expecting,” or “perceiving.”

2.

Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies.

3.

The first wave: Behavioral Approaches to Therapy The second wave: Cognitive-Behavior Therapy The third wave: Therapeutic approaches based on behavior analysis that incorporate concepts of “mindfulness,” “acceptance,” and “values”

4.

(a) Individuals interpret and react to events by forming cognitions (e.g., beliefs, expectations, attitudes) on the basis of the perceived significance of those events; (b) defective and maladaptive cognitions can cause emotional and behavioral disorders.

5.

Stated simply, cognitive therapists believe that faulty thinking is the cause of emotional and behavioral problems, and thus the primary focus of the cognitive approach to therapy is to help clients recognize and change faulty thinking.

6.

Cognitive restructuring refers to strategies for recognizing maladaptive thinking and replacing it with adaptive thinking.

7.

Rational-emotive therapy (developed by Ellis) involves three steps: (a) First, Ellis helps the client identify troublesome thoughts that are based on irrational beliefs, such as an individual thinking that he/she “always screws up.” (b) Second, in an argumentative and confrontational way, Ellis challenges the individual’s irrational thoughts that he believes are the source of problematic self-talk. (c) Third, the client is taught to replace the irrational thoughts (through modelling and homework assignments) with statements based on rational beliefs.

8.

Because he frequently gives behavioral “homework” assignments to clients.

9.

According to Beck, neurotic individuals engage excessively in aberrant, fallacious, dysfunctional thinking, and this is what causes their problems. Examples include dichotomous thinking, which is thinking in obsolete terms, such as assuming that one is a failure if one gets any grade less than an “A”; arbitrary inference, which is drawing a conclusion on the basis of inadequate evidence, such as misinterpreting a frown on the face of a passer-by to mean that the passer-by disapproves of him or her; overgeneralization, which is reaching a general conclusion on the basis of too few instances, such as assuming that a single failure means that one can not succeed at anything; and magnification, which is exaggerating the meaning or significance of a particular event, such as believing that it is catastrophic not to obtain something that one wants very badly. Any three appropriate examples are acceptable.

10.

(a) To have the client identify clearly dysfunctional thoughts that are causing the problem; (b) Once the debilitating thought has been identified, to use one or more of several methods to counteract the thought and alleviate the problem. A major technique is reality checking or hypothesis testing. If, for example, a client believes that everyone he meets turns away 98 ..

from him in disgust, the therapist might help him to devise a system for judging other people’s facial expressions and body language so that the client can determine objectively whether or not the thoughts behind his problem are indeed accurate. (c) Beck also uses behavioral homework assignments to develop various desirable daily activities.

11.

In terms of similarities, (a) both approaches assume that a client’s difficulty is caused by some type of inappropriate thought pattern, such as the client’s tendency to exaggerate unpleasant things; (b) both focus on changing a client’s irrational thinking; and (c) both use homework assignments involving some behavior modification procedures. The differences between Beck’s approach and Ellis’ RET are that (a) Beck does not emphasize the tendency for clients to exaggerate unpleasant things as much as Ellis does, (b) Beck takes a less confrontational approach than does Ellis to changing clients’ irrational beliefs; and (c) Ellis attempts to change irrational beliefs by disputing them aggressively with logical arguments, while Beck attempts to change the client’s irrational beliefs by using homework assignments to test them experimentally.

12.

Recent studies that have compared the use of behavioral homework assignments to behavioral homework assignments plus cognitive restructuring suggest that cognitive restructuring may not be a necessary component in the treatment of depression.

13.

(a) An adult demonstrates a simple task to a child while self-instructing and self praising; (b) the child performs the simple task while the adult instructs and praises; (c) the child performs the task while self-instructing and self-praising; (d) over several trials, the childperforms the task while saying the self-instructions and self-praise more and more softly;(e) the child performs the task while self-instructing and self-praising to him or herself so that the teacher can’t hear the child doing so.

14.

(a) Reinterpretation phase – clients are taught that it is not the stressor that is the cause of their nervousness or stress reaction, but the way that they view it. (b) Coping training phase – clients learn a variety of appropriate coping strategies (e.g., relaxation, self-instruction, self-reinforcement). (c) Application phase – clients practice their self-talk and coping skills to stressful stimuli.

15.

(a) General orientation, in which the client is encouraged to recognize problems and to realize that it is possible to deal with them by acting systematically; (b) problem definition, in which the client is encouraged to define the problem precisely; (c) generation of alternatives, in which the client is helped to brainstorm possible solutions to the problem; (d) decision-making, in which the client is encouraged to consider the pros and cons of the various alternative solutions, and to select the best alternative; (e) implementation, in which the client devises a plan for carrying out the best solution to the problem; and (f)verification, in which the client evaluates the effectiveness of the solution and tries an alternative solution if the first attempt is not satisfactory.

16.

“Mindfulness” involves awareness, observation, and description of one’s covert and overt behaviors, as they occur, in a non-judgmental way, as well as (in some cases) observation of the antecedents and consequences of those behaviors.

17.

“Acceptance” refers to a set of behaviors in reaction to mindfulness activities, including refraining from judging one’s sensations, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors as good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant, useful or useless, etc.

18.

Three phases of ACT are: (a) use of metaphors, paradoxes, stories, and other verbal techniques by a therapist so the client learns that past attempts to control troublesome thoughts and emotions have not only been unsuccessful but have led to more of the same 99 ..

thoughts and emotions; (b) mindfulness training and acceptance exercises to teach the client to experience thoughts and emotions non-judgmentally (including those that are troublesome); and (c) clients are encouraged to identify values in various life domains (i.e., work, family, health) and translate these values into achievable goals and identify behaviors needed to achieve the goals (commitment).

19.

Three differences between Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and Cognitive Therapy (CT) are: (a) CT assumes that troublesome thoughts are the primary source of disturbing emotions, while ACT considers both thoughts and emotions simply as responses and assumes that both are caused by various environmental contingencies; (b) CT focuses on using cognitive restructuring to directly change troublesome thoughts, while ACT uses mindfulness and acceptance to teach clients to embrace and accept various thoughts/emotions, rather than judging them as troublesome and trying to directly change them; and (c) CT focuses on behavioral assignments to help someone overcome distorted thinking, while ACT uses behavioral assignments to build larger and larger patterns of effective action in the pursuit of valued goals.

20.

Any appropriate example, such as a person thinking, “If I win a million dollar lottery, I will buy a condo on the ocean in Florida,” which causes the respondent components of excitement such as increased heart rate, etc.

21.

For example, when deciding what to have for dinner, a person might say to himself, “I haven’t had pasta for awhile. I think I’ll go to the Italian restaurant just down the street.”

That rule might influence the person to go to the Italian restaurant.

22.

Suppose that a client frequently makes such irrational statements as “I can’t do anything right.” A therapist might teach such a client to rehearse rules such as “I do some things quite well. I make an excellent spaghetti sauce and I will do so tonight,” etc. If the client follows these latter rules, doing so will likely be reinforced in the natural environment and the experience may counteract the prior irrational self-talk. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

23.

Some cases of cognitive restructuring might be effective because the therapist teaches the client to rehearse rules that identify specific behaviors that are likely to be maintained in the natural environment. Cases of cognitive restructuring are likely to be ineffective if the rules provided by the therapist do not identify specific behaviors that lead to environmental consequences, or if the client is deficient in the behaviors specified by the rules.

24.

Self-instruction and problem solving training might be effective because they teach the client to emit rule-governed behavior that leads to effective consequences.

25.

Mindfulness and acceptance procedures might be effective because: (a) non-judgmentally observing ongoing sensations displaced the behavior of irrational thinking and the negative emotions elicited by it; (b) when a client can accept the sensations characteristic of troublesome thoughts and emotions as experiences to be embraced, then exposure to natural contingencies is more likely to modify the behavior characteristic of troublesome thoughts and emotions; and (c) once the sensations characteristic of troublesome thoughts and emotions are accepted as simply responses, then the client may be more amenable to the identification of various life values, the articulation of goals or rules that represent those values, and the commitment to specific behavior to achieve those goals.

26.

They do not. They recognize that people engage in private verbal behavior (i.e., they talk silently to themselves), they experience imagery (i.e., covert seeing and other types of overt sensing), and they experience feelings (the respondent component of emotions). They also 100 ..

recognize that such covert behavior often influences overt behavior, as for example, when a person solves a problem by privately verbalizing and imagining certain aspects of the problem.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Relational frames exhibit bi-directionality (or mutual entailment). It is involved in all relational frames (i.e., smaller than and bigger than, slower than and faster than, duller than and brighter than, etc.). For example, if you know that two nickels equals one dime, you also know that one dime equals two nickels.

2.

Relational frames show combinatorial entailment. For example, if a child learns that two is larger than one and three is larger than two, he will also know that three is larger than one.

3.

Relational frames display transformation of stimulus function. That is, if a child learns the equivalence class for bear (i.e., knows the spoken word “bear,” the written word “bear,” and an actual bear), and then witnesses a bear in the woods and is frightened, the spoken word and written word “bear” will then elicit fear in the child.

4.

The basic steps are: (a) the therapist instructs the client to think a particular thought and then suddenly yells, “Stop!”; (b) the client is then taught to yell “Stop!” while thinking a particular thought; (c) over trials, the self-instruction (by the client), “Stop!” is faded to the private level so that eventually silently yelling “Stop!” will cause the thoughts to cease.

5.

With ACT, Carol could have been taught to embrace her emotions and thoughts about Fred and learn how to accept them, versus trying to control and stop the thoughts. Also, through behavioral homework assignments, Carol would have been encouraged to make concrete, achievable goals in various aspects of her life and to identify and commit to the behaviors she would need to emit to attain them.

101 ..

CHAPTER 28 AREAS OF CLINICAL BEHAVIOR THERAPY Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Empirically supported therapies (ESTs) are therapies that have been proven to be effective in scientifically conducted clinical trials.

2.

ESTs typically are behavioral or cognitive-behavioral treatments because the behavioral approach emphasizes basing treatments on well-established principles, measuring the outcomes of treatments in objectively-defined behaviors, and altering treatments that are not producing satisfactory results.

3.

A specific phobia is an intense, irrational, incapacitating fear of a stimulus class.

4.

(a) Animal type (e.g., fear of spiders, birds); (b) situational type (e.g., fear of small spaces, going outside of one’s home); (c) natural environment type (e.g., fear of floods, thunder), and other types.

5.

A fear hierarchy is a list of fear-eliciting stimuli arranged in order from the least-to-themost fear-eliciting.

6.

Systematic desensitization is a procedure for overcoming a phobia by having a client in a relaxed state successively imagine the items in a fear hierarchy.

7.

Systematic desensitization for arachnophobia (fear of spiders): (1) therapist helps individual to develop a fear hierarchy, of 10-25 stimuli related to the feared stimulus that are ordered from least feared to most feared (e.g., from being outside to actually seeing a spider); (2) client learns deep muscle relaxation: tension-relaxation applied to muscles of all areas of the body that allows the individual to be able to relax deeply in minutes (after several training sessions); (3) actual therapy: the client relaxes and imagines the least fearinducing scene on the list (being outside), then relaxes for 15-30 seconds. This continues from least-to-most fear-inducing scenes on the list unless the client experiences anxiety, then the therapist returns to the previous scene. By the last scene (seeing an actual spider), the client should be able to encounter a spider without distress.

8.

The model for systematic desensitization is counterconditioning, establishing a relaxation response to the feared stimuli, whereas the model for flooding is extinction. With flooding, the assumption is that if an individual is exposed to the feared stimuli and is not allowed to escape from them, and no aversive event follows, then the fear response to the stimuli will extinguish.

9.

In vivo flooding may be used to treat agoraphobia by placing a person in a crowd where he or she will be safe and should not incur any aversive stimuli. The individual’s fear will be elicited at full intensity and when nothing bad happens, his or her fear will hopefully decrease or extinguish. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

10.

Participant modelling may be used to treat arachnophobia by the therapist modelling an approach to the feared stimulus (spider). The modelling may occur in a graded fashion. For example, the therapist models approaching a spider in a cage, then places it closer to the client, then removes the spider and holds it near the client and eventually asks the client to touch or hold it. At each step the client is praised for modelling the therapist. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

102 ..

11.

A defining characteristic of exposure-based therapies is that they involve exposure—either in imagination or in vivo—of the client to the feared stimulus or stimuli. Cognitive therapy (i.e. helping a client to overcome irrational thinking that is thought to cause problems) would be an example of a non-exposure based therapy.

12.

Any four of the following: (a) Specific phobia: a persistent, irrational fear of a circumscribed stimulus or stimuli organized around some theme, such as fear of heights. (b) Panic Disorder: attacks that may include heart rate abnormalities, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath (smothered feeling), choking feeling, chest pain, nausea, dizziness, feeling of unreality, numbness or tingling, chills/hot flashes, fear of going crazy, losing control or fear of dying. These attacks seem to come “out of the blue.” Panic Disorder is often accompanied by agoraphobia or intense fear of leaving home. (c) Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): constant worry and feeling anxious over things that most people consider trivial, unimportant, or unlikely. Individuals are so consumed by anxiety that it interferes with normal functioning, often including inability to sleep at night. d) Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD): unwanted, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) or feeling impelled to engage in repetitive, unproductive behaviors (compulsions). The obsessive thoughts and compulsions tend to go together. For example, obsessive thoughts about germs are relieved by compulsive hand-washing.(e) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Impaired functioning due to an attempt to avoid thinking about a traumatic event or events (e.g., accident, sexual abuse, etc.) and avoidance of stimuli that are reminders of the event(s).

13.

An effective treatment for panic disorder with agoraphobia is exposure-based therapy carried out in vivo. The client may first make short trips from the home followed by gradually longer and longer trips.

14.

The distinction between obsessions and compulsions is that obsessions are repetitive thoughts which tend to evoke anxiety and compulsions are repetitive overt actions that tend to reduce anxiety. Obsessions and compulsions tend to go together in that obsessions seem to cause anxiety that can only be reduced by engaging in compulsive behavior.

15.

An effective treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder is in vivo exposure and response prevention (the client is encouraged to engage in a behavior that leads to an obsession, while the compulsive behavior is prevented). For example, an obsession about leaving the stove on when leaving the house is evoked and the individual is allowed to only check once before leaving.

16.

Cognitive therapy can be used in treating obsessive compulsive disorder by changing an individual’s self-statements. For example, if someone has obsessive thoughts about turning off the stove every time they leave the house, they may tell themselves, “The stove is off, I didn’t even use it today.”

17.

Acceptance procedures may also be used in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive behavior by helping an individual to accept that thoughts are not controllers of behavior. The individual may learn to think of thoughts such as worrying about germs as “mental garbage” which has no bearing on how clean they are or their worth as a person.

18.

An effective treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is long-term vicarious exposure to the event or events that caused the problem. This may be done through imagination, talking about the event with a therapist, or writing about it. This way, the emotions elicited by the stimuli related to the trauma will extinguish and the debilitating attempts to avoid those stimuli will decrease.

103 ..

19.

A major depressive episode consists of a period of at least two weeks in which the individual suffering experiences a loss of interest in nearly all activities, their appetite is usually reduced, they experience decreased energy and increased fatigue, and they report an impaired ability to think, concentrate, or make decisions, and they often experience a sense of worthlessness or guilt.

20.

A behavioral theory about the cause of depression is that people with chronic depression are lacking in contingent reinforcers. A possible treatment is encouraging depressed people to seek out reinforcers (e.g., go to parties, take up hobbies, or go on outings such as movies, etc.). Exercise programs may also be helpful.

21.

The Sobell and Sobell program teaches problem drinkers to use goal-setting to drink in moderation, to control “triggers” for drinking, to learn problem-solving skills to avoid high risk situations, to engage in self-monitoring to detect controlling cues and maintaining consequences of drinking behaviors, and to practice all of the above with various homework assignments.

22.

(a) A motivational interview, in which the therapist asks the client questions about the problem, the answers to which act as motivational establishing operations for change; (b) coping skills training to teach clients to deal with stressors that are thought to cause excessive alcohol consumption; (c) contingency contracting to provide reinforcers for work, social, and recreational activities that do not involve alcohol; and (d) strategies to prevent relapse.

23.

Four types of eating disorder include: (a) bulimia nervosa, in which the client is malnourished, obsessed with being thin, and engages in frequent binges followed by purging or taking laxatives; (b) anorexia nervosa, in which the client rarely eats or eats very little; (c) binge eating disorder in which the client binges but may be normal weight or greater than normal weight; and (d) obesity, in which the client is sufficiently overweight to cause a health risk. Behavioral therapy has been most effective for obese clients in weight reduction (whether they binge or not). Bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa have proven to be very resistant to treatment.

24.

(a) Self-monitoring of foods eaten, daily caloric intake, and body weight; (b) stimulus control of eating by restricting eating to specific locations; (c) reducing eating rate by applying one or more procedures; (d) signing behavioral contracts in which clients agree to lose a certain amount of weight in order to obtain positive consequences and/or avoid negative consequences.

25.

(a) Instigation of positive exchanges in which each spouse increases behaviors that are pleasing to the other partner; (b) communication training to help couples express to each other what they like and don’t like; (c) problem-solving training to help spouses identify and solve problems in their relationship; and (d) programming for generality of treatment by having clients monitor critical aspects of their relationship, and encouraging clients to continue using problem-solving and other techniques.

26.

On the assumption that anxiety is an important factor in many cases of sexual dysfunction, behavioral treatment usually involves exposure programs in which couples engage in pleasurable stimulation of each other in a relaxing atmosphere without expectation of, or pressure to, engage in intercourse. Both partners shift the goal from performance to that of experiencing pleasure.

104 ..

27.

(a) The client learns to describe and identify the problem behavior; (b) the client learns and practices a behavior that is incompatible with or competes with the problem behavior; (c) for motivation, the client reviews the inconvenience of the problem behavior, and has a family member provide reinforcement for engaging in treatment.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

For treatments to be well-established, they must meet the following criteria: (a) at least two well-controlled studies with random assignment of participants demonstrating that the treatment is better than a pill or psychological placebo (either a therapeutically ineffective pill or a psychological procedure) or is equivalent to an existing established treatment; (b) the treatment is described precisely in a manual; (c) client characteristics in the research were clearly specified; and (d) research was conducted in at least two independent research settings.

2.

Virtual reality therapy consists of a method for presenting fear-producing stimuli through computer-generated virtual reality technology in which clients wear a head-mounted display that provides a computer-generated view of a virtual reality environment. This technology makes it possible to present fear-producing stimuli in therapy that are difficult to arrange for in-vivo exposure to them, such as violent thunderstorms.

3.

To increase drug abstinence, Silverman and colleagues (a) implemented a voucher system in which individuals earn vouchers that can be exchanged for goods and services for drugfree urine samples and by (b) developing a therapeutic workplace, in which individuals are paid to work at jobs provided that they report to work drug-free. A major difference of the CM approach from that of Sobell and Sobell is that the CM approach teaches abstinence, while the Sobell and Sobell approach teaches alcohol drinking in moderation. Two practical problems of the CM approach involve the need to create ways to economically measure abstinence, and to economically obtain effective reinforcers for participants.

105 ..

CHAPTER 29 GIVING IT ALL SOME PERSPECTIVE: A BRIEF HISTORY Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Pavlov paired a bell with food presented to a dog several times, and each time the food caused the dog to salivate. After several pairings, the presentation of the bell by itself caused the dog to salivate.

2.

Respondent conditioning, classical conditioning.

3.

Watson and Rainer first demonstrated that the presentation of a white rat to the child did not cause fear. Then after several pairings of the white rat with a loud noise which caused the infant to shown signs of fear, the child then exhibited fear to the rat when presented by itself.

4.

Wolpe extended the principle of reciprocal inhibition by postulating that if a response that is incompatible with a learned fear or anxiety can be made to occur to a stimulus that had been conditioned to produce that fear, then that stimulus would cease to elicit the fear reaction.

5.

Systematic desensitization.

6.

He criticized traditional Freudian psychoanalytic treatment procedures, and advocated behavior therapy procedures as an alternative. In addition, he helped popularize Wolpe’s work in a book of readings entitled Behavior Therapy and Neuroses.

7.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences.

8.

Their text differed from other introductory psychology texts in that it discussed traditional topics in psychology, such as motivation and emotion, in terms of operant and respondent conditioning principles.

9.

In 1953, Skinner published Science and Human Behavior. Although there was very little supporting data for Skinner’s generalizations to humans, his interpretation influenced others to begin examining the effects of reinforcement variables on human behavior in a number of experimental and applied settings. The results of these efforts led to the development of the operant approach to behavior modification.

10.

Fuller demonstrated that a bed-ridden, profoundly developmentally disabled adult could be taught to raise his right arm to a vertical position when arm movements were appropriately shaped, using a sugar-milk solution as the reinforcer. Greenspoon demonstrated that simple verbal consequences could influence college students to say certain types of words.

Other appropriate examples are also acceptable.

11.

One such report was that by Ayllon and Michael, which demonstrated that staff in a mental institution could utilize reinforcement procedures to modify such patient behaviors as delusional talk, refusals to eat, and various disruptive behaviors.

106 ..

12.

(a) Much of it was done with very resistant populations (such as severely developmentally disabled persons) that had not received a great deal of successful input from traditional psychology. (b) Many of the applications took place in institutional or highly controlled settings.

13.

No. It also included many studies and discussions of Pavlovian-Hullian orientation.

14.

The behavioral model of abnormal behavior suggests that abnormal behavior is a function of specifiable environmental causes, and that it is possible to rearrange the environment so that the behavior can be changed or improved. The medical model of abnormal behavior considers abnormal behavior as a symptom of an underlying disturbance in a personality mechanism, with the implication that one must treat the underlying personality disturbance through Freudian psychoanalysis, rather than treating the observed symptoms by rearranging the environment.

15.

Applied behavior analysis.

16.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Behavior Research and Therapy.

17.

Cognitive processes refer to things that we say to ourselves or imagine, which are frequently called, “believing,” “thinking,” and “expecting.”

18.

They believed that faulty cognitive processes (i.e. faulty thinking) causes emotional and behavioral problems. Their approaches to therapy focused on helping clients recognize and change faulty thinking.

19.

Social learning theory places great emphasis on the social contexts in which behavior is acquired and maintained. Its most influential proponent was Albert Bandura.

20.

Lindsley, Skinner, and Soloman were the first to use the term behavior therapy, and they did so in a report describing some research in which psychotic patients in a mental hospital were reinforced with candy or cigarettes for pulling a plunger.

21.

See Table 29-2.

22. Cognitive behavior therapy is behavior modification carried out on dysfunctional behavior, generally in a clinical setting. Applied behavior analysis emphasizes the application of operant conditioning principles, and behavior modification in which there is often an attempt to analyze or clearly demonstrate controlling variables of the behavior of concern.

Behavior modification is a broader term that includes both cognitive behavior therapy and applied behavior analysis.

Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Plato viewed the soul as the source of behavior; he called it the “psyche,” and he believed it was separate from the body and continues after we die. His student, Aristotle, differed in that he thought the soul was simply a “form” of functioning of the body (including behavior). Plato’s view had a greater influence on Western European theologians and philosophers.

107 ..

2.

(a) Descartes was the first to articulate a clear distinction between the body and the soul.

He described the body as a machine operating on the basis of reflexes and guidance from a soul comprised of an immaterial, non-spatially extended substance. (b) The British Associationists replaced the word “soul” with the more scientific word “mind,” which came from an Old English word pertaining to memory or thought. (c) The Russian Reflexologists performed experiments on establishing new reflexes (“association reflexes” [Bechterev] or “conditional reflexes” [Pavlov]). They based their ideas on Descartes’ concept of reflexes.

Their basic ideas were later incorporated into the behavioral approach. (d) The Functionalists (William James) based their theory on Darwin’s theory of evolution and advocated studying the mind’s role in the adaptation of the individual to its environment.

They studied both animal and human learning.

3.

South Africa; Joseph Wolpe; England: Hans Eysenck; United States: B. F. Skinner.

4.

(a) Wrote a Utopian novel; (b) Worked on a project to teach pigeons to guide missiles during the Second World War; and (c) Developed the concept of programmed instruction and teaching machines.

5.

Brazil. While there, Keller established the first operant conditioning course, worked with Brazilian colleagues to develop PSI, and contributed to the development of behavior modification.

6.

Hull developed a learning theory that meshed together operant and respondent conditioning into a theory that did not distinguish between the two types of conditioning.

Dollard and Miller translated Freudian psychodynamic concepts into the language of Hull’s learning theory. Their book had an influence in the early days of behavior modification, but mostly in the respondent and Wolpean orientation.

108 ..

CHAPTER 30 ETHICAL ISSUES Answers to Study Questions on Main Text 1.

Throughout the ages, various groups have used the reinforcers and punishers at their disposal to control the behavior of less powerful groups (groups who had fewer reinforcers and punishers to deliver, or who lacked the means to deliver them contingent on selected target behaviors). Examples might include the subjugation or exploitation of one nation by another, U.S. and Soviet imperialism as in Vietnam and Eastern Europe, and the exploitation of one group by another within a nation (e.g., exploitation of slaves by masters).

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2.

Any appropriate example in which a group with fewer reinforcers revolted against a group controlling more reinforcers, or undertook other action to bring about a more equal distribution of the reinforcers. Examples might include national revolutions, the labor movement, strikes, black power, red power, Chicano power, women’s liberation, gay liberation, and the French separatist movement in Canada.

3.

As formal specifications of contingencies designed to control the behavior of those who control the behavior of others.

4.

Because of a cultural history in which power has often been abused and because of our personal experiences with people who have abused their power (i.e., used it for their own benefit and to the disadvantage of those over whom they exerted control).

5.

They disguise their aims by making it appear that they are not controlling our behavior, because if their aims were too obvious, people would strongly resist them. An example that is not in the text might be a politician pretending that he or she is not interested in becoming president or prime minister, while at the same time doing things to help make this happen. Other plausible examples are also acceptable.

6.

(a) Behavior can be controlled; and (b) it is desirable to do so in order to achieve certain objectives.

7.

Extreme wariness can lead people to take appropriate precautions to prevent a new technology from “getting out of hand” and being abused. Students may give any example in which technology has “gotten out of hand” because people did not take appropriate precautions when it was first developed, or may be on the verge of “getting out of hand.”

8.

From a behavioral point of view, the term “ethics” refers to certain standards of behavior that are developed by a culture and promote the survival of that culture.

9.

Within a culture, certain ways of behaving evolved that were accepted and reinforced, whereas other ways of behaving evolved that were not accepted and/or were punished. For example, many cultures evolved that reinforced non-stealing behavior and punished stealing. Presumably, cultures in which honest behavior toward material possessions was not reinforced and stealing not punished tended not to survive. This may have been for many reasons. Whatever the reasons, many cultures consider non-stealing to be ethical or right, and stealing unethical or wrong. Other behavioral practices (ethics) presumably evolved similarly.

109 ..

10.

Ethical guidelines are an important source of behavioral control when immediate reinforcers influence an individual to behave in a way that leads to aversive stimuli for others.

11.

Consider the ethical guideline “Thou shalt not steal.” That guideline might imply a rule specifying legal contingencies (e.g., “If you steal another’s possessions, you will be fined or sent to jail.”), and sometimes that guideline implies a rule based on religious beliefs (e.g., “If you steal, you will go to hell, rather than heaven, when you die.”). In either instance, the guideline is likely to exert rule-governed control over behavior (and minimize stealing).

Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

12.

All social help professions are involved in helping people solve their problems and/or improve themselves. This necessarily implies changing their behavior, which means “controlling” behavior. An example might be teaching someone to read, which requires bringing that person’s behavior under the appropriate control of printed or written words.

Any other appropriate example is acceptable.

13.

Unless one is lazy or is interested in “spontaneity” for its own sake, there seems to be little merit in not planning for behavior change. On the other hand, one is much more likely to achieve desirable behavior changes if one plans for them. Conversely, lack of planning may result in the introduction of contingencies that produce undesirable behavior.

14.

Countercontrol is the reciprocal of control. It is the influence that the controllee has on the controller by virtue of access to suitable reinforcers. For example, in a therapeutic relationship, countercontrol would refer to the amount of control that the client can exert over the therapist (such as by direct social contact, by withholding fee for service, or by some other means). It is important because it is one way of ensuring ethical behavior on the part of the therapist or the controller in a given situation.

15.

That persons engaged in any type of psychological intervention should subscribe to and follow the ethical codes and standards of their profession.

16.

The client should ensure that the behavior modifier describes clearly his or her credentials, and that he or she is a member of the local state, or provincial Psychological Association.

Clients might also check to see if the behavior modifier is a member of ABAI or ABCT (although these associations do not assess a behavior modifier’s competencies), or if the behavior modifier is certified by the Behavior Analysis Certificate Board, or the American Board of Behavioral Psychology.

17.

(a) The client can require the behavior modifier to clearly specify his or her values relating to the client’s problems. (b) The client should be an active participant in the selection of goals and identification of target behaviors (or have a competent impartial third party to do so).

18.

Behavior modifiers should use the most effective, empirically validated interventions with the least discomfort and fewest negative side effects.

19.

(a) Interventions based on positive reinforcement are considered to be less intrusive than interventions based on aversive control. (b) Interventions where clients are given choices and allowed freedom of movement in a therapeutic environment are considered less intrusive and restrictive than interventions where there are fewer choices or less freedom of movement. (c) Interventions that capitalize on natural reinforcers are generally considered to be less intrusive and restrictive than those that capitalize on contrived or deliberatelyprogrammed reinforcers.

110 ..

20.

A mechanism to facilitate informed consent is the signing of a client-therapist contract that clearly outlines the objectives and methods of treatment, the framework for the service to be provided, and the contingencies of renumeration that may be forthcoming to the therapist.

21.

(a) Defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some way; (b) using changes in the behavioral measure of the problem as the best indicator of the extent to which the problem is being helped; (c) sharing the data (from a and b) with all concerned parties and with periodic peer evaluations.

22.

A group of people who are well-versed in the principles and tactics of behavior modification can recognize when behavior modification is being used to their disadvantage, and can take appropriate countermeasures, such as using behavior modification against their controllers.

Answers to Study Questions on N&ED Section 1.

Skinner argued that in the 18th century, the concept of freedom was a valuable rallying cry to spur people to break away from aversive forms of control used by dictators and tyrants.

However, the concept of freedom may prevent us from seeing how our behavior is controlled by positive reinforcement. It may also influence us to give undue credit (more “dignity”) to those who are successful and to attribute undue blame to those who aren’t (given the assumption that we are all free to be masters of our own destiny), rather than recognizing that one’s achievements or failures are due to one’s conditioning history and genetic predispositions. Thus, we must go “beyond freedom and dignity” to recognize that we are all products of our environments.

2.

Most people who happily buy tickets in a government-run lottery feel that they are “free” to do so, and they fail to recognize that their behavior is being controlled to the same extent as it would be if they were being “forced” to pay the same amount in taxes. It’s just that in one case the control is through positive reinforcement and in the other it is through aversive control.

3.

The example given in Note 2 is that of teaching children in school to sit quietly at their desks. The reason that this may be inappropriate is that, rather than promoting the child’s learning, it may serve only the convenience of the teachers and school administrators (i.e., the status quo). Any two well-explained plausible examples are acceptable.

111 ..

Part III Option-based Questions

112 ..

OPTION-BASED QUESTIONS Chapter 1: Introduction Multiple Choice Questions On Main Text (Note: * indicates the correct answer) 1. A behavioral deficit is: * a) too little of a particular type of behavior b) too much of a particular type of behavior c) an appropriate behavior occurring to the wrong stimulus d) an appropriate behavior occurring at the wrong time or place 2. A behavioral excess is: * a) too much of a particular type of behavior b) too little of a particular type of behavior c) an appropriate behavior occurring to the wrong stimulus d) an appropriate behavior occurring at the wrong time or place 3. Which of the following is an example of behavior? a) hair color b) the color of someone’s eyes c) the clothes someone is wearing * d) dressing in the morning 4. In behavior modification, motivation and intelligence refer to: a) inner mental processes * b) ways of behaving c) causes of behavior d) major sources of abnormality 5. In behavior modification, the term “environment” refers to: a) the neighborhood in which a person is raised b) the natural habitat of an organism * c) the specific physical variables in one’s immediate surroundings d) the general situation where one happens to be 6. A child does not pronounce words clearly and does not interact with other children. These are examples of: a) behavioral excesses b) behavioral abnormalities * c) behavioral deficits d) behavioral characteristics 7. Behavior modifiers stress the importance of defining problems in terms of specific behavioral deficits or behavioral excesses because: a) therapists can then focus on the individual’s problem behaviors rather than on his or her strengths * b) it is behavior that causes concern, and there are specific procedures now available to change behavior c) labeling an individual implies that a particular treatment program will be helpful d) labeling an individual is useful for quickly providing general information about how that individual might perform

113 ..

8. Which of the following is not a characteristic of behavior modification? a) It defines problems in terms of behavior. b) Its treatment procedures and techniques are ways of rearranging an individual’s environment. c) Its techniques draw extensively from the principles of operant and Pavlovian conditioning. * d) It emphasizes the use of summary labels for classifying individuals.

9. Which of the following is an example of covert behavior? * a) a skier thinking, “I hope I don’t fall” b) a pitcher throwing a ball c) a student drinking coffee d) a child talking to her dog in the backyard 10. Which of the following is an example of overt behavior? a) feelings of nervousness * b) yelling at someone c) a boy on a date thinking, “I like this girl” d) imagining a beautiful sunset 11. Which of the following is an example of an outcome of behavior? a) throwing a baseball b) lifting a heavy weight * c) scoring a goal in ice hockey d) standing at the free throw line in basketball 12. Behavior therapy refers to: a) behavior modification in which there is typically an attempt to analyze or clearly demonstrate controlling variables b) the scientific study of laws that govern the behavior of human beings and other animals * c) behavioral treatment carried out on dysfunctional behavior d) behavior modification that focuses on overt behaviors that are of social significance 13. Behavior modifiers are cautious about using summary labels to refer to individuals or their actions because: a) the label for the behavior is often used as a pseudo-explanation for the behavior b) labels can negatively affect the way an individual might be treated c) labeling may influence us to focus on an individual’s problem behaviors rather than on his or her strengths * d) all of the above 14. The people, objects, and events that make up a person’s environment are called: * a) stimuli b) conditioned stimuli c) unconditioned stimuli d) reinforcing stimuli 15. Which of the following is not a characteristic of behavior modification? a) Its treatment procedures are ways of altering an individual’s environment. b) Its methods and rationales can be described precisely. * c) Its techniques stem primarily from cognitive psychology. d) Its techniques are often applied by individuals in everyday life.

16. Behavioral assessment seeks to: a) determine the underlying mental disturbance responsible for behavioral symptoms b) identify the type of mental disorder assumed to underlie particular patterns of abnormal behavior * c) identify potential controlling variables of problem behaviors, and select behavioral treatment d) determine the necessary intelligence level of potential clients as a prerequisite to behavior modification programs

114 ..

17. Which of the following is not a misconception about behavior modification? a) Behavior modifiers only deal with the observable and they don’t deal with the thoughts and feelings of clients. * b) Behavior modification involves the systematic application of learning principles to improve covert and overt behaviors. c) Behavior modification involves the use of drugs, psychosurgery, and electroconvulsive therapy. d) Behavior modification only changes symptoms; it doesn’t get at the underlying problems.

18. Which of the following is an example of cognitive behavior? a) a child reading out loud for a parent b) a baseball player talking to her coach * c) a person on a hot day imagining that he is sitting at the ocean d) a student writing with a pen 19. Behaviors to be improved in a behavior modification program are frequently called: a) overt behaviors b) covert behaviors c) cognitive behaviors * d) target behaviors 20. Behavior Analysis refers to: a) behavior modification in which there is typically an attempt to analyze or clearly demonstrate controlling variables * b) the scientific study of laws that govern the behavior of human beings and other animals c) behavioral treatment carried out on dysfunctional behavior d) behavior modification that focuses on overt behaviors that are of social significance 21. ____________ involves the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to assess and improve individuals’ covert and overt behaviors in order to enhance their daily functioning. a) Behavioral assessment b) Behavior analysis * c) Behavior modification d) Cognitive behavior therapy

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T

22. Behavior modification accepts changes in a behavior as the indicator of the extent to which a problem is being helped.

F

23. One of the defining characteristics of behavior modification is that it does not emphasize scientific demonstration that an intervention was responsible for a particular behavior change.

T

24. Behavior is, essentially, anything a person does or says.

F

25. Behavior modifiers deal only with observable behavior, and discount subjective events such as thoughts and feelings.

F

26. The color of a person’s eyes is an example of behavior.

T

27. Studying for a course is an example of a behavior.

F

28. Remembering the feelings of your first kiss is an example of overt behavior.

115 ..

T

29. Thinking “I hope I pass this course” while sitting in class, is an example of covert behavior.

F

30. To a behavior modifier, intelligence is something that you were born with, a sort of “inherited capacity for learning.”

T

31. Hyperactivity is a label for certain behaviors.

T

32. According to the authors of the text, the term behavior modification has a broader meaning than the term behavior therapy.

F

33. A teenager frequently interrupts conversations between his parents. That’s an example of a behavioral deficit.

T

34. A golfer often thinks negatively just before important shots. That’s an example of a behavioral excess.

F

35. Behavior modification can only be applied by experts, and not by individuals in everyday life.

T

36. Environmental events that impinge on one’s sense receptors and that can affect behavior are called stimuli.

F

37. Cognitive behavior is another term for overt behavior.

T

38. Behavior analysis refers to the scientific study of laws that govern the behavior of human beings and other animals.

F

39. The term behavior therapy is typically used to refer to behavior modification where there is an attempt to clearly demonstrate controlling variables of the behavior of concern.

T

40. Characteristics of behavior that can be measured are called dimensions of behavior.

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

41. Which of the following is not true of behaviorists and behavior modifiers? a) their treatment procedures draw mainly on operant and Pavlovian conditioning *b) they deny the importance of genetics in determining behavior c) they study thoughts and feelings of individuals as well as observable behavior of individuals d) they assume that private thoughts and feelings and observable behaviors are all influenced by techniques of behavior modification 42. Behavior modifiers made little use of the first two DSMs because: a) they were based primarily on research rather than on Freud’s theory b) individual disorders were based on categories of problem behaviors c) they used a multidimensional recording system * d) they were based on Freud’s theory of abnormal behavior

116 ..

True/False Questions on Notes

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 43. John B. Watson advocated an extreme form of environmentalism that suggested that our behavior was due to our learning experiences.

T 44. Behavior modifiers include genetics as a factor that determines our behavior patterns.

117 ..

Chapter 2: Areas of Application: An Overview Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. PSI stands for: a) popular standards of instruction * c) personalized system of instruction

b) personalized systems of information d) personalized students’ instruction

2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of PSI? a) It identifies the learning requirements for a course in the form of study questions. b) It has frequent exams in which students are required to demonstrate their knowledge to the answers of study questions. c) It has mastery criteria so that students must demonstrate mastery at a particular level before going on to the next level. * d) It emphasizes multiple-choice items and examinations as an objective scoring strategy ideally suited for large classes.

3. Studies with clinical populations have shown behavior therapy to be: a) significantly inferior to the alternative treatment to which it was compared, which was usually some form of verbal psychotherapy * b) demonstrably superior to specific alternative psychotherapeutic procedures in certain problem areas (e.g., phobias) c) used as the main mode of therapy for treating adults by approximately 60% of practicing therapists d) used about as often as psychodynamic therapy in the treatment of children by pediatric psychologists 4. The characteristics of language abnormalities, impaired social behavior, and repetitive selfstimulatory behaviors during the first few years after birth are shown by individuals diagnosed as: a) moderately developmentally disabled b) schizophrenic c) severely intellectually disabled * d) autistic 5. A broad interdisciplinary field concerned with the links between health, illness, and behavior is referred to as: a) health psychology b) stress management * c) behavioral medicine d) behavioral health 6. Organizational behavior management refers to: * a) the application of behavior modification techniques to individual or group performance within an organizational setting b) an emphasis on the use of non-professionals in human service programs c) use of behavior modification to help individuals adhere to a healthy lifestyle d) seeking out intervention strategies at the organizational level rather than at the individual level 7. Behavior modifiers have begun to pay more attention to issues of race, gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation because: a) the Association of Behavior Analysis is now an international organization b) culturally diverse individuals now make up 30% of the American population * c) these variables can influence the effectiveness of treatment d) there are no dangers of overgeneralizing about any particular cultural group

118 ..

8. Which of the following is not a general area in which behavior modification has been applied in sport psychology? a) improving skills of athletes * b) selecting athletes for Olympic programs on the basis of those with the personality most suited to sacrifice and dedication to winning c) increasing the frequency of specific practice behaviors and components of practice behaviors of athletes d) developing strategies to help athletes prepare for serious competition in sport 9. Which of the following is not one of the forces that materialized in the 1960s that revolutionized the education of developmentally disabled persons? a) Normalization advocates argued that developmentally disabled persons should be helped to lead the most normative lives possible. b) Civil right advocates secured the legal right of the severely developmentally disabled to receive an education. * c) Testing advocates emphasized the need for accurately measuring the intelligence of developmentally disabled persons. d) Behavior modifiers developed a technology that made it possible to improve behavior patterns of developmentally disabled persons.

10. The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities now prefers the term ________________ to refer to individuals characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior? * a) intellectual disability b) mental retardation c) developmental disability d) mentally handicapped 11. Which of the following is not a sub-area of the application of behavioral principles in health psychology? a) establishing treatment compliance b) promotion of healthy living c) stress management * d) psychological testing of personality disorders 12. “Applications to socially significant problems in unstructured community settings where the behavior of individuals is not considered deviant in the traditional sense” is the definition of: a) organizational behavior management b) health psychology * c) behavior community psychology d) behavior therapy 13. PSI (Personalized System of Instruction) was developed by: a) Lovaas b) Bellack *c) Keller d) Skinner 14. Helping the elderly to function independently during old age is part of the field referred to as: * a) gerontology b) behavioral medicine c) behavioral community psychology d) behavior management 15. The study of how psychological factors can influence or cause illness, and how people can be encouraged to practice healthy behavior so as to prevent health problems, is referred to as: a) Cognitive behavior therapy b) Stress therapy c) Treatment compliance * d) Health Psychology

119 ..

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 16. Behavior modification has been successfully applied within each of the following areas: education, social work, rehabilitation medicine, industry, and sports.

T 17. Personalized System of Instruction, or PSI, was developed by Fred Keller and his colleagues.

F 18. Over 75% of practicing clinical psychologists now use a behavior therapy orientation.

F 19. The majority of studies comparing behavior therapy to alternative treatments have demonstrated that behavior therapy and the alternative treatments were about equally effective.

T 20. One of the areas of health psychology involves the use of behavior modification procedures to directly treat certain diseases that were previously thought to require medical treatment.

F 21. The application of behavior modification techniques to individual or group performance within an organizational setting defines the area referred to as community behavioral psychology.

T 22. Littering, recycling, energy conservation, and job skills training are all sub-areas that have been dealt with successfully by behavior modification in the area of behavioral community psychology.

F 23. Issues of race, gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation are variables that do not influence the effectiveness of behavioral treatment.

T 24. CAPSI stands for Computer-Aided Personalized System of Instruction.

T 25. The person who initially developed behavioral treatments for children with autism is Ivar Lovaas.

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

26. PSI has produced a statistically significant learning advantage of _____ percentile points over traditional approaches to university education. a) 12 b) 40 * c) 19 d) 32 27. A common strategy for delivering early intensive behavioral intervention with children with autism is referred to as: a) behavior management b) developmental teaching * c) discrete-trials teaching d) behavior analysis

120 ..

Chapter 3: Getting a Behavior to Occur More Often with Positive Reinforcement Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. A positive reinforcer is defined as: a) an event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to decrease in frequency b) an event which is preferred by a subject c) an event which the subject finds rewarding * d) an event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency 2. The principle of positive reinforcement states that: a) if, in a given situation, an individual is given a choice of two or more items, the item chosen will be the positive reinforcer * b) if, in a given situation, somebody does something that is immediately followed by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing again c) if, in a given situation, an individual is positively reinforced, then that individual will select that situation in future opportunities d) a reinforcer can be used to strengthen behavior 3. The best way to determine if something is reinforcing is to: a) ask the individual what they prefer for a reinforcer b) watch others perform the same behavior and find out what reinforces them and then use that with the individual of concern * c) conduct an experimental test in which you present an item following some behavior on several trials to see if the frequency of that behavior increases d) provide a choice situation in which the “something” is presented along with known reinforcers to see if it will be chosen by the subject instead of the known reinforcers 4. In training programs in which reinforcers are dispensed frequently, it’s best to use a small amount of the reinforcer on any one trial in order to: a) let the client know that there’s more to come * b) minimize satiation and maximize the number of trials in a training session c) ensure that the program is cost-effective d) prevent the client from becoming greedy 5. _____________ developed the principle that states: For any pair of responses, the more probable one will reinforce the less probable one. a) Skinner b) Michael * c) Premack d) Greenspoon 6. Unprogrammed reinforcers that occur in the normal course of everyday living are called: * a) natural reinforcers b) arbitrary reinforcers c) contrived reinforcers d) rewards 7. If a response increases in frequency because of its immediate reinforcing consequences, this is known as: * a) the direct-acting effects of positive reinforcement b) a functional response-reinforcer relationship c) the indirect-acting effects of positive reinforcement d) natural reinforcement

121 ..

8. A parent tells a child, “If you pick up the toys in your room, then I’ll take you to buy your favorite ice cream after dinner.” This is an example of: a) direct acting reinforcement b) the Premack principle c) a natural reinforcer * d) indirect acting reinforcement 9. Which of the following is not one of the reasons for explaining a reinforcement program to the individual whose behavior is to be reinforced? a) Instructions may speed up the learning process for individuals who already understand them. * b) Instructions increase the effects of deprivation for making a reinforcer more effective. c) Instructions may influence an individual to work for delayed reinforcement. d) Instructions about reinforcement programs may help to teach individuals (such as young children) to follow instructions.

10. Eating is reinforced by the taste of food. This is an example of: a) indirect acting reinforcement b) arbitrary reinforcement * c) natural reinforcement d) the Premack principle 11. A coach of young hockey players always has a scrimmage at the end of each practice, something that the players really enjoy. This is an example of: * a) noncontingent reinforcement b) direct acting reinforcement c) contingent reinforcement d) indirect acting reinforcement 12. Giving a person salty foods, or depriving that person of water are examples of: a) discriminative stimuli b) unconditioned stimuli c) direct-acting reinforcers * d) motivating operations 13. Behaviors that operate on the environment to generate consequences, and are in turn influenced by those consequences, are called: a) behaviors b) respondent behaviors c) reflexive behavior * d) operant behaviors 14. Strengthening a response by adding an event immediately following that response is referred to as: * a) positive reinforcement b) negative reinforcement c) escape conditioning d) the Premack principle 15. Events or conditions that temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer, and increase the frequency of behavior reinforced by that reinforcer, are called: a) positive reinforcers b) direct-acting events c) indirect-acting events * d) motivating operations 16. If a reinforcer is presented at a particular time, irrespective of the preceding behavior, we say that the reinforcer is: * a) noncontingent b) contingent c) direct-acting d) indirect-acting 17. When a behavior must occur before a reinforcer will be presented, we say that the reinforcer is ______________ upon that behavior. a) noncontingent * b) contingent c) direct-acting d) indirect-acting

122 ..

18. When reinforcers are manipulated deliberately in a behavior modification program, we say that they are ____________ reinforcers. a) direct-acting b) indirect-acting c) natural * d) programmed 19. Behaviors that act on the environment to generate consequences and are in turn influenced by those consequences, are called _____________ behaviors. * a) operant b) reflexive c) covert d) overt 20. The principle of ___________ states that there are certain stimuli whose removal immediately after the occurrence of a response will strengthen that response. a) positive reinforcement b) non-contingent reinforcement * c) negative reinforcement d) motivating operations 21. A behavior that is strengthened because it accidently precedes a reinforcer, even though it did not actually produce the reinforcer, is called: a) operant behavior * b) superstitious behavior c) respondent behavior d) reflexive behavior

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 22. Technically speaking, a stimulus is defined as a reinforcer only by its effects on behavior.

F 23. Explaining a reinforcement program to a client is necessary before a reinforcer can be used to increase the frequency of a particular behavior of that client.

F 24. Natural reinforcers are those deliberately presented following a particular behavior in a training program.

T 25. The terms positive reinforcement and reinforcement are often used interchangeably.

T 26. Consumable, activity, manipulative, possessional, and social are categories of reinforcers.

F 27. Giving a child her favorite candy following a desirable behavior is an example of a motivating operation.

T 28. Food deprivation is a type of motivating operation.

F 29. The increased frequency of a response because of its immediate reinforcing consequences is referred to as the indirect-acting effect of reinforcement.

T 30. When a behavior must occur before a reinforcer will be presented, we say that the reinforcer is contingent upon that behavior.

F 31. Unprogrammed reinforcers that occur in the normal course of everyday living are called arbitrary reinforcers.

123 ..

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

32. Persons with developmental disabilities learn certain discriminations better when the correct response reveals a reinforcer hidden inside a container, rather than when a reinforcer is simply handed to the individual for a correct response. Martin and Pear suggest that such a contingency should be described as: a) a direct-acting contingency b) an indirect-acting contingency * c) a reinforcement discovery contingency d) a response equilibrium contingency 33. Suppose that a single occurrence of a consequence produces a large change in the behavior that preceded that consequence. This is a clue that the results are due to: * a) indirect-acting reinforcement b) direct-acting reinforcement c) the Premack principle d) response disequilibrium 34. Suppose that a critical response precedes the reinforcer by more than 30 seconds. This is a clue that the results are due to: a) the Premack principle b) direct-acting reinforcement * c) indirect-acting reinforcement d) response disequilibrium

True/False Questions on N&ED Section (Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin) T 35. A behavior change is likely due to indirect acting effects of positive reinforcement if the behavior that is measured shows some increase in strength prior to the first occurrence of the consequence.

T 36. Animals can learn even though they are not able to verbalize an understanding or an awareness of their behavior.

124 ..

Chapter 4: Developing and Maintaining Behavior with Conditioned Reinforcement Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. A stimulus which is not originally reinforcing but which acquires reinforcing power through association with a stimulus that is reinforcing is called: * a) a conditioned reinforcer b) a conditioned stimulus c) a natural reinforcer d) a back-up reinforcer 2. A dollar bill may not be reinforcing for a young child who has had no experience with money. However, after the dollar bill is paired with a variety of back-up reinforcers while making various purchases in the store, the dollar bill becomes a powerful reinforcer. This is an example of the development of a: a) extrinsic reinforcer * b) generalized conditioned reinforcer c) simple conditioned reinforcer d) primary reinforcer 3. A reinforcer for which tokens can be exchanged in order to maintain their reinforcing power is called a(n): a) secondary reinforcer b) conditioned reinforcer * c) back-up reinforcer d) primary reinforcer 4. Stimuli which are reinforcing without prior learning are called: a) conditioned reinforcers b) back-up reinforcers c) intrinsic reinforcers * d) primary reinforcers 5. For someone who has not eaten for several hours, food would be a ____________ reinforcer, as it is naturally reinforcing in and of itself. * a) primary b) conditioned c) back-up d) secondary 6. Conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for other reinforcers are known as: a) adventitious reinforcers * b) tokens c) back-up reinforcers d) extrinsic reinforcers 7. Which of the following is a stimulus that is a conditioned reinforcer (i.e., associated with more powerful reinforcers) but is not a token? a) gold stars on an improvement chart b) coupons for food products * c) the sight of a loved one d) money 8. In a behavior modification token system, tokens can be exchanged for more powerful reinforcers called: a) extrinsic reinforcers b) primary reinforcers c) intrinsic reinforcers * d) back-up reinforcers 9. A stimulus which is not originally punishing but which acquires punishing power through association with a stimulus that is punishing is called a(n): * a) conditioned punisher b) warning stimulus c) unconditioned punisher d) conditioned stimulus

125 ..

10. A reinforcer that is based on a number of different back-up reinforcers is called a(n): a) natural reinforcer * b) generalized reinforcer c) intrinsic reinforcer d) extrinsic reinforcer 11. At the end of a poker game, poker chips that you have obtained can be exchanged for money. In this case, money can best be described as a(n): * a) back-up reinforcer b) unconditioned reinforcer c) natural reinforcer d) conditioned reinforcer 12. In Erin’s program, the time on Facebook or YouTube are examples of: a) tokens * b) back-up reinforcers c) unconditioned reinforcers d) intrinsic reinforcers 13. Which of the following is most likely to be a primary reinforcer? a) a toy b) money * c) a candy bar

d) poker chips

14. Which of the following is a conditioned reinforcer? a) a drink of water b) a candy bar c) warmth from a fireplace

*d) money

15. Praise is best referred to as a(n): a) natural reinforcer c) intrinsic reinforcer

* b) generalized reinforcer d) back-up reinforcer

16. Conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for other reinforcers are called: a) backup reinforcers * b) tokens c) natural reinforcers d) intrinsic reinforcers

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 17. Back-up reinforcers are stimuli that are naturally reinforcing in and of themselves, such as food for someone who has not eaten for several hours.

F 18. A primary reinforcer is a reinforcer that is based on a number of different back-up reinforcers.

T 19. A conditioned reinforcer that is a generalized reinforcer is more effective than one that is not.

T 20. Conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for other reinforcers are called tokens.

T 21. A stimulus that is paired with punishment becomes a conditioned punisher.

True/False Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 22. Automatic conditioned reinforcement enables us to explain why babies babble a great deal, even when no adults are around.

F 23. Research shows that when smokers had to pull a plunger to obtain two puffs on a cigarette and when the number of plunger pulls was gradually increased in order to obtain two puffs, the rates of responding for standard cigarettes were higher than for de-nicontinized cigarettes.

126 ..

Chapter 5: Decreasing a Behavior with Extinction Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. If, in a given situation, an individual emits a previously reinforced response which is not followed by the usual reinforcing consequence, then that person: * a) is less likely to do the same thing again in that situation b) will stop emitting that behavior immediately in that situation c) is more likely to do the same thing again in that situation d) will become very aggressive in that situation 2. When observing an undesirable behavior prior to introducing an extinction program, you would take into account: * a) events that may be reinforcing the behavior b) ways to minimize the number of trials for the extinction program c) punishers that may be used to decrease the behavior that is to be extinguished d) how to implement the program without the client’s knowledge 3. An extinction program may fail because: a) spontaneous recovery did not occur * b) a desirable alternative behavior was not appropriately strengthened c) instructions were not given to the client prior to the program d) prior to the extinction program, the behavior was on a continuous rather than an intermittent schedule of reinforcement 4. The reappearance of an extinguished behavior following a rest is called: a) intermittent reinforcement b) an extinction burst * c) spontaneous recovery d) indirect reinforcement 5. It is important to consider the setting in which extinction will be carried out in order to: a) capitalize on use of instructions * b) minimize the influence of alternative reinforcers on the undesirable behavior c) put the undesirable behavior on intermittent reinforcement before introducing extinction d) minimize spontaneous recovery 6. Which of the following is not a potential problem of an extinction program? a) The behavior may get worse before it gets better. b) The program may produce aggression by the person whose behavior is being extinguished. c) Spontaneous recovery may occur. * d) Other reinforced behaviors will also decrease in frequency.

7. It is important to consider the setting in which extinction will be carried out in order to: a) capitalize on use of instructions b) put the undesirable behavior on intermittent reinforcement before introducing extinction * c) maximize the chances of the behavior modifier persisting with the program d) minimize spontaneous recovery

127 ..

8. A behavior is likely to extinguish very slowly if: * a) that behavior was reinforced intermittently prior to the extinction program b) that behavior was reinforced continuously prior to the extinction program c) an alternative desirable behavior is reinforced d) there is no aggression as a side-effect 9. If you tell someone to stop eating candies, and the person stops, that is an example of: a) extinction b) the Premack principle * c) instructional control over behavior d) indirect-acting reinforcement 10. If a parent ignores the behavior of a child, that is an example of extinction if: a) the child listens to the parent * b) the parent’s attention was reinforcing the child’s behavior c) the child is obedient d) the child’s behavior was annoying to the parent 11. Behavior that extinguishes slowly is said to be: a) reinforced intermittently b) showing spontaneous recovery * c) resistant to extinction d) exhibiting extinction bursts 12. An increase in responding during extinction is commonly referred to as: * a) an extinction burst b) spontaneous recovery c) an establishing operation d) a pitfall of extinction 13. Extinction and forgetting are similar in that both involve: a) weakening a behavior as a function of that behavior being emitted without being reinforced b) weakening a behavior as a function of time following that behavior c) weakening a behavior as a function of intermittent reinforcement * d) weakening of behavior 14. Suppose that, following instances of a child swearing, the parents said to the child, “You have just lost 25 cents of your weekly allowance.” This is an example of: a) extinction c) reprimand punishment b) forgetting * d) response cost punishment

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin) F 15. An example of extinction is when you tell someone to stop smoking cigarettes, and the person stops.

T 16. A possible reason for the failure of an extinction program is that the undesirable behavior is receiving reinforcement from another source.

F 17. Ignoring the behavior of a person is always an example of extinction.

T 18. Extinction may be quicker after continuous reinforcement than after intermittent reinforcement.

T 19. If a behavior is not reinforced at least once in awhile, it will gradually extinguish.

F 20. Research has shown that extinction can be successfully applied in any setting.

F 21. Behavior that has been reinforced on a continuous reinforcement schedule is more persistent during extinction than behavior that has been reinforced on an intermittent reinforcement schedule.

128 ..

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

22. Unauthorized reinforcement provided for a behavior being subjected to an extinction program is the definition of: a) continuous reinforcement b) functional reinforcement * c) bootleg reinforcement d) intrinsic reinforcement

129 ..

Chapter 6: Developing Behavioral Persistence Through the Use of Intermittent Reinforcement Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: *indicates the correct answer)

1. When reinforcement occurs after some but not all responses, a(n) _______________ schedule of reinforcement is being used. a) continuous b) duration c) interval * d) intermittent 2. Each time you turn on the TV, a picture appears. This is an example of: a) fixed-ratio reinforcement b) variable-ratio reinforcement * c) continuous reinforcement d) fixed-interval reinforcement 3. During piece-rate pay in a sewing factory, a worker is paid $10.00 for every ten pairs of pants. This is an example of: * a) a fixed-ratio schedule b) a fixed-interval schedule c) continuous reinforcement d) a fixed-duration schedule 4. A pause after reinforcement followed by a high rate of responding until the next reinforcement is the characteristic effect of: a) FI schedule b) VI schedule * c) FR schedule d) FR/LH schedule 5. “Reinforcement occurring after a variable number of responses, where the number varies around some mean value” defines the ____________ schedule. * a) variable-ratio b) variable-interval c) variable-ratio-with-limited-hold d) variable-interval-with-limited-hold 6. The advantage of VR over FR in training programs is that: a) reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses are emitted b) a reinforcer is no longer presented following each response c) the VR generates longer pauses and a steady rate of responding * d) the VR generates less pausing and can maintain a high rate with fewer reinforcements 7. “Reinforcement contingent on the first response occurring after a fixed period of time” is the definition of a _____________ schedule. a) fixed-interval-with-limited-hold * b) fixed-ratio c) fixed-interval 8. “Reinforcement contingent on the first response occurring within a limited period of time following the expiration of a fixed interval of time” is the definition of: * a) FI/LH b) FR/LH c) VR/LH d) VI/LH 9. An FI/LH is similar to a simple FI schedule, procedurally, in that in both FI and FI/LH: a) long pauses occur at the beginning of the interval followed by steady responding b) reinforcement remains available for only a limited period of time * c) reinforcement is programmed to occur after the first response after a fixed period of time d) reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses are emitted

130 ..

10. A fairly steady or uniform rate of responding between reinforcements is a characteristic effect of: a) an intermittent schedule b) an FR schedule * c) a VI schedule d) an FI schedule 11. When reinforcement that is contingent on the first response occurs within a limited period of time following another interval of time, which varies around some mean value, a(n) ____________ schedule is in effect. * a) variable interval with limited hold b) fixed interval with limited hold c) variable interval d) fixed interval 12. A characteristic effect of a VI/LH schedule is: a) intermittent responding with very little pausing * b) steady responding with very little pausing c) very occasional responding with very frequent pausing d) steady responding with no pausing 13. A practical advantage of a VI/LH schedule over an FI/LH schedule is that on a VI/LH schedule: a) the behavior is not influenced by outside distractors b) there are very frequent although small pauses spread uniformly throughout the interval c) it is easy to monitor the amount of time spent producing the desirable behavior * d) there is little or no pausing at the beginning of each interval 14. When reinforcement occurs after the behavior has been engaged in for a continuous period of time, where the specified time varies around some mean value, there is a ____________ schedule in effect. a) VR * b) VD c) FR d) VD/LH 15. At home, checking the clothes dryer for dry clothes will eventually be reinforced by the clothes being dry. This would be an approximation of a ____________ schedule. a) fixed-ratio * b) variable-interval c) variable-interval-with-limited-hold d) variable-duration 16. A child pounds pegs into a peg board and is reinforced by getting the pegs level with the board. This is an approximation of a ____________ schedule. a) fixed-duration b) fixed-ratio c) variable-interval * d) variable-ratio 17. If parents reinforce their child’s practicing of a musical instrument by allowing the child a certain amount of TV time following a fixed amount of practice, this is an approximation of a(n) ____________ schedule. * a) FD b) FI c) FI/LH d) VI/LH 18. The statement “The time devoted to an activity in a concurrent situation is proportional to the rate of reinforcement of that activity relative to the rates of reinforcement on the other concurrent activities,” describes: a) performance on a VI/LH b) the concurrent schedule law c) the rate of reinforcement law * d) the matching law

131 ..

19. The response chosen in a concurrent schedule depends on: a) the relative immediacy of reinforcement b) the relative magnitude of reinforcement c) the relative response effort * d) all of the above 20. The behavior of hitchhiking (thumbing to obtain a ride) is reinforced on: a) a VR * b) a VI/LH c) a VD d) a VI 21. In a ___________ procedure, a distinct stimulus is presented prior to an opportunity for a response to occur and be followed by a reinforcement, and the next response cannot occur until another stimulus is presented, and so on. a) free operant b) reinforcement * c) discrete trials d) natural reinforcement

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 22. A fixed-duration schedule would be a very good schedule for reinforcing study behavior.

T 23. The inconsistent use of extinction often results in highly persistent undesirable behavior.

T 24. The behavior of repeatedly dialing a telephone to call a friend whose line is busy is reinforced on an approximation of a VI/LH schedule.

F 25. A teacher might suggest that those students who remain in their desks continuously for a half-hour interval will be allowed ten minutes to read a book of their choice. This is an approximation of VI/LH in a training program.

T 26. In both VD and FD schedules, reinforcement is contingent on engaging in the behavior for a continuous time period.

F 27. A door-to-door salesperson is reinforced on a VI schedule in that a sale is made after some unpredictable number of responses.

T 28. Catching a ride on a bus at a bus stop on a regular city route is probably reinforced on an approximation of an FI/LH schedule.

F 29. Limited hold in an FI/LH schedule can be exemplified by the amount of time a passenger waits at a bus stop for a bus to arrive.

F 30. A VI/LH would not be used to teach students to sit at their desks, as it would generate sitting down and standing up at a high rate.

Multiple Choice Question on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

31. Who wrote the classic authoritative work on schedules of reinforcement? a) Martin and Pear b) Keller and Skinner c) Keller and Watson * d) Ferster and Skinner

132 ..

True/False Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 32. It appears that the presence of rule-governed behavior in humans influences them to make interpretations about schedules of reinforcement that generate behavior patterns that are different from those caused by the same schedules when applied to animals.

F 33. Students are likely to complete less class work and make fewer correct responses when reinforced according to a fixed page condition than a fixed time condition.

T 34. Humans often do not show decreased response rates and pauses in responding where animals typically do on certain schedules of reinforcement.

F 35. Preverbal infants show quite different response patterns on certain schedules of reinforcement than do animals on those same schedules.

T 36. Schedules of reinforcement can help us in understanding the causes of pathological gambling that some might attribute to “inner compulsions.”

133 ..

Chapter 7: Intermittent Reinforcement to Decrease Behavior Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. You are likely to reinforce (by answering pleasantly and with interest) an acquaintance who telephones you if such calls occur at a reasonably low rate, but not if they occur at such a high rate that you feel hassled. You friend is being reinforced on a(n): * a) DRL schedule b) DRO schedule c) DRA schedule d) DRI schedule 2. Reinforcement is given at the end of a session, provided that the number of responses during that session do not exceed some specified limit. This is the definition of: * a) limited-responding DRL b) interval DRL c) spaced-responding DRL d) limited-hold DRL 3. When the session is divided into intervals and reinforcement is given at the end of each interval in which the number of responses do not exceed some specified limit, then a(n) __________ schedule is being applied. a) VI/LH b) spaced-responding DRO c) DRA * d) limited-responding DRL 4. Reinforcement is given immediately after a response during a session, provided that that response is separated from the preceding response by some minimal time period. This refers to a(n): a) FI/LH b) limited-responding DRL c) VI/LH * d) spaced-responding DRL 5. On a(n) ___________ schedule of reinforcement, responding too soon means that the time interval will recycle so that a reinforced response must occur a minimum of a specified interval of time following a preceding response. a) limited-responding DRL b) interval DRL * c) spaced-responding DRL d) limited-hold DRL 6. On a(n) ___________ schedule of reinforcement, responding by the individual before the time interval has passed has no programmed consequences. a) spaced-responding DRL * b) FI c) limited-responding DRL d) FD 7. It would be appropriate to use a DRL schedule of reinforcement when a behavior: * a) occurs at greater than the desired rate b) does not occur c) occurs at very low rates d) is harmful to the client or others 8. On a(n) __________ schedule of reinforcement, a reinforcer is presented if a specified period of time passes and a particular behavior does not occur during that time. a) DRA b) DRI c) DRL * d) DRO 9. Jack works at a job where he is paid by the hour. Jack is being reinforced on a _____________ schedule. a) fixed-ratio b) fixed-interval * c) fixed-duration d) variable-interval

134 ..

10. An individual is reinforced if a target response does not occur throughout a particular interval, and each response typically “resets” the interval back to zero. This refers to a(n) __________ schedule. a) DRI * b) DRO c) DRA d) spaced-responding DRL 11. A ____________ is a schedule for decreasing a response by reinforcing an alternative response that is incompatible with the response to be eliminated. a) DRO b) DRA * c) DRI d) spaced-responding DRL 12. When Suzie plays the slot machines in Las Vegas, her gambling behavior is reinforced on a _______________ schedule. a) variable-interval b) variable-duration c) fixed-ratio * d) variable-ratio 13. A student who studies frequently in order to do well on unannounced pop quizzes in one of her courses is showing the effects of: a) a VI schedule b) a VR schedule * c) a VI/LH schedule d) a VD schedule 14. A procedure that involves extinction of a problem behavior, combined with reinforcing a behavior that is topographically dissimilar to, but not necessarily incompatible with the problem behavior is known as a: a) DRL schedule * b) DRA schedule c) DRO schedule d) DRI schedule

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 15. Limited-responding DRL is useful when two conditions hold: (a) some of the behavior is tolerable, but (b) the behavior must also be engaged in for a fixed period of time.

T 16. Spaced-responding DRL is useful when the behavior you want to reduce is actually desirable, provided it does not occur at too high a rate.

T 17. The “O” in DRO stands for other responding.

F 18. DRL works to the disadvantage of people who are ignorant of its effects by inadvertently reinforcing behavior that is highly undesirable and harmful to others.

T 19. DRA refers to a schedule in which a behavior that is different from, but not necessarily incompatible with, the problem behavior is reinforced and the problem behavior is extinguished.

True/False Question on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 20.

In the program in which Tommy could earn extra playtime at the end of the day for having three or fewer talkouts during class, Tommy’s talkouts may have decreased because the teacher immediately reinforced Tommy for working without talking.

F 21.

In the program in which Tommy could earn extra playtime at the end of the day for having three or fewer talkouts during class, Tommy’s talkouts decreased because of the direct-acting effects of reinforcement of free play at the end of the day when he didn’t talk out.

135 ..

Chapter 8: Doing the Right Thing at the Right Time and Place: Stimulus Discrimination and Stimulus Generalization Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. A ____________ is defined as any physical event or object in one’s immediate surroundings that impinge on one’s sensory receptors and that can affect a behavior. * a) stimulus b) positive reinforcer c) discriminative stimulus d) natural reinforcer 2. A (n) ____________ is that which is correlated with the availability of reinforcement for a particular response. a) conditioned stimulus * b) discriminative stimulus c) warning stimulus d) controlling stimulus 3. When a particular behavior is likely to occur in the presence of a particular stimulus and not others, we say that ____________ exists. a) behavior persistence b) stimulus generalization * c) stimulus control d) stimulus discrimination training 4. Reinforcing a response in the presence of a particular stimulus and extinguishing that response in the presence of some other stimulus is known as: a) an intermittent schedule b) a shaping procedure c) a reinforcer sampling procedure * d) stimulus discrimination training 5. If a child is reinforced for swearing in front of other kids, but not for swearing in the presence of his parents, we would say that the parents are _______________ for swearing. b) a reinforcer * a) an S∆ d) a punisher c) an SD 6. A stimulus that is correlated with the availability of reinforcement for a response is known as: a) a cue b) a controlling stimulus d) an S∆ * c) an SD 7. When two people are eating dinner, the request by one person to pass the salt would be a(n) ________ for the other person to pass the salt. b) controlling stimulus a) S∆ * c) SD d) effective SD 8. A stimulus that is correlated with extinction trials for a particular response is known as: b) a controlling stimulus a) an SD c) a cue * d) an S∆ 9. An “Out of Order” sign on a vending machine is a(n) __________ for the response of putting in money. b) ineffective SD * a) S∆ d) controlling stimulus c) SD

136 ..

10. Which of the following questions are you not likely to ask yourself when you are considering the selection of a stimulus to be set up as an SD for the behavior of another person? a) Can the stimulus be presented primarily on occasions on which the response should occur? b) Is there a high probability that the person will attend to it? * c) Are there a wide variety of reinforcers available that are sufficiently different from one another? d) Is the stimulus sufficiently different from other stimuli on more than one dimension?

11. What do the authors mean by “an error in discrimination training”? b) not responding at all a) failing to respond to the S∆ c) responding to the SD * d) responding to the S∆ 12. In the case of a man who inadvertently enters the women’s washroom, the printed sign on the door “Women” is a(n) _________ for the response of entering, on the part of the man. b) effective S∆ * a) ineffective S∆ D c) effective S d) ineffective SD 13. If a child’s swearing when playing with friends in the street increases as a function of the friends’ natural reactions, then swearing exemplifies: * a) contingency-shaped behavior b) rule-governed behavior c) extrinsic reinforcement d) intrinsic motivation 14. The people, objects, and events currently present in one’s surroundings that can be detected by one’s sense receptors are referred to as: * b) stimuli a) SDs d) antecedents c) S∆s 15. The procedure by which we learn to emit a specific behavior in the presence of some stimuli and not in the presence of other stimuli is called: a) shaping b) stimulus control training * c) stimulus discrimination learning d) contextual control training 16. If a father were to tell his 16-year-old son, “You can use the family car on Saturday if you mow the lawn on Friday,” and if the son mows the lawn on Friday, we would describe the son’s lawn-mowing as: a) contingency shaped behavior b) intrinsically motivated behavior * c) rule-governed behavior d) self-managed behavior 17. When behavior becomes more probable in the presence of one stimulus or situation as a result of having been reinforced in the presence of another stimulus or situation, we say has occurred. that * a) stimulus generalization b) stimulus discrimination c) response generalization d) stimulus control 18. If teaching a child to say “red” in the presence of red objects increases the chances that has occurred. the child will also say “red” to pink objects, we say that a) response generalization * b) stimulus generalization c) stimulus control d) stimulus discrimination 19. Recognizing objects that are red and discriminating them from objects that are green is an example of: * a) conceptual behavior b) response generalization c) a stimulus class d) stimulus generalization

137 ..

20. A child learns that a small green Volkswagen and a large white limousine are both cars, because they share some common features, even though they are very different in many respects. This represents: a) stimulus generalization due to considerable physical similarity b) stimulus generalization due to equivalence classes c) stimulus generalization due to behavioral momentum * d) stimulus generalization involving a stimulus common-element class 21. As a result of learning to match a golf ball to a golf club, and a golf club to a golf bag, a child is now able to match a golf bag to a golf ball without specific training to do so. In this example, the golf ball, the golf club, and the golf bag constitute a(n): a) stimulus class * b) equivalence class c) stimulus common-element class d) response class

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 22.

When a particular behavior is likely to occur in the presence of a particular stimulus and not others, we say that stimulus generalization exists.

T 23.

A man walking toward a door with his arms full of purchases is typically an SD for another person to open the door for him.

F 24.

An Out of Order sign on a vending machine is an SD for the response of putting in the money.

T 25.

An apple, a banana, and a grape are members of a stimulus-equivalence class called food.

F 26.

A stimulus common-element class is made up of stimuli that are physically different but functionally similar.

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED Section

27. As a result of learning to match A to B and B to C, an individual can now match A to C without specific training. This is called: a) stimulus equivalence * b) transitivity c) reflexivity d) symmetry 28. When the general setting alters the manner in which an individual responds to a particular stimulus, then ______________ has been demonstrated. a) stimulus control b) stimulus equivalence * c) contextual control d) stimulus discrimination

True/False Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 29. Stimulus equivalence requires the demonstration of reflexivity, symmetry, and transivity.

F 30. Contextual control refers to a situation where a single stimulus controls a single response in all settings or contexts.

138 ..

Chapter 9: Changing the Control of a Behavior with Fading Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text (Note: * indicates the correct answer) 1. *

The gradual change, on successive trials, of a stimulus that controls a response so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimulus, is known as: a) fading b) stimulus discrimination training c) shaping d) SD - S∆ training

2.

If a parent tries to teach a child to hold a pencil and make a line on a piece of paper by physically guiding the child’s hand, and if over successive trials the physical guidance is gradually lessened to the point where the child will be able to draw a line without any help whatsoever, the parent is using: a) an extinction procedure * b) a fading procedure d) stimulus discrimination training c) SD - S∆ training

3.

Which of the following is not an advantage of establishing stimulus control without errors? a) Errors consume valuable time. b) If an error occurs once, it tends to occur many times even though it is being extinguished. c) Establishing a mastery criterion without errors leads to increased generalization. d) The absence of reinforcement when errors are being extinguished often produces emotional side effects.

*

4.

A stimulus that you want to eventually control a target behavior is called a(n): a) effective stimulus b) training stimulus c) starting stimulus * d) final desired stimulus

5.

The initial stimulus that reliably evokes the desired behavior at the start of a fading program is known as the: a) effective stimulus *b) starting stimulus c) discriminative stimulus d) target stimulus

6.

George teaches his dog to bring him the morning newspaper by first reinforcing the dog for sniffing at the paper, then for picking it up in its mouth, then for carrying it a few steps, and finally for bringing it all the way to him. George’s procedure exemplifies: a) fading b) stimulus discrimination training c) intermittent reinforcement * d) none of the above

7.

When a teacher alters the characteristics of the SD or the S∆ to make them more noticeable and therefore easier to discriminate during discrimination training with a child, the teacher is using a(n): a) extra-stimulus prompt b) physical prompt c) within-stimulus prompt d) modelling prompt

* 8.

Which of the following is not a major category of prompts? a) verbal prompts * b) psychological prompts c) gestural prompts d) physical prompts

9.

The procedure in which the response remains the same over trials while the controlling stimulus is gradually changed is called: a) method of successive approximation b) shaping c) stimulus discrimination training * d) fading

139 ..

10. Susan praises her child for saying “please” before being given a treat and for saying “thank you” after receiving the treat. Susan’s procedure exemplifies: * a) stimulus discrimination training b) extinction c) fading d) intermittent reinforcement 11. When a teacher demonstrates a correct behavior, the teacher is using a(n): a) physical prompt b) environmental prompt c) verbal prompt * d) modelling prompt 12. While teaching a child to obtain the appropriate colored object when the teacher said either “blue” or “green,” the teacher’s pointing to the correct object on a trial would be an example of: a) a physical prompt b) an environmental prompt * c) a gestural prompt d) a modeling prompt 13. When teaching a child the correct position of the knife, fork, and spoon at a place setting at a dinner table, the teacher initially draws the location of the utensils on a place mat, and then fades out the drawing over trials. The drawing on the place mat is a(n): * a) extra-stimulus prompt b) within-stimulus prompt c) physical prompt d) time-delay prompt

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 14. It is advantageous to establish stimulus control without errors because errors consume valuable time.

F 15. In fading, the response gradually changes, while the general stimulus situation remains essentially the same.

T 16. Movements a teacher makes without touching the student in order to evoke a desired behavior are called “gestural” prompts.

F 17. No more than 4 reinforced trials should occur at any given fading step before the stimuli of that particular step are changed.

T 18. Fading is a gradual change on successive trials of a stimulus that controls a response, so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimuli.

F 19. Another name for errorless learning is shaping.

T 20. Any characteristic of a stimulus that can be measured on some continuum is referred to as a dimension of a stimulus.

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

21. The method of removing prompts in which a starting stimulus that reliably evokes the response is gradually changed until the response is evoked by the final desired stimulus is known as the method of: a) increasing assistance * b) decreasing assistance c) graduated guidance d) time delay

140 ..

22. The method of removing prompts in which the time interval between the final desired stimulus and the starting stimulus is gradually increased from a very small starting value is called the method of: a) increasing time b) decreasing time c) graduated guidance * d) time delay

141 ..

Chapter 10: Getting a New Behavior to Occur With Shaping Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text 1. *

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

What one word characterizes all of the variables plotted on the vertical axis of all of the graphs in this text thus far? a) time b) interval c) behavior d) average

2.

Shaping is referred to as the method of: a) intermittent reinforcement c) contingency adjustment

3.

The form or spatial configuration of a behavior is referred to as: a) latency of behavior b) amount of behavior c) frequency of behavior * d) topography of behavior

4.

The procedure used for developing a new behavior by successively reinforcing closer approximations and extinguishing preceding approximations to achieve a final desired behavior is called: a) intermittent reinforcement * b) shaping c) fading d) discrimination training

5.

Shaping is a procedure that involves two basic principles, namely: a) intermittent reinforcement and extinction b) continuous reinforcement and instructions c) positive reinforcement and extinction d) reinforcer sampling and Premack principle

*

* b) successive approximations d) self-instruction

6. *

A guideline for effective application of shaping is to: a) never move to a new approximation until the student has mastered the previous approximation b) overtrain at each approximation to ensure mastery c) reinforce each approximation about 4 times before moving on to the next approximation d) make each approximation somewhat difficult to avoid boredom

7.

Which of the following is not one of the three stages of a shaping program? a) specify the final desired behavior b) identify a starting response to work toward the final desired behavior c) extinguish behaviors that interfere with the shaping program d) reinforce the starting response, and then closer and closer approximations to the final desired behavior

*

8.

A child is reinforced for saying “wa-wa,” then “watah,” and finally, “water.” In this example, ______________ has been shaped. a) frequency *b) topography c) amount d) intensity

9.

Across several golf practices, a golfer is reinforced for hitting five shots, then seven shots, then ten shots, and then fifteen shots. This is an example of ____________ shaping. a) topography b) duration c) intensity * d) frequency

142 ..

10. Across several practices, a swimmer is reinforced for starting more and more quickly to the sound of the starter’s pistol. This is an example of ____________ shaping. a) duration b) intensity * c) latency d) topography 11. Shaping would not be the procedure of choice for: a) changing the topography of a behavior * b) linking a series of responses together c) increasing the frequency of a behavior d) decreasing the latency of a behavior 12. Sally tells her dog to sit while pressing down on the dog’s rump. When the dog is in a complete sitting position, she gives it a dog biscuit. Over trials, Sally pushes the dog down with less and less force until eventually it is sitting on command. Sally’s procedure exemplifies: a) shaping * b) fading c) stimulus discrimination training d) intermittent reinforcement 13. Tom teaches his dog to sit on a particular area of the carpet in his living room by first reinforcing the dog for being anywhere in the living room, then for being within approximately six feet of that specific area, then for being within approximately three feet of the area, and finally only when the dog is sitting on that particular area. Tom’s procedure exemplifies: a) fading b) chaining * c) shaping d) intermittent reinforcement

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 14. Another name for shaping is the method of spontaneous recovery.

T 15. In starting a shaping procedure, it’s difficult to know if you have enough successive approximations, so you simply give it your best guess and then try out the program.

F 16. Although it is necessary to avoid under-reinforcement at any step in a shaping program, it is not necessary to worry about reinforcing too many times at any step.

T 17. The time between the occurrence of a stimulus and the beginning of a response is referred to as latency.

F 18. Gradually lengthening the time of studying before taking a break would be an example of frequency shaping.

T 19. The intensity of a response refers to the physical effect the response has on the environment.

F 20. The amount of a particular behavior refers to either its frequency or its intensity.

True/False Question on N&ED

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 21. Displaying information for a person about that person’s physiological processes is called biofeedback.

143 ..

Chapter 11: Getting a New Sequence of Behaviors to Occur with Behavioral Chaining (Note: * indicates the correct answer)

Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text 1. *

A sequence of SDs and Rs in which each R produces the SD for the next R with the entire sequence followed by a reinforcer is referred to as: a) a behavioral chain b) shaping c) fading d) stimulus discrimination training

2.

You pour a cup of coffee. You add sugar and then cream. You stir the coffee and then take a sip. The taste of the coffee with the cream and sugar is the reinforcer. This is an example of: a) stimulus shaping b) shaping c) a stimulus discrimination * d) a stimulus-response chain

3.

In a behavioral chain, a given stimulus is both: a) an S∆ and a generalized reinforcer b) an SD and a conditioned reinforcer c) a stimulus and a target stimulus d) a primary reinforcer and a conditioned reinforcer

*

4.

A chaining method in which the client is required to attempt each of the steps in the chain from the beginning to the end on each trial is referred to as: a) forward chaining * b) total task presentation chaining c) pure part chaining d) backward chaining

5.

When the initial step of a sequence is taught first, then the first and second steps are taught and linked together, then the first three steps, and so on until the entire chain is acquired, this process describes: a) pure part chaining * b) forward chaining c) backward chaining d) total task presentation chaining

6.

Which of the chaining methods requires the trainer to spend less time in partial assembly or disassembly to prepare the task for training? a) forward chaining b) backward chaining c) total task presentation chaining d) pure part chaining

* 7.

In ___________, the end result of the procedure is some new stimulus control of a particular behavior. a) shaping * b) fading c) chaining d) prompting

8.

When the goal of a program is to develop some new behavior along some physical dimension such as force, form, or duration, one should use: a) fading * b) shaping c) chaining d) prompting

9.

With _________, the terminal behavior is a new sequence of responses, with a “clear-cut” stimulus signalling the end of each response and the start of the next. a) fading b) shaping c) chaining d) prompting

*

144 ..

10. The process of breaking a task down into smaller steps or component responses to facilitate training refers to: a) forward chaining b) motivating operation c) pure part chaining * d) task analysis 11. A teacher gradually withdraws her physical guidance that was used to help a nursery school child learn to trace the letter “A.” Eventually the child can trace the letter by herself. This is an example of: a) chaining b) shaping c) prompting * d) fading 12. Always having a readily available conditioned reinforcer to strengthen each new response that is added to the sequence in the chain is a theoretical advantage of: a) forward chaining * b) backward chaining c) total task presentation chaining d) pure part chaining 13. In backward chaining, the response that is closest to the main reinforcer: a) is slowly faded in b) is conditioned last * c) is conditioned first d) is slowly faded out

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 14. A behavioral chain is called a chain because it consists of stimulus-response “links” that are connected or “chained” together.

T 15. After many trials, the stimulus that occurs immediately following each step in a chain eventually becomes both a conditioned reinforcer for the response that produced that stimulus and an SD for the following response.

F 16. The authors recommend backward chaining as the preferred chaining procedure because it appears to focus on teaching response topography and response sequence simultaneously.

T 17. You should begin training a behavioral chain by providing whatever assistance is necessary for the client to perform each of the steps on every trial.

F 18. Feeding a person very salty food, which would establish water as a reinforcer and also evoke behavior such as asking for a drink (that has been reinforced by receipt of water), is an example of forward chaining.

F 19. An adventitious chain is one in which each response component of the chain is necessary for reinforcement.

Multiple Choice Question on N&ED

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

20. In one type of chaining, different parts of the chain are taught separately and then all are combined to form a whole. This is called: a) forward chaining * b) pure part chaining c) backward chaining d) total task chaining

145 ..

True/False Questions on N&ED

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 21. In a long behavioral chain, the stimuli at the beginning of the chain begin to take on the properties of SΔs, and their quality of being SDs decreases.

146 ..

Chapter 12: Eliminating Inappropriate Behavior Through Punishment Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1.

An event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to decrease in frequency, is referred to as a(n): * b) punisher a) SD c) primary reinforcer d) natural reinforcer

2.

Punishers that activate pain receptors or other sense receptors that typically evoke feelings of discomfort are included in the category of: a) physical punishment b) time-outs c) reprimands d) response cost

* 3. *

Placing a child in a relatively barren room for a brief period of time is an example of: a) physical punishment b) reprimands c) time-out d) response cost

4.

Strong negative verbal stimuli make up the category of: a) physical punishment b) response cost c) time-out * d) reprimands

5.

A traffic ticket is an example of: a) physical punishment c) time-out

6.

A stimulus that was not originally punishing, but that acquired punishing power through association with other punishers is the definition of: * b) a conditioned punisher a) an S∆ c) a reprimand d) a non-exclusionary time-out

7.

Removing the individual for a short time from the situation in which reinforcement is occurring is classified as: a) non-exclusionary time-out b) response cost c) exclusionary time-out d) negative reinforcement

*

b) reprimands * d) response cost

8.

Introducing into the situation a stimulus associated with less reinforcement is referred to as: a) response cost b) exclusionary time-out c) negative reinforcement * d) non-exclusionary time-out

9.

If a teacher is unable to detect most instances of a behavior to be punished, then the teacher should have serious doubts about the value of implementing a punishment procedure because: a) the student seems to get used to the punisher and can put up with more of it b) intermittent punishment is less effective than continuous punishment c) you cannot apply an experimental test to this type of situation to detect all instances of the undesirable behavior d) this increases the likelihood that the punisher will become a positive reinforcer

*

147 ..

10. Parents with good intentions might say to their child, “That was good, but...” and then proceed to explain how the behavior could have been even better. Although they hope to be instructional, they are probably unintentionally applying: a) shaping b) positive reinforcement * c) punishment d) fading 11. In non-exclusionary time-out, the individual is: a) taken away to a time-out area b) ignored while still in the problem situation * c) timed out in the problem situation d) removed from reinforcement 12. As a consequence of coming home later than an agreed-upon curfew, a teenager loses the privilege of driving the family car for one week. This exemplifies: a) negative reinforcement b) time-out c) physical punishment * d) response cost 13. Punishment is the same as: a) negative reinforcement c) avoidance conditioning

b) escape conditioning * d) none of the above

14. To increase an operant behavior, you can: a) punish it * b) negatively reinforce it c) withhold reinforcement following the behavior d) positively reinforce an incompatible behavior 15. When many of us were children, we learned that asking our parents for treats when they were in a bad mood usually led to a reprimand. The parental behaviors characteristic of “being in a bad mood” would be referred to as a(n): b) S∆ c) CS * d) SDp a) SD 16. The view that, in some cases, it is desirable to use quicker-acting punishment procedures to decrease problem behavior rather than slower-acting procedures involving positive reinforcement of alternative behavior, is referred to as the ____________ position. a) freedom from harm * b) right to effective treatment c) functional communication d) positive behavior support

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 17. The principle of punishment states: If, in a given situation, somebody does something that is immediately followed by the withdrawal of a punisher, then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.

T 18. A factor influencing the effectiveness of punishment consists of minimizing the causes of the response to be punished. This is typically done by eliminating the SDs that prompt the undesirable behavior and eliminating reinforcement contingencies that have been maintaining it.

F 19. A common example of response cost that is applied as a punishment by parents to their children is sending children to their room as a punisher for undesirable behavior emitted elsewhere in the house.

T 20. Response cost involves removal of a specified amount of a reinforcer contingent upon a response.

F 21. An SD is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be punished.

148 ..

T 22. An S∆ is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will not be reinforced.

F 23. The “right to effective treatment” position is that non-aversive methods for eliminating unacceptable behavior are always at least as effective as punishment, and that there is never any justification for using pain-inducing punishment.

T 24. A procedure called “functional communication training “ is one in which children with developmental disabilities are taught a simple communicative response as an alternative to self-abuse in order to obtain staff attention.

True/False Question on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 25. The decision to use or not use pain-inducing punishment in a particular case requires considerable professional training and expertise and should not be made by unqualified individuals.

149 ..

Chapter 13: Establishing Behavior by Escape and Avoidance Conditioning Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text 1. * 2. *

3. *

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

Both escape conditioning and the punishment procedure employ: a) differential reinforcement b) exclusionary time-outs c) aversive events d) negative reinforcement Which procedures both increase the likelihood of the target response? a) punishment and escape conditioning b) positive reinforcement and escape conditioning c) positive reinforcement and punishment d) punishment and avoidance conditioning Another name for “conditioned aversive stimulus” is: b) natural punisher a) S∆ c) warning stimulus d) extrinsic punisher

4. *

Why do individuals reinforce the undesirable behavior of others? a) the undesirable behavior is an aversive event which reinforcement terminates (for a while) b) these individuals are reinforced by other individuals’ failures c) we learn more from our mistakes than from our successes d) the undesirable behavior is undergoing shaping

5.

If you use escape conditioning to change a behavior, the behavior is likely to ______________. a) remain the same b) completely stop c) decrease * d) increase

6.

One of the results of avoidance conditioning is that: a) it easily generalizes to other situations b) responding decreases very slowly when the backup aversive stimulus may no longer be forthcoming c) the results last only for a short time d) the aversive stimulus must be presented before the avoidance response will occur

*

7. *

When an aversive stimulus is presented after a response and the response decreases in frequency, this procedure is called: a) response cost b) negative reinforcement c) punishment d) all of the above

8.

Suppose that a parent says to a child, “Clean your room or you can’t watch TV,” and the child cleans his room. This is an example of: a) contingency shaped behavior b) Sidman avoidance conditioning c) punishment * d) rule-governed behavior

9.

A type of avoidance conditioning that includes a warning stimulus that signals a forthcoming aversive stimulus is referred to as: a) Sidman avoidance conditioning b) non-discriminated avoidance conditioning c) discriminated avoidance conditioning d) rule-governed avoidance conditioning

*

150 ..

10. A child screams loudly in a restaurant, causing some embarrassment for the parent. The parent gives the child an extra dessert, and the child is quiet. The parent’s behavior of giving the extra dessert has been influenced by: a) avoidance conditioning * b) escape conditioning c) Sidman avoidance conditioning d) punishment 11. In a state where it is the law to wear seatbelts while driving, a person does not “buckle-up” when starting for work in the morning. But when that person sees a police car just ahead, the person quickly buckles up. That person’s “buckling-up” behavior has been influenced by: * a) avoidance conditioning b) escape conditioning c) Sidman avoidance conditioning d) punishment 12. Another name for escape conditioning is: a) punishment * b) negative reinforcement c) discriminated avoidance conditioning d) Sidman escape conditioning 13. Escape conditioning and positive reinforcement are similar in that: a) both involve aversive events b) both involve reinforcers * c) both lead to an increase in the likelihood of behavior d) both cause fear as a side effect

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 14. In avoidance conditioning, the response prevents or postpones the aversive stimulus rather than removing it.

F 15. Conditioned aversive stimulus is another name for response cost.

F 16. In escape conditioning, the aversive stimulus is not present prior to the occurrence of the response, and the response prevents (or postpones) the aversive stimulus rather than removing it.

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

17. An avoidance schedule in which occasional aversive events are postponed by the emission of a response and in which no warning stimulus signals the impending occurrence of an aversive event is referred to as: * a) Sidman avoidance conditioning b) passive avoidance conditioning c) escape conditioning d) negative reinforcement 18. In a city where frequent, unpredictable rain showers occur, carrying an umbrella to work each morning, even though the sky is clear, might be an example of: a) negative reinforcement b) passive avoidance conditioning * c) Sidman avoidance conditioning d) escape conditioning

151 ..

Chapter 14: Procedures Based on Principles of Respondent Conditioning Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text 1. *

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

That behavior can be modified by its consequences is the basic tenet of: a) respondent conditioning b) respondent extinction c) operant conditioning d) aversion therapy

2.

If a stimulus (that does not elicit a particular response) is closely followed in time by a second stimulus that elicits a particular response, then the first stimulus will come to elicit the response that was elicited by the second stimulus. This is the definition of the principle of: a) positive reinforcement b) operant conditioning c) counterconditioning * d) respondent conditioning

3.

If a conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented without further pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, the CS will gradually lose its capacity to elicit the conditioned response. This is the definition of: a) respondent conditioning * b) respondent extinction c) counterconditioning d) operant extinction

4. *

A stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning or conditioning is called a(n): a) unconditioned stimulus b) discriminative stimulus c) conditioned stimulus d) establishing stimulus

5. *

When a person salivates at the sight of food, the response of salivating is classified as a(n): a) conditioned response b) conditioned reflex c) unconditioned response d) unconditioned reflex

6.

Over several meals, classical music is played at the dinner table. Eventually, classical music is played without pairing it with food, and the person who ate at that dinner table begins salivating. In this example, the sound of classical music became a: a) conditioned stimulus b) conditioned reflex c) conditioned response d) conditioned reinforcer

* 7.

Repeatedly pairing an undesirable reinforcer with an aversive event, such as pairing alcohol with a drug that elicits vomiting, is the basic procedure of: a) operant conditioning * b) aversion therapy c) respondent extinction d) counterconditioning

8.

In Pavlovian conditioning, the CS acquires greater ability to elicit a CR if: a) the CS is occasionally paired with the US b) the CS follows the US by a few seconds c) the CS is always paired with the US d) the CS is occasionally paired with a strong US

* 9.

A new response is conditioned to the conditioned stimulus at the same time that the former conditioned response is being extinguished. This process is called: a) respondent extinction b) operant extinction c) aversion therapy * d) counterconditioning

152 ..

10. A conditioned stimulus (e.g., the sound of a bell) is no longer followed by the taste of food.

After several trials, the conditioned response of salivating no longer occurs at the sound of the bell. If the sound of the bell is later presented, __________________ may occur. * a) spontaneous recovery b) respondent conditioning c) respondent extinction d) response generalization 11. When you open the cupboard door to get cat food, your cats come running to the kitchen, where they are typically fed. This illustrates the effect of: a) respondent conditioning * b) operant conditioning c) counterconditioning d) modeling 12. When food is presented to a dog, the dog salivates. We would say that the stimulus has ________________ the response. a) evoked b) emitted c) cued * d) elicited 13. In Pavlovian conditioning, the CS acquires greater ability to elicit a CR if: a) the CS consistently follows the US by a few seconds b) the CS is occasionally paired with the US * c) the CS consistently precedes the US by a few seconds d) the CS is occasionally paired with a strong US 14. During driver education, the person learning to drive is reinforced by the teacher each time that the person stops appropriately at red traffic lights and continues to drive at green traffic lights. Subsequently, if the light is red, the driver stops. We would say that the red light has ____________ the appropriate response. * a) evoked b) emitted c) cued d) elicited 15. The loud barking of a dog causes a child to experience fear. If sight of the dog now elicits fear, then the sight of the dog is called a ______, and the fear is called the ______. a) US, CR b) CS, UR c) US, UR * d) CS, CR 16. Suppose that an adult has a chronic problem with constipation. During treatment, each morning the adult inserts a suppository, reads the morning paper, and in a few minutes experiences a bowel movement. After a month of this procedure, the bowel movement occurs after reading the paper. In this example, the CS is: * a) reading the paper b) the bowel movement to the suppository c) the suppository d) the bowel movement to reading the paper 17. For children who suffer from enuresis (chronic bedwetting), the pressure from a full bladder when the child is asleep is not sufficient to cause the child to awaken. An apparatus is wired to the child’s bed such that when the child urinates during the night, a tone sounds to awaken the child. Eventually the child learns to awaken to pressure on the bladder, and can then urinate in the toilet. In this example, the CR is: a) awakening to the tone b) urinating in the bed c) urinating in the toilet * d) awakening to pressure on the bladder

153 ..

18. In one type of aversion therapy with alcoholics, a drug is added to an alcoholic beverage so that sipping the beverage causes nausea. Eventually, just the sight and smell of the beverage causes nausea, which hopefully decreases excessive drinking of alcohol. In this treatment, the CS is: a) the drug that causes nausea b) the nausea that occurs to the smell of the drink * c) the smell of the drink d) the nausea that occurs to the drug 19. Behaviors that are elicited by prior stimuli and are not affected by their consequences are called: a) operant behaviors * b) respondent behaviors c) unconditioned behaviors d) conditioned behaviors 20. A stimulus-response relationship in which a stimulus automatically elicits a response apart from any prior learning defines a) a conditioned reflex b) operant conditioning c) respondent conditioning * d) an unconditioned reflex 21. Respondent conditioning will develop more quickly and strongly when: * a) the CS or US or both are intense rather than weak b) the CS follows the US by about a half a second, rather than preceding it c) both the CS and the US are weak rather than intense d) the CS is paired with the US just once rather than many times

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 22. A conditioned response may be eliminated more effectively if a new response is conditioned to the conditioned stimulus at the same time that the former conditioned response is being extinguished.

F 23. Behaviors that are controlled by their consequences are called respondent behaviors.

F 24. A conditioned stimulus is said to evoke a conditioned response.

T 25. A stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning is called an unconditioned stimulus.

F 26. Stronger conditioning occurs if the CS just follows the US by up to a few seconds, rather than by preceding the US. T 27. When several neutral stimuli precede a US, the stimulus that is most consistently associated with the US is the one most likely to become a strong CS.

True/False Question on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 28. It is possible to demonstrate that a neutral stimulus like saccharine can be conditioned to suppress immune system functioning through Pavlovian conditioning procedures.

154 ..

Chapter 15: Respondent and Operant Conditioning Together Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text 1.

*

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

A child is approached by a dog and is knocked down, which causes fear. The next time the child sees a dog, the child experiences fear, which subsides when the child runs away from the dog. The child’s fear of the sight of the dog was caused by: a) operant conditioning b) escape conditioning c) respondent conditioning d) avoidance conditioning

2.

A child is approached by a dog and is knocked down, which causes fear. The next time the child sees a dog, the child experiences fear, which subsides when the child runs away from the dog. The child’s running away from the dog is maintained by: a) operant conditioning * b) escape conditioning c) respondent conditioning d) avoidance conditioning

3.

The child hears the bell (which rings continuously) of an ice cream wagon, goes out to the street and buys ice cream, bites the ice cream, and salivates. The sound of the bell will for the response of salivation. become a(n) a) CS b) US c) CR d) SD

* 4.

The child hears the bell (which rings continuously) of an ice cream wagon, goes out to the street and buys ice cream, bites the ice cream, and salivates. The sound of the bell will for going to the street to buy ice cream. become a(n) a) CS b) US c) CR *d) SD

5.

The autonomic reaction that you feel inside during the experience of an emotion is influenced by: a) operant conditioning * b) respondent conditioning c) avoidance conditioning d) escape conditioning

6.

The way that you learn to express an emotion is influenced by: a) avoidance conditioning b) respondent conditioning c) operant conditioning d) escape conditioning

* 7.

The way that you become aware of and describe your emotions is influenced by: a) avoidance conditioning b) respondent conditioning c) escape conditioning * d) operant conditioning

8.

Suppose, on seeing the host at a party, you think to yourself, “He has a big nose.” This would be an example of: a) operant thinking b) respondent thinking c) conditioned seeing d) conditioned sensing

* 9. *

Suppose, on a warm summer day, you close your eyes and imagine that you are at the beach, and you visualize a good looking person in a bathing suit. This is an example of: a) operant thinking b) operant feelings c) respondent thinking d) respondent feelings

10. The emotion called joy (or happiness) is caused by: a) presentation of aversive stimuli b) withdrawal of aversive stimuli * c) presentation of reinforcers d) withdrawal of reinforcers 155 ..

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 11. The respondent component of emotions involves that part of our nervous system referred to as the somatic nervous system.

F 12. In studies of newborn infants, sudden loss of support and loud sounds are CSs for fear.

T 13. For most of us, an imminent deadline that we have not yet responded to is a CS for anxiety.

T 14. The feeling component of our emotions is controlled by respondent conditioning.

T 15. In studies of newborn infants, hampering an infant’s movements is a US for anger.

F 16. In studies of newborn infants, tickling and gentle rocking are CSs for joy.

T 17. Withdrawal of reinforcers causes the emotion called anger.

F 18. Withdrawal of punishing events causes an emotion called anxiety.

F 19. Conditioned sensing involves the operant component of thinking.

T 20. Conditioned seeing involves the respondent component of thinking.

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

21. A form of aversion therapy in which an undesirable reinforcer is repeatedly paired with an aversive event is referred to as: a) thought stopping b) conditioned sensing c) aversive conditioning * d) covert sensitization 22. The procedure of covert sensitization was developed by: * a) Cautella b) Skinner c) Bandura

156 ..

d) Pavlov

Chapter 16: Transferring Behavior to New Settings and Making It Last: Generality of Behavior Change Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. When behavior becomes more probable in the presence of one stimulus or situation as a result of having been reinforced in the presence of another stimulus or situation, we say that ______________ has occurred. * a) stimulus generalization b) response generalization c) stimulus discrimination d) stimulus control 2. If teaching a child to say “dog” in the presence of a small brown dog increases the chances that the child will also say “dog” to small black dogs and large white dogs, we say that ______________ has occurred. a) response generalization b) stimulus control * c) stimulus generalization d) stimulus discrimination 3. When the probability of the behavior is different in the presence of two different stimuli or situations, _____________ is occurring. a) stimulus generalization * b) stimulus discrimination c) stimulus shaping d) stimulus satiation 4. When a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of a stimulus or situation as a result of a similar behavior having been strengthened in the presence of that stimulus or situation, __________________ has occurred. a) stimulus generalization b) stimulus shaping c) stimulus discrimination * d) response generalization 5. Which of the following is not a tactic for programming stimulus generalization? a) making the training situation as similar as possible to the test situation, and if possible, training in the test situation b) programming common stimuli by developing the target behavior to stimuli that are present in both training and test situations * c) training sufficient response exemplars d) training sufficient stimulus exemplars 6. Training sufficient response exemplars, and varying the responses that are acceptable during training to increase the probability of a variety of responses occurring in the test situation are two tactics for: a) recruiting natural communities of reinforcement b) programming behavior maintenance c) stimulus discrimination training * d) programming response generalization 7. Which of the following behaviors is not a tactic for programming behavior maintenance? * a) varying the acceptable behaviors during training to increase the probability of a variety of behaviors occurring in the test situation b) teaching people in the natural environment to maintain the target behavior of the subject; c) deliberately reinforcing the target behavior in the test situation on an intermittent schedule of reinforcement d) ensuring that the target behavior comes under the control of reinforcers in the natural environment

157 ..

8. Developing a behavior that comes under the control of natural contingencies of reinforcement so that the behavior will persist after the training contingencies are withdrawn is called: a) recruiting reinforcement b) behavioral persistence * c) behavioral trapping d) behavior control 9. If a behavior is maintained in the natural environment because the subject has been explicitly taught how to obtain reinforcement from individuals (after emitting the target behavior), we say that ___________________ has occurred. a) response generalization b) behavioral trapping c) stimulus generalization * d) recruiting reinforcement 10. A child who calls all four-legged animals “dogs” is exhibiting _____________________. a) stimulus equivalence b) response generalization * c) stimulus generalization d) response maintenance 11. After learning to call her dog “Doggie,” a baby also refers to her dog as “Dogged,” “Dada,” and “Diggy.” The child is exhibiting ___________________. a) stimulus discrimination * b) response generalization c) stimulus generalization d) stimulus equivalence 12. Generalization within members of the same stimulus class, and discrimination among members of different stimulus classes, refers to: * a) conceptual behavior b) a stimulus class c) response generalization d) stimulus generalization 13. Within a behavioral approach, a concept is: a) a response class * b) a stimulus class c) a mental representation of objects d) response generalization 14. An infant learns to say “doggy” to a large dog. Later, the infant sees a different kind of dog and says “doggy.” This represents stimulus generalization due to: a) conceptual learning b) stimulus equivalence training * c) physical similarity d) behavioral momentum 15. A child learns that a tiny Chihuahua and a large German Shepherd are both dogs, because they share some common features, even though they are very different in many respects.

This represents: a) stimulus generalization due to physical similarity b) stimulus generalization due to equivalence classes c) stimulus generalization due to behavioral momentum * d) stimulus generalization due to a stimulus common-element class 16. As a result of learning to match A to B, B to C, and C to D, an individual now matches A to D without specific training to do so. In this example, A, B, C, and D constitute a(n): * a) equivalence class b) reinforcer class c) stimulus common-element class d) response class 17. One can heat water by placing a tin of it over a campfire, plugging in an electric kettle, or placing a hot rock into a can of water. These alternatives constitute: a) a stimulus equivalence class b) functionally equivalent stimuli c) a concept * d) functionally equivalent responses

158 ..

18. Adding “ed” to the ends of verbs to indicate past tense illustrates: a) stimulus generalization due to conceptual learning * b) response generalization due to minimal physical similarity c) response generalization due to equivalence classes d) stimulus generalization due to equivalence classes 19. Suppose that a child is typically noncompliant when asked to do a particular task. The teacher therefore asks the child to perform three tasks in succession that the child likes to do, and then asks the child to perform the task on which he is noncompliant. As a result of this procedure, the child performs all four tasks. This illustrates: a) response generalization * b) behavioral momentum c) stimulus generalization d) behavior maintenance

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 20.

In stimulus generalization, an individual makes a different response to two different stimuli, whereas in stimulus discrimination, an individual makes the same response to two different stimuli.

T 21.

Stimulus generalization refers to the transfer of a particular behavior to different stimuli, whereas response generalization refers to transfer between responses in a particular setting.

F 22.

Making the training situation as different as possible from target situations is a tactic for programming stimulus generalization.

Multiple Choice Question on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

23. The more reinforcement that occurs in a given situation in which a response is reinforced, the more resistant to disruption that response will be in that situation. This is referred to as: a) response generalization * b) behavioral momentum c) stimulus generalization d) behavioral maintenance

159 ..

Chapter 17: Antecedent Control: Rules and Goals Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text (Note: * indicates the correct answer) 1. On Monday, a parent says to a child, “If you clean your room each Saturday morning, I’ll give you two dollars.” The next Saturday, the child cleans his room. This illustrates an example of: a) a functional response-reinforcer relationship b) natural reinforcement * c) rule-governed behavior d) contingency-shaped behavior 2. If you tell someone to stop eating candies and the person stops, then that would be an example of: a) extinction b) spontaneous recovery c) contingency-shaped behavior * d) rule-governed behavior 3. A behavior that has been gradually strengthened by the direct-acting effects of reinforcement is said to be: * a) contingency shaped b) stimulus controlled c) rule-governed d) instinctive 4. Rule-governed control over behavior is especially effective when: a) rapid behavior change is desirable b) a specific behavior will lead to immediate and severe punishment c) natural consequences for that behavior are delayed * d) all of the above 5. A parent says to a child, “If you study for an hour each night this week you can watch the late movie on Friday night.” This example involves a(n): * a) indirect-acting reinforcer b) direct-acting reinforcer c) natural reinforcer d) unconditioned reinforcer 6. Very few people follow the rule “Always wear a helmet when riding a bicycle in order to avoid brain damage from a serious accident” because: a) there are not enough police officers to adequately enforce it b) the consequences are very delayed c) the consequences are only cumulatively significant * d) the consequences are highly improbable 7. Few people follow the rule “Floss your teeth everyday to prevent tooth decay” because: * a) the consequences of a single such action are too small to be noticed and are only of cumulative significance b) the consequences for doing so are highly improbable c) the consequences for doing so are very delayed d) there are no consequences for doing so 8. A description of a three-term contingency is referred to as a(n): a) partial rule b) rule-governed behavior c) contingency shaped behavior * d) rule

160 ..

9. The partial rule “drive slowly” identifies the: a) antecedent b) antecedent and behavior * c) behavior d) consequence 10. When you are at home, you are more likely to follow career-related advice given by your friend than by a stranger, but when you are in a foreign city, you are more likely to follow directions to find a particular restaurant when given by a stranger than by your friend. The location in these instances is called a(n): b)S∆ c) conditioned stimulus * d) context cue a) SD 11. Which of the following is not accurate? * a) “Do your best” goals are more effective than challenging goals. b) Specific goals are more effective than vague goals. c) Public goals are more effective than private goals. d) Goal-setting is more effective if deadlines are included.

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 12.

Rules that do not contain deadlines are about as effective as rules that do contain deadlines.

T 13.

Use of goals to influence performance capitalizes on rule-governed control over behavior.

F 14.

“Do your best” goals are more effective than specific challenging goals.

T 15.

Public goals are more effective than private goals.

True/False Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 16.

Exercising just before going to bed is a recommendation of behavioral sleep therapy.

T 17.

A recommendation of behavioral sleep therapy is that one should not consume caffeine or alcohol late in the evening.

F 18.

A recommendation of behavioral sleep therapy is that one should go to bed at the same time each evening, even if you don’t feel sleepy.

T 19. A recommendation of behavioral sleep therapy is that one should get up at the same time each morning, regardless of the time that you went to bed.

161 ..

Chapter 18: Antecedent Control: Modeling, Guidance, and Situational Inducement Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. Which of the following procedures would you probably use if you wanted to decrease an excessive behavior? * a) operant extinction b) respondent extinction c) shaping d) fading 2. The presentation of modeling scenes through film, videotape, and other media is called: a) implosive therapy b) participant modeling * c) symbolic modeling d) generalized imitation 3. Presenting physical contact to guide someone through appropriate behavior is called: a) gestural prompting b) participant modeling c) modeling * d) physical guidance 4. The term _________________ involves influencing a particular behavior by using situations and occasions that already exert control over the behavior. * a) situational inducement b) participant modeling c) rule-governed behavior d) generalized imitation 5. A close synonym for the term “situational inducement” is: a) motivating operation b) participant modeling * c) environmental prompting d) physical prompting 6. Which of the following is not a proposed category of situational inducement? a) relocating people * b) counterconditioning c) moving the activity to a new location d) changing the time of the activity 7. It is said that the famous writer Victor Hugo controlled his work habits in his study by having his servant take his clothes away and not bring them back until the end of the day.

This is an example of: a) counterconditioning b) response cost c) symbolic modeling * d) situational inducement 8. According to the proposed guidelines for the use of instruction, modeling, and physical guidance, what behavioral principle is used with all three procedures? * a) positive reinforcement b) shaping c) response cost d) fading 9. A parent tells a child, “If you clean your room every night before you go to bed this week, I’ll take you to a movie on Saturday,” and the child complies. This exemplifies: a) situational inducement b) environmental prompting c) contingency-shaped behavior * d) rule-governed behavior 10. If after having been reinforced for imitating a number of behaviors, an individual imitates a completely new behavior the first time that behavior is modeled, we say that ____________ has occurred. a) novel generalization b) participant modeling c) symbolic modeling * d) generalized imitation

162 ..

11. Which of the following is not likely to influence the effectiveness of modeling as a behavior modification technique? a) arrange for peers to be models * b) counterconditioning c) show the behavior and its effects d) use multiple models 12. In order to “get up the energy” to follow her usual exercise routine on a Saturday afternoon, the exercise buff places some dumbbells in the center of the den (where she usually exercises) and turns on the TV to the local fitness channel. Which category of situational inducement is the exerciser practicing? a) relocate people * b) rearrange the existing surroundings c) move the activity to a new location d) change the time of the activity 13. After many interruptions while trying to write the behavior modification text at the university, Martin and Pear began working at one of their homes. Which category of situational inducement did they apply? a) relocate people b) rearrange the existing surroundings * c) move the activity to a new location d) change the time of the activity 14. Which of the following is not a strategy to be followed to influence the effectiveness of modelling? a) arrange for peers to be models * b) arrange for the modelled behavior to be seen to be ineffective c) use multiple models d) combine modelling with rules 15. A procedure in which a client practices particular behaviors in a practice setting to increase the likelihood that those behaviors will occur appropriately in the real world is called: a) contingency shaping b) rule-governed control c) modelling * d) behavioral rehearsal

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 16.

Stimulus discrimination and fading are two procedures used to get a desired behavior to occur in the presence of appropriate stimuli.

F 17.

To stop drinking, an alcoholic surrounds himself with members of Alcoholics Anonymous and stops seeing his old drinking buddies. This is an example of symbolic modeling.

T 18.

The presentation of modeling scenes through film, videotape, and other media is the definition of symbolic modeling.

Multiple Choice Question on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

19. What experimental psychologist has contributed greatly to our understanding of modeling? a) B. F. Skinner b) Joel Greenspoon * c) Albert Bandura d) John B. Watson 163 ..

True/False Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 20.

From a behavioral point of view, imitative learning is considered to be innate in higher species.

T 21.

Other people’s actions may become SDs for engaging in similar actions because the response of imitating often results in reinforcement. This is one process by which imitative behavior is learned.

164 ..

Chapter 19: Antecedent Control: Motivation Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: *indicates the correct answer)

1. According to Suzie’s teacher, “Suzie is a good student because she is highly motivated.” This is an example of ______________ view of motivation: a) a behavioral b) Michael’s * c) a traditional d) Skinner’s 2. Events that temporarily alter the effectiveness of consequences as reinforcers or punishers are called: a) establishing operations * b) motivating operations c) abolishing operations d) reinforcing operations 3. Feeding a person salty food increases the reinforcing value of water for that person. Feeding someone salty food would therefore be an example of a(n): a) UMAO b) CMAO c) CMEO * d) UMEO 4. With unconditioned motivating operations: * a) the value-altering effect is innate and the behavior altering effect is learned b) the value-altering effect is learned and the behavior altering effect is innate c) both the value-altering and behavior altering effects are innate d) both the value-altering and behavior altering effects are learned 5. With conditioned motivating operations: a) the value-altering effect is innate and the behavior altering effect is learned b) the value-altering effect is learned and the behavior altering effect is innate c) both the value-altering and behavior altering effects are innate * d) both the value-altering and behavior altering effects are learned 6. A parent tells his teenage daughter that she can earn points for mowing the lawn, and when a certain number of points have been earned, she can exchange them for use of the family car. The description of the points program is a(n): a) UMEO * b) CMEO c) UMAO d) CMAO 7. After eating a big meal, food is no longer a reinforcer. Food satiation is an example of a(n): a) UMEO b) CMEO * c) UMAO d) CMAO 8. A child comes home from school and is hungry. The parent tells the child that there are fresh cookies in the cupboard, and the child can have one. This instruction from the parent is an example of a(n): a) CMAO b) S∆ c) CMEO * d) SD 9. Suppose that you have a MasterCard and a Visa and you typically use the MasterCard because it gives you AirMile points for each person. Suppose further that MasterCard terminates their AirMiles program and you switch to Visa. The announcement of the termination of the AirMiles program would be an example of a(n)______ for using the MasterCard: a) CMEO b) SD * c) CMAO d) S∆ 165 ..

10. A parent says “water,” and the child mimics “water.” The response of the child is an example of a(n): a) tact b) mand c) intraverbal * d) echoic 11. A child goes into the kitchen and asks a parent for a glass of milk. The request by the child is an example of a(n): * a) mand b) echoic c) tact d) intraverbal 12. A parent points to a dog and asks the child, “What’s that?” and the child replies, “dog.”

The reply by the child is an example of a(n): a) echoic * b) tact c) mand d) intraverbal 13. Observations indicate that a person with severe developmental disabilities engages in excessive scratching due to reactions by well-meaning staff. By way of treatment, the staff provides attention to the individual every ten seconds and scratching decreases. The treatment program would be described as a(n) ________________ for staff attention. a) UMAO b) UMEO * c) CMAO d) CMEO

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T

14. A conceptual limitation of the traditional view of motivation is that it involves circular reasoning.

F

15. The behavioral view of motivation conceptualizes motivation as some “thing” within us that causes our actions.

T

16. Motivating operations are events that temporarily alter the effects of consequences as reinforcers or punishers.

F

17. A motivating abolishing operation increases the effectiveness of a consequence as a reinforcer.

T

18. A motivating establishing operation increases the effectiveness of a consequence as a punisher.

F

19. With unconditioned motivating operations, the value-altering effect is learned.

T

20. With conditioned motivating operations, both the value-altering effect and the behavioraltering effect are learned.

Multiple Choice Question on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

21. A policeman asks a child, “Where do you live?” and the child correctly tells the policeman the address. The response by the child would be referred to as a(n): a) mand * b) intraverbal c) echoic d) tact

166 ..

True/False Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T

22. In a series of papers beginning in the 1980s, Jack Michael argued that behaviorallyoriented psychologists needed to give more weight to the topic of motivation.

F

23. A typical MO is likely to affect one behavior, and a given behavior is likely to be affected by one MO.

T

24. Ingestion of drugs functions as a motivating operation.

167 ..

Chapter 20: Behavioral Assessment: Initial Considerations Multiple Choice Questions on Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. Which of the following is not a reason for collecting accurate data during a baseline and throughout a program? a) To help the behavior modifier identify the best treatment strategy. b) The displayed data may lead to improvements apart from any further treatment program. * c) It will demonstrate if adventitious reinforcement occurs while the program is being implemented. d) Publicly posted results can be both prompts and reinforcers for the behavior modifiers for carrying out a program.

2. A “screening assessment” is another name for: * a) an intake phase b) a follow-up phase c) a treatment phase d) a baseline phase 3. The phase used to determine if a particular agency is the appropriate one to deal with an individual’s behavior and what behaviors should be baselined if this agency is the appropriate one is called the: a) intervention phase b) follow-up phase * c) screening phase d) validation phase 4. When a behavior modifier relies on a verbal description of the behavior of a client through interviews and/or formal questionnaires, we can say s/he is using a(n) ____________ assessment procedure. a) direct * b) indirect c) intellectual d) psychodiagnostic 5. Which of the following is most likely to use an indirect assessment procedure? a) a teacher working with a student b) a coach working with an athlete c) a parent working with a child * d) a professional therapist working with a client 6. With the aid of a therapist, a client may be encouraged to describe a situation in which a problem behavior has occurred in the past and to reenact the occurrence of the problem behavior in that situation. This procedure is known as: * a) role-playing b) behavioral reenactment c) modeling d) symbolic modeling 7. Questionnaires, client self-monitoring, role-playing, information from consulting professionals, and interviews with the client and significant others are the main types of ______________ assessment procedures. a) psychological * b) indirect c) psychodiagnostic d) direct 8. A questionnaire that asks significant others or professionals involved with a client to indicate on a checklist the frequency and/or quality of certain behaviors that the client may emit is called a: a) life-history questionnaire b) problem checklist c) survey schedule * d) third-party rating scale 9. The behaviors to be improved in a behavior modification program are frequently called: a) behavioral goals b) baseline behaviors * c) target behaviors d) client objectives

168 ..

10. Which of the following is not one of the advantages of indirect assessment procedures? * a) They require that observers be appropriately trained. b) They are convenient. c) They don’t require a substantial amount of time to complete. d) They provide information about covert behaviors.

11. The main advantage of direct assessment procedures over indirect assessment procedures is that the former: a) are cheaper b) can be used to provide information about covert behaviors c) are convenient * d) are likely to be more accurate 12. Which of the following is not one of the reasons for recording accurate data during the baseline and throughout a behavioral program? a) It helps to decide initially if the behavior modifier is the appropriate one to design a program. b) It helps the behavior modifier to identify the best treatment strategy. * c) It enables the behavior modifier to refer the problem to the appropriate agency. d) It helps the behavior modifier to decide if the program is producing desired results.

13. If displaying data on an individual’s behavior influences that individual to improve apart from any further treatment program, this process is referred to as: * a) reactivity b) a successful baseline c) self-monitoring d) recording and graphing 14. Which of the following is not a goal of behavioral assessment? a) to identify behavioral excesses or deficits b) to evaluate the effects of interventions c) to identify causes of current problem behaviors * d) to diagnosis or classify individuals

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 15. The only differences between a training program, a therapy program, and an intervention strategy are the settings and clients for which they are used.

F 16. A direct assessment procedure is one which typically relies on a verbal description of the problem behavior emitted by the client.

T 17. A preprogram assessment, a treatment phase, and a follow-up phase are three of the minimal components of a behavior modification program.

F 18. A screening or intake assessment is another name for a baseline phase.

F 19. Behavioral assessment views test performance as a sign of an enduring intrapsychic trait.

T 20. Behavioral assessment assumes that covert behaviors are like overt behaviors in terms of their controlling variables.

169 ..

True/False Questions on N&ED Section (Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin) F 21. Sport-specific behavioral checklists, like traditional psychological tests, have norms.

T 22. Sport-specific behavioral checklists provide information for designing effective interventions for improving athletic performance.

170 ..

Chapter 21: Direct Behavioral Assessment: What to Record and How Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. If a steep slope is shown on a cumulative graph, you can infer that: * a) a high rate of responding is occurring b) no responding is occurring c) a medium to low rate of responding is occurring d) a low rate of responding is occurring 2. The amount of time that a particular behavior lasts or continues on a particular instance is called the: a) timing of a response * b) duration of a response c) latency of a response d) frequency of a response 3. The amount of time it takes until an individual initiates a response after the presentation of a particular stimulus is called the: a) frequency of a response b) duration of a response c) time-sampling of a response * d) latency of a response 4. The time between the question, “What time is it?” and the answer given by someone, “Two o’clock” is the: * a) latency of a response b) frequency of a response c) duration of a response d) timing of a response 5. Recording every instance of a particular behavior during a specified time segment is the definition of a(n) _____________ recording system. a) interval b) time-sampling c) fixed-duration * d) continuous 6. The counting of every instance that a person swears during a 1-hour interval is an example of a(n) ___________ recording system. * a) continuous b) time-sampling c) fixed-duration d) interval 7. When an observation period is divided into equal segments of relatively short duration and the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a specific behavior is recorded a maximum of once per segment, we say that a(n) _____________ recording system is in effect. a) fixed-duration b) fixed-interval c) time-sampling * d) interval 8. If the in-seat behavior of a child in a classroom is recorded in ten-second segments successively throughout a one-hour period, the recording system that is being used is called a(n) ____________ recording system. a) fixed-interval b) time-sampling * c) interval d) fixed-duration 9. If a parent checks whether or not a child is watching TV by observing the child for a few seconds each hour on the hour throughout a day, that parent is using a(n) ____________ recording system. a) fixed-interval * b) time-sampling c) interval d) continuous

171 ..

10. When would one select a continuous recording system over an interval recording system? a) when the main concern is percent of appropriate responses b) when successive responses can be of variable duration * c) when successive responses are quite similar in duration d) when instances of behavior can be of long duration 11. The amount of agreement between independent observers on the occurrence of specific instances of a particular behavior is referred to as: a) independent reliability b) observer reliability c) independent observer reliability * d) interobserver reliability 12. An acceptable IOR in a research program is: * a) 80–100% b) 75–100% c) 90–100% d) anything over 70% 13. Assessment instruments such as the ABLA test that determine the ease or difficulty with which an individual can learn various discriminations are primarily assessing: a) stimulus generalization b) behavior maintenance * c) stimulus control d) response generalization 14. The formula for computing IOR on data collected from interval recording is: a) disagreements divided by the total number of intervals, multiplied by 100% b) disagreements divided by agreements + disagreements on the occurrence of a behavior, multiplied by 100% * c) agreements divided by agreements + disagreements on the occurrence of a behavior, multiplied by 100% d) agreements divided by disagreements on the occurrence of a behavior, multiplied by 100% 15. Which of the following is not one of the levels or tasks assessed by the ABLA test? a) position discrimination b) visual discrimination c) auditory-visual combined discrimination * d) visual-auditory combined discrimination

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 16. The data line on a cumulative graph can never decrease.

T 17. On a cumulative graph, a flat line would indicate a zero rate of responding.

F 18. An interval recording system is one in which the observation period is scored as occurring or not occurring during very brief observation intervals, each of which is separated by some longer period of time.

T 19. The ABLA test assesses the ease or difficulty with which persons with developmental disabilities are able to learn a simple imitation task and several two-choice discrimination tasks.

172 ..

True/False Questions on N&ED

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 20. When the observational method affects the behaviors being observed, we say that the observation is obtrusive.

F 21. It is not acceptable to include agreement on blank intervals in computing an IOR when one is interested in decreasing a behavior and having agreement that the behavior did not occur.

173 ..

Chapter 22: Doing Research in Behavior Modification Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. A baseline phase, a treatment phase, a return to baseline phase, and a return to the treatment phase are the components of the: a) multi-element design b) multiple-baseline design c) changing criterion design * d) reversal-replication design 2. The baseline phase of the reversal-replication design should continue until the pattern of performance is _______ or until it shows a trend in the direction ________ that predicted when treatment is introduced. a) increasing; the same as b) decreasing; opposite to * c) stable; opposite to d) decreasing; the same as 3. A(n) __________ design calls for the introduction of the treatment sequentially across two or more behaviors. * a) multiple-baseline across behaviors b) ABAB c) multiple-baseline across treatments d) ABAC 4. Baseline of self-abusive behavior is taken in a session room and on a ward. Treatment for self-abuse is then introduced in the session room, and baseline is continued on the ward.

Then, treatment is applied in the session room and the ward. This is a(n) ____________ design. a) ABAB b) multiple-baseline across behaviors c) ABAC * d) multiple-baseline across situations 5. A ___________ design calls for treatment to be introduced on a particular behavior sequentially across two or more individuals. * a) multiple-baseline across people b) multi-element c) multiple-baseline across behaviors d) sequential-introduction 6. In a multi-element design, two separate treatments are applied to the behavior in: a) a reversal-replication sequence b) sequential order * c) randomly alternating sessions d) a single session design.

7. Another name for a multi-element design is * a) alternating-treatments b) multiple-baseline c) reversal-replication d) changing-criterion 8. A potential problem with the ___________ design is that one of the treatments may produce an effect either because of a contrast to the other treatment in alternating sessions or because of generalization of treatments across conditions. a) multiple-baseline * b) multi-element c) reversal-replication d) changing criterion 9. One aspect of ___________ is to examine the extent to which target behaviors identified for treatment programs are really the most important for the client and/or society. a) reliability assessment b) external validation c) internal validation * d) social validation

174 ..

10. Which of the following is not an aspect of social validation? * a) examining the extent to which the treatment programs are really responsible for improvement in target behaviors; b) determining the acceptability to the client of the particular procedures used; c) determining the extent to which the target behaviors are important to the client; d) ensuring that the clients and/or their caregivers are satisfied with the results.

11. Which of the following is not one of the scientific criteria used to evaluate whether or not a treatment was responsible for producing a reliable effect on the dependent variable? a) the immediacy of an observed effect b) the size of an observed effect * c) the extent to which an observed effect is socially validated d) the number of times that an effect is replicated 12. Evaluating the practical importance of behavior change to the client and following the implementation of a behavior modification program, is referred to as: a) scientific analysis * b) social validation c) external validation d) subjective validation 13. Baseline data are collected on the name calling, swearing, and spitting behavior of a child towards other children. A treatment program is then introduced sequentially on the name calling behavior, then the swearing behavior, and finally the spitting behavior. This is a(n) _____________ design: a) alternating treatments * b) multiple-baseline across behaviors c) multiple-baseline across situations d) changing criterion 14. In randomly alternating sessions, a child’s swearing behavior at nursery school is either reprimanded or ignored. This is a ____________ design. * a) multi-element b) multiple-baseline across behaviors c) changing criterion d) multiple-baseline across situations 15. Evaluating how a client feels about the treatment procedures used in a behavior modification program provides an assessment of: a) scientific analysis b) external validation * c) social validation d) subjective evaluation 16. Over time, successive changes are introduced in the behavioral requirement for treatment, and the effects of these changes are observed on the treated behavior. This is a ___________ design. a) multi-element * b) changing criterion c) multiple-baseline across behaviors d) multiple-baseline across situations 17. The extent to which the treatment or independent variable was in fact responsible for any observed changes in the dependent variable is referred to as: a) social validity b) external validity * c) internal validity d) concurrent validity 18. The extent to which findings can be generalized to other behaviors, individuals, settings, or treatments is referred to as: a) social validity * b) external validity c) internal validity d) concurrent validity

175 ..

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 19. The treatment program is referred to as the dependent variable and the behavior being treated is referred to as the independent variable.

T 20. A baseline phase should continue until the pattern of performance is stable or until it shows a trend in the direction opposite to that predicted for treatment.

F 21. In a reversal-replication design, two replications of each phase are necessary to draw a valid conclusion.

T 22. An advantage of multiple-baseline designs over the ABAB design is that the former does not require a reversal to baseline conditions.

F 23. A limitation of the multiple-baseline across situations design is that the subjects may influence each other prior to treatment.

T 24. It is possible to use the alternating treatments design to study topographically different forms of the behavior.

F 25. Judgments about the clinical or applied importance of behavior change are referred to as judgments of external validity.

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

26. Which of the following is not one of the reasons that single-case designs are more popular than control group designs among behavior modifiers? a) Single-case designs typically provide potentially valuable information on individual variation in performance. * b) Single-case designs are based on assumptions about the distribution of the dependent variable in the population. c) Single-case designs require only a few individuals with the same performance problem in order to evaluate an intervention. d) In single-case designs, all of the clients receive the treatment at one time or another.

27. Which of the following is not commonly used in behavior modification research? a) reversal-replication design b) multiple-baseline design across subjects * c) control group design d) multiple-baseline design across behaviors

176 ..

Chapter 23: Functional Assessment of the Causes of Problem Behavior Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. Searching for variables that might be responsible for causing a problem behavior is referred to as a: a) descriptive analysis * b) functional assessment c) psychodiagnostic assessment d) behavioral assessment 2. Carefully observing the antecedent and immediate consequences of a problem behavior in its natural settings is referred to as a(n): * a) observational assessment b) functional analysis c) psychodiagnostic assessment d) behavioral assessment 3. Each time that training staff place demands on a nonverbal developmentally disabled child, the child throws a tantrum and the staff “back off.” In this example, the child’s tantruming is likely being maintained by: a) external sensory reinforcement * b) escape conditioning c) internal sensory reinforcement d) behavioral chaining 4. Practicing a reaction that is incompatible with a nervous reaction is a component of: * a) counterconditioning b) DRO c) avoidance conditioning d) behavioral trapping 5. The broadly inclusive assessment approach of including medical and nutritional information along with behavioral assessments is referred to as: a) functional analysis * b) behavioral diagnostics c) descriptive analysis d) psychodiagnostic assessment 6. Just before displaying a particular problem behavior, a developmentally disabled child typically looks at a caregiver and smiles. These indicators suggest that the problem behavior is maintained by: a) self-stimulation b) external sensory positive reinforcement * c) attention from others d) escape from demands 7. A developmentally disabled child frequently shows a problem behavior even though it has no apparent effect on other individuals or the external environment. This is an indicator that the problem behavior is maintained by: a) attention from others * b) internal sensory reinforcement c) external sensory reinforcement d) escape from demands 8. A developmentally disabled child frequently shows a problem behavior that produces an effect on the external environment, and that appears undiminished even though there are no apparent social consequences. These are indicators that the problem behavior is maintained by: a) attention from others b) escape from demands c) internal sensory positive reinforcement * d) external sensory positive reinforcement

177 ..

9. A problem behavior consistently occurs in a certain situation or in the presence of certain stimuli, and is never followed by any clearly identifiable consequence. These are indicators that the problem behavior is: * a) an elicited respondent b) maintained by social positive reinforcement c) maintained by external sensory positive reinforcement d) maintained by escape from demands 10. A developmentally disabled child frequently scratches herself when smiling, when upset, when interacting with others, when alone, and whether or not demands are placed on her.

But when she is required to wear thin rubber gloves throughout the day, scratching gradually decreases to zero. The principle or procedure responsible for her improvement might best be described as: a) respondent extinction b) negative reinforcement c) counterconditioning * d) operant extinction 11. At a restaurant, a child asks his parents for an extra dessert. The parents say no. The child begins to cry, and the parents then buy the child the extra dessert. In this instance, the child’s crying behavior has been influenced by: a) social positive reinforcement * b) external positive reinforcement c) escape from demands d) internal sensory positive reinforcement 12. Experimentally assessing the effects of potentially controlling variables on the problem behavior of an individual is referred to as a(n): * a) functional analysis b) descriptive assessment c) observational assessment d) questionnaire analysis 13. A nonverbal child who repeatedly removes her shoes because they squeeze her toes too tightly is being influenced by: a) social positive reinforcement b) external sensory positive reinforcement c) internal sensory positive reinforcement * d) nonsocial negative reinforcement

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 14. When a teacher is concerned with decreasing a student’s undesirable finger snapping behavior in class, she/he should first identify the IQ of the student.

T 15. It is important to consider the causes of undesirable behavior because it may lead one to appropriately conclude that other specialists should deal with the problem.

True/False Question on N&ED T

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

16. Knowledge of the schedule of reinforcement that a problem behavior has been maintained on may be important before using non-contingent reinforcement as a treatment for that problem behavior.

178 ..

Chapter 24: Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Behavioral Program Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. Assume that you are a professional behavior modifier. Under which of the following conditions would you treat a behavior problem that had been referred to you? * a) Once the behavioral goal is reached, it would be easily generalized and maintained. b) The problem is one that would appear to be unmanageable. c) The problem appears to have a medical cause. d) The problem was referred primarily for the benefit of the client’s family.

2. Assume that you are a professional behavior modifier. Under which of the following conditions would you not treat a behavior problem that had been referred to you? a) The problem appears to be important to the client. b) Once the target behavior has been achieved, it might be generalized and maintained. * c) There are individuals who will hinder the program, and who can’t be controlled. d) The problem can be specified in terms of specific behaviors.

3. A behavior modifier might evaluate the ease with which a problem behavior might be changed by determining: a) whether or not the problem behavior has a medical cause b) if the problem has been referred primarily for the benefit of the client c) if the problem can be reduced to a specific set of behaviors that can be counted, timed, or measured * d) if the problem behavior has been occurring for a short time, under narrow stimulus control, and with few instances of intermittent reinforcement 4. A behavior modifier might determine whether or not a client’s behavior might be easily generalized and maintained by assessing: a) whether or not the problem has a medical cause * b) whether or not there are reinforcers and/or people in the natural environment to maintain the desired behavior c) if the problem can be reduced to a specific set of behaviors that can be counted, timed, or measured d) if the problem behavior has been occurring for a short time and under narrow stimulus control 5. Training in a test situation, varying the training conditions, programming common stimuli, and training sufficient stimulus exemplars are four important aspects of: * a) programming stimulus generalization b) programming response generalization c) programming stimulus discrimination d) programming maintenance 6. After a program has been implemented, there are a number of things that can be done to determine whether it is producing satisfactory results. Which of the following is not one of those steps? a) consult the behavioral journals and experienced behavior modifiers concerning related cases b) monitor the data * c) sign a behavioral contract with the client d) consult people who must deal with the behavioral handicap

179 ..

7. To ensure that the therapist is responsible or accountable to the client, it is recommended that: a) an impartial third person monitor the program * b) the therapist and client sign a treatment contract c) the therapist be supervised by someone with more experience d) the client should explain the program to a friend 8. Considering the sequential steps for designing and implementing a treatment program following baseline assessment, and supposing that you have identified the target behaviors and defined the goal, which question would you not be addressing at this time? a) Is the description precise? * b) Is the treatment cost-effective? c) Is the goal in the best interest of the client? d) Has the client been given all possible information about the goal?

9. Varying the acceptable responses during training or using behavioral momentum to increase low-probability responses are two strategies for programming: a) stimulus generalization * b) response generalization c) stimulus discrimination d) behavior maintenance 10. If a behavior modifier is examining the possibility of capitalizing on antecedent control in the design of a behavior modification program, which of the following would the behavior modifier not consider using? a) rules b) modelling c) situational inducement * d) positive reinforcement 11. If you are considering strategies for decreasing a behavioral excess, which of the following would you not consider: a) removing SDs for the problem behavior * b) negative reinforcement c) punishment d) DRO, DRI, or DRA 12. A clear statement of what behaviors of what individuals will produce what reinforcers, and who will deliver those reinforcers, is referred to as a: a) treatment contract b) three-term contingency statement * c) behavioral contract d) psychology contract

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 13. A behavior modifier should only accept those referrals for which he/she has appropriate training and adequate time to carry out an effective program.

F 14. When designing a behavior modification program, it is unnecessary to assess whether the behaviors of concern can be counted, timed, or measured in some way.

T 15. The nature of a behavior problem and the frequency with which it occurs will influence the assessment procedure selected by the behavior modifier.

F 16. When attempting to decrease a problem behavior, the behavior modifier should first determine whether or not punishment can be used.

180 ..

T 17. When designing a behavior modification program, one of the first concerns of the behavior modifier should be to assess whether or not it is possible to capitalize on existing stimulus control.

F 18. When selecting SDs in a behavior modification program, it is important for the behavior modifier to select stimuli that are similar to other stimuli on more than one dimension.

T 19. When designing a behavior modification program, the behavior modifier must include strategies to program generality of behavior change.

True/False Question on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 20. For a number of reasons, the decision as to whether or not you should accept the responsibility of designing a behavioral program might be influenced, in part, by whether or not you live in an urban or a rural setting.

181 ..

Chapter 25: Token Economies Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. The fact that they can be given immediately after a desirable behavior occurs and cashed in at a later time for a back-up reinforcer is one of the major advantages to using: a) unconditioned reinforcers b) intrinsic reinforcers c) extrinsic reinforcers * d) token reinforcers 2. Deciding on the type of token to be used depends mainly on the type of: a) reinforcement schedule b) response-reinforcer relationship * c) client d) setting 3. Tokens should have the following two characteristics. They should be: * a) easy to handle and attractive b) warm and soft c) flexible and easy to wash d) durable and luminous 4. One way to help clients master the behavior being influenced within a token economy is to: a) administer a time-out after each instance of inappropriate behavior * b) have the members of the token economy themselves function as the main source of help c) give bonus tokens at the start of each session as an incentive d) have members of the community conduct spot checks on the management of the token economy 5. An advantage of assigning only one person to reinforce a particular response at a particular time in a token economy is that: a) tokens will not be lost or misplaced b) one person will become a strong SD for the appropriate behavior * c) one person can be held responsible for appropriate management of the token economy d) this is optimal for programming generalization of behavior 6. A disadvantage of assigning only one person to reinforce a particular response at a particular time in a token economy is that: a) only one person is held responsible for appropriate management of the token economy * b) such a procedure may not be optimal for programming generalization of behavior c) tokens may be lost or misplaced more readily d) session time with the client would be too short and not occur often enough 7. According to Stainback et al., how many tokens should you have for each student in a group when starting a token economy? a) approximately 20 * b) approximately 100 c) 60–80 d) it depends on the reinforcement schedule being used 8. According to Stainback et al., during the first few days of a token economy, store time for normal children should be held: a) once a week b) every hour of every day for the first week * c) once or twice a day for the first three or four days d) before morning recess, before lunch, before afternoon recess, and before the end of the day

182 ..

9. _________ and _________ are two general methods of weaning clients from tokens when transferring behavior to the natural environment. a) Stimulus fading; stimulus shaping b) Gradually fading staff participation; gradually eliminating experimenter supervision c) Stimulus withdrawal; programming for generalization * d) Gradually eliminating tokens; gradually decreasing token value 10. Gradually making the schedule of token delivery more and more intermittent or gradually decreasing the number of behaviors that earn tokens are two ways of: a) testing for social validity * b) weaning a client from tokens when transferring behavior to the natural environment c) testing for internal validity d) selecting back-up reinforcers for a client being weaned from tokens 11. The Achievement Place group home token economy was initially developed for: a) children with autism b) persons with intellectual disabilities c) persons with severe mental health problems * d) pre-delinquent youth 12. Which of the following is not one of the initial steps in setting up a token economy? * a) programming generality to the natural environment b) deciding on the target behaviors c) taking baselines d) selecting backup reinforcers 13. Which of the following is not a feature of the teaching family model for treating predelinquent youth? * a) a governing system in which married couples make all of the decisions regarding daily living rules for the pre-delinquent youth b) a token economy in which participants earn points for appropriate behavior and cash them in for privileges c) an emphasis on normalization d) ongoing evaluation of the performance of the participants

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 14. One should obtain baseline data on the specific target behaviors before initiating a token economy.

T 15. Before and during implementation of a token economy, one must decide how staff in the token economy will be supervised.

F 16. To ensure generalization to the natural environment, a client should not be told why he/she is receiving a token.

F 17. A guideline for identifying behaviors which no longer require token reinforcement is to identify those behaviors that have received continuous reinforcement under the token economy.

183 ..

True/False Questions on N&ED Section (Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin) T 18. In a sheltered workshop program for individuals with developmental disabilities, Rae et al. (1990) taught the workers with developmental disabilities to self-administer tokens for appropriate on-task performance.

F 19. Recent studies indicate that the recidivism rates of pre-delinquents who had been in token programs using the teaching family model is about the same as pre-delinquents who had been in traditional programs.

184 ..

Chapter 26: Helping an Individual to Develop Self-Control Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. Emitting a controlling behavior to effect a change in a behavior to be controlled is the model of self-management originally proposed by: a) Mager b) Premack c) Goldiamond * d) Skinner 2. Many self-control problems are caused by: a) a lack of willpower b) temptations that are too strong to resist * c) immediate reinforcement for the problem behavior vs. delayed reinforcement for alternative self-control behavior d) lack of reinforcement for showing self-control 3. A teenager who wants to go out with friends tells his parents that his homework is finished even though it is not, and the teenager is allowed to go out. This behavioral excess of lying occurs because: a) the controlling consequences are highly improbable * b) of immediate reinforcers versus delayed punishers for the behavioral excess c) the consequences are only cumulatively significant d) of immediate small punishers versus delayed larger punishers 4. Which of the following is not one of the steps proposed by Mager for clarifying a vague “fuzzy” goal? * a) Make a commitment to change. b) Write out the goal. c) Make a list of the things that you should say or do that clearly indicate that you’ve met the goal. d) Given a number of people with the same goal, indicate how you would decide who had met the goal and who hadn’t.

5. A commitment to change refers to: a) the willpower needed to change b) clear identification of a self-control goal c) a high frequency of thoughts about the benefits of changing * d) a rule that you state that it is important to change your behavior, that you will work toward doing so and that you recognize the benefits of doing so 6. Which of the following is not a major class of antecedent stimuli that control our behavior? a) instructions * b) reinforcers c) modeling d) other people 7. Which of the following is not one of the strategies recommended for managing consequences in a self-control program? a) Eliminate certain reinforcers that may strengthen a problem behavior that you would like to decrease. * b) Provide reinforcement for showing increased willpower. c) Self-record and self-graph the target behavior. d) Arrange for reinforcers to be earned for showing improvement.

185 ..

8. In the Simek and O’Brien study, a novice golfer had to sink four consecutive putts before going to the next step. This exemplifies: * a) mastery criterion b) willpower c) self-control d) a behavioral contract 9. A clear written statement of what behaviors of which individuals will produce what reinforcers and who will deliver those reinforcers defines: a) mastery criterion b) a commitment to change * c) a behavioral contract d) the Premack Principle 10. Which of the following is not a cause of relapse in self-control programs? a) unavoidable setback situations b) counterproductive self-talk * c) incorporating everyday rewards into the program d) trying too much too soon 11. Many people are aware of the health hazards of being overweight, and yet many people have difficulty resisting an extra dessert. That is because: * a) the consequences of a single such action are too small to be noticed and are only of cumulative significance b) the consequences for doing so are highly probable c) the consequences for doing so are very delayed d) there are no consequences for doing so 12. Many people play racquetball without wearing protective goggles. This is because: a) the consequences are very delayed b) they want to look macho * c) the consequences are highly improbable d) the consequences are only cumulatively significant 13. Consider the self-control problem of eating too many sweets. This is likely due to: a) immediate reinforcers (for problem behavior) vs. delayed reinforcers (for alternative behavior) b) immediate reinforcers vs. delayed punishers for a behavior * c) immediate reinforcers vs. cumulatively significant punishers for a behavior d) immediate small punishers for a behavior vs. reinforcers that are cumulatively significant 14. A behavioral model of self-control involves: a) controlling the controlling behavior * b) emitting a controlling behavior to effect a change in a behavior to be controlled c) emitting a controlled behavior through self-reinforcement d) reinforcing yourself for having self-control 15. In a behavioral model of self-control, an individual emits controlling behavior that manages antecedents or consequences for a behavior to be controlled. But what controls the controlling behavior? a) lots of willpower * b) natural consequences in the society in which we live c) lots of commitment d) our religious beliefs

186 ..

16. Which of the following is not one of the steps in a self-control program? a) specify the problem and set goals * b) select delayed reinforcers c) make a commitment to change d) take data and analyze causes 17. Which of the following is not a major class of antecedent stimuli that control our behavior? a) physical guidance b) our immediate surroundings c) the time of day * d) willpower 18. Causes of relapse in situations include: a) avoidable setback situations b) overreaction to occasional setbacks c) counterproductive self-talk * d) all of the above

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 19. In behavior modification, self-control refers to some sort of force within us that makes it possible to show self-restraint.

T 20. Some self-control problems occur because of the influence of immediate small reinforcers for problem behaviors as compared to delayed stronger reinforcers for desirable behaviors.

F 21. The first step in a self-control program is to decide how to use self-reinforcement.

T 22. A mastery criterion is a performance requirement for practicing a skill such that if the criterion is met the skill has been learned.

T 23. For many self-control problems, the immediate reinforcement for consumption of harmful substances wins out over the unnoticeable and immediate negative effects that are only cumulatively significant.

F 24. Many self-control problems occur because individuals lack will power.

T 25. Both a commitment to change and knowledge of change techniques are important for self-modification.

F 26. There is no evidence that recording and graphing a behavior is all that’s needed to bring about improvement.

T 27. A strategy for manipulating consequences in a self-control program is to eliminate certain reinforcers that may inadvertently strengthen an undesirable behavior.

F 28. There is no evidence that people who have mastered some behavior modification principles can use them to control their own behavior without having to see a therapist.

T 29. With a behavioral model of self-control, an individual must behave in some way that arranges the environment to manage his or her own subsequent behavior.

187 ..

Multiple Choice Question on N&ED Section (Note: * indicates the correct answer) 30. Reinforcing a child for stating what s/he intends to do and then for later doing that behavior is referred to as: a) rule-governed behavior b) self-control training c) contingency-shaped behavior * d) correspondence training

True/False Questions on N&ED Section (Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin) T 31. Teaching a group of children to state they were going to play in a certain designated area before actually playing in that area is referred to as correspondence training.

F 32. Self-help programs are more effective with the control of smoking and overeating than they are for overcoming depression and anxiety.

188 ..

Chapter 27: Cognitive Behavior Therapy, Self-Directed Coping Methods, and ACT Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. Belief, thought, and perception are three things that describe: * a) cognition b) respondent thinking c) self-control d) operant thinking 2. When the words “blue sky” are repeatedly paired with actually looking at and seeing a blue sky, the words “blue sky” come to elicit the activity of “seeing” or “imagining” a blue sky.

This is an example of: a) operant thinking * b) respondent thinking c) positive thinking d) cognitive thinking 3. That individuals interpret and react to events in terms of their perceived significance, and that maladaptive cognitions can cause emotional disorders, are two major assumptions of: a) operant therapy b) respondent therapy * c) cognitive therapy d) behavior therapy 4. Which of the following involves teaching clients to counteract irrational negative selfstatements with more positive and realistic statements? a) problem-solving therapy * b) rational-emotive therapy c) thought-stopping therapy d) behavior therapy 5. Who developed rational-emotive behavior therapy? a) Aaron Beck b) Donald Meichenbaum c) Albert Bandura * d) Albert Ellis 6. Thinking in absolute terms, such as assuming that one is a failure for getting any grade less than an “A,” is an example of what Beck called: a) rational-emotive thinking b) irrational thinking * c) dichotomous thinking d) arbitrary inference 7. Drawing a conclusion on the basis of inadequate evidence, such as misinterpreting a frown on the face of a passerby to mean that the passerby is expressing disapproval, is an example of what Beck called: a) dichotomous thinking * c) arbitrary inference b) irrational thinking d) irrational inference 8. If a client believes that everyone he meets turns away from him in disgust, a therapist may help him to devise a system for judging other people’s facial expressions and body language so that the client can objectively determine whether or not his beliefs are indeed accurate.

This is one of the techniques used in: a) behavior therapy b) thought-stopping therapy c) rational-emotive therapy * d) Beck’s cognitive therapy

189 ..

9. What two approaches assume that a client’s difficulty is caused by some type of inappropriate thought pattern and the problem may stem from the client’s tendency to exaggerate unpleasant things? * a) Beck’s cognitive therapy and Ellis’s REBT b) Ellis’s RET and Meichenbaum’s self-instructional approach c) Beck’s cognitive therapy and Meichenbaum’s self-instructional approach d) Ellis’s cognitive therapy and Beck’s RET 10. A client uses stimuli produced both by a stressful situation and by his own behavior in that situation as SDs for instructing himself to engage in appropriate coping behavior. This is an example of: a) Ellis’s rational-emotive therapy * b) Meichenbaum’s self-instructional therapy c) Beck’s cognitive therapy d) Wolpe’s thought-stopping therapy 11. Approaches that focus on substituting rational thoughts and appraisal of information for irrational or dysfunctional thinking are referred to as: * a) cognitive restructuring b) situational inducement c) contingency shaping d) problem solving 12. When you arrive at a party, you think to yourself, “I’m glad lots of people are dancing, I hate to just sit around.” This is an example of: * a) operant thinking b) respondent thinking c) positive thinking d) cognitive thinking 13. Therapeutic approaches that incorporate concepts of “mindfulness” and “acceptance” are part of what Stephen Hayes has referred to as the _____________ wave of behavioral approaches to therapy: a) first b) second * c) third d) fourth 14. After carefully examining 29 studies that compared purely behavioral methods to those same methods with cognitive components added, Andrew Sweet and his colleagues concluded: * a) 83% of the studies showed that no more beneficial outcome was achieved by adding cognitive components b) 83% of the studies showed added beneficial outcome by adding cognitive components c) the added cognitive components were especially effective for treating obsessive compulsive disorder d) the added cognitive components were especially effective for treating agoraphobia 15. The conclusion of the NIMH treatment of depression collaborative study was: a) Beck’s cognitive therapy is the treatment of choice for unipolar depression b) Beck’s cognitive therapy is effective for treating severe depression * c) Beck’s cognitive therapy was no more effective than a placebo control condition d) Beck’s cognitive therapy was as effective as behavior therapy 16. A client who believes that everyone he meets turns away from him in disgust learns to say to himself, “I’ll watch their facial expressions and body language, and then I can prove to myself that they’re not disgusted with me,” and then follows this guide. A radical behaviorist would refer to this as an example of: a) rational-emotive therapy b) contingency-shaped behavior c) Beck’s cognitive therapy * d) rule-governed behavior

190 ..

17. In cases where cognitive restructuring is effective, it may be because the therapist teaches the client to rehearse rules that identify specific behaviors that are likely to be maintained in the natural environment. This is ________________ interpretation. a) Beck’s b) Ellis’s * c) a behavioral d) a cognitive 18. ________________ approach is to teach the client to use internal stimuli as SDs for engaging in appropriate self-instruction, counteract negative self-statements in the presence of the stressful situation, self-instruct the steps for taking appropriate action, and make selfreinforcing statements after successful coping. a) Beck’s * b) Meichenbaum’s c) Ellis’s d) D’Zurilla’s 19. Self-instruction and problem-solving methods are likely to be effective when they capitalize on ________________ that leads to effective consequences. a) contingency-shaped behavior b) cognitive restructuring c) rational thinking * d) rule-governed behavior 20. The awareness, observation and description of one’s covert and overt behaviors as they occur in a non-judgmental way is referred to as: a) cognitive restructuring b) rational thinking * c) mindfulness d) acceptance and commitment therapy 21. _____________ procedures are used to teach individuals that they can feel their feelings and think their thoughts even though they may be aversive, and still take constructive action to pursue one’s values and life goals. a) Mindfulness b) Cognitive therapy c) Stress inoculation * d) Acceptance 22. An approach to therapy that involves teaching clients that past attempts to control troublesome thoughts and emotions have not been successful, that mindfulness and acceptance exercises can teach the client to experience and non-judgmentally embrace thoughts and emotions, and that in spite of troublesome thoughts and emotions, clients can be encouraged to identify life values and to take steps to pursue them, is referred to as: * a) acceptance and commitment therapy b) cognitive therapy c) cognitive restructuring d) problem solving therapy

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 23. Someone deciding, by privately reviewing the pros and cons of each, whether to watch TV or read a book on a particular occasion is showing respondent thinking.

T 24. Martin and Pear believe that, except for being more difficult to “get at,” private behavior is the same as public behavior, i.e., the principles and procedures applicable to private behavior are fundamentally the same as those that apply to public behavior.

F 25. Thought-stopping therapy basically involves teaching clients to counteract irrational selfstatements with more positive and realistic statements.

T 26. The two major assumptions of cognitive therapy are that individuals interpret and react to events in terms of their perceived significance, and that cognitive deficiencies can cause emotional disorders.

191 ..

F 27. One difference between Meichenbaum’s self-instructional approach and Ellis’s RET is that Ellis’s approach emphasizes coping with negative emotions rather than completely eliminating them.

T 28. Cognitive therapy assumes that troublesome thoughts constitute the primary cause of disturbing emotions, whereas acceptance and commitment therapy considers thoughts and emotions simply as responses.

F 29. A major focus of ACT is the use of cognitive restructuring to directly change troublesome thoughts.

T 30. With cognitive therapy, a primary purpose of behavioral homework assignments is to help the client overcome distorted thinking.

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

31. Thought stopping is likely to be an effective strategy for decreasing persistent, obsessive thoughts provided that it is combined with: a) Ellis’s rational emotive therapy b) Beck’s cognitive therapy c) Meichenbaum’s self-instructional training * d) a strategy for increasing desirable alternative thoughts 32. Acceptance and commitment therapy is based on an approach to the understanding of human language and cognition referred to as: a) cognitive theory b) rational emotive theory * c) relational frame theory d) stimulus-equivalence theory 33. If you have learned that two nickels equals a dime, then you will know that a dime also equals two nickels. In relational frame theory, this is referred to as: * a) bi-directionality b) combinatorial entailment c) transformation of stimulus functions d) stimulus equivalence 34. If a child learns that a dime is worth more than a nickel and a quarter is worth more than a dime, then the child will know that a quarter is worth more than a nickel. In relational frame theory, this is referred to as: a) bi-directionality * b) combinatorial entailment c) transformation of stimulus functions d) stimulus equivalence

192 ..

Chapter 28: Areas of Clinical Behavior Therapy Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. An intense fear of going out in public or leaving one’s home is referred to as: * a) agoraphobia b) a simple phobia c) panic disorder d) a social phobia 2. A persistent fear of heights is referred to as a(n): a) social phobia * b) specific phobia c) panic disorder d) obsessive compulsive disorder 3. A procedure for overcoming a simple phobia that tries to get the client into the presence of the feared stimulus very early during therapy, and to maintain exposure for long periods of time, is referred to as: a) systematic desensitization b) participant modelling * c) flooding d) implosive therapy 4. Systematic desensitization was developed by: a) John Watson b) Albert Bandura c) B. F. Skinner * d) Joseph Wolpe 5. When an individual desensitizes a fear in real life rather than in his or her own imagination, _____________ is being used. a) systematic desensitization * b) in vivo desensitization c) covert sensitization d) participant modeling 6. For what general type of problem is systematic desensitization used? a) treating alcoholism b) to treat high blood pressure * c) to overcome phobias d) to treat enuresis 7. A procedure for overcoming phobias in which the therapist models graded approaches to the feared stimulus is known as: a) flooding b) cognitive therapy c) systematic desensitization * d) participant modeling 8. A list of fear-producing situations arranged from those that cause least the fear to those that cause the most fear is called a(n): * a) fear hierarchy b) suds scale c) mastery hierarchy d) anxiety scale 9. Agoraphobia is a type of: a) personality disorder c) obsessive-compulsive disorder

* b) anxiety disorder d) depressive disorder

10. The major component of the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia is: * a) in vivo exposure to the feared stimuli b) thought-stopping c) self-instructional training d) reality checking

193 ..

11. A person who constantly worries and feels anxious over things, events and potential events that most people would consider trivial or unimportant would likely be diagnosed as having a(n): a) simple phobia b) obsessive-compulsive disorder * c) generalized anxiety disorder d) panic disorder 12. An obsessive-compulsive disorder is a disorder in which: * a) the client is bothered either by repetitive thoughts, images, or impulses, or by repetitive overt actions b) extreme anxiety or panic attacks occur for which no consistent antecedent stimulus can be readily identified c) the client is debilitated by stress, either because the stressful events in their life are too numerous, or because they are unable to cope with stressful events d) one’s characteristic mode of interacting with others is extremely maladaptive or dysfunctional 13. Which of the following types of treatment work best with obsessive-compulsive disorders? a) flooding in imagination of the feared situation in order to elicit the obsessive-compulsive behavior b) cognitive restructuring c) exposure to the feared situation in order to elicit the obsessive-compulsive behavior * d) exposure to the feared situation while preventing the compulsive behavior from occurring 14. An extraordinary stressful or traumatic event, such as being physically or sexually abused, being in a serious traffic accident, or witnessing a catastrophic event, can cause impaired functioning such that the individual would likely be diagnosed as having a(n): a) generalized anxiety disorder b) simple phobia c) depression * d) post-traumatic stress disorder 15. Increasingly, evidence indicates that the most effective treatment for depression is: a) Beck’s cognitive therapy * b) behavioral homework assignments to increase contingent reinforcers c) Ellis’s rational emotive therapy d) Meichenbaum’s cognitive therapy 16. Behavioral couple therapy typically involves the following stages: a) experiential/sensory awareness exercises, communication and problem-solving training, and programming for generalization * b) instigation of positive exchanges, communication and problem-solving training, and programming for generalization c) cognitive therapy, anxiety control, and problem-solving training d) insight therapy, communication and problem-solving training, and programming for generalization 17. Suppose that a client, just before going to bed each night, feels very anxious about the possibility of someone breaking into the apartment. These thoughts are typically followed by checking the doors and windows several times to ensure that they are locked. This client is suffering from a(n): a) personality disorder b) anxiety disorder * c) obsessive-compulsive disorder d) simple phobia

194 ..

18. A successful program for helping problem drinkers to learn to drink in moderation was developed by: a) Ferster and Skinner b) LoPiccollo and Freidman c) Bellack and Herson * d) Sobell and Sobell 19. Which of the following is not a part of the successful program developed by Sobell and Sobell for teaching problem drinkers to drink in moderation? a) use of goal-setting b) control of triggers for drinking c) self-monitoring of consequences of drinking behaviors * d) aversion therapy to make alcohol aversive 20. Which of the following is not a typical component of a behavioral treatment strategy for obesity? a) self-monitoring b) stimulus control * c) cognitive restructuring d) behavioral contracting 21. If an individual exhibits a high frequency of certain behaviors, such as nailbiting, hair twirling, lip biting, etc., and seeks treatment for the problem, then the behavior would be referred to as a(n): a) anxiety disorder * b) habit disorder c) simple phobia d) panic disorder 22. Which of the following would be classified as habit disorders? a) obesity, nervous habits, muscle tics b) anxiety, muscle tics, and stuttering * c) nervous habits, muscle tics, and stuttering d) alcohol drinking, muscle tics, and nervous habits 23. The habit reversal procedure typically includes: * a) awareness training, competing response training, and a motivational strategy b) awareness training, competing response training, and desensitization c) competing response training, a motivational strategy, and cognitive restructuring d) cognitive restructuring, awareness training, and desensitization

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 24. Self-monitoring, cognitive restructuring, and reducing eating rate are all major components of contemporary strategies for treating obesity.

T 25. Therapies that have proved to be effective in scientifically conducted clinical trials are referred to as empirically supported therapies.

T 26. Systematic desensitization is considered an exposure-based therapy because it exposes the client to the feared stimulus or stimuli.

F 27. Cognitive restructuring would be classified as an exposure-based therapy.

F 28. An effective treatment for generalized anxiety disorder is exposure-based therapy carried out in vivo.

195 ..

Multiple Choice Question on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

29. Which of the following is not a component of the programs developed by Silverman and colleagues for treating drug abuse? a) Patients earn vouchers for drug-free urine samples. * b) The patients undergo covert sensitization to sensitize them to the drugs. c) The vouchers earned have monetary value and can be exchanged for goods and services. d) The patients are paid to work at jobs provided that they report for work drug-free.

30. The presentation of fear-producing stimuli with a head-mounted display that provides a computer generated view of stimuli is referred to as: a) in vivo therapy * b) virtual reality therapy c) computer therapy d) technology therapy

196 ..

Chapter 29: Giving It All Some Perspective: A Brief History Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. The introductory psychology text titled Principles of Psychology, which discussed traditional topics in psychology primarily in terms of operant conditioning principles, was written by: a) Skinner * b) Keller and Schoenfeld c) Wolpe d) Pavlov 2. Skinner’s text Science and Human Behavior (1953): a) describes the results of experiments on the lever-pressing behavior of rats, and outlines basic principles of operant conditioning * b) suggests how basic behavioral principles influence the behavior of people in all kinds of everyday situations c) provides data regarding the generalization of basic behavioral principles to human behavior d) was an introductory psychology text written from the Pavlovian perspective 3. Which of the following is a basic operant research journal? * a) Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior b) Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis c) Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry d) Journal of Experimental Psychology 4. The publications of the early 1960s within the operant orientation seem to have been characterized by which two features? a) Much of it was done with very resistant populations, and many of the applications took place in natural, everyday settings. * b) Much of it was done with very resistant populations, and many of the applications took place in highly controlled settings. c) Much of it was limited to populations that had already received successful input from traditional psychology, and was mostly applied in highly controlled settings. d) Much of it was limited to populations that had already received successful input from traditional psychology, and was mostly applied in natural, everyday settings.

5. Who developed systematic desensitization? a) Eysenck b) Beck c) Hull

* d) Wolpe

6. Which of the following best characterizes the social learning theory of behavior modification? a) It is based on respondent conditioning and has developed applications to a variety of phobic and neurotic disorders. b) It is based on the work of Beck, Ellis, and others and emphasizes the individual’s interpretations of what is happening around them. * c) It emphasizes the social contexts in which behavior is acquired and maintained, and stresses cognitive influences on behavior. d) It is based on the work of B. F. Skinner and emphasizes the application of operant principles.

197 ..

7. Which current conceptual model of behavior modification is often referred to as “applied behavior analysis”? * a) the operant conditioning orientation b) the Hullian and Wolpean orientation c) social learning theory d) cognitive behavior modification 8. ____________ is the term used most often for behavioral treatments carried out in the natural environment and special training settings; ____________ is the term used most often to refer to behavioral treatments conducted in the therapist’s office. a) Behavior therapy; behavior modification b) Cognitive behavior modification; behavior modification * c) Behavior modification; behavior therapy d) Behavior modification; applied behavior analysis 9. Which of the following statements incorrectly represents behavior modification? a) Behavior modification has been applied to a wide variety of complex behavior. b) Behavior modification has been applied in numerous settings, including both clinical and nonclinical environments. * c) Behavior modification is effective, but only for some limited types of problems. d) Behavior modification has been applied to treat problems that appear to have medical causes.

10. ____________ adopted the conditioned reflex as the unit of habit and argued that most complex activities were due to respondent conditioning. * a) Watson b) Skinner c) Keller d) Wolpe 11. The principle of ________________ states that if a response that is incompatible with fear or anxiety can be made to occur to a stimulus that normally produces fear or anxiety, then that stimulus will cease to elicit the fear reaction. a) systematic desensitization b) respondent extinction c) reality checking * d) reciprocal inhibition 12. The most influential of the social learning theorists has been: a) Skinner * b) Bandura c) Wolpe d) Lazarus 13. According to Martin and Pear, the term that has the broadest meaning is: a) behavior therapy b) social learning theory c) applied behavior analysis * d) behavior modification 14. One of the first published behavior modification demonstrations of the 1950s that concerned practical, applied problems was reported by: a) Skinner b) Ullmann and Krasner c) Eysenck * d) Ayllon and Michael 15. The influential book Case Studies in Behavior Modification was edited by: a) Skinner * b) Ullmann and Krasner c) Eysenck d) Ayllon and Michael 16. During the 1950s, an individual who was instrumental in criticizing Freudian psychoanalysis and advocating learning procedures as alternatives was: * a) Eysenck b) Wolpe c) Skinner d) Keller

198 ..

17. In a publication in 1920, ____________ and _______________ described a demonstration of Pavlovian conditioning of a fear response in an 11-month-old infant: a) Ullmann and Kranser b) Ayllon and Michael * c) Watson and Rayner d) Keller and Skinner 18. The first behavior therapy journal, founded in 1963 by Hans Eysenck, was called: a) Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry * b) Behavior Research and Therapy c) Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis d) Behavior Modification

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 19. Many of the early reports of experiments in the operant tradition in the 1950s demonstrated that consequences influence human behavior.

F 20. The book Case Studies in Behavior Modification was strictly within the operant tradition.

T 21. Eysenck criticized traditional Freudian psychoanalytical treatments, advocated behavior therapy procedures as an alternative, and he helped popularize systematic desensitization.

F 22. The term “behavior therapy,” rather than the term “behavior modification,” tends to be used by behavior specialists in schools and homes.

F 23. Skinner published the text Principles of Psychology (1950).

Multiple Choice Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

24. During the 1960s and 1970s, most of the major books and research papers in behavior modification and behavior therapy were based on developments in: a) England b) South Africa * c) the United States d) Canada 25. The psychologist who established the first operant conditioning course in Brazil in 1961 was: a) Freud *b) Keller c) Skinner d) Wolpe 26. Who developed PSI, a behavior modification approach to university teaching? a) Skinner b) Ullmann and Krasner c) Fuller * d) Keller 27. ___________ developed an influential learning theory that meshed together operant and respondent conditioning into a theory that did not distinguish between the two types of conditioning. a) Skinner * b) Hull c) Guthrie d) Keller

199 ..

28. A book that translated Freudian psychodynamic concepts into the language of Hull’s learning theory, and that had an influence in the early days of behavior modification, was written by __________________________. a) Ullman and Krasner b) Ayllon and Michael c) Wolpe and Guthrie * d) Dollard and Miller

200 ..

Chapter 30: Ethical Issues Multiple Choice Questions on Main Text

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

1. Behavior modification is based on the following two propositions: a) Behavior can be controlled, and it is always ethically appropriate to do so. b) Behavior can be partially controlled, and it is always ethically appropriate to do so. * c) Behavior can be controlled, and it is desirable to do so in order to achieve certain objectives. d) Behavior can be partially controlled, and it is desirable to do so in order to achieve certain objectives.

2. From a behavioral point of view, the term “ethics” refers to: * a) certain standards of behavior that are developed by a culture and that promote the survival of that culture b) the influence the controllee has on the controller by virtue of access to suitable reinforcers c) the degree of aversiveness involved in a given intervention d) a set of moral values adhered to by a culture 3. Consider the following ethical principle of APA: “Psychologists recognize the boundaries of their particular competencies and the limitations of their expertise.” To the extent that psychologists practice this ethical guideline, they are illustrating: a) contingency shaped behavior b) responsible behavior c) moral behavior * d) rule-governed behavior 4. Countercontrol may be defined as: a) the amount of control a therapist can exert over a client in a therapeutic relationship by virtue of access to suitable reinforcers * b) the amount of control a client can exert over the therapist in a therapeutic relationship by virtue of access to suitable reinforcers c) the amount of control exerted over behavior by an intervention d) the amount of control exerted over behavior by extraneous variables 5. People have learned to react negatively to all overt attempts to control behavior because: a) they are inherently free and therefore behavioral control is aversive b) they wish to maintain their freedom and dignity * c) of their experiences with others who have used their power for their own benefit d) the actions of religious leaders illustrates that one should not attempt to control the behavior of others 6. A primary conclusion of a commission of APA concerning ethical issues in behavior modification was that persons engaged in any type of psychological intervention should: a) have a minimum of three years supervised clinical experience b) have a Ph.D. in psychology from a recognized university * c) subscribe to and follow the ethics codes and standards of their professions d) be a member of the American Psychological Association 7. Which of the following is not a recommended characteristic of target behaviors selected for clients? a) They should emphasize teaching functional, age-appropriate skills. * b) They should be in the best interests of the client’s caretakers. c) They should focus on teaching skills that promote independent functioning. d) They should emphasize skills that will enable the client to pursue preferred activities.

201 ..

8. Which of the following is not a characteristic of an intervention that is least intrusive or restrictive? * a) It emphasizes wisely-used aversive control. b) It emphasizes use of positive reinforcement. c) It maximizes choices and freedom of movement for the client. d) It emphasizes use of natural reinforcers versus contrived reinforcers.

True/False Questions on Main Text

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

T 9. All social help professions are involved in the control of behavior.

F 10. The doctrine of free will is a valid criticism of attempts to develop a technology of behavior.

F 11. Behavior modifiers must confine themselves to a small number of methods that are appropriate only for very simple behavior problems.

T 12. Even if a particular behavior modification procedure produces undesirable effects, that does not refute behavior modification.

Multiple Choice Question on N&ED Section

(Note: * indicates the correct answer)

13. In his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner argued that: * a) the concept of “freedom” prevents us from recognizing how our behavior is controlled by positive reinforcers b) to be free, we need to improve bringing our behavior under self-control c) in order to achieve dignity for all, we need to improve the way that our behavior is controlled d) we need to decrease the amount of control exerted over us by various levels of government

True/False Questions on N&ED Section

(Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)

F 14. Behavior modification should always be used to maintain the status quo in social relationships.

T 15. Prilleltensky has argued that psychology has too readily accepted the status quo rather than questioning whether the status quo is the best for human welfare.

202 ..

Part IV Practicum Exercises for Users of

Behavior Modification: What It Is and How to Do It Ninth Edition

203 ..

204 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #1 Positive Reinforcement As we described in Chapter 3, many of our behaviors are controlled by their consequences. A behavior that is followed by a positive reinforcer is strengthened and (as you will read in Chapter 5) a previously reinforced behavior that is not followed by a reinforcer is weakened. Although it may take several reinforced trials for there to be any noticeable increase in behavior, it is still reasonable to identify specific single instances of positive reinforcement. The purpose of this exercise is to help you to become more skillful at identifying instances of reinforcement, both with respect to the behavior of others and your own behavior.

You should proceed through the following steps: Part I (a)

(b)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with, and go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

Observe the behavior of others who are there. You might look at their social interactions, movements around the lounge, interaction with the staff selling coffee, etc. You should try to identify three separate instances of positive reinforcement involving reinforcers that are direct acting. Discuss them with your partners, and record them on the following page. Your description should be approximately as complete as in Table 3-1………….......................………………………………………25-35 mins.

Part II (c) Each person in your group should identify a problem behavior that they emit that they would like to decrease. Discuss the problem behaviors with others in your group, and pick two of the behaviors to describe for this practicum………………………………………………………………...5-10 mins. (d)

Record those behaviors on the following page. Then, discuss with those students probable reinforcer(s) that are maintaining the behaviors. Describe them on the following page. For each reinforcer identified in step (d), indicate whether or not it is direct acting or indirect acting, and describe the rationale for your choice………………………………………………………10-15 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class. (over....)

205 ..

Practicum #1, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

PART I SITUATION

RESPONSE

IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES

LONG-TERM EFFECTS

DIRECT ACTING OR INDIRECT ACTING

REASONS FOR CHOICE (OF DIRECT VS INDIRECT)

(a)

(b)

(c)

PART II DESCRIPTION OF A PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

PROBABLE MAINTAINING REINFORCERS

(a)

(1)

(2)

(b)

(1)

(2)

206 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #2 Extinction Chapters 3 and 5 described the principles of positive reinforcement and extinction. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in designing an extinction program to decrease a behavioral excess.

Specifically, you should select a behavioral excess of your own or someone you know, and describe a plausible program incorporating extinction of the behavioral excess and positive reinforcement of a desirable alternative behavior. Your program should conform to the factors and guidelines for the effective use of extinction (see Chapter 5), and you should try to anticipate any pitfalls or potential problems.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently write down a behavioral excess of their own, or of someone they know, that they would like to decrease. When everyone has written down a behavior, read them to the other people in the group and record them on the following page. . . . . 5–10 mins

(c)

The group should select one of the behaviors to be used for completing the remainder of the practicum. The behavior chosen should be one for which it is possible to withhold the probable maintaining reinforcers if instances of the behavior occur during the extinction program. The behavior selected should be defined in detail on the following page……………………… …5 mins.

(d)

Discuss the program, how it will be set up, who will run it, and record the results on the following page, i.e., explain who will manage contingencies for the problem behavior, who will manage reinforcers for the desirable alternative behavior, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10–20 mins.

(e)

Explain how your program conforms to the guidelines and factors for the effective application of extinction, as described at the end of Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10–20 mins.

(f)

Anticipate problems that might arise and indicate how they will be handled.. . . . . . . . . .10–15 mins.

(g)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class. (over...)

207 ..

Practicum #2, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

From Step (b), Possible behaviors of students to decrease: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ From Step (c), Behavior Chosen for Extinction Program: Problem behavior to decrease:_______________________________ Reinforcer to be withheld:___________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Alternative behavior to increase:_____________________________ Reinforcer to be applied: ____________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

From Step (d), Outline of program design (contingencies, setting, etc.): ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

From Step (e), Guidelines and factors for effective use of principles (justify your program with relevant guidelines): ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

From Step (f), Potential problems (if any) and how they might be handled: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

208 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #3 Schedules of Reinforcement The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in identifying schedules of reinforcement (see Chapter 6) as they influence behavior in everyday situations. We want you to go to a student lounge or cafeteria and observe the behavior of others who are there. Look for examples of behaviors that are being maintained by various schedules of reinforcement. In a “real life” situation, it is difficult to find examples that precisely fit the definitions you have learned, but look for reasonable approximations of these situations.

An example of a VI/LH schedule might be when a group of students is walking through the cafeteria looking for a table. The time spent looking for and selecting a table will vary, depending on how busy the cafeteria is at the particular time. Responding (i.e., selecting a particular table) before its occupants have moved will not be reinforced. However, the first response that occurs after the occupants of a table have left the cafeteria will be reinforced. The reinforcer would be obtaining an unoccupied table. There is a limited time during which the response must occur in order to be reinforced. If the students wait too long, it is likely that the table will be taken by other students.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with, and go to a cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Briefly review with your group the definitions of the schedules listed on the following page. ………………………………………………………………………………………… ….15–20 mins.

(c)

Observe the behaviors exhibited by the people in the cafeteria or lounge, and try to identify approximations of the reinforcement schedules listed on the following page. . . . . . . . . 25–40 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

(over...)

209 ..

Practicum #3, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

Identify examples of behaviors that are maintained on the following reinforcement schedules. For each example, specify the response that is being reinforced and the nature of the reinforcer. In addition, give a brief description of how the reinforcement schedule works in that particular situation (see example of VI/LH on previous page). Give one example for each of the schedules below.

Reinft.

Schedule

Response

Reinforcer

CRF

FR or VR

FI or FI/LH

VI or VI/LH

FD

210 ..

Description

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #4 Stimulus Control As described in Chapter 8 on discrimination training, one of the events used to analyze behavior is the stimulus conditions that exist just prior to the occurrence of the behavior. From these conditions, we can identify two categories of stimuli: SD, a stimulus or an event that has been correlated with the availability of a reinforcer for a particular response; and S), a stimulus or event that has been correlated with extinction trials for a particular response.

In our everyday life, we learn to behave according to the stimuli presented in each situation. If you think of what you are doing right now, that is “reading,” your behavior is being controlled by the fact that a moment ago you were given specific instructions to read, you were given some written material, and you now have typed pages in front of you. These SDs all exert stimulus control over your reading behavior. Also, there are consequences specified for reading and performing this exercise in terms of the grade or points that you will receive. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in identifying examples of SDs and S)s that control behavior in everyday life.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

For the first part of this exercise, observe the behavior of those in the setting where you are located, and identify two different examples of SDs and two different examples of S)s that appear to be controlling behavior in that setting. Record them in the appropriate columns on the following page…………………………………………………………………………………………15–20 mins.

(c)

For the second part of this exercise, consider the setting where one person in your group typically studies. Describe that setting on the following page……………………………………….10–15 mins.

(d)

Next, discuss with that person changes that might be made in the setting to help the person study more effectively. Describe those changes on the following page………………………….10–15 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class. (over....)

211 ..

Practicum #4, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

General Situation

Specific Stimulus Which Was an SD

Behavior Which Was Reinforced

General Situation

Specific Stimulus Which Was an S)

Behavior Which Was Not Reinforced

Part I

Immediate Reinforcer(s)

1.

2.

1.

2.

Part II Describe the present study set-up for one student: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Describe changes that might be made in the study situation to help the student study more effectively. a) SDs for studying (i.e., cues that studying will be reinforced) that might be introduced: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ b) SDs for competing Rs that might be eliminated: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

212 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #5 Escape and Avoidance Conditioning As described in Chapter 13, many of our behaviors are influenced by escape or avoidance conditioning. The purpose of this exercise is to help you become more skillful at identifying instances of escape and avoidance conditioning in everyday life.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with. Then go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Observe the behavior of those in the setting where you are located, and try to identify instances of escape and avoidance conditioning. Alternatively, consider your own behavior during the past day or two and try to think of instances where you were influenced by escape or avoidance conditioning. ………………………………………………………………………………………………15–30 mins.

(c)

Record three separate instances of escape conditioning and three separate instances of avoidance conditioning on the following page. Do not describe instances that were already described in the text. ……………………………………………………………………………………………...15–30 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

(over...)

213 ..

Practicum #5, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Part I: Describe three instances of escape conditioning.

Aversive Stimulus (or Situation)

Escape Response

Immediate Effects

Long-Term Effects

1.

2.

3.

Part II: Describe three instances of avoidance conditioning.

Situation

Warning Stimulus

Avoidance Response

Any Immediate Effects? (Warning Stimulus Removed?)

1.

2.

3.

214 ..

Other Effects (Aversive Stimulus Avoided?)

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #6 Respondent and Operant Components of Emotions

As described in Chapter 15, emotions have three important characteristics: (a) the autonomic reaction that you feel inside during the experience of an emotion, which is influenced by respondent conditioning; (b) the way that you learn to overtly express an emotion, which is influenced by operant conditioning; and (c) the way that you become aware of and describe your emotions, which is also influenced by operant conditioning. The purpose of this practicum is to give you some practice in analyzing the operant and respondent components of emotions.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with. Then go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Pick an emotion that you will analyze for this practicum. Record it on the following page…………………………………………………………………………………………5–10 mins.

(c)

Each person in the group should then indicate an event or situation where they typically experience that emotion. Record those causes on the following page. Also, indicate whether the causes involve the withdrawal or presentation of reinforcers or punishers………………………………..10–20 mins.

(d)

Each person should then indicate their typical operant displays of that emotion. Record them on the following page……………………………………………………………………………..10–20 mins.

(e)

On the following page, describe the typical respondent components of that emotion…..…5–10 mins.

(f)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

(over...)

215 ..

Practicum #6, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Emotion Selected: ____________________________________________________________________________________

Typical Causes of that Emotion for Students In Your Group.

Do the Causes Involve Presentation or Withdrawal of Reinforcers of Punishers? Indicate Which.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Typical Operant Displays of that Emotion by Students in the Group 1.

2.

3.

4.

Typical Respondent Components of that Emotion:

216 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum # 7 Programming for Generality As described in Chapter 16, training produces generality when the trained behavior transfers to a new setting, when training leads to the development of a behavior that has not been specifically trained, and when the trained behavior is maintained. The purpose of this exercise is to help you to think about the various strategies for programming for all three aspects of generality.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s), and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently identify a particular behavior that they would like to learn or are in the process of learning. List the behaviors on the following page. From your group, select one of the behaviors listed in order to complete the practicum...............5–10 mins.

(c)

Review the strategies in Chapter 12 for programming for all three aspects of generality. Then describe the details of the strategies that you might follow to program for all aspects of generality for the behavior selected from a person in your group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30–45 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

(over...)

217 ..

Practicum #7, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Behaviors that Members of the Group Are Learning or Would Like to Learn: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

Behavior Chosen for This Exercise: ____________________________________________________________________________________ Strategies for Programming Stimulus Generalization

Strategies for Programming Response Generalization

218 ..

Strategies for Programming Maintenance

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #8 Rule-Governed Control Over Behavior As described in Chapter 17, there are several types of situations in which use of rule-governed control over behavior is an especially effective behavior modification strategy. The purpose of this practicum is to give you some practice in capitalizing on rule-governed control over behavior for self-improvement.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s), and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently identify a behavior that they do not typically emit but that they would like to perform, or that they perform less consistently than they would like to. List them on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

Discuss the behaviors with your partners, and pick one of them to complete this practicum. Record it on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(d)

For the behavior chosen, describe how rules might be used to influence that person to emit that behavior in the desired fashion, with the desired frequency, and in the desired situations. Indicate which of the guidelines are being followed for using rules effectively (see Chapter 17). . 30–40 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

(over...)

219 ..

Practicum #8, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Behaviors Identified by Individuals in the Group: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

Behavior Selected for This Practicum: ________________________________________________________________________________________

Describe How Rules Might be Used to Effectively Influence that Behavior: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Indicate How the Guidelines for Using Rules Effectively Were Followed: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

220 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #9 Short-Cut Tactics with Stimulus Control As indicated in the text, it is possible to bring about desirable behavior change by applying principles such as shaping, stimulus discrimination training, etc. However, because of our conditioning histories, there are already stimuli that exert control over many of our behaviors. Sometimes it is possible to bring about rapid behavior change by devising a strategy that incorporates existing forms of stimulus control. The purpose of this practicum is to give you some practice in deciding how you might use short-cut tactics involving stimulus control to influence your behavior (see Chapter 18).

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s), and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently examine the list of behaviors on the following page, and select two behaviors from the list that you would genuinely like to improve on.

Discuss your selections with your partners. From your group, select two of the behaviors listed in order to complete the practicum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

One person in the group should do the recording for everyone. It is only necessary to hand in one sheet for all members of the group. Complete the practicum exercise as described on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–45 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

(over...)

221 ..

Practicum #9, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Select two behaviors from the following list: a) following healthy eating practices b) feeling happy c) exercising three times per week d) preparing a study schedule at the start of each week e) being more assertive in resisting requests from friends (who want you to change your study schedule so that you can socialize with them) f) cleaning dishes and kitchen area immediately after finishing a meal g) following a weekly time management plan for studying For each behavior, describe how you might influence the behavior by combining at least four of the following tactics: modeling, guidance, rearranging the existing surroundings, moving the activity to a new location, relocating people, and changing the time of the activity. Make your suggestions highly plausible in regard to the situation.

First Behavior Selected: ___________________________________________________________________________ Tactics Followed: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Second Behavior Selected: __________________________________________________________________________ Tactics Followed: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

222 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #10 Behavioral Assessment As described in Chapters 20 and 21 on behavioral assessment, specifying problem behaviors precisely and devising ways to take data on the occurrence of problems are important components of effective behavior modification. The purposes of this practicum are to give you practice in specifying behaviors precisely, and identifying characteristics of behavior to be recorded.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Areas to Improve: Each person in your group should identify two or three areas for self-improvement or personal adjustment. List four such areas in the appropriate column on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5–10 mins.

(c)

Precise Definitions: Many self-improvement goals are somewhat vague, and include things like “having a positive attitude toward college,” or “improving a relationship.” Mager (1972) refers to such vague abstractions as “fuzzies.” A “fuzzy” is an acceptable starting point for identifying a self-improvement area. However, you must then “unfuzzify” the abstraction by identifying the specific behaviors or outcomes that would cause you to agree that your goal has been achieved. For each of the “Areas to Improve” listed on the next page, identify the specific behaviors or outcomes that you would take as evidence that self-improvement has been successful. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–20 mins.

(d)

Prioritizing: Next, review your list of specific behaviors on the next page and discuss them with the group with a view to prioritizing them as potential targets for behavior change. Justify your top 2 priority items (in terms of ease with which they can be changed, personal importance to the individual involved, potential value for others, etc.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–20 mins.

(e)

Characteristics to Record: Finally, considering the information in the chapter on “Direct Behavioral Assessment,” indicate the specific characteristic(s) that should be recorded for each of the behaviors on the list (i.e., frequency of..., duration of..., etc.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(f)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class. (over...)

223 ..

Practicum #10, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

General Areas to Improve

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Precise Definition of Behavior to be Changed

Priority Rating

Characteristics to be Recorded

1.

2.

3.

4.

Justification for Priority Rating #1

Justification for Priority Rating #2

224 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #11 Planning a Treatment Program As described in the Chapter 24, “Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Behavioral Program,” one must make a number of decisions in designing a behavioral program. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in following the guidelines for designing a program.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should read the following problem-behavior descriptions, and the group should select either Problem A or Problem B below, for which you will then design a program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

For the problem chosen, complete the sections on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–45 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

The Problem Imagine that you are a supervisor of twenty ten-year-old children who are enrolled in a summer camp at a local park. Part of your job is fairly straightforward because a daily schedule has been provided. There are specific amounts of time to be spent playing table tennis, swimming, eating lunch, resting, and so forth.

However, you are faced with several recurring behavior problems. Pick one of the two problems listed below.

For that problem, consider the information in the chapter “Steps for Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Treatment Program.” Based on that information, complete the sections on the following page.

PROBLEM A: When swimming, Jason and Paula frequently argue. The argument often ends with one of them hitting the other and someone usually winds up crying.

PROBLEM B: At the swimming pool, one child says that he is afraid of the water. You have a note from that child’s parents indicating that he knows how to swim, but the child insists that he cannot swim and refuses to go near the pool.

(over...)

225 ..

Practicum #11, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Description of the Target Behavior: ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ (a) Is it precise? _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ (b) How is it in the client’s best interests? _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ (c) Will its accomplishment likely produce any side effects? _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ Desired Stimulus Control of the Target Behavior: ____________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Data to Be Recorded: _____________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Details of Short-Cut Tactics to Be Used: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Gradual Change Procedures (Shaping, Chaining, Fading) to Be Used (briefly describe): ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Do You Need to Program for Generality? If so, how? __________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

226 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #12 Token Reinforcement in a Self-Improvement Program As described in Chapter 25, token economies are typically used to influence behaviors of a group of individuals. But a token system can also be designed to improve several behaviors of one individual. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in designing a token system to influence several of your own behaviors.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should identify several behaviors that they know how to perform, but would like to perform more often. List them on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

Discuss the behaviors identified by the members of the group. Pick the behaviors for one person and refer to them for completing this practicum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(d)

For the behaviors selected for one of the individuals in your group, describe a plausible token system that might be used to increase the frequency of those behaviors to desirable levels. Then indicate which of the considerations in designing a token economy (see summary of considerations in Chapter 24) that you have followed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–35 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

(over...)

227 ..

Practicum #12, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

Behaviors for Person A

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Behaviors for Person B

Behaviors for Person C

Behaviors Selected for Completion of Practicum

Details of Token System

Considerations in Designing a Token Economy That Were Followed

228 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #13 Causes of Problems of Self-Control All of us at one time or another have experienced problems of self-control / behavioral excesses that we have difficulty decreasing or controlling, or behavioral deficits that we would like to overcome. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in analyzing the causes of problems of self-control (see Chapter 26).

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently identify a behavioral excess that they would like to decrease, and a behavioral deficit that they would like to overcome. List them on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

Review the causes of problems of self-control for behavioral excesses and behavioral deficits presented in Chapter 26. For each of the behaviors listed above, identify the most plausible general cause (e.g., immediate reinforcers vs. cumulatively significant punishers, etc). Then describe the actual contingencies that seem to exemplify that cause. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–45 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

(over...)

229 ..

Practicum #13, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

Behaviors

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Most Plausible Causes

Person A Behavioral Deficit

Person A Behavioral Excess

Person B Behavioral Deficit

Person B Behavioral Excess

Person C Behavioral Deficit

Person C Behavioral Excess

230 ..

Description of Actual Contingencies

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #14 Task Analysis, Behavioral Progression, and Mastery Criteria As we indicated in Chapter 26 on self-control, learning complex skills can be facilitated by focusing on the behavior itself. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in developing a task analysis of a skill, and in preparing mastery criteria for the steps of the behavioral progression.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Consider the behavioral progression and mastery criteria for learning golf presented in the self-control chapter.

(c)

Each person in the group should independently identify a particular skill that they recently learned or would like to learn. The skill can be a sports skill, or it can be some other skill from everyday life (such as changing a tire on a car, knitting, or appropriately using some piece of equipment or a tool). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(d)

Discuss your examples with the other members of the group and pick one skill for the group for completing the rest of this exercise. You should pick a skill that is not too broad in scope. For example, “playing hockey” is far too broad. “Giving accurate forehand passes in hockey” would be a better choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(e)

“Task analyze” that skill, and describe a behavioral progression and the mastery criteria that you might use to try to learn it or to teach it to someone else. Make your behavioral progression and mastery criteria appropriate for an individual of a given age or level of experience. Your steps should be plausible and the difference from one step to the next should not be too large nor too small. Record your results on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–45 mins.

(f)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class. (over...)

231 ..

Practicum #14, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Task Chosen for Analysis: _________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Age and Experience Level of Subject: _______________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________

Behavioral Steps or Components

Mastery Criteria

232 ..

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 9th edition (Martin & Pear, Pearson, 2011)

Practicum #15 Planning Coping Self-Statements As we indicated in Chapter 27, some people experience problems because of a high frequency of negative self-talk, negative thinking about themselves in relation to one or more situations. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in preparing some coping self-statements to counteract problem thoughts.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently identify a particular situation where you sometimes experience negative thinking. It could be negative thinking about your future, about a social relationship, about work, about your performance in a course, etc. On the following page, for each person in your group, list one general theme around which negative thinking occurs. Discuss your examples with the other members in your group and pick one example for completing the rest of this exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

Next, in a paragraph or so in the appropriate section on the next page, write out at least 6 examples of the types of thoughts that that person (from your group whom you have chosen) typically thinks when experiencing negative thinking on that particular topic or theme. Make the statements as realistic as possible and as close as possible to the kind of thoughts that actually occur. . . . . . . . . . 20–30 mins.

(d)

Then, in the appropriate section on the following page, for each of the negative thoughts, describe specific coping thoughts that the person could think to counteract the negative thoughts. The coping thoughts should be realistic, and positive. They should be as specific as possible, and should ideally relate to specific behaviors and/or specific positive outcomes (review the guidelines for rule-governed control over behavior.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–30 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class. (over...)

233 ..

Practicum #15, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________ ___________________________ _______________________

Themes or Topics Around Which Negative Thinking Occurs by Members of the Group: ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________

Topic or Theme of Negative Thinking Chosen for This Exercise: ____________________________________________________________________________________

Details of Negative Thoughts

Positive Coping Thoughts (Self-Talk)

234 ..