Adolescent, The Development, Relationships, and Culture, 13E Kim Gale Dolgin Solution Manual

Adolescent, The Development, Relationships, and Culture, 13E

Kim Gale Dolgin

Email: Richard@qwconsultancy.com

Chapter 1 The Social Context of Adolescence I. The Social Context of Adolescence A. The Word Adolescence 1. The word adolescence comes from the Latin verb adolescere, which means to grow or to grow to maturity B. Timing 1. Most people place the beginning of adolescence at the time in which children begin to physically mature into individuals capable of reproduction 2. The upper boundary of adolescence is less clear. Different criteria can be used, and none are universally agreed upon. Most adults tend to think of adolescence as ending with a combination of attaining financial independence, attaining emotional independence, and attaining a change in perspective in which one focuses on issues that are less adolescent and more adult II. Approaches to Studying Adolescents A. Biological 1. Discusses the process of sexual maturation and physical growth that take place during puberty B. Cognitive Approach 1. Deals with two aspects a. The qualitative changes that take place in the way adolescents think b. The quantitative changes that take place in intelligence and information processing C. Psychosexual Approach 1. Deals with the development of emotions and of the self, including the development of self-concept, self-esteem, gender, and identity D. Social Relationships 1. Parents a. Parent –adolescent conflicts b. Sibling relationships c. Parenting styles 2. Different family constellations a. Single- parent families b. Blended families c. Adoptive families 3. Peers 4. Friendships 5. Romantic Relationships 6. Moral Values a. Morality as an intrinsically social phenomenon 7. School & the Broader Social World a. School dropouts b. Career decisions and career education c. Social problems including suicide, delinquency, running away from home, and substance abuse .

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E. Emerging Adulthood 1. Emerging adulthood has become an increasingly more common bridge stage.

It is now normative enough that it deserves discussion, since it will be the next phase of life for many adolescents.

F. Eclectic Approach 1. The approach is interdisciplinary.

III. The Changing Face of American Adolescence A. Although there are increasingly more adolescents in the United States, they now make up a smaller proportion of the total population because people are living longer and the birthrate is dropping.

B. The racial and ethnic makeup of American adolescents is also changing. More and more are of African, Hispanic, or Asian descent.

IV. Our Evolving Society A. The society in which adolescents grow up has an important influence on their development. Due to rapid change, different cohorts have different characteristics.

1. Major Adolescent Cohorts since the Early 1900s a. The Lost Generation. These were individuals who were adolescents or young adults during or just after World War I. b. The G.I. Generation. This is the generation of Americans who were children during the Depression and youth during World War II. c. The Silent Generation. Born too late to serve in World War II and too early to be unconventional and antiauthoritarian. d. The Baby Boomers. This group was born during the years after World War II, after the GIs came home and began their adult civilian lives. e. Generation X. This group was born between the mid-1960s and about 1980. The name reflects this generation’s feelings of cynicism and alienation. f. Generation Y. Also known as the Millennial Generation, these are individuals born from about 1980 until 2000. g. Generation ? The most recent living generation. They will be the first generation raised solely in the post 9/11 era.

B. The Evolving Prolongation of Adolescence 1. Adolescents are taking longer to finish their education, settle into a career, move out of their parents’ home, marry, and have children. a. This new “in-between” state is called emerging adulthood.

C. Evolving Communication and Information Technologies 1. During the last 100 years, Americans have witnessed unprecedented advances. a. Computer The first personal computer was introduced in 1980. Computer use has skyrocketed. b. The Internet Conservative estimates put more than 1.5 billion users on the Internet. An unfortunate downside to the Internet is that it makes a wide variety of inappropriate materials readily available to children and adolescents.

Communication Decency Act (1996) overturned in 1997 upholding right of free speech. .

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D. Evolving World of Work and Consumption 1. Adults are working more and more hours and holding second jobs to keep up with material needs. More American adolescents are employed and the proportion of high school students who work has been rising steadily.

Adolescent buying power has been growing at an enormous rate. Adolescents who work too many hours have a lowered academic achievement, increased substance abuse, and are at risk of delinquency.

E. Evolving Educational Imperatives 1. Expanding technology and social complexity have increased the need for higher education and thus lengthened the period of adolescent dependency. In 2008, more than two-thirds of men between the ages of 18 and 24 lived at home with one or both of their parents; more than 63% of unmarried 18 to 24 year old women did as well.

2. The cost of college education is rising more rapidly than the standard of living.

3. Technology in education is helping teachers to develop classroom resources and use both interactive and virtual laboratories.

F. The Evolving Family 1. Changes in Marriage and Parenthood a. Marriage rate has declined and the age of marriage has gone up. b. Declining birthrates have resulted in smaller families.

2. Changes in Family Dynamics a. Expectations that individuals bring to marriage have changed.

Fulfillment of romantic and companionship, not economic necessity, are considered to be the primary function of getting married.

3. The Democratic Family a. A democratic form of the family has evolved. The patriarchal structure is no longer the norm. The feminist movement brought some economic power and freedom to women. Educational opportunities for women and the increase in the percentage of married women working outside the home encouraged the adoption of more egalitarian sex roles in the family.

4. The Child-Centered Family a. The focus shifted from what a child could do to serve family to a matter of what the family could contribute to the total development of the child.

5. Nonmarital Cohabitation a. The increase in the number of couples who cohabit before marriage means adolescents will be more likely to be raised by nonwed, cohabitating couples than in the past and they will be more likely to cohabitate themselves.

6. Out-of-Wedlock Births a. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of births to unwed and never-wed mothers.

7. Divorce a. In spite of downward trend, the United States has the highest divorce rate in the world. .

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G. The Evolving Sexual Landscape 1. The Positive Effects of the Evolving Sexual Landscape a. Development of Scientific Knowledge of Sexual Functioning b. Treatment of Sexual Dysfunction c. Development of Contraceptives d. Willingness to Deal with Unwanted Sexual Behavior e. Flexibility of Gender Roles 2. Negative Effects of the Evolving Sexual Landscape a. An Earlier Beginning to Premarital Sexual Behavior b. Nonmarital Pregnancy c. Sexually Transmitted Disease and AIDS d. Confusion about Sex H. Evolving Safety Concerns 1. Increased fear of violence in children and adults.

2. Violent Crime a. The violent crime rate in the United States has fallen. Even so there is an overall perception that the United States is becoming an ever more dangerous place to live.

3. Violence in Society a. Today’s youth have seen killings in the nightly news. They have been bombarded with sensory information that affects emotions and feelings as well as cognitive perceptions.

4. Violence in the Home a. The greater the frequency of violence, the greater the chance that the young victims will grow up to be violent parents or partners.

5. Violent Deaths a. Among adolescents age 15 to 24 who die, more than three-fourths die violently.

Teaching Tips Suggest to students that they use the approaches to studying adolescents or the various perspectives as lenses from which to view behavior. Keep in mind the idea of putting on a different pair of glasses to look at the same behavior. What you see and the way you understand the behavior will depend in great part on the lens or perspective from which you are viewing the behavior.

Classroom Activities Divide the class into five groups. Each group should study one particular approach and use their understanding to explain a behavioral vignette. Using their expertise they should be able to explain to a parent why his or her adolescent is suddenly breaking curfew to hang out with friends.

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Have students work on their own family genogram or family tree. How does their particular family of origin reflect the family revolution described in the text?

Research Topics and Essay Questions Discuss the impact of the revolution in information technology on adolescent development.

What are the positive effects of this revolution? What are some of the potential problems?

Research school violence. Why are adolescents the perpetrators of school violence? Discuss the results of this phenomenon. Are there legislative and social policies designed to keep students safe? What are the psychological consequences?

Key Questions 1. Explain what is meant by the violence revolution and describe some of its effects on adolescents and their families.

2. Will the present longevity in our society contribute to the lengthening of adolescence or its postponement to a later time?

3. Do you think that the computer revolution will contribute to alienation of adolescents and less social emphasis?

Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Society's Problems in Children's Lives. (1995) 28 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program examines many of the societal problems facing children today and how these problems impact the quality of children's lives. Among the experts on this program are Dr. Carl Bell, President of the Community Mental Health Council; Joy Dryfoos, author of Adolescents at Risk; and Dr. Katherine Kauffer Christoffel, Professor of Pediatrics at Northwestern University Medical School.

The Impact of Violence on Children. (1995) 28 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program looks at the sources of violence that affect our children. Among the experts featured in the program are Dr. James Gabarino, Director of Cornell University's Family Life Development Center; James Strayer, President of Children Now; and Kathleen Kostelny, Ph.D., of the Erikson Institute.

Middle School Confessions. (2002) 74 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. The program features young people age 11 to 14 from a wide range of ethnic and economic backgrounds in one-on-one interviews and small-group conversations; cameras also record their school, home, and social lives. All the issues that concern parents most—drugs, alcohol, violence, sexual activity, and sexual orientation—are explored with eye-opening, non-gratuitous frankness. (Viewer discretion is advised.)

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American Adolescence. (1999) 29 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. A rising divorce rate, frequent relocation, and a fascination with TV, video games, and computers are leaving more and more teenagers under-supervised, rootless, and isolated. Increasingly detached from traditional values and lifestyles, these young adults face daunting obstacles without the support base enjoyed by previous generations. This program investigates the hurdles faced by today’s teens and discusses how their hopes, fears, and expectations will shape American society. Experts include top officers of the Families and Work Institute, National Teen Pregnancy Prevention Research Center, and National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse Control.

Teen Species: Understanding the Adolescent. (2002) Two-part series, 52 minutes each, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This series delves into the mysteries of adolescence by following several participants over a two-year period, exploring the biological, psychological, and social pressures that begin with the onset of puberty.

Adolescence: The Stormy Decade. (2001) 30 minutes, Insight Media. Featuring Ron Clavier, this program examines important issues facing adolescents. It covers such topics as illegal drugs, alcohol and tobacco use, the influences of the media, negative peer pressure, defiance, rules, independence, sexuality, relationships, low self-esteem, underachievement, teenage blues, and clinical issues.

Web Sites Improving the Well-Being of Adolescents in America https://www.earlyadolescence.org/webinar/national National Middle School Association http://www.nmsa.org/ Emerging Adulthood http://www.jeffreyarnett.com/articles.htm Shoulder to Shoulder: Raising Teens Together http://www.shouldertoshoulderminnesota.org/ Internet and American Life: Teens and Their Friends http://www.familyresource.com/lifestyles/technology/ internet-and-american-life-teens-and-their-friends Advocates for Youth http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/ National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Center http://www.safeyouth.org/scripts/index.asp

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Chapter 2 Adolescents in Theoretical Context I. Biological Views: defines adolescence as a period of physical and sexual maturation, during which important growth changes take place in the child’s body. Emphasizes biogenetic factors as the primary cause of any behavioral and psychological change in the adolescent.

A. G. Stanley Hall 1. Father of adolescent psychology. Uses survival of the fittest and natural selection. Theorized that adolescence is a turbulent time of life characterized by vacillations between emotional extremes.

B. Arnold Gesell 2. Biologically oriented-maturation comes from genes and biology. Genes determine the order of appearance of behavioral traits and developmental trends.

II. Psychoanalytical and Psychosocial Views A. Sigmund Freud 1. Described adolescence as a period of sexual excitement, anxiety, and sometimes personality disturbance. a. Puberty is the culmination of a series of changes destined to give infantile sexual life its final, adult form. b. Children derive pleasure from sexual objects outside their own bodies.

They are drawn to members of the opposite sex who can resolve their tensions. c. Freud pathologized homosexuality, viewing it as something to be avoided.

B. Anna Freud 1. She was the daughter of Sigmund Freud, and she was more concerned with adolescence than her father was. a. Adolescence characterized as a period of internal conflict, psychic disequilibrium, and erratic behavior. b. Early infantile sexuality and rebellious aggression are resuscitated at puberty. c. Drives/id increase, challenging the ego and super ego. d. The ego uses defense mechanisms to win the battle. The ego represses, displaces, denies, and reverses the instincts and turns them against the self, producing hysterical symptoms and building anxiety. e. Harmony among the id, ego, and superego does finally occur in most normal adolescents.

C. Erik Erikson 1. Erikson modified Freud’s theory of psychosexual development. He placed less emphasis on the id’s basic biological urges, believing the ego to be the driving force behind much of behavior.

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a. Eight stages of human development. In each stage, the individual has a psychosocial task to master. Each task produces conflict, with two possible outcomes, one negative the other positive. b. The overall task is to acquire a positive ego identity. c. Adolescent psychosocial stage is identity versus identity diffusion. The identity search is a normative crisis, a normal phase of increased conflict. The individual must through role experimentation establish a sense of personal identity. i.

Psychosocial moratorium: a societally sanctioned period between childhood and adulthood during which the individual through free role experimentation may find a niche in society.

Adolescence becomes a period of analyzing and trying various role without the responsibility for assuming any one.

III. Cognitive Views of Adolescence: Cognition is the act or process of knowing. It is the mental activity or thinking involved in understanding. Enhanced thinking or enhanced cognition skills depend in part on physical brain maturation.

A. Jean Piaget 1. Demonstrated that from birth onward, intellectual competencies undergo continual development that never ends. Cognitive development is the combined results of environmental influences and the maturation of the brain and the nervous system. a. Schema: represents the original patterns of thinking, the mental structures that people use for dealing with what happens in the environment. b. Adaptation: is including and adjusting to new information that increases a person’s understanding of the world. Adaptation takes place through two means: i.

Assimilation: acquiring new information by integrating it into already existing structures in response to new environmental stimuli ii. Accommodation: involves adjusting to new information by creating new schema c. Equilibrium: achieving a balance between assimilation and accommodation 2. Stages of Cognitive Development a. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years) b. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years) c. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) d. Formal Operational Stage (11 Years and Older)

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B. Lev Vygotsky 1. Vygotsky had a view of cognitive development very different from that of Piaget. He believed that cognitive skill is developed through social interaction. Children learn best when they are paired with a more skilled partner and they work together collaboratively to solve some problem. a. Zone of proximal development i.

Learning is most rapid in a zone wherein the task is beyond the child’s grasp but not so hard as to be overwhelming. b. Scaffolding i.

Provision of assistance with gradual withdrawal as the child becomes able to complete the task alone.

IV. Social-Cognitive Learning View of Adolescence: Social Learning theory is concerned with how the individuals around us shape our tendency to perform or not to perform various behaviors.

A. Albert Bandura 1. Children learn through observing the behavior of others. a. Modeling i.

Imitating observed behavior ii. Many aspects of behavior may be modeled from parents.

Some of these are good and some are destructive. b. Reinforcement i.

Positive reinforcers are stimuli that, when given, increase the probability that the preceding behavior will occur again. ii. Negative reinforcers are stimuli that, when removed, increase the probability that the preceding behavior will occur again. c. Vicarious Reinforcement i.

Learning from observing the positive or negative consequences of another person’s behavior d. Self-reinforcement ii. The act of learners rewarding themselves for activities or responses that they consider of good quality 2. Social-Cognitive Theory a. Bandura expanded his social learning theory to include the role of cognition. b. Social-cognitive theory emphasizes that individuals can actively control the events that affect their lives, rather that having to passively accept whatever the environment provides; they partially control the environment by the way they react to it.

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V. The Impact of Culture on Adolescents A. Robert Havighurst 1. Outlined developmental tasks of adolescence. a. Consists of individual needs and societal demands 2. Teachable Moment a. Correct time for teaching any task 3. Eight major tasks American youth face during adolescence a. Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively b. Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes c. Achieving a masculine or feminine social gender role d. Achieving emotional independence form parents and other adults e. Preparing for an economic career f. Preparing for marriage and family life g. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior h. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior and developing an ideology B. Kurt Lewin 1. Field Theory a. Behavior is a function of the person and of his environment. To understand an adolescent you must consider the individual’s personality and the environment as interdependent factors.

2. Life Space a. The sum total of all possible behaviors. b. From childhood to adulthood, fewer restrictions are placed on individual’s freedom and so life space expands. c. Life space in adolescence is undefined and unclear.

C. Urie Bronfenbrenner 1. An Ecological Model a. Adolescents develop in multiple contexts of family, community, and country. Peers, relatives, religion, school, and media influence adolescents. i. Microsystem a) Immediate contact—family, friends and school ii. Mesosytem a) Reciprocal relationships among microsystem settings.

What happens at school influences what happens at home. iii. Exosystem a) Adolescent does not play active role but it influences him/her. What happens at parents’ workplace has effect on adolescent: income, work and vacation schedule, etc. iv. Macrosystem a) Ideologies, attitudes, mores, customs and laws.

Standards.

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D. Margaret Mead & Ruth Benedict 1. Cultural determinism a. The influence of a particular culture in determining the personality and behavior of the developing individual. Emphasis on the importance of broader social environment in determining the personality of the child.

2. Cultural relativism a. Variations exist in social institutions, economic patterns, mores, and rituals from one culture to another.

3. Anthropologists emphasize that the sociocultural milieu determines the course of adolescence and strongly influences the degree to which adolescents feel welcomed by the adult community. v.

In modern society, adolescence has become a prolonged stage of development without a clear rite of passage. vi.

Continuity of cultural conditioning suggests continuous growth and challenges the inevitability of storm and stress a) Responsible versus nonresponsible roles b) Submissive versus dominant roles c) Similar versus dissimilar gender roles

Teaching Tips Use this unit as an opportunity for students to relearn basic developmental and personality theory. Many if not most students, while familiar with Freud, Erikson, and Piaget, cannot cite in detail the various concepts and stages. Emphasize the contributions of Hall and the other theorists. Students should be able to juxtapose various theorists on one another. Encourage them to compare and contrast.

Classroom Activities Have students create a panel discussion. The panelists should include all the various theorists in this chapter. The student moderator should introduce each panelist and have each briefly explain his or her contribution to the study of adolescent development.

Have students work in pairs to create a resume of two selected theorists. They should be prepared to interview for the job of explaining adolescent behavior.

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Research Topics and Essay Questions Compare and contrast Freud, Erikson, and Piaget. Each focused on a particular aspect of human development in order to explain that development. Identify these aspects. Superimpose stage theories. For example, look at and discuss the genital stage, formal operational stage, and intimacy versus isolation.

Discuss Anna Freud’s work. Why do defense mechanisms develop during adolescence? What is meant by the resurgence of sexual anxiety?

Key Questions 1. Who was G. Stanley Hall and what did he believe about adolescent development?

2. What was Sigmund Freud’s theory about adolescence?

3. Explain Anna Freud’s ideas about adolescence.

4. According to Erikson, what is the task of adolescence?

5. According to Piaget’s theory, in what stage are adolescents and what abilities are characteristic of this stage?

6. According to Havighurst, what are the eight major tasks facing American adolescents?

7. Explain Bronfenbrenner’s theory.

8. What did Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict’s research discover about adolescence?

Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man. (1970) 29 minutes, Insight Media. Using dramatized interviews with Sigmund Freud, this video examines psychoanalysis, the Oedipus complex, the unconscious, infantile sexuality, and the relationship of the id, ego, and superego.

Erik Erikson: A Life's Work. (1992) 38 minutes, Insight Media. This video combines biographical information and interviews with Erik Erikson with discussion of his theoretical principles. Margaret Brenman-Gibson explains his biopsychological model and discusses his introduction of ethical principles into psychology. She describes Erikson's Eight Stages of Life, highlighting the unsolvable dichotomies that characterize each stage.

Piaget's Developmental Theory: An Overview. (1989) 25 minutes, Insight Media. This video features archival footage of Piaget lecturing to developmental psychologists, as well as recent footage of David Elkind working with children. It presents an overview of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, exploring the scope and content of his contributions to the field.

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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: An Introduction. (2003) 38 minutes, Davidson Films.

Utilizing archival materials and newly shot visuals, students are introduced to the vocabulary and innovative methods of this influential thinker. Dr. Bandura himself narrates the film, endowing it with his compelling presentation style and intellectual authority.

Theories of Development. (1997) 29 minutes, Insight Media. This DVD explores cognitive, psychosexual, psychosocial, behaviorist, social-learning, and sociocultural theories of development. It discusses the work of Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Gesell, Skinner, and Vygotsky.

Web Sites The Anna Freud Center http://www.annafreudcenter.org Freud Museum http://www.freud.org.uk/ The Jean Piaget Society http://www.piaget.org The Lev Vygotsky Centennial Project http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/project2.htm A Tribute to Urie Bronfenbrenner http://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/getArticle.cfm?id=1881 Margaret Mead http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/expeditions/treasure_fossil/Treasures/Margaret_Mead/m ead.html Biography of Albert Bandura http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/bandurabio.html

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Chapter 3 Adolescent Diversity: Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity I. Adolescents of Low Socioeconomic Status A. The term low socioeconomic status (low SES) is used because it refers to two important aspects of the living condition: low social standing and low income.

1. Much of the research with adolescents has been conducted with White, middleclass youths.

2. Compared with the general U.S. population, low SES adolescents are disproportionately from non-White families.

B. Limitations of Low Socioeconomic Status 1. Limited Alternatives a. Youths of low socioeconomic status are not exposed to a variety of social and cultural settings. Vocationally they have fewer opportunities. Poverty limits their educational and career attainments.

2. Helplessness, Powerlessness a. In the working world, the skills of low-SES citizens are limited. These individuals have little political or social influence in their communities, and sometimes inadequate legal protection of their rights as citizens.

3. Deprivation a. Adolescents of low SES are aware of the affluence around them and the benefits received by others.

4. Insecurity a. Low-SES individuals are at the mercy of life’s unpredictable events: sickness, loss of work, injury, legal problems, and others. They may never feel secure about their lives.

5. Cycle of Poverty and Deprivation a. Limitations imposed on the lives of low-SES youths perpetuate poverty. They are caught in a self-perpetuating cycle of poverty, a vicious circle that characterizes the experiences of impoverished people, who find it difficult to move into the middle class.

6. Low Level of Education a. Schools in higher-SES neighborhoods provide better materials, more experienced teachers, and lower teacher-student ratios than those in lower-SES neighborhoods.

7. Family Instability and Female-Headed Households a. The rates of divorce and separation increase as one goes down the socioeconomic scale. Pregnancy rate, especially unintended pregnancy rates, are higher among those of lower SES. Being raised in a one-parent home increase the chances that you will end up economically disadvantaged as an adult.

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8. Homelessness a. Homeless adolescents have more physical and emotional stress.

9. Childbearing Goals and Philosophies a. Families of low SES tend to be hierarchal and parent-child interaction patterns are oriented toward maintaining order, obedience, and discipline 10. Peer Orientation a. Low SES youths are emotionally emancipated from families earlier.

They form stronger, more lasting peer relationships.

11. Social Outcasts a. Ordinarily, school is an important part of the social world of adolescents, but prejudicial treatment by middle-class adults and students can make low-SES adolescents social outcasts.

12. Mental Health a. Lack of emotional security and stability in low-SES homes lead to high rate psychological problems.

13. Physical Health a. Poverty leads to physical problems. Poor health care, substandard nutrition, and exposure to environmental toxins are all more common in situations in which income is inadequate.

II. Minority Adolescents A. African American Adolescents 1. Most black people have been in the United States for generations, having descended from enslaved Africans. More recently, Black immigrants have arrived from Latin America, Cape Verde, and the Caribbean. Each of these groups has its own culture.

2. Legacy of Discrimination a. For generations, African American families, especially those of lower SES, were forced to assume an inferior role in order to get along in White society.

3. New Realities a. In the second half of the twentieth century, a series of sweeping judicial decisions that promised to desegregate Blacks and Whites contributed to the formation of a new conception of Black people in the minds of Blacks and Whites alike. Changes were seen in the emergence of a significant Black middle class, the rise of leadership among Blacks, and an increased interest in African heritage and culture.

4. Contemporary Segregation a. Although the court battles have been fought and won, there is still considerable disparity today between White and Black income, education, and other standards of living. Segregation continues to be a fact of life.

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5. Unequal Education a. In spite of legal efforts to ensure equal education for all children, African American adolescents still not enjoy that privilege. This difference is largely due to the socioeconomic differences between Blacks and Whites. If income levels are equated, there is much less racial difference in educational attainment.

6. Occupational Aspirations a. Although there has been an increase in the number of African Americans reaching higher socioeconomic levels in recent decades, several authors have pointed out that the actual percentage of Blacks who have moved into the middle-class has declined.

7. Desegregation Efforts a. The segregation of African Americans declined in all five of the measures used by the U. S. Census Bureau to assess segregation.

Despite this decline, however, residential segregation was still higher for African Americans than for the other groups across all measures.

Segregation remains strongest in large urban areas in the Midwest and Northeast.

8. Unemployment Rates a. Unemployment rates are considerably higher for Black men and for Black teenagers. These higher rates are due to a complicated interaction of lower education, physical distance to available jobs, lack of transportation, discrimination, and lack of skills.

9. Income a. In spite of the fact that the incomes of both Whites and African Americans have been increasing, the income gap between Whites and non-Whites has widened, not closed.

10. Adolescent Pregnancy a. Adolescent pregnancy is a particularly crucial issue for the Black community. i. Approximately 2/3 of all births to Black women are to unwed mothers.

11. Family Strengths a. African American families have shown a number of positive characteristics that have enabled them to function and survive in a hostile social environment. b. Extended families providing strong kinship bonds are common in many minority populations. Extended family members tend to live near one another; they share a strong sense of family obligation. There is a fluidity of household boundaries such that households absorb relatives and friends in need. A good deal of direct help and aid is given.

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c. Favorable Attitude toward the Elderly i. At all socio-economic levels, African Americans have a more favorable attitude toward the elderly than do Whites. d. Adaptable Roles i. Husband-wife relationships in African American families are more egalitarian than in other races. e. Strong Religious Orientation i. Religion has been a source of solace and a vehicle for rebellion and social advancement.

B. Latino Adolescents 1. Hispanic Americans, or Latinos, are those whose families came from geographic areas in which Spanish is spoken. The majority of Latino citizens came from Mexico. And 10 percent come from Puerto Rico.

2. Hispanic Americans are less likely to graduate from high school than other American citizens. In addition to the language barrier, other issues that contribute to Latinos’ lower level of academic achievement include inequities in school funding, school segregation, low numbers of Hispanic school personnel, lack of multicultural training for teachers, misplacement of students in special education classes, lack of availability of postsecondary financial assistance, and lack of school safety. a. Mexican Americans are the second-largest minority group in the United States. i. Mexican Americans are segregated in residential ghettos called barrios. ii. The traditional Mexican American family is highly cohesive. a) Families are more patriarchal and traditional sex roles are emphasized. b) There is a greater emphasis on familialism: devotion to one’s family and respect for one’s parents and grandparents. c) There is a strong commitment to Catholicism. iii. Mexican American parents often emphasize some values that hinder the advancement of adolescent in the individualistic, highly competitive, materialistic U.S. society. An emphasis on family ties and dependency, submission to authority, living in the present, and politeness are not conducive to independence, achievement, deferred gratification, and success.

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iv. Heterosexual Relationships a) When Mexican American males reach adolescence, they are expected to take an interest in females and to talk and act in the sexual sphere to demonstrate virility.

There are those girls whom the males exploit for sexual purposes to show their machismo. b) The importance of modesty is highly emphasized, especially for girls. c) When unmarried Mexican American adolescents do get pregnant, they have more contact and receive more support from their extended families than do White adolescent mothers. b. Puerto Rican Adolescents—Nearly 4 million Puerto Ricans live in the United States. About 70% of them live in the Northeast, with New York City having the largest population. One-fifth of the Puerto Ricans living in the United States are adolescents. Puerto Rico is a commonwealth. The Puerto Rican culture is derived from the cultures of several historic populations and the most important cultural belief is that of fatalism (the belief that one cannot change one’s destiny or fate). i. Family Life a) Puerto Ricans have a profound sense of family. Most traditional women view motherhood as their central role. Their concept of motherhood is based on the female capacity to bear children and on the notion of marianismo, which presents the Virgin Mary as a role model. b) Family relations are described by two inter-relating themes; family interdependence and family unity. ii. Education, Employment and Income a) The problems confronting Puerto Rican families are partly a result of the adverse economic and social conditions under which they live. i) Puerto Rican adolescents experience an identity crisis compounded by strong intercultural and intergenerational conflicts. They experience conflict between the cultural values represented by their parents and the cultural values they experience on the city streets. ii) They also face language and socioeconomic barriers to acculturation. iii) Many Puerto Rican youths are compelled to live in abject poverty, where crime rates are astronomical, drug use is rampant, and good schools and quality education are scarce.

C. Native American Adolescents

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1. About half of all Native Americans live in rural areas, including their own reservations, with the remaining half split between urban and suburban areas.

Most Native Americans live in the western half of the United States.

2. One of the major problems of contemporary Native American youths is the inability to reconcile the cultural conflict between the way of life on the reservation and the way of life in urban America. a. Health and Standard of Living i. Native Americans have the highest birthrate, the highest death rate, and the shortest life expectancy of any other group in the United States. ii. Native Americans have the lowest standard of living of any minority group in the United States. iii. Native Americans are more likely than others to die from a variety of causes, including all types of accidents, liver disease, diabetes, pneumonia and influenza, suicide, homicide, and tuberculosis. iv. Suicide is a leading cause of death among Native American youth 15 to 19 years old, with a rate two to three times the national average. v. Substance abuse, particularly alcoholism, is rampant in Native American culture resulting in a very high rate of fetal alcohol syndrome in babies of both adult and adolescent mothers.

Even though the alcoholism rate among the Native American population as a whole is comparatively high, the fact remains that a relatively small minority of Native Americans are alcoholic. b. Education i. The record of Native American education is one of broken promises, inadequate resources, poor teachers, and the use of education as a tool to destroy a culture and a way of life. ii. The Indian Education Act of 1972 resulted in some improvements. c. Family Life i. With 550 federally recognized Native American tribes, there is no such institution as a typical Native American family.

Various family forms exist. Some families are matrilineal, with descent through the mother’s line.

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d. Children i. Most Native Americans view children as assets to the family.

Children are taught that family and tribe are of utmost importance. The aged occupy the important position of relating traditions, beliefs, and customs through the role of storyteller. e. Cultural Conflict i. Native American values are often at variance with White American culture. As a result of conflicting cultures, Native American youths are faced with an identity crisis: whether to accommodate themselves to the White world and learn to compete in it, or to retain traditional customs and values and live apart from the White world. ii. The original inhabitants of the United States have been shunted to the margins of the nation’s life. As a consequence, most contemporary Native American youths suffer psychological strain under the impact of cultural change.

D. Asian American Adolescents 1. Asian Americans have been more successful at achieving the American Dream. Asian Americans have a higher average family income than all other groups.

2. Asian Americans have faced discrimination. Nonetheless, they have managed to join mainstream society in spite of hardships. a. Chinese American Adolescents i. A minority of the 2 million Chinese Americans in the United States are descendants of Chinese who immigrated 1820-1882.

After 1882, a series of exclusion acts were passed that restricted Asian immigration. It was not until 1965 that the national origin quote system that discriminated against Asians was abolished. ii. Family and Children a) Well-educated Chinese Americans have lower rates of divorce, mental illness and public assistance. b) Strong sense of family ties c) Parents more controlling than Caucasian parents. iii. Youths a) Contemporary Chinese American youths are more vocal than previous generations, more inclined to speak out and rebel.

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iv. Education a) The importance of hard work and education is stressed.

Outscore all other groups on standardized math exams.

E. Filipino American Adolescents 1. There has been a substantial American presence while the Philippine Islands were under U.S rule. Gained independence in 1946. Inequality of relationship led many Filipinos to feel shamed and led to feelings of diminished ethnic pride.

III. Immigrants and Refugees A. In 2005, foreign-born individuals made up slightly over 12.5% of the population.

B. Immigrants come to the United States primarily because they believe they can find better lives here.

C. Refugees are fleeing political persecution or dire poverty.

1. Southeast Asian Refugees a. The Southeast Asian refugee exodus from the countries of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos is one of the largest in modern history. b. Research indicates newly arrived Amerasians experience acculturative stress, primarily in the areas of spoken English, employment and limited formal education. c. The degree of acculturation depends on years in the United States, cultural compatibility of the country of origin and the host community, age at time of immigration, language used at home, and acculturation rate of parents and family members. d. Disparity between adolescents’ and parents’ values and expectation often erupt into major conflicts. i. Conflicts concerning dating and marriage ii. Conflicts concerning career choices iii. Conflicts caused by role reversal e. Despite the hardships of the refugee experiences, many refugees manage to endure and cope effectively without serious psychological problems.

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Teaching Tips Consider the diversity present in your classroom. Be sure to consider your own. To what social groups do you and your students belong? Encourage your students to think about their social group identifications. In what ways are they different from others and in what ways are they similar?

Classroom Activities Have students form groups within the classroom to which they identify most strongly. For example, would they opt to work in a gender or age based group? Does it depend on the task assigned to the group? Experiment with different tasks and ask students to reassemble. Have students consider age, gender, ethnicity/race, religion, geographical place of birth, etc. Once in a particular group, have students talk to one another about why they chose this group and what it feels like to be a member of the group.

Have students bring to class one symbol of who they are. It might be an article of clothing, a food, a book, etc.

Research Topics and Essay Questions Research current adolescent demographics in the United States and discuss what the classroom in a public school is likely to look like. How might one prepare to teach in a multilingual classroom?

Discuss the impact of poverty on adolescent development.

Key Questions 1. What are main differences between Mexican American and White American families?

2. What are the problems of acculturation for Asian American teens?

3. What is the Indian Education Act of 1972?

4. What are problems facing Native American adolescents?

5. What are the particular difficulties faced by refugees?

6. What are the differences in culture and values between the Mexican American family and the Puerto Rican family?

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Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Camden Chronicles: Children in Urban Poverty. (2007), Two-part series, 29 and 42 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. In one of the poorest and most dangerous communities in America, three children reveal their hopes, dreams, fears, and frustrations. This two-part series of ABC News programs presents their stories, examining the economic and personal conditions facing inner-city kids in Camden, New Jersey. The first program introduces the children and their situations; a follow-up episode shows how their lives have changed in various ways.

Crashing Hard into Adulthood: Resiliency and At-Risk Teens. (2003) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This program explores resiliency during adolescence. It considers such challenges as poverty, abuse, and neglect and explains why at-risk teenagers are more vulnerable to unwanted pregnancies, substance abuse, and delinquent behaviors. The DVD shows how social networks and intervention programs can help teenagers cope with stress.

Biculturalism and Acculturation Among Latinos. (1991) 29 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program examines the question of what part of their culture Latinos feel they should keep and what to leave behind, explores some commonly held beliefs and misperceptions about who Latinos are today in the U.S., and probes the relationship of ethnic identity to entrepreneurial success in the changing mosaic of the American marketplace Prejudice: More Than Black and White. (2008) 35 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Muslims, blacks, gays, people with disabilities, and immigrants of every ethnicity and color: They and many other groups have stood in the spotlight glare of intolerance. What makes people prone to irrational hate, and what steps can individuals and society take to eradicate it?

(Contains inflammatory language and images.)

Living in the Hyphen: Cultural Identity in a Multiethnic Society. (2005) 45 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program examines the experiences of poet Fred Wah and six other Canadians with one parent from a European background and one from a visible minority.

Dancing in Moccasins: Keeping Native American Tradition Alive. (1989) 49 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program examines the needs and problems of Native Americans, both those who live on the reservation, and those who have chosen the mainstream.

One Drop. (2001) 50 minutes, Insight Media. In this program, lighter- and darker-skinned African Americans and interracial children of Black and White parents discuss issues associated with skin color. They cover such topics as interracial dating and explain that biracial children are not readily accepted by members of either racial group.

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Hispanic Americans: The Second Generation. (1995) 44 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Hosted by actor Jimmy Smits, this program examines how second-generation Hispanics are adapting to American society and how they are maintaining their Latino roots while assimilating into the American cultural mainstream. A variety of famous and everyday Hispanic Americans are interviewed, including pop film director Richard Rodriquez. Hispanics from doctors and police officers to comedians, fashion designers, and rock stars discuss the continuing role of family and the ongoing battles with ethnic stereotyping.

A Conversation on Race: Black, White, or Other? (2000) 22 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. In a controversial column in the Washington Post, Lonnae O’Neal Parker, a journalist, challenged her biracial cousin to claim a Black identity, even though one of her parents is White. This Nightline production uses that column as a springboard, offering a great opening for honest dialogue in the college classroom.

Town of Hope. (1995) 46 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. An ex-convict turned counselor narrates this award-winning documentary about a camp that teaches tolerance to adolescents.

Asian Americans. (2001) 60 minutes, Insight Media. This program considers the immigration patterns that are making Asian Americans one of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the U.S. It presents a case study of the Korean community in the Chicago area.

Voices: Children Speak Out About Diversity. (2001) series, 10 minutes each, Insight Media.

This series features teenagers from across the United States exploring diversity. It covers such topics as racial profiling and stereotypes, families, homosexuality, White supremacy, and spirituality.

Web Sites African American Resources http://www.aawc.com/Zaar.html Index of Native American Resources on the Internet http://www.hanksville.org/NAresources/ Latino/Hispanic Resources http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~cmmr/Latino.html Asian American Resources http://www.cetel.org/res.html Mixed Heritage Organization http://www.mixedheritagecenter.org

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Chapter 4 Body Issues: Physical Growth and HealthRelated Behaviors I. Sexual Maturation and Physical Growth A. Biochemical Basis of Puberty 1.

Ultimately, the physical changes associated with adolescence occur because the brain starts directing various endocrine glands to increase their production of hormones. a. The Hypothalamus i. It produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone, GnRH, which controls the secretion of the hormones LH and FSH by the pituitary. b. The Pituitary Gland i. Master Gland produces several hormones that control the action of other glands. a) Gonadotropic hormones influence the gonads, or sex glands. i Follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH, and luteinizing hormone, LH. ii. Human growth hormone (HGH) c. The Gonads i. Sex glands secrete sex hormones. a) Ovaries secrete estrogens. b) The corpus luteum in the ovaries produces progesterone. Progesterone controls the length of the menstrual cycle. c) Testes produce androgens, including testosterone. ii. Estrogens and androgens are found in both boys and girls. It is the ratio of the levels of the male to female hormones that is largely responsible for development of male or female characteristics. d. The Adrenal Glands i. Located just above the kidneys, are capable of producing small amounts of both androgens and estrogens. e. Sex Hormone Regulation in Males i. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes function together in a negative feedback loop to control hormonal production. ii. FSH stimulates sperm growth (spermatogenesis). iii. The Sertoli cells in the testes produce inhibin, which decreases FSH levels and thus sperm production. f. Sex Hormone Regulation in Females i. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and ovaries work together in a negative feedback loop to control hormonal production in females.

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II.

III.

g. Increased presence of human growth hormone, the gonadotropic hormones, and the sex hormones in the bloodstream has a profound effect on the size and shape of the body and physically matures the body, making it capable of reproduction.

Maturation and Functions of Male Sex Organs A. Spermatogenesis 1. The process by which sperm are developed 2. Vas Deferens a The tubes running from the epididymis- a system of ducts in which sperm mature and are stored- to the urethra that carry semen and sperm to the ejaculatory duct.

3. Seminal Vesicles a Twin glands that secrete fluid into the vas deferens to enhance sperm viability.

4. Prostate Gland a Within the sperm are made more mobile by the addition of seminal fluid. 30% of seminal fluid comes from the prostate glands.

B. The Developing Penis 1. The penis doubles in length and girth during adolescence. Adolescent boys are often concerned with the dimensions of their penis, for they associate masculinity and sexual capability with penis size.

2. The head of the penis is covered by a loose fold of skin, the prepuce or foreskin, often surgically removed through circumcision for hygienic or religious reasons.

3. Erection of the penis is possible from infancy; it may be caused by tight clothing, local irritation, the need to urinate, or manual stimulation.

C. The Cowper’s Glands 1. Secrete alkaline fluid that lubricates and neutralizers the acidity of the urethra for easy and safe passage of the semen. Fluid contains sperm. Conception is possible whenever intercourse occurs, even if the male withdraws prior to ejaculation D. Nocturnal Emissions 1. Ejaculation isn’t possible until puberty. Most adolescent boys experience nocturnal emissions, or wet dreams.

2. A boy’s first ejaculation, termed spermarche or semenarche, occurs for most boys somewhat before their thirteenth birthday.

Maturation and Functions of Female Sex Organs A. The Developing Vagina 1. The vagina matures at puberty. It increases in length and its mucous lining becomes thicker, more elastic, and deeper in color.

B. Changes in the Vulva and Uterus 1. Labia majora enlarge, as do the labia minora and the clitoris. Mons veneris becomes more prominent.

2. Uterus doubles in length. In maturity, it is a hollow, thick-walled, muscular organ shaped like a pear, about 3 inches long, 2½ inches at the top, and narrowing to a diameter of 1 inch at the cervix.

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C. Ovarian Changes 1. The ovaries increase greatly in size and weight. One follicle (egg) ripens every 28 days for a period of about 40 years. The fallopian tubes transport the ova from the ovaries to the uterus.

D. Menarche and the Menstrual Cycle 1. Menarche (the onset of menstruation) on average begins at about age 12.

Because of superior nutrition and health care, girls start menstruating earlier today than in former generations.

2. The menstrual cycle may vary in length from 20 to 45 days, averaging about 28 days.

3. The menstrual cycle has four phases: the menstrual phase, the follicular phase, the ovulatory phase, and the luteal phase. a During the menstrual phase which begins with the first day of menstrual bleeding, estrogen, progesterone, FSH, and LH levels are all at minimums. b The follicular phase extends from just after menstruation until a follicle ripens and an egg matures. c The ovulatory phase is the shortest of the cycle. A mature ovum erupts from its follicle and passes into the fallopian tube. i Ovulation almost always occurs 14 days before the beginning of the next menstrual cycle. That would be day 20 of a 34 day cycle, not day 17. ii A girl may menstruate anovulatory (without ovulation) when her menstrual cycle begins. d The luteal phase follows ovulation and continues to the beginning of the next menstrual cycle.

E. Menstrual Concerns 1. Many girls, especially early maturers, have a negative view of menstruation.

2. Negative views typically stem from off-putting messages received from others, fear of embarrassment, and anticipated discomfort. a Many girls are negatively conditioned even before menses. b Many girls do not want to share news of their menstruation with the world at large. The need to hide one’s period seems to wane by late adolescence. c Some adolescent girls do experience physical difficulties with their menstrual periods. i Dysmenorrhea is painful or difficult menstruations: menstrual cramps or abdominal pain, with or without other symptoms such as backache, headache, vomiting, fatigue, irritability, sensitivity of the genitals or breasts, pain in the legs, swelling of the ankles, or skin irritations such as pimples. ii Menhorragia is excessive bleeding. iii Amenorrhea is absence of flow. iv Metrorrhagia is bleeding from the uterus at times other than during a menstrual period and is not common.

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IV.

V.

3. Adolescent girls who are prepared for menstruation in a positive way are more likely to consider it a positive experience. Generally girls who have been menstruating for some time have more positive attitudes about menstruation than do premenstrual young women.

Development of Secondary Sexual Characteristics A. Secondary sexual characteristics are features that, although not necessary for reproduction, differentiate male and female bodies.

1. Males a Gradual process in boys. i The appearance of pubic hair starts with sparse, straight hair at the base of the penis. Gradually hair becomes more profuse and curled. ii Underarm hair usually first appears about two years after pubic hair. iii The growth of the beard occurs near the end of the total hair sequence, with the indentation of the hairline arriving as the final development. iv Widening of the shoulders and chest continue. v Changes in the boy’s voice are due to the rapid growth of the larynx and the lengthening of the vocal cords across it. vi 70% experience gynecomastia: temporary enlargement of their breasts.

2. Females a Development of pubic hair in girls is similar to the process that occurs with boys. b Breast development takes place in five stages i Prepubertal stage: There is a flat appearance to the breasts. ii Bud stage: Elevation, enlargement, and pigmentation of the nipple and surrounding areola begin, usually starting about 2 ½ years before menarche. iii Primary stage: An increase in the underlying fat surrounding the nipple and areola cause the areola to project in a mound above the level of the chest wall. iv Secondary or mature stage: Mammary gland tissue develops, producing larger, rounder breasts. The areola recedes and is incorporated in the breast itself so that only the papilla (nipple) protrudes. Mature stage occurs after menarche. v Adult stage: Development is complete.

Growth in Height and Weight A. Growth trends 1. Girls grow most in height and weight at about 12 years of age. Girls reach 98% of their adult height by 17.

2. Boys grow most in height and weight at about 14 years. Boys reach 98% of adult height by 18.

B. Determinants of Height 1. Heredity

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2. Nutrition a Children who are better nourished during the growth years become taller adults than those who are not nourished as well.

3. Age at sexual maturation a Boys and girls who are early maturers tend to be a little shorter as adults than those who are later maturers.

4. Total process of growth is speeding up. a This accelerated growth pattern is referred to as the secular trend.

C. Other Physical Changes 1. There are other ways in which mature male and female bodies are different. a The high level of testosterone in males causes bones to grow thicker and to become more prominent. Men have a larger chin and more pronounced eyebrow rides. Testosterone also encourages muscle growth and growth of hair over a wider range of the body.

Paradoxically, testosterone causes the hairline to recede. b High estrogen level causes girls’ bodies to become more feminine.

Estrogen encourages breast development and prompts the body to lay down a layer of subcutaneous fat. Girls’ hips widen to facilitate childbirth. c Internally men’s hearts and lungs are larger. Men tend to have a higher blood pressure and a higher basal metabolic rate. d Men have more “fast-twitch” muscle fibers than women. Late adolescent boys and men will be stronger than women.

VI. Body Image A. The health-related choices that adolescents make are linked to the way they feel about themselves.

B. Physical Attractiveness 1. Partly as a result of differential treatment, attractive adolescents appear to have higher self-esteem and healthy personality attributes, are better adjusted socially, and possess a wider variety of interpersonal skills.

C. Body Types and Ideals 1. Three body types have been identified: ectomorph, endomorph, and mesomorph. a. Ectomorphs are tall, long, thin and narrow, with a slender, bony, lanky build. b. Endomorphs are at the other extreme, with soft, round, thick, heavy trunks and limbs and a wrestler-type build. c. Mesomorphs fall between and have square, strong, well-muscled bodies, with medium-length limbs and wide shoulders. i.

The vast majority of Caucasian adolescent girls are dissatisfied with their bodies and would like to be ectomorphic. The women portrayed as desirable in movies, television programs, television commercials, and magazines are uniformly tall, narrow, and small waisted. ii. Girls who perceive themselves as being overweight have lower self-esteem than other girls.

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iii.

Body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls varies along racial and ethnic lines. iv.

Boys are more likely to prefer having a mesomorphic body type. Men with muscular, mesomorphic body builds are more socially accepted than those with different builds.

VI. Early and Late Maturation A. Early-Maturing Boys 1. There has been a long-standing belief that early maturation is a positive experience for boys. a Early-maturing boys are large for their age, stronger, more muscular and better coordinated that later-maturing boys. They are better able to excel in competitive sports and enjoy an enhanced social prestige and position.

2. Some early-maturing boys cannot handle the freedom they are granted. Earlymaturing boys are more likely than others to engage in delinquent acts.

B. Late-Maturing Boys 1. Late-maturers sometimes overcompensate by becoming overly eager for status and attention.

C. Early-Maturing Girls 1. Since girls usually reach puberty about two years before boys, the earliestmaturing girls are considerably out of step with their peers. Because they are taller and more developed sexually, they tend to feel awkward and selfconscious. Early-maturers are also heavier.

2. Early-maturing females are more likely to experience internalizing disorders, such as anxiety and depression.

3. They are more likely to be disruptive in school and to perform delinquent acts.

4. They are more likely to engage in early sexual behavior.

D. Late-Maturing Girls 1. Late-maturing girls are at a social disadvantage in middle school and high school.

2. The chief disadvantage seems to be the temporary loss of social status because of their physical immaturity.

VII. Health Status A. Mortality 1. One of the most common ways to understand health concerns is to examine mortality, or death rates. The number of deaths tell us how relatively healthy a certain groups is, and the causes of death tell us where the most significant problems lie.

2. The mortality rate for younger adolescents is very low, but the rate for older adolescents is quite a bit higher. a The single most common reason that adolescents die is because they are involved in car accidents. b Accidents account for just about half of the deaths, and violence accounts for about one-fourth.

B. Health Decisions

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1. The health decisions adolescents make result from a complex interplay of factors. a. Their own knowledge of the health consequences of particular behaviors b. Their own abilities to judge risks and make rational decisions c. Their parents’ behavior d. The resources available to teens and their families e. Peer pressure f. Societal values C. Adolescent Health in the Third World 1. Some health problems in the Third World are directly related to poverty and political instability.

2. Other problems are due to Westernization and rapid cultural change.

VIII. Health Concerns A. Nutrition 1. Adolescents need greater quantities of food, as well as certain nutrients.

Many adolescents have inadequate diets with deficiencies: a Insufficient calcium, due primarily to the inadequate intake of milk and dairy products b Insufficient iron, especially in girls c Inadequate protein, primarily in girls who are dieting d Too little Vitamin A e Insufficient Vitamin B6 2. The reasons many adolescents have inadequate diets, include: a They skip breakfast. b Snacks, which make up about ¼ of the daily intake of food, do not compensate for meals missed. c They eat only small quantities of nutritious foods, especially fruits, vegetables, milk, cheese, and meat. d Inadequate knowledge of nutrition influences the development of poor nutrition practices. e Social pressures may cause poor eating habits. f Troubled family relationships and personal adjustments seem to accompany poor eating habits. g The family is poor and cannot afford to buy proper food.

B. Exercise 1. Only about ½ of American adolescents participate in vigorous physical activity.

2. Overall, the amount of physical activity decreases during the course of adolescence.

3. Benefits of Exercise a One most obvious benefit is to build physical fitness. b Supports weight loss. c Promotes psychological and mental health.

4. Physical activity patterns developed in adolescence may continue into adulthood.

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C. Obesity 1. Adolescent obesity is on the rise in the United States.

2. The amount by which adolescents are overweight continues to rise.

3. Obesity carries numerous serious health risks. Adolescent obesity is associated with a. Increased risk for Type 2 diabetes b. High blood pressure c. High cholesterol level 4. Overweigh adolescents face social rejection and have lowered self-esteem.

5. Personal Contributors to Being Overweight a. Studies provide evidence for a genetic link to body weight. b. Motivation to Eat i.

Eating is a greater positive reinforcement for obese people. ii. Eating is a negative reinforcement for disturbed emotions. It can eliminate anxiety and depression. Oral activity becomes a means of finding security and release from tension. iii. Weight gain becomes a way of reinforcing negative selfconceptions. c. Eating Patterns i.

Heavy teens may not allow themselves to eat breakfast and have only a small lunch, but then they get so hungry later in the day that they binge and eat late at night. d. Food Preferences i.

Some of the increase in average adolescent weight can be attributed to increased consumption of fast food. e. Lack of Exercise i.

Exercise burns calories and increases the body’s metabolic rate (the rate at which it burns calories).

6. Interpersonal Interactions and Being Overweight a. Family Contributors i.

Parents greatly influence what foods their children eat and how much they participate in physical activity. b. Peer Contributors i.

Peers influence one another’s weight through the establishment of behavioral norms.

7. Environmental Influences a. Schools i.

School policies determine what adolescents eat during school hours. a) What foods are served? b) Are vending machines available? i) In 2006 America’s largest beverage distributors halted sales of sodas to elementary and middle school. They agreed to sell only diet sodas in high schools. b. Community

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i.

Communities can also encourage or discourage obesity.

8. Broader Social Influences a. Calorie-dense food is far more available than in the past. b. Portion sizes have increased. c. Lack of activity is also an issue as teenagers spend more time in front of the TV and computer monitor.

D. Sleep 1. Teenagers actually need more sleep than preteens. Teenagers need adequate sleep to remain healthy, yet many do not get as much sleep as they should. a. Mary Carskadon and her colleagues have intensely studied adolescent sleep patterns and their consequences. i.

Sleep deprivation results in fatigue, depression, lower school performance, and falling asleep behind the wheel. ii. The biological underpinning to late night wakefulness is the secretion of melatonin, the hormone that the brain produces to make you sleep, occurs two hours later during the night that that of a child or an adult.

E. Acne 1. Although acne is not a serious medical concern, it is often an upsetting aspect of adolescent development.

2. Skin Gland Development a. Three kinds of skin glands can cause problems for the adolescent: i.

Merocrine sweat glands, distributed over most of the skin surfaces of the body. ii. Apocrine sweat glands, located in the armpit, mammary, genital, and anal regions. iii. Sebaceous glands, which are the oil-producing glands of the skin. b. Almost 85% of adolescents develop acne at some point. c. Acne can take a variety of forms, depending on its severity.

3. Causes d. Acne is triggered by the increased amount of testosterone present during adolescence. e. Acne has little to do with personal hygiene.

4. Treatment f. Mild cases often respond to over-the-counter medications. g. More severe cases require prescription medication. h. Individuals with acne tend to mistakenly scrub with abrasive soaps and harsh astringents that irritate the skin and often make acne worse.

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Teaching Tips Your comfort level is very important in this unit. Your ability to speak comfortably about the physical changes associated with puberty will allow for student questions and comments.

Discuss and practice talking about sexual maturation with colleagues or a teaching partner.

Your students, no doubt, have a wealth of knowledge and information about health promoting behaviors. Implementing this knowledge and thereby changing behavior is as difficult a task for them, as it is for anyone. If your students are young, they may still be misguided by the personal fable, and making healthy choices may be even more difficult for them than it is for older individuals. As you teach this chapter, create an environment that is nonjudgmental so that students can acknowledge that they smoke, have unprotected sex, don’t consistently wear seat belts, etc. Only then will they have the opportunity to consider a real commitment to healthier choices.

Classroom Activities Invite a physician into the classroom to discuss puberty. Most pediatricians will continue to see their adolescent patients well into late puberty. They can, therefore, be an invaluable asset and discuss some of the concerns of their adolescent patients.

Have students bring in menus from local restaurants and examine them for healthy food choices.

Have them notice high fat foods as well as note the cost of high fat foods verses healthy foods.

Have a discussion abut the diet industry in the United States. Ask students to name some of the more popular diet programs, such as Jenny Craig, Weight Watchers, L.A. Weight Loss, Atkins, South Beach, etc. What do they all have in common? Do they work? Lead the conversation toward irony of living in a culture that is increasingly obese yet idolizes thinness.

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Research Topics and Essay Questions Essay Assignment is to write two letters. You will write a letter to your son and your daughter explaining and predicting puberty. The premise for this letter is that you will be away for ten years and therefore need to tell them everything they will need to know in this letter.

Write an essay explaining the relationship between Erikson’s psychosocial task of identity vs. identity diffusion and health related behaviors. Are adolescents who drink and drive or engage in unsafe sex practices going through an identity crisis? How do body issues and attitudes shape the identity process?

Key Questions 1. List some correlates of physical attractiveness for adolescents.

2. List and describe three body types noted by your author.

3. Describe the ideal masculine and feminine body images that adolescents strive for.

4. List, explain and illustrate three categories of the physical causes of obesity.

5. List and explain some psychological contributors to obesity 6. Discuss the evidence for the genetic contributors to obesity.

7. Describe some characteristics of successful approaches to treating obesity.

8. Name and discuss the most popular type of cosmetic surgery sought by adolescents.

11. List and explain several benefits of proper exercise for adolescents.

12. Describe how lack of sleep affects adolescents.

13. List and explain five common nutritional deficiencies experienced by adolescents.

14. List and explain five reasons for the inadequate diets of many adolescents, and describe the role that nutritional education plays in improving this situation.

15. Describe three kinds of skin glands and the problems they cause for adolescents.

16. Describe several treatments for acne and note any dangers involved.

17. Compare the psychosocial outcomes for early-maturing and late-maturing boys.

18. Compare the psychosocial outcomes for early-maturing and late-maturing girls.

19. What are some of the reasons for poor nutrition in adolescence?

20. What are the differences in adolescent sleep needs?

Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Teen Dreams: The Biology of Puberty. (2001) Two-part series, 24 minutes each, Insight Media. This set follows two teenagers, one male and one female, through the initial stages of puberty. It considers the transformation of their bodies and minds and explores what makes them moody, clumsy, and awkward. The set also considers such puberty-related experiences as body odor, acne, increased aggression, and sexual maturity.

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Explosions: Biosocial Development During Adolescence. (2003) 30 minutes, Insight Media.

The physical changes that occur during adolescence affect an adolescent’s sense of self. This program examines different cultural ideas about appearance and considers potentially stressful social pressures, including peer pressure.

Adolescence: Physical Growth and Development. (1995) 25 minutes, Insight Media. This program explores physical changes that occur during puberty and considers the ways in which early and late maturation affect an individual’s self-concept. It also discusses nutrition, pregnancy, and substance abuse.

Girls: Entering the Teen Years. (2002) 52 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

“Everything is wrong,” complains Claudia—who, until her changing body lost its sense of balance, envisioned no obstacles to becoming a professional dancer. Identical twins Jessica and Rebecca prepare for high school and the social stress it will bring, with bra shopping at the top of their worry list. And Alex, now 13, sheds light on the trauma of starting puberty at age seven.

Incorporating eye-catching animation, frank video diary entries, and unflinching cinematography, this program guides viewers through the inner and outer lives of girls as they begin the transition to adulthood. Diet, hormones, peer pressure, bullying, and many other factors are closely studied. Contains explicit images and material.

Boys: Entering the Teen Years. (2002) 52 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

Although facial and body hair are the most visible signs of male puberty, the process of becoming a man actually involves major organs like the heart and lungs. No one demonstrates that better than 14-year-old Jesse, whose physique is developing rapidly—while Mark, at almost the same age, poignantly awaits even the first hint of change. Meanwhile, 12-year-old choir member Dominic struggles to maintain the purity of his voice; 11-year-old Andy, to find shoes that fit. All share their anxieties and goals through video diaries and unhindered conversations, while animation and live-action sequences focus on sex drive, sleep patterns, muscle growth, aggression, and other subjects. Contains explicit images and material.

Body Image for Boys. (2002) 18 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This topical program explores some of the issues facing young men today as they struggle to define themselves amidst the flood of media-generated images of male physical perfection.

The Beauty Backlash. (2006) 30 minutes, Insight Media. Exploring consumer reactions to idealized media images of women and beauty, this program examines the complex relationship between corporate strategy and the self-esteem of women.

Obesity: Are We Supersizing Our Kids? (2006) 26 minutes, Insight Media. This program explains the health challenges that teenagers face. It shows how to guide teenagers toward making improvements in their eating and exercise habits, teaches how to empower teens to make healthier choices, and outlines different ways for parents and schools to assist in those efforts.

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Obesity in Youth: Tackling a Growing Problem. (2005) 51 minutes, Insight Media. This DVD discusses the complex and interrelated factors that have contributed to the rise in obesity among children and adolescents. It addresses the dual epidemics of weight gain and inactivity among youth and provides recommendations and evidence-based strategies for developing and implementing programs to combat childhood obesity.

Motivating Kids and Young Adults to Exercise. (2007) 90 minutes, Insight Media. Explaining that physical activity enhances self-esteem and prevents obesity, this DVD teaches how to make exercise fun for children. It covers such topics as goals, taking consistent action, and evaluating results.

Web Sites All About Puberty http://kidshealth.org/kid/grow/body_stuff/puberty.html Puberty 101 http://puberty101.com/ What to Expect When Your Child Goes Through Puberty http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/children/parents/parents-teens/445.html Museum of Menstruation http://www.mum.org/ All About Menstruation http://kidshealth.org/teen/sexual_health/girls/menstruation.html Body Image and the Media http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/body_image.shtml Teen Health Information http://www.teenhealthFX.com Teen Sleep http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/teens-health/cc00019 National Adolescent Health Information Center http://nahic.ucsf.edu

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Chapter 5 Cognitive Development: Improvements in Thinking, Reasoning, and Decision Making I.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development A. Sensorimotor Stage 1. Birth to about age 2.

2. Learning is related to the mastery of sensory-motor sequences.

3. Thinking occurs as a stimulus-response connection with the physical world.

B. Preoperational Stage 1. From about 2 to age 7 2. Language is acquired.

3. Children begin dealing with their world by learning and manipulating symbols, as well as through motor activity and direct interactions with the environment. a. Transductive reasoning occurs as the child proceeds from particular to particular, without generalization.

4. Preoperational thinking is egocentric; children have difficulty understanding why someone else cannot see something in the same way they do.

5. Syncretism occurs, in which children try to link ideas that are not always related.

6. Animism is present. Inanimate objects are given life like qualities.

C. Concrete Operational Stage 1. From about age 7 to about age 11 or 12.

2. Children show a greater capacity for logical reasoning, although at a very concrete level.

3. They are able to arrange objects in hierarchical classifications and they comprehend class inclusion relationships. a. This is the inclusion of objects in different levels of the hierarchy at the same time.

4. Children can make transitive inferences. a. Seriation occurs so they can mentally arrange items in order from large to small or small to large.

5. Four mental operations are especially important a. Reversibility: all actions, even mental actions, have an opposite. b. Identity or nullifiability: this operation involves understanding that if we do something to an object and then do its opposite, the net effect is that the object is unchanged. c. Associativity: this operation involves understanding that the same outcome can result from different combinations or clusterings or actions. d. Combinativity: classes can always be combined to form larger, broader categories.

6. Piaget used conservation problems to determine whether children had entered the concrete operational stage of cognitive development.

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II.

a. Conservation refers to the recognition that properties of things such as weight and volume are not altered by changing their container or shape D. Formal Operational Stage 1. From age 11 or 12 on.

2. The last stage of cognitive development begins during early adolescence.

3. The complexity of the problems that the individual can handle increases.

4. Formal operational adolescents are able, through inductive reasoning, to systematize their ideas and deal critically with their own thinking to be able to construct theories about it.

5. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning: a way to solve problems using the scientific method; only one factor at a time is varied while all else is held constant.

6. Adolescent thinking is flexible. (In contrast, younger children are confused by atypical results inconsistent with their simple perceptions of events.)

7. Formal operational adolescents begin to utilize a second symbol system: a set of symbols for symbols.

8. Formal operational adolescents are able to orient themselves toward what is abstract and not immediately present.

9. In sum, formal thinking includes: a. Introspection b. Abstract thinking c. Combinatorial thinking d. Logical reasoning e. Hypothetical reasoning Effects of Adolescent Thought on Personality and Behavior A. Idealism 1. The ability to differentiate the possible from the real enables them to distinguish not only what the adult world is but also what it might be like under ideal circumstances.

2. They compare the possible with the actual, discover that the actual is less than ideal, and become critical observers of things as they are and ultra critical of adults.

B. Hypocrisy 1. Due to the discrepancy between what they say and what they do, adolescents are sometimes accused of hypocrisy.

2. The ability to think about themselves, their own thoughts, and society leads adolescents to sometimes pretend to be who they are not.

C. Pseudostupidity 1. The tendency to approach problems at much too complex a level and fail, not because the tasks are difficult, but because they are too simple.

2. They overanalyze the situation, searching for nuances that are probably not to be found.

D. Egocentrism 1. Manifested in two ways: a. Imaginary audience i. Adolescents feel they are on stage much of time resulting in extreme self-consciousness and conformity.

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b. Personal fable i. Adolescents’ beliefs in the uniqueness of their own experiences.

Adolescents come to regard themselves as special and unique.

Some have a unique sense of their own immortality and invulnerability to harm.

E. Introspection 1. Adolescents spend more time in introspection. They become fascinated with their own thoughts and feelings.

III. Critique of Piaget’s Theory A. Age and Universality 1. Piaget advanced the possibility that in some circumstances the appearance of formal operations may be delayed and in extreme cases of disadvantage, may not happen at all.

2. Social environment can accelerate or delay the onset of formal operations.

3. Parents and teachers need to realize that not all same-aged adolescents are at the same stage of development.

B. Consistency 1. Even those individuals who can use formal operations don’t consistently do so. When angry, upset, or rushed, people regress.

C. Beyond Formal Operations 1. Piaget believed that the formal operational stage was the fourth and final level of cognitive development. Many researchers now disagree with this contention. a. Riegel and Basseches have proposed that some adults develop advanced reasoning called dialectics. i. A dialectical thinker is one who can integrate two or more conflicting pieces of data.

IV. What Can We Retain from Formal Operations?

A. Children become significantly and qualitatively more intelligent beginning at about age 11.

B. Deductive reasoning greatly improves during adolescence and leads to finding better answers in shorter periods of time.

C. Being able to think about hypothetical situations improves during adolescence.

D. Use of prepositional logic increases.

E. Exhaustive combinatorial reasoning improves.

F. Metacognition, the ability to think about one’s own thoughts, improves during adolescence.

V. Information Processing A. The information-processing approach to cognition emphasizes the progressive steps, actions, and operations that take place when the adolescent receives, perceives, remember, thinks about, and utilizes information.

B. One way we can understand information processing in humans is to compare it with the actions of a computer.

1. Steps in Information Processing a. Stimulus b. Selection

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II.

c. Interpretation d. Memory e. Inference f. Thinking g. Reasoning h. Action 2. Processing Speed a. Refers to how fast the brain perceives and utilizes information.

3. Higher-Order Thought Processes: inference, thinking and reasoning. a. Inference: the most basic of the thought processes, it is the ability to generate new thoughts from old information. b. Thinking is more advanced in that it is the conscious, deliberate coordination of information i.

Adolescents’ thinking improves as they are better able to use negative information, that is, information that refutes their hypotheses. ii. Adolescents rely on negation rather that affirmation, and they use an elimination strategy rather than the younger child’s confirmation strategy. c. Reasoning is the most sophisticated cognition and occurs when you constrain and limit your thinking along lines that you believe are rational and useful. i.

Finding parallels between similar problems is one form of reasoning known as reasoning by analogy. ii. Another form of reasoning involves deliberately following the rules of logic, or making deductions. iii. An advanced form of reasoning occurs when one uses principles to solve problems.

C. The Role of Knowledge 1. In order to accurately manipulate facts in your mind, you must know those facts. Part of the reason that adolescents are smarter than children is simply that they know more information.

Decision Making A. One of the characteristics of an intelligent, mature person is the ability to make good decisions.

B. Some decisions made during adolescence may have life long consequences.

1. Process a. Decision making process is a complicated process involving information search and processing to understand available options. b. Many researchers have found a relationship between age and decisionmaking ability. c. Decision making involves metacognition (thinking about one’s own thinking). Metacognition is also referred to as executive control.

2. Barriers to Good Decision Making a. Sometimes we rely too much on heuristics (rules of thumb) when making decisions.

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i.

One heuristic is the sunk-cost fallacy, in which people do more of a disliked activity if they paid for it than if it was free.

3. Risky Decision Making a. Has been attributed to adolescents’ personal fable. b. However, adolescents often are more likely to do a behavior if they believe it’s risky, because they may be focusing more on the benefits of the activity than on the risks. c. Adolescents may be relying on intuitive rather than analytic reasoning. d. The dual process theory of decision making points out that intuition and the use of heuristics may win out over logic and deliberation.

III. Epistemological Understanding A. Adolescents discover that one constructs his or her understanding of the truth rather than uncovers it.

B. The great strides in thinking about knowledge, epistemology, which occur during adolescence, rely on the abstract reasoning capacity and the metacognitive abilities that emerge during the formal operations stage.

1. Level 1 a. Naïve realists believe that there are absolute, universal truths in the world, and they have difficulty distinguishing fact from opinion.

2. Level 2 a. Defensive realists continue to cling to the belief that there are absolute, universal truths, but they now recognize that people can hold different opinions and draw different conclusions even when they are working with the same information.

3. Level 3 a. Skeptical adolescents react to the uncertainty of truth by rejecting rationality. They lose respect for authority and have little patience for those who parade around as experts. b. Dogmatists flee from the uncertainty of truth by rigidly clinging to one set of beliefs. They are intolerant of other views because they find them threatening, and they do not want to question their own beliefs.

4. Level 4 a. Postskeptical rationalists understand that absolute certainty of the truth is not needed for rational behavior.

IV. Brain Development during Adolescence A. For many years, scientists believed that brain development was largely completed during early childhood. They now know that this is not the case and that a number of key brain structures do not mature until the individual is in his or her twenties.

1. Cerebrum a. Most of the identified changes occur in the cerebrum.

2. Parietal lobe, the frontal lobe and the temporal lobe continue to develop into adolescence. a. Not only do these lobes continue to mature, but the connections among them continue to develop. b. Nerve fibers running from the frontal and temporal lobes become thicker and more myelinated.

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V.

3. Corpus Callosum a. Band of tissue connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, thickens.

4. Hippocampus a. Involved with learning, memory, and motivation 5. Amygdala a. Interprets incoming sensory information and causes us to respond in primal, emotional ways to information. b. Also involved with emotional memory.

6. Exuberant Synapses/Inhibitory Synapses a. Some cells grow larger and stronger, while the surrounding, less used cells die off. b. Highlights the importance of the environment in adolescent brain development. Which interconnections are strengthened and which are lost is a function of the experiences that the adolescent is having.

Assessing Cognition A. Cognition can be studied from the psychometric approach. Psychometricians are interested in the measurement of knowledge and thinking ability.

1. IQ (intelligence quotient) tests are designed to measure intelligence and are widely used by schools to determine students’ eligibility for special academic programs.

2. Achievement tests are intended to measure mastery of particular subject matter.

B. Theories of Intelligence 1. Intelligence has been described as an innate capacity to learn, think, reason, understand, and solve problems. Presently two different theories are generally accepted. a. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence i.

Sternberg arranged abilities into three major groupings. a) Analytical intelligence: includes general learning and comprehension abilities. This is the traditional concept of intelligence as measured on tests. b) Creative intelligence: includes the ability to select, encode, compare, and combine information in meaningful ways to create new insights, theories, and ideas. c) Practical intelligence: includes adaptive behavior in the real world. b. Frames of Mind i.

Howard Garner originally outlined seven types of intelligence a) Linguistic intelligence b) Logical-mathematical intelligence c) Spatial intelligence: the ability to form spatial images and to find one’s way around in an environment d) Musical intelligence: the ability to perceive and create pitch and rhythmic patterns

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ii.

e) Body-kinesthetic intelligence: the gift of fine motor movement f) Interpersonal intelligence: the understanding of others, how they feel, what motivates them, and how they interact g) Intrapersonal intelligence: centers on the individual’s ability to know himself or herself and to develop a sense of identity.

In his most recent work, Gardner considers the possibility of three additional types of intelligence: a) Naturalistic intelligence: the ability to identify plants and animals. This one Gardner most clearly endorses. b) Spiritual intelligence c) Existential intelligence

C. Intelligence Testing 1. Most well-known tests are the Stanford Binet and the Wechsler scales.

2. Although IQ can change from earlier on in childhood into adolescence, by the time they have reached the teen years, their IQ scores have usually stabilized.

3. The differences in childhood IQ and adolescent IQ can be explained by the environmental experiences that the individual has had.

D. Factors Influencing Test Results 1. Anxious youths do not do as well as those with greater emotional security.

2. Motivation also has a marked influence on test results.

3. Cultural Bias a. Sociocultural factors play a significant role in the outcome of the tests. i.

Efforts to develop culturally unbiased tests include using language familiar to the particular minorities for which the test is designed, or make the test completely nonverbal. a) Raven Progressive Matrix Test ii. Dynamic testing is based on Vygotsky’s approach to intelligence. Taps ability to improve performance based on social interaction.

E. Uses and Misuses of IQ Tests 1. Great caution must be used when interpreting intelligence test scores.

2. IQ tests can serve as screening devices and call attention to adolescents in need.

F. Achievement Tests 1. An achievement test is designed to measure how well someone has mastered a set of facts or skills.

2. The mandatory competency tests that are now given to American school children as a result of federal legislation are examples of achievement tests.

G. The Scholastic Reasoning Test (SAT) 1. One of the most widely used tests in the United States. It is used by a majority of colleges as one basis for admission.

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Teaching Tips Stress the qualitative nature of Piagetian theory. The value of Piaget’s work is that it allows the student to document the changes that occur in cognitive development. There are qualitative shifts and changes in logic as babies, then children, and then adolescents and adults grow.

Challenge students to interpret and understand adolescent cognition from the Piagetian perspective, the information processing perspective, and the psychometric perspective.

Classroom Activity Have students review curriculum samples from elementary, middle, and high schools. Have them note the different expectations and levels of difficulty. Have them note that algebra is taught only after the child masters concrete operations. Students should look at reading and literature, mathematics and science examples. Finally, allow students to discuss how the expectations and requirements of this course draw upon the understanding that they are developing formal operational skills.

Have students write short stories for pre-school children drawing on their understanding of animism.

Divide class into three groups. Assign each group a perspective. Have them analyze and assess the intelligence of a seventeen-year-old adolescent. What instruments would they need to devise in order to measure intelligence from their perspective? What kind of interactions would they need to have with their subject in order to complete their assessment?

Invite a local school psychologist to your class. Have the school psychologist bring the Wechsler scales and using several students, demonstrate how the test is given. He or she should also talk about how the results from the Wechsler are used in the determination of special education eligibility.

Research Topics and Essay Questions Discuss the effects the imaginary audience and personal fable have on adolescent behavior.

Include both the pros and cons of having a personal fable.

Research gender differences in the development of formal operational thinking. What are the gender differences? Why are there gender differences?

Research use and application of the Stanford Binet intelligence test. Which agencies and institutions routinely used the tests and how do they control for cultural bias? Do they?

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Compare and contrast the three basic approaches to understanding cognition during adolescence.

Include or demonstrate your understanding of the differences between qualitative and quantitative changes in cognition, giving examples of each.

Key Questions 1. List and explain several criticisms of Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

2. What is centering, according to Piaget?

3. What is the concept of conservation and at what age is it achieved?

4. Explain what Piaget meant by formal operational thinking.

5. List and explain the different parts of the information processing model.

6. What is the three-stage model of memory?

7. How does current research differ from that of Piaget’s original research?

8. Describe Sternberg’s Triarchic theory.

9. Discuss Gardner’s theory of intelligence.

Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Piaget's Developmental Theory: An Overview. (1989) 25 minutes, Insight Media. David Elkind narrates a program that traces Piaget's career, explains his theory of cognitive development, and demonstrates conservation skills with children.

Cognitive Development. (1995) 58 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. The aim of this program is to examine Piaget's theory and to critically evaluate it in light of current research.

It clearly describes the central themes of Piaget's theory and stages of development from birth to age twelve. Current and future developments, such as metacognition and theory of mind, are outlined, and recent research findings are reported. A user's guide is included.

Learning in Context: Probing the Theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. (1997) 31 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program presents recent work by developmental psychologists that emphasizes the influence of contextual factors in learning and performance.

Three sets of experiments involving children are examined: tasks in which deliberately genderbiased instructions are provided; tasks requiring cooperation between asymmetrical pairs of peers; and tasks involving training of students by adults and by peers. The intriguing results of these tests shed light on the impact of stereotyping on performance; the effects of self-perception on competence; and the influence of different teaching approaches on learning.

Adolescent Cognition: Thinking in a New Key. (1999) 31 minutes, Davidson Films. Referring to the work of Piaget, Erikson, Goffman, and his own studies, David Elkind looks at the intellectual, emotional, and social consequences that result from the changes in thinking.

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Wise Problem Solving/Decision Making. (2005) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This program provides a problem solving method that fosters creative thinking to solve complex issues. It shows how to analyze the benefits and drawbacks of two or more options to make the best possible choice. The DVD also explores logic and intuition.

What If? Cognitive Development in Adolescence. (2003) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This DVD examines cognitive development during adolescence. It shows how teenagers begin to focus on the physical, mental, and emotional changes that they are experiencing.

The Teenage Brain: A World of Their Own. (2001) 56 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. As the brain begins teeming with hormones, the prefrontal cortex, the center of reasoning and impulse control, is still a work in progress. This program explores the neurological reasons behind the unwieldy hallmarks of adolescence—poor judgment, roiling emotions, and burning compulsions—as well as particular mental health issues.

The Search for Intelligence: Intelligence. (2006) 30 minutes, Insight Media. Questioning whether standardized intelligence tests can accurately measure intelligence, this program introduces several theories of intelligence, including triarchic theory, the theory of multiple intelligences, and emotional intelligence theory. It also examines the ways in which nature and nurture influence intelligence and considers issues associated with stereotype threat.

Multiple Intelligences. (2007) 23 minutes, Insight Media. Reviewing multiple intelligences theory, this program offers practical strategies for implementing the theory in physical education lesson planning.

Battle of the Brains: The Case for Multiple Intelligences. (2007) 50 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. For decades, IQ tests have been the gold standard for measuring intelligence. But is one standardized test really adequate for every taker? This program advocates a different approach, creating an array of unusual challenges to assess brainpower and positing an argument for the interplay of multiple intelligences.

Intelligence: A New Definition for the Information Age. (1999) 77 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Success in the Internet era seems to rely more and more on that intangible quality called intelligence. This thought-provoking program critically examines intelligence and technology in today’s world, skewering outdated assumptions and arguing for an all-encompassing perspective that incorporates the full range of human capabilities. Encounters that run the gamut from schoolchildren to computer hackers and from behaviorists to brain specialists offer a new perspective on humanity’s most mysterious capacity and how it is defined.

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Web Sites The Jean Piaget Society for the Study of Knowledge and Development http://www.piaget.org Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/piaget.html Formal Operational Thinking http://www.huntel.net/rsweetland/pedagogy/theories/development/formalOperations.htm Adolescent Egocentrism http://www.education.com/reference/article/egocentrism/ Inside the Teenage Brain http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/ The Adolescent Brain http://web.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=brainBriefings_Adolescent_brain Teenage Brain: A Work in Progress http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/teenage-brain-a-work-in-progress-factsheet/index.shtml Howard Gardner's theory http://www.howardgardner.com/MI/mi.html Robert Sternberg http://academics.tjhsst.edu/psych/oldPsych/sternberg/ Theories of Intelligence http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/p/intelligence.htm Intelligent Intelligence Testing http://www.apa.org/monitor/feb03/intelligent.aspx

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Chapter 6 Self-Concept, Identity, Ethnicity, and Gender I.

Self-Concept and Self Esteem A. The first step in the development of a self-concept is when a person recognizes that he or she is a distinct, separate individual.

B. Self-concept is often described as a global entity: how someone feels about himself or herself in general.

C. Self-concept is equally comprised of beliefs about different aspects of the self, such as social skills, athletic prowess, and morality.

D. Adolescents gather evidence that helps them evaluate themselves. From this evidence they form a hypothesis about themselves. They compare themselves with their own ideals and those of others.

E. Strang outlined four basic dimensions of the self.

1. Overall basic self-concept, which is the adolescent’s view of his or her personality and the perceptions of his abilities and his status and roles in the outer world.

2. Temporary or transitory self-concepts: these ideas of self are influenced by the mood of the moment or by a recent or continuing experience.

3. Social selves: the selves he or she thinks others see, which, in turn, influences how the individual sees himself or herself.

4. Ideal self: which is the kind of person an adolescent would like to be.

F. Importance of Having a Good Self-Concept 1. Self-concept is important because it motivates and directs one’s behavior. a. Possible selves: these are the people he or she might be someday; they refer to the future, not to the present. b. Hoped-for selves or the people we wish to become. c. Feared selves, the people we dread becoming.

2. Adolescents who lack positive expected selves drift into unproductive, antisocial behavior.

G. Self-Esteem 1. Having built concepts of themselves, adolescents then must deal with the esteem with which they view themselves.

H. Mental Health 1. A positive self-perception, or high self-esteem, is a desired outcome of the human developmental process. It has been linked to long-term mental health and emotional well-being.

2. Interpersonal Competence and Popularity a. Those with poor self-concepts are often rejected by other people.

Acceptance by others, especially by best friends, is positively related to self-concept scores.

3. There is a close relationship between self-acceptance and popularity.

I. Delinquency 1. For many years, psychologists and sociologists believed there was a close relationship between low self-esteem and delinquency.

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a. The self-enhancement theory states that individuals who were unsuccessful would associate with deviant peers, who would reinforce and praise them for delinquent behaviors.

2. Research conducted in the 1990s failed to find the link.

3. Recent research revealed high self-esteem did not predict delinquency: narcissism did.

J. Development of a Positive Self-Concept 1. Significant others are those individuals who occupy a high level of importance. They are influential and their opinions are meaningful.

2. Parents a. Affective quality of family relations during adolescence is associated with high levels of self-esteem. b. Adolescents with higher self-esteem report greater intimacy with their mothers and fathers. c. Authoritative parents raise children with high self-esteem. d. The quality of mother-adolescent relationships is clearly an important factor in adolescent self-esteem. e. Although in the past it had been assumed that children’s relationships with their mothers was more important to their psychological adjustment than their relationship to their fathers, most recent research finds that this is not the case. f. When children perceive conflict between parents or between themselves and their parents, lower self-esteem can be expected. g. Loss of self-esteem when parents divorce is usually temporary. h. The well being of children can best be assessed by the adequacy of nurturing, love, and training they receive, rather than in terms of particular family structures.

3. Socioeconomic Status a. The effects of socioeconomic status on self-esteem are variable.

4. Race/Ethnicity a. African American youths have higher self-esteem when not exposed to White prejudices and when surrounded primarily by those with similar physical appearance, social-class standing, family background, and school performance. b. The self-esteem of minority adolescences is enhanced if they have a positive ethnic identity.

5. Gender a. Most research on the effects of gender on self-esteem find that in adolescence girls’ self-esteem is somewhat lower than boys’. b. Girls’ self-esteem is tied much more strongly to their perceived physical attractiveness and to their feelings of interconnectedness with others. c. Boys’ self-esteem is most strongly related to their feelings of achievement and athletics.

6. Physical Disabilities

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a. As might be expected, adolescents with physical disabilities and negative body images have more difficulty developing positive selfconcepts and self-esteem than do those who are more average.

7. Stress a. As the number of negative life events increase, the level of self-esteem decreases.

K. Changes in Self-Concept during Adolescence 1. Self-concept gradually stabilizes.

2. Self-esteem is lowest in early adolescence. a. School transitions can be disturbing to a youth’s self-image.

3. Self-concept is subject to change under the influence of powerful forces.

II. Identity A. One of the most important tasks an adolescent faces is to form an identity.

B. Erik Erikson described the task of identity formation as one of making choices by exploring alternatives and committing to roles.

C. Erikson felt that seven issues were of primary importance: 1.

Temporal perspective versus time confusion: gaining a sense of time and of the continuity of life.

2.

Self-certainty versus self-consciousness: developing self-confidence based on past experiences.

3.

Role experimentation versus role fixation: adolescents have opportunities to try out different roles.

4.

Apprenticeship versus work paralysis: an adolescent has an opportunity to explore and try out different occupations.

5.

Sexual polarization versus bisexual confusion: adolescents continue to attempt to define what it means to be male or female.

6.

Leadership and followership versus authority confusion: adolescents learn to take leadership responsibilities as well as how to follow others.

7.

Ideological commitment versus confusion of values: construction of an ideology guides other aspects of behavior.

D. Identity Status 1. James Marcia revealed four basic identity statuses: a.

Identity diffused: subjects have not experienced a crisis period, nor have they made any commitment. b.

Foreclosure: subjects have not experienced a crisis but they have made commitments to occupations and ideologies that are not the result of their own searching but are ready-made and handed down to them, frequently by parents. c.

Moratorium: means a period of delay granted to someone who is not yet ready to make a decision or assume an obligation. During adolescence, it is a period of exploration of alternatives before commitments are made. d.

Identity Achieved: subjects have experienced a psychological moratorium, have resolved their identity crisis by carefully evaluating various alternatives and choices, and have come to conclusions and decisions on their own.

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i. Identity has many components. Physical, sexual, social, vocational, moral, ideological, and psychological characteristics make up the total self. ii. Identity may be described in terms of the total concept of self. iii. Some adolescents adopt a negative identity that is at odds with the cultural values of the community. The individual with a negative identity can be viewed as a reverse foreclosure in that he or she bases his or her behavior on what parents, teachers and members of society at large want, but does the opposite. iv. Some adolescents will behave in ways to reduce the anxiety of uncertain or incomplete identities.

E. Identity as a Process 1. Erikson and Marcia are outcome approaches. They did not observe the process.

2. Grotevant discusses identity from a process perspective. He says that exploration is key to finding identity. Adolescents gather information about themselves and the environment to make life choices.

3. Burke envisions an identity control system that consists of two Interpersonal and three Intrapersonal components. a.

The Interpersonal components include one’s social behavior and interpersonal feedback one gets from others. b.

The Intrapersonal factors are self-concept, one’s identity standards, and a comparator that assesses the similarity between the two.

F. Components of Identity 1. There are many different components of the self, and some are more easily formed than others.

G. Ethnic Identity is the sum total of groups members’ feelings about those symbols, values, and common histories that identify them as a distinct group. It is an individual’s sense of self as a member of an ethnic group and the attitudes and behaviors associated with that sense.

1. Acculturation Options 2. Acculturation is the adjustment of minority groups to the culture of the dominant group. There are four possible ways in which ethnic group members can participate in a culturally diverse society. a.

Separation involves exclusive focus on the cultural values and practices of the ethnic groups and little or no interaction with the dominant society. b.

Assimilation is the outcome when ethnic group members choose to identify solely with the culture of the dominant society and to relinquish all ties to their ethnic cultures. c.

Integration is characterized by strong identification and involvement with both the dominant society’s culture and the traditional ethnic culture. i. Blended biculturalism: person finds commonalities between his or her ethnic culture and the mainstreams society; this individual usually acts in ways congruent with both cultures.

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ii. Alternating bicultural is someone who moves back and forth between the two cultures, sometimes acting in the way the ethnic culture proscribes and sometimes in the way the mainstream culture proscribes. iii. Fusion occurs when someone truly blends both cultures into a new, coherent whole. d.

Marginality is defined by the absence or loss of one’s culture or origin and the lack of involvement with the dominant society.

3. Developing an Ethnic Identity a. Four stage model: i.

Ethnically unaware. Very young children do not know that people have different ethnicities and assume everyone is just like them. ii. Ethnically ambivalent: children downplay the importance of their ethnic background and don’t strongly identify with their ethnic group. iii. Ethnic emergence: individuals realize that they can’t fully join the mainstream. iv.

Incorporate: individuals realize they are a product of their ethnic culture and the mainstream American culture. They incorporate their ethnic identities, feeling both American and ethnic.

4. Ethnic Identity and Multiracial Teens a. It used to be thought that multiracial adolescents would feel marginalized and thus have low self-esteem. Recent research has shown high self-esteem in multiracial youth.

5. Ethnic Identity and Caucasian Adolescents a. Most White adolescents do not have a strong ethnic identity, except in situations where they find themselves in the minority.

III. Gender A. Gender is a much more inclusive concept than sex. It entails all of the cultural associations and expectations that go along with one’s biological sex. It is a psychological and social phenomenon.

B. Biological Sex 1. Biological sex is genetically and hormonally determined. The fetus becomes a male or female depending on whether it has YX or XX chromosomes and the prenatal balance between the male and female hormones in the blood stream.

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theories 1. Suggest that gender identification has its beginning in the gender that is assigned to the child at birth and subsequently accepted by him or her while growing up.

2. The assignment of gender influences how the child feels about herself or himself and how others feel about the child.

3. Cognitive theory holds that the child’s self-categorization as a boy or girl is the basic organizer of the gender identification attitudes that are developed.

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a. Gender-schema theory: most widely accepted variant. Proposes a multistep developmental process through which children come to appreciate gender appropriate actions.

D. Societal Influences 1. Children do not develop their attitudes about gender in a vacuum; they are surrounded by parents, teachers, other adults, peers, and media.

2. Children learn the gender roles prescribed by their society.

3. Individuals are described as masculine or feminine based on how consistently they fulfill gender-role expectations. a.

Masculinity i Traditionally, masculine men were supposed to be aggressive, strong, forceful, self-confident, virile, courageous, logical, and unemotional. b.

Femininity i. The traditional concepts of femininity were submissive, sensitive, tender, affectionate, sentimental, dependent, and emotional.

4. Social learning theory suggests that a child learns sex-typed behavior the same way he or she learns any other type of behavior: through a combination of reward, punishment, direct instruction, and modeling.

5. Gender stereotypes are harmful to the people being stereotyped as well as the people doing the stereotyping.

E. Androgyny 1. Androgyny is a blending of male/female characteristics and roles.

Androgynous people are not sex typed with respect to roles.

2. Expands the range of human behavior allowing individuals to cope better in a variety of situations.

F. Gender and Identity in Adolescence 1. Adolescents usually become more gendered during early and middle adolescence. a. Gender intensification hypothesis: adolescents act in a more genderstereotypical way and hold more stereotypical beliefs.

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Teaching Tip Keep in mind one’s own identity as you teach this unit. What comprises your identity?

Classroom Activities Have students identify the various groups to which they belong. Have them begin with obvious identifications and proceed to private identities such as religious affiliation, birth order, SES, sexual orientation, etc. Have students reflect upon how the groups to which they belong influence and inform their interactions with adolescents. For example, how might being a 30year-old single Asian woman influence the way she teaches a middle school language class?

Research Topics and Essay Questions Discuss the impact of poverty on adolescent identity formation.

Discuss the impact of divorce and remarriage on adolescent identity formation.

Define self-esteem and discuss how it influences mental health, interpersonal competency, social adjustment, progress in school, vocational aspirations, and delinquency.

Key Questions 1. Describe some similarities and differences between the problems that concern male and female adolescents.

2. List and explain the 4 major identity statuses of Marcia. What are some of the criticisms of Marcia’s theory?

3. What is the difference between gender and sex?

Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Everyday Self-Esteem. (2000) 30 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program thoroughly describes the concept of self-esteem: what it is, where it comes from, and how to build it, maintain it, and protect it.

Who Am I? Psychosocial Development During Adolescence. (2003) 30 minutes, Insight Media. According to Erik Erikson, adolescence is characterized by a conflict between identity and role confusion. This DVD shows how adolescents endeavor to adopt adult roles while forging their personal identities. It examines the processes by which values and attitudes are integrated into a coherent self-definition.

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Self-Esteem and Identity in the Digital Age. (2007) 27 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program introduces the dynamics of child/adolescent psychology with a special emphasis on technology-related pitfalls associated with growing up in the Digital Age— particularly body image issues aggravated by the media and antisocial behaviors resulting from too much time spent online.

Issues of Latino Identity: Yearning to Be… (2001) 30 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Though Hispanic people journey to the United States from different homelands, do they all share the same heritage and concerns? This program takes a detailed look at the fastestgrowing minority in the U.S. and what it means to be Latino and American.

Africans in America: Unfolding of Ethnic Identity. (2002) 31 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program uses in-depth interviews with two generations of five African families now living in the Denver area to explore the dynamic process that is ethnic identity. Having emigrated from Ghana, Uganda, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria, the families bring unique traditions to a shared experience: life in America.

Americano As Apple Pie: The Latino Experience In America. (2001) Two-part series, 30 minutes each, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This informative series looks at a variety of issues concerning the Latino cultures in America, including the size and history of different Hispanic populations and the effects of current U.S. immigration laws. The programs examine Latino identity in both thriving urban neighborhoods and isolated rural towns.

Diversity and Multiple Identities. (2005) 50 minutes, Insight Media. This DVD presents personal accounts of psychosocial adjustments and positive identity formation by gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals from diverse backgrounds. It examines the challenges associated with multiple oppressions and positive identity development.

The Science of the Sexes: Growing Up. (2002) 51 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program compares two 14-year-olds: Aaron, a boy in London, and Alex, a girl in L.A. The effects of the SRY gene, the initial genetic advantages of being female, and the "baby X" experiment are some of the fascinating aspects of gender illustrated through demonstrations and discussion.

The Difference Between Men and Women. (2006) 30 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This ABC News program explores sex differences and the brain circuitry behind them.

The program covers such provocative topics as teen brain chemistry and development, the ways that sex is discussed in “mixed company,” and the powerful hormones brought on by motherhood. Renowned transgender neurobiologist Ben Barres is also featured.

Talking Gender. (1999) 23 minutes, Insight Media. Questioning the nature and construction of gender, this program uses input from teenagers of both sexes to examine the ways in which gender functions in modern society. It addresses the relevance of gender issues in media perception and coverage, education and careers, and family and home life.

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Boys Will Be Men. (2001) 57 minutes, Insight Media. This documentary about growing up male in the U.S. considers how boys become men. It covers such topics as courage, morals, love, and violence.

Girls in America: Identity and Adolescence. (1996) 2-part series, 57 minutes each, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This brilliant two-part series explores the world of contemporary teenage girls and their struggles to establish identities that reflect their own perceptions rather than the whims and dictates of a society bent on molding them.

Web Sites ERIC Digest of Articles about the Assessment of Self-Concept http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-3/self.htm Mixed Race Research http://www.mixedracestudies.org/wordpress/?p=6193 Cultural Identity and Mental Health http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080414193030.htm Asian American Youth http://www.asianamericanalliance.com/Asian-American-Youth.html Articles about Gender from the World Health Organization http://www.who.int/topics/gender/en/ Gender Equality: A Cornerstone of Development http://www.unfpa.org/gender/ Gender Ads http://www.genderads.com/Gender_Ads.com.html

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Chapter 7 The Development of Moral Values I.

Cognitive-Socialization Theories of Development A. Piaget and Children’s Moral Development 1.

In studying children’s attitudes to the rules of the game when playing marbles, Piaget concluded that there is first a morality of constraint and a second morality of cooperation. a. In the early stages of moral development, children are constrained by the rules of the game. Rules constitute a given order of existence, and like parents, must be obeyed without question. b. Later as a result of social interaction, children learn that rules are not absolute; they learn they can alter them by social consensus. Rules are no longer external laws to be considered sacred because they are laid down by adults but are social creations arrived at through a process of free decision and thus deserving of mutual respect and consent.

2.

Piaget’s story-based research gave him additional insights into the reasoning behind children’s moral judgments. He said there are first judgments based solely on the consequences of wrongdoing- objective judgments- and later judgments that take into account intention or motive-subjective judgments-.

3.

Piaget spoke of children moving from a stage of heteronomous morality to one of autonomous morality. a. Heteronomous morality is received morality, according to which you do what authority figures tell you to do. You do not question. You just obey. You believe in the omniscience of those who make rules and believe you will inevitably be caught. This Piaget termed immanent justice. b. Autonomous morality conversely is both independent and cooperative.

It is independent in the sense that you feel that you own your own moral beliefs. It is cooperative in that it is based on mutual decisions made with others. c. As children move toward autonomous morality, their conception of fairness changes. They begin to develop a sense of reciprocity.

4.

Piaget believed that morality progresses because children are developing cognitively and socially.

5.

Although Piaget’s conclusions were deduced from research with children up to age 12, they bear some relationship to the moral life of adolescents.

B. Kohlberg and Levels of Moral Development 1.

Kohlberg’s initial study included 72 boys aged 10, 13, and 16. Data were collected through taped interviews in which moral dilemmas, act of disobedience to legal-social rules, or the command of authority figures conflicted with the human needs or welfare of others.

2.

Kohlberg was concerned not with moral behavior but with moral judgment and the process of thought by which each individual made his judgment.

3.

From an analysis of the interviews, Kohlberg, and then Kohlberg and Gilligan, identified three major levels of moral development, each level having two stages of moral orientation or judgment. .

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a. Preconventional moral reasoning is characterized by selfishness. It is, in fact, premoral rather than moral. In stage 1, the punishment orientation, people act so as to avoid negative consequences. In stage 2, the instrumental hedonism orientation, people are motivated by thought of payback and future gain. b. Conventional moral reasoning: people act so as to gain others’ approval. They do what others think is right. In stage 3, or the good girl-good boy orientation, those others are family members, friends, teachers, co-workers, and other people important to the individual.

Those in the law and order orientation, Stage 4, have a broader, more abstract conception of the term others. They are concerned with what society at large will say about their conduct. c. The highest level of moral reasoning is postconventional moral reasoning. It occurs when people don’t necessarily do what is best for themselves or what others think right and just. This is also termed principled moral reasoning. During the first of the two principled stages, Stage 5, social contract orientation, individuals understand that the purpose of rules and laws is to serve the greater societal good.

Stage 5 moral reasoners believe in extenuating circumstances: factors that allow one to violate a rule for valid moral grounds. Kohlberg included a sixth stage of moral reasoning, that of universal principled reasoning. This type of person behaves so as to avoid selfcondemnation. Individuals governed by universal ethical principles may break unjust civil laws because they recognize a morality higher than existing law.

C. The Relation between Kohlberg’s Stages and Thinking Ability 1.

Cognitive level and moral reasoning are certainly correlated.

2.

Some believe that the influence between cognitive development and moral development is more bi-directional. a. Metacognition: knowing about knowing, refers to insights children have about their own cognitive processes. b. Moral metacognition: refers to the knowledge that children have about their own morality. c. Children who were better able to think about their moral reasoning processes were more likely to be aware of inconsistencies in this reasoning and were also more likely to attempt to resolve these inconsistencies. d. Moral metacognition affected behavior in that children who were better able to reason about their actions were more likely to recognize moral aspects of their behavior and thus employ moral reasoning in formulating plans for that behavior.

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D. Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory 1.

Whether his stages are universal among humans or limited to people in Western cultures. a. Kohlberg’s findings show a similar sequence of development in all cultures. The last two stages of moral thought do not develop clearly in preliterate village or tribal communities.

2.

Whether moral reasoning should be conceptualized as stage like. a. The data have indicated that people do not give consistent moral responses to Kohlberg’s dilemmas. A number of studies have found that premoral reasoning re-emerges in mid and late adolescence, especially in circumstances in which personal cost is high.

3.

Whether his ideas are gender biased. a. The most pervasive and serious challenge to Kohlberg’s theory is that it is biased against females.

E. Gilligan and Gender Differences in Moral Reasoning 1.

Carol Gilligan pointed out that Kohlberg conducted his research about moral development on male subjects.

2.

Gilligan argued that females approach moral issues from a different perspective.

3.

Men emphasize justice—preserving rights, rules and principles.

4.

Women emphasize concern and care for others and sensitivity to their feelings and rights. a. Women emphasize responsibility to human beings rather than to abstract principles. b. Men and women speak with two different voices.

5.

Numerous studies have verified the existence of a caring moral orientation, but it appears that males and females use legalistic as well as caring reasoning, with women utilizing caring somewhat more than men.

F. The Social-Cognitive Domain Approach to Moral Reasoning 1.

The social-cognitive domain model goes beyond moral reasoning per se and analyzes social reasoning more broadly, but much of what its proponents discuss is relevant to moral development.

2.

The social-cognitive domain model holds that there are three types of rules: a. Moral rule: has to do with how people should behave toward each other. b. Social convention: such a rule has been agreed on by everyone and so helps ensure that society runs smoothly. c. Personal preference: This type of rule is governs behaviors that are in the private sphere.

3.

The social-cognitive approach emphasizes that social decisions are complex and that individuals must often weigh moral, social, and personal concerns when making decisions.

G. Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior 1.

Prosocial behavior is the opposite of antisocial behavior; it consists of actions that benefit, help, and bolster others.

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2.

II.

There is a strong link between moral reasoning and prosocial behavior, but they do not always go hand in hand.

3.

Fabes and Carlo have delineated the major factors that influence adolescents’ prosocial and moral behavior. a. Pubertal status: Postpuberty adolescents are larger and stronger, and so more actions are open to them. Also, with puberty come feelings of sexual arousal and romantic love, both of which might prompt prosocial or antisocial actions. b. Perspective taking: Cognitive maturation, combined with new kinds of experiences, allows adolescents to better understand others’ points of view. c. Moral reasoning: The more advanced an adolescent’s moral-reasoning skills, the more likely he or she will make moral decisions. d. Empathy: The more an adolescent can feel empathic toward others, the more likely he or she will engage in both moral and prosocial actions. e. Personality: Anger-prone individuals are more likely to behave antisocially. f. Family relationships: Having a supportive family background promotes moral development. g. Peer relationships: Peers can encourage either prosocial or antisocial actions. h. Schooling: School size, class size, and school climate can influence prosocial tendencies. Schooling encourages the development of higher levels of moral reasoning. i. Culture and ethnicity: Adolescents are influenced by the norms and values of their cultures.

4.

Individuals show reasonable rank order consistency over time. A person who is a highly prosocial child will be a high prosocial adolescent and adult.

Family Factors and Moral Learning A. Much of the important research about moral development of children and adolescents emphasizes the importance of parents and the family in the total process. A number of family factors correlate significantly with moral learning.

1. Parental Acceptance and Trust i. One important aid to moral learning is a warm, accepting relationship of mutual trust and esteem between parent and child. ii. Sutherland and Cressey’s theory of differential association outlines conditions that facilitate moral and criminal learning. The impact of a relationship varies according to its priority, duration, intensity and frequency. i.

The all-important parent-child relationship (high priority) over many years (long duration), characterized by close emotional attachment (high intensity) and a maximum amount of contact and communication (high frequency), has the maximum positive effect on the moral development of children.

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III.

2. Frequency and Intensity of Parent-Teen Communication a. Role-modeling theory maintains that the degree of identification of the child with the parent varies with the amount of the child’s interaction with the parent. b. Frequent interaction offers opportunities for the communication of meaningful values and norms, especially if the exchange is democratic and mutual. c. Certain types of communication appear to be especially good at fostering moral reasoning. Fathers who engage in Vygotskian/Socratic transactive dialogues with their adolescents, who push their thinking by challenging their reasoning, have adolescents who are more morally advanced than their peers.

3. Type of Discipline a. The influence of parental discipline on the moral learning of youths has the most positive effect when it is: b. Consistent rather than erratic c. Accomplished primarily through clear, verbal explanations to develop internal controls rather then through external, physical means of control d. Just and fair and avoids harsh, punitive measures e. Democratic rather than permissive or autocratic f. Cognitive methods resulting in the internalization of values and standards, especially if explanations are combined with affection so that the adolescent is inclined to listen and to accept them. g. Parents who rely on harsh, punitive methods are defeating the true purpose of discipline: to develop a sensitive conscience, socialization, and cooperation. h. Parents who are overly permissive also retard the socialization process and the moral development of their children, for they give the children no help in developing inner controls.

4. Parental Role Models a. It is important for parents to be moral people themselves if they are to offer positive role models for their children to follow. b. Adolescents are much more likely to recognize and be affected by adult hypocrisy than children.

5. Opportunities for Independence a. Adolescents need to be given chances to make decisions that affect their moral behavior and then to observe the results of their actions.

Extrafamilial Influences on Morality A. Peers 1.

There is great societal concern about the degree to which peers influence each other to engage in risky or deviant acts, such as drug use and delinquency.

2.

Brown and Theobald have identified four ways that peers can influence each other’s behavior: a. Peer pressure b. Normative expectations

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c. Structuring opportunities d. Modeling B. Religion 1.

Religion plays an important part in the lives of many Americans, including adolescents, and it is one avenue through which adolescents can learn a moral code.

2.

What Determines How Religious an Adolescent Is? a. The main determinant of an adolescent’s religiosity is the strength and quality of the relationship with his or her family. b. Religious parents are most likely to raise religious offspring. c. Children are most likely to become religious if their parents practice the same faith. d. Race/ethnicity, place of residence, and denomination also influence religiosity.

3.

Which Religion Are Adolescents Likely to Follow? a. Adolescents who have a close relationship with their parents usually remain in the faith in which they were raised. b. Rejection of parents’ religious values is often symptomatic of a strained relationship.

4.

How Religious Is the Average Adolescent? a. American teenagers are fairly religious. About 60% say that religion is either very or pretty important to them. Eighty percent pray at least some of the time. b. Nonetheless, as people move into their late teens and early twenties and leave home, their religious participation tends to decline. For most individuals, this lapse is temporary.

5.

Does Religion Influence Adolescents’ Moral Behavior? a. The majority of research suggests that religion has a positive effect on adolescent behavior. b. In addition to protecting against harmful behaviors, religiosity also promotes positive prosocial concerns.

C. Television and Other Screen Time 1.

Adolescents spend an enormous amount of time watching television: more than 3 ½ hours daily during pre-and early adolescence, and almost 3 hours daily during mid and late adolescence.

2.

By the time the typical teen graduates from high school, he or she will have 20,000 hours in front of the tube, versus 14,000 hours in a classroom. a. That doesn’t take into account all of the time that minors play video games or watch movies.

3.

Unease centers on: a. The effects of viewing televised violence. i. American television is the most violent in the world. ii. Almost all researchers and child advocacy groups who have examined the issue conclude that exposure to television violence does contribute to increased aggressiveness.

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b.

c.

iii. Another effect of watching violent television is that viewers come to believe that the world is a place in which others are out to harm them. iv. The sum of the data leaves little doubt that there is a causal link between watching violent television and behaving aggressively.

The effects of being exposed to sexually provocative stimulation. i. Just as television inundates youths with violent images, it also presents an abundance of sexual ones. ii. Sex is usually presented either as exploitive or as trivial, harmless fun. The potential emotional and health consequences are rarely mentioned. iii. Adolescents are affected by television’s sexual contact. iv. Since studies parallel to those done on televised violence show that adolescents’ concept of normal sexual activity can be skewed by what they view, the National Commission on Adolescent Sexual Health recommends the following guidelines for the portrayal of sexuality in the media. a) Stop portraying only physically attractive people as desirable and capable of being involved in sexual relationships. b) Depict sexually abstinent teens as well as sexually active ones. c) Depict typical sexual relations as nonexploitive. d) Represent the typical sexual encounter as planned, rather than impulsive. e) Portray the use of contraceptives and display the negative consequences of failing to do so. f) Depict scenes of parent-child communication about sexuality.

Materialism i. American children and adolescents see about 40,000 commercial on television each year; this is a dramatic increase form the 1970s. ii. Much of the advertising directed at children and adolescents is for products that are not especially beneficial to them or that are expensive. iii. Advertisements for certain products, i.e. cigarettes and alcohol, do convince teenagers to go out and use these products. iv. Television commercials promote the concept that living the good life entails having many material possessions. The message is that there is a product out there that will solve any and all of your problems. v. Television advertising does have an effect upon viewers.

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D. Other Concerns 1.

Media portrayals of excessively slender individuals contribute to body dissatisfaction, especially in girls.

2.

The several hours a day spent watching television could be spent doing something else, such as exercising, being with friends, talking with family members, working on a hobby, or reading.

E. Moral Education 1.

Five different approaches to moral education have been identified. a. The earliest of these approaches involves inculcation, or teaching specific values and norms to students so they will come to identify with these values and follow them. b. Numerous yet similar lists of universal values have been developed. i. Trustworthiness, which includes honesty, integrity, reliability, and loyalty. ii. Respect, which includes treating others with dignity, civility, courtesy, and tolerance. iii. Responsibility, which assumes that one is accountable for one’s actions, perseveres, is diligent, and shows self-restraint. iv. Fairness, which involves following due process, being impartial, and refusing to take unfair advantage of others. v. Caring, or the concern for others’ welfare. vi. Citizenship, or giving to the community and obeying its rules. c. The second approach to moral education known as moral development grew directly out of Kohlberg’s theories and research. i. The approach is based on the belief that adolescents must be exposed to higher-level reasoning in order to develop it themselves. ii. In this type of approach, the primary method used is to present case studies, or moral dilemmas for the students to solve. d. The third approach to moral education; values clarification is concerned with the process of valuing. i. It does not aim to instill any particular set of values; rather, the goal is to help students become aware of the beliefs and behaviors they prize and would be willing to stand up for, to learn to weigh the pros and cons and consequences of various alternatives, to choose freely after considerations of consequences, and to learn to match their actions with their beliefs in a consistent way. e. The fourth approach, analysis, has never become as popular as the others. In it, students are taught to employ critical thinking and reasoning when making moral decisions. i. As is often the case with critical-thinking instruction, students are given practice in clarifying the issue, assembling and evaluating the truth of the facts used to support different positions on the issue, appraising the relevance of the facts,

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drawing appropriate conclusions, and thinking through the implications of their decision. f. The final approach to moral education, action learning, is the newest.

It involves giving students the opportunity to participate in community service projects, thus bridging the gap between moral reasoning and moral action.

Teaching Tips While heavily theoretical, this chapter allows students to compare, contrast, and integrate cognitive development and moral development. It is, therefore, important to provide opportunities through question and answering for students to take out, if you will, Piaget and Freud’s work on formal operations and superego development.

Classroom Activities Show segments of the film, “John Q.” In this film, the protagonist is faced with a contemporary moral dilemma to which each student will be able to relate.

Working in teams, have students create and present moral dilemmas. Arrange class into three working groups: One group will create moral dilemmas, one group will solve dilemmas, and the third will judge the dilemmas and place the resolution within Kohlberg’s theoretical framework.

Research Topics and Essay Questions Research television shows designed for adolescents. Watch a few of them and look for common themes. Discuss the influence of television on adolescent development including sexuality, aggression, and moral development.

Compare and contrast Piaget and Kohlberg’s work.

Key Questions 1.

2.

3.

What is the role of schools in moral education?

What six actions should media take to benefit society?

What are different forms of moral education?

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Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Morality: Judgments and Actions. (2002) 32 minutes, Davidson Films. This film reviews some of the basic work of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Milgram, and investigates current research into the domain theory of Dr. Elliot Turiel and his associates.

Teens and Ethics. (2007) 29 minutes, Insight Media. In this program, real teenagers discuss the potentially life-changing decisions they face on a daily basis. The DVD questions what it means to be ethical and considers the results of bad decisions. It emphasizes the importance of having an ethics plan.

Teens on Faith: The Religious Youth of America. (1996) 28 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This CBS News special presents teenagers from a wide variety of religious backgrounds talking frankly about their beliefs. Clinton Wilkins, the principal of the Friends School of Baltimore, moderates the interfaith discussions among Protestant, Jewish, Roman Catholic, Hindu, and Quaker students.

Web Sites Character Education http://www.makeyouthink.tv/MakeYouThink/home.html Character Counts http://CharacterCounts.org Positive Youth Development http://www.stanford.edu/group/adolescent.ctr/Conference/2002/summary.html National Study of Youth and Religion http://www.youthandreligion.org/publications/ Teaching Tolerance http://www.tolerance.org

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Chapter 8 Relationships with Family Members I. Parenting Adolescents 1. Almost all research indicates that parents have an enormous influence upon adolescent behavior.

2. What Kind of Parents Do Adolescents Want 1.

Three key components: 1. Connection: or the presence of a warm, stable, loving, attentive bond between parents and child. i. Connection provides a sense of security that allows an adolescent to explore the world outside the family.

2. Psychological autonomy: the freedom to form one’s own opinions, have privacy, and make decisions for oneself.

3. Regulation: successful parents monitor and supervise their children’s behavior and set rules that limit that behavior.

3. Connection 1.

Parental Interest and Help 1. Some of the ways adolescents know that their parents care about them is by the interest their parents show in them, by the amount of quality time spent with them, and by their willingness to stand beside them and help them as needed.

2. Adolescents want attention and companionship from their parents.

2.

Listening and Empathetic Understanding 1. Empathy refers to the ability to identify with the thoughts, attitudes, and feeling of another person. It is emotional sensitivity to others, the vicarious sharing of experiences of another person and the emotions associated with them.

2. Some parents are completely insensitive to their adolescent’s feelings and moods.

3. Adolescents want parents who will talk with them, not at them, in a sympathetic way.

4. Communication is one key to harmonious parent-youth relationships.

3.

Love and Positive Affect 1. Affect, which refers to the emotions or feelings that exist among family members, may be positive or negative. Positive affect between family members refers to relationships characterized by emotional warmth, affection, love, and sensitivity.

2. Adolescents need a great deal of love and demonstration of affection from parents.

3. Adolescents need both intrinsic support and extrinsic support.

4.

Acceptance and Approval 1. An important component of love is unconditional acceptance.

2. Adolescents need to know they are valued, accepted, and liked by their parents.

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3. There must be a determined effort by parents both to show approval and to achieve enough objectivity to see the child as a human being, entitled to human attributes.

4. Trust 1.

Some parents seem to have more difficulty trusting their adolescents than others do.

1. Such parents tend to project their own fears, anxiety, and guilt onto the adolescent.

2.

Parents’ trust is based primarily on the amount and kind of knowledge they have about their adolescent.

1. Knowledge of their child’s daily activities accounts for more trust than knowledge of their child’s past misbehaviors.

5. Autonomy 1.

Accomplished through the process of separation-individuation, during which the parent-adolescent bond is transformed but maintained.

1. The adolescent establishes individuality and connectedness with parents at the same time.

2. Individuation is a fundamental organizing principle of human growth.

It involves the ongoing efforts of an individual to build selfunderstanding and identity in relation to other people.

3. In making the transition from childhood to adulthood, the adolescent needs to establish a degree of autonomy and identity in order to assume adult roles and responsibilities.

4. There are two aspects of autonomy: i. Behavioral autonomy involves becoming independent and free enough to act on your own without excessive dependence on others for guidance. ii. Emotional autonomy means becoming free of childish emotional dependence on parents.

2.

Connectedness and autonomy may seem to be mutually exclusive, but are actually complementary traits requiring a balanced approach, a middle ground.

1. Families who lean too heavily toward connectedness are described as enmeshed.

2. Families whose members are isolated from each other are described as disengaged.

3.

Family cohesion depends in part on the adolescent’s age and the stage of the family life cycle.

4.

The most functional family situation seems to be that which is characterized by a high degree of family cohesiveness as children grow, with a gradual shift to a more balanced degree of closeness as children become adolescents, thus allowing identity formation in adolescents.

6. Regulation 1.

Guidance and Control

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a. Diana Baumrind described four basic patterns by which parents exercise control over their children. These four patterns arise from two dimensions of parenting: control and warmth. i. Control has to do with the degree to which parents manage their children’s behavior. ii. Warmth reflects the degree to which parents are affectionate and supportive as opposed to rejecting and unresponsive. a) Authoritative parents listen to their children and take their wants and desires into account when making rules and decisions. If consensus cannot be reached, parents have the ultimate say. b) Authoritarian parents are strict disciplinarians. They make decisions based on what they want and what they believe is right; there is little discussion about rules and family practices. “You will do so because I said so.

My way or the highway.” c) Permissive parents are overindulgent. They believe the best way to express their love is to give in to their children’s wishes. They permit their children to decide almost everything for themselves and tend not to monitor their children closely. d) Uninvolved parents do not seem to care about their children, as they let their children do whatever the wish.

They do so out of indifference. b. Authoritative parenting is best. i.

Induction is the technique most frequently used by authoritative parents. It involves talking with the child, explaining why the action in question was inappropriate and how it affected others in a negative way. ii.

Authoritative parents encourage individual responsibility, decision-making, and autonomy. c. The usual effect of authoritarian parenting is to produce a combination of rebellion and dependency. i. Adolescents are more hostile and resent their parents’ control and domination, and less often identify with them. ii. Youths may become overtly aggressive and hostile, especially if the parents’ discipline has been harsh, unfair, or administered without much love and affection. iii. Authoritarian parents are often inflexible and perfectionist. iv. Authoritarian parents rely heavily on punishment, and the effect of using punitive measures to exercise control is usually negative. d. The overall outcome of permissive parenting is adolescents will be ill prepared to accept frustration or responsibility. i. Without limits on their behavior, they feel insecure, disoriented, and uncertain.

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e. Adolescents raised by uninvolved parents are similar to those raised by permissive parents, but the effects are more extreme.

II. Parent-Adolescent Tension F. The amount of tension between parents and adolescents is greater than that between parents and younger children. Even so, most families that enjoy good relationships when their children are small will continue to do so when their children become teens.

F. Given that adolescents are striving to increase their autonomy, a certain amount of conflict is normal and inevitable.

C. Differences in Outlook 1. From a vantage point reached after many years of experience, parents feel that youths are irresponsible, reckless, and naïve.

2. Parents worry youths will have accidents, get hurt. Youths feel their parents worry too much.

4. Middle-aged parents tend to compare today’s youths and lifestyles with their own past.

5. Parents become cynical about human character and somewhat disillusioned about trying to change the world.

6. Adolescents are enthralled with their new cognitive abilities. Parental behaviors that were once taken for granted are now questioned. Adolescents often believe that they have intuited solutions to problems that are better than those proposed by their elders.

7. Adolescents grow to be wary of adults.

8. Some aging adults become oversensitive about growing old or being considered aged. They may focus more and more attention on staying young and attract the embarrassed shame of their own teenagers and the amused ridicule of other youths.

D. Focus of Conflict 1. Social Life and Customs a) Choice of friends or dating partners b) How often they are allowed to go out, going out on school nights, and frequency of dating c) Where they are allowed to go and the type of activity they can attend d) Curfew hours e) The age they are allowed to date, ride in cars, and participate in certain events f) Going steady g) Choice of clothes and hairstyles 2. Responsibility a) Performing family chores b) Earning and spending money c) Caring for personal belongings, clothes, and room d) Using family automobile e) Using the telephone f) Doing work for others outside the home .

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g) Using family property or belongings 3. School a) Parents are concerned about: 1. Grades and level of performance 2. Study habits and homework 3. Regularity of attendance 4. General attitude toward school studies and teachers 5. Behavior in school 4. Family Relationships a) Conflict arises over: 1. Immature behavior 2. General attitude and level of respect shown to parents 3. Quarreling with siblings 4. Relationships with relatives, especially aged grandparents in the home 5. Degree of orientation toward family or amount of autonomy from family 5. Social Conventions a) Parents are concerned with these behaviors: 1. Drinking, smoking, and using drugs 2. Language and speech 3. Sexual behavior 4. Staying out of trouble 5. Going to church or Sunday school b) Parents and their teenage children rarely disagree about basic moral values. Instead, they disagree about behaviors that are socially acceptable to one group but not to the other. c) Conflicts usually occur when people’s expectations are violated.

E. Variables Affecting Conflict b) Adolescent gender: a. Adolescent girls and boys may argue with their parents about somewhat different issues. c) Parents’ gender: a. Adolescents have different types of conflict with their mothers than with their fathers. d) Adolescent age: a. As adolescents age, they are apt to agree more and argue less with their parents. e) The total atmosphere within the home influences conflict. a. Conflict of all types is more frequent in authoritarian homes than in authoritative homes. f) The socioeconomic status of the family is another variable affecting conflict. a. Poverty-class parents are more likely to be authoritarian and to use harsh and inconsistent discipline practices.

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g) Another factor influencing conflict is parental workload. Adolescent conflict is highest when both parents are stressed.

F. Conflict with Parents versus Conflict with Peers 1.

Adolescents spend more time arguing and fighting with their parents than they do with their peers, and their arguments with their parents are more emotional and heated.

G. Results of Conflict 1. High levels of conflict affect family cohesion and have an adverse effect on adolescent development.

2. Parents actually seem to experience more stress from having arguments with their adolescents than the adolescents do.

H. Relationships with Other Family Members I. Adolescent-Sibling Relationships 1. The relationships between brothers and sisters are vitally important because they may have a lasting influence on development and on the individual’s adult personality and roles. a. Older siblings are likely to serve as role models for younger brothers and sisters. b. Older siblings often serve as surrogate parents and caregivers. c. Older siblings often provide companionship, friendship, and meet one another’s needs for affection and meaningful relationships.

J. Relationships with Other Relatives 1. Relationships with grandparents can also have positive effects on adolescents. a. Grandparents may be significant agents in providing a sense of continuity in an adolescent’s life, in linking the past to the present, and in transmitting knowledge of culture and family roots, and thus having a positive impact on the adolescent’s search for identity. b. Grandparents may have a positive impact on parent-adolescent relations by conveying information about the parents to the adolescent. c. Grandparents help adolescents understand aging and accept the aged.

Adolescents who see their grandparents frequently and have a good relationship with them are more likely to have positive attitudes toward the elderly. d. Grandparenting styles: i.

Influential: these grandparents are highly involved in their grandchildren’s lives, the majority seeing their grandchildren daily. ii. Supportive: next-closest relationship. They do not participate in disciplining their grandchildren. iii. Passive: see their grandchildren less frequently and enjoy them, but they do not materially help them nor do they assume quasiparental responsibilities for them. iv.

Authority-oriented: grandparents are more distant fonts of family wisdom who have less direct involvement.

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v.

Detached: grandparents do not know their grandchildren well, and although they may have fond feelings for them, they are largely uninvolved in their lives. e. Physical proximity makes it easier to maintain contact.

III. Maltreatment A. Child abuse means nonaccidental physical injury and assault, sexual abuse, and/or mental and emotional injury of the child.

1. Physical Abuse a. The child may be physically attacked, burned, hit, beaten, banged against a wall or the floor, or battered, leading to fractures, lacerations, or bruises. b. Parents who physically attack and hurt their children have a devastating effect on them both emotionally and physically. c. Pathological fear, shyness, passive dispositions, deep-seated hostility, sullenness, and a cold, indifferent ability to love others are often the result. d. Adolescents who are physically abused are more likely to use violence themselves. e. Adolescent girls who have been physically abused often continue to find themselves on the receiving end of violence: they choose abusive dating partners and are traumatized in their romantic relationships. f. Adolescents who have been physically abused are more likely to develop clinical depression and to have suicidal thoughts than adolescents without a history of abuse.

2. Sexual Abuse a. Includes very suggestive language, use of pornography, fondling, petting, masturbation, exhibitionism, voyeurism, oral sex, or full vaginal or anal penetration. b. Constellation of symptoms in children and adolescents who have been sexually abused matches the diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder. c. High levels of depression, anxiety, sexual problems, and suicidal threats and behavior are seen in sexual abuse victims d. Sexual abuse also seems to be an important background factor in some patterns of adolescent antisocial behavior.

3. Incest a. Much of child and adolescent sexual abuse is incestuous; that is, it takes place between persons who are closely related. b. The most prolonged, severe effects occur when the abuser is a father or stepfather, when the abuse involved penetration, and when the abuse was prolonged. c. Due to intense sense of betrayal, victims of incest are generally more strongly affected by the abuse than victims of non-incestuous sexual abuse. d. It appears that men who were incest victims as boys are even more strongly affected than women who were incest victims as girls.

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4.

5.

Emotional Abuse a. Includes constant screaming at the child, calling him or her foul names, criticizing, making fun, comparing the child to siblings, or ignoring the child.

Child Neglect a. Means failure to provide even minimal care of the child, including adequate food, clothing, shelter, and medical care, as well as failure to provide for a child’s emotional, social, intellectual, and moral needs. b. Neglect is the most common form of maltreatment of children and adolescents. i. Physical neglect may involve failure to provide enough food, adequate clothing, and shelter. ii. Emotional neglect may include showing inadequate attention and love. iii. Intellectual neglect may include allowing the child to stay out of school. iv. Social neglect may include inadequate supervision of social activities. v. Moral neglect may include the failure to provide a positive moral example for the child.

Teaching Tips Keep in mind family systems theory. Work from the context that families are like mobiles.

Each piece on the mobile, or each family member, is connected to the other. A change in one piece, or family member, impacts every other piece on that mobile. Any major contextual shift, such as the wind blowing on a mobile, or a sudden financial change in a family, moves the entire structure, creating a period of disequilibrium before the mobile or the family re-achieves homeostasis or balance.

Classroom Activities Have students role play conflicts. Divide class into three groups. One group designs the conflict. E.g., Mother suspects adolescent daughter is smoking marijuana. One group is the adolescent. One group is the parent. Students should take turns role-playing. Students should alternate authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved parenting styles.

Have students debate spanking as a discipline technique.

Invite social worker from local protective agency into classroom to discuss child abuse. It will fascinate students to learn reporting procedure and issues around confidentiality, treatment, and child placement outside the home.

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Research Topics and Essay Questions Describe and explain Baumrind’s four parenting styles.

Research the history of child protective services in the United States. Under what conditions are children presently removed from homes and what mandate does the protective agency work under to reunite the family?

Key Questions 1. List and illustrate five types of neglect that children suffer.

2. Describe Baumrind’s two dimensions of parenting and four different parenting styles.

Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

The Power of Family. (2008) 23 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This video examines different types of families and the roles they play in the physical, emotional, intellectual, social, and moral development of their members.

Siblings. (2000) 22 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Sibling relationships present complex issues. This video untangles the inner dynamics of those relationships, with a focus on birth order and its role in personality development.

Family Matters: Family Types. (2005) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This program considers the modern diversity of family forms and examines cultural shifts that are changing the modern definition of a family.

Grandparents. (2000) 22 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. In many families, grandparents have become a valuable resource in childcare—but their importance is more than economic. This video discusses the role of extended family in child development and gives advice on helping a child cope with a grandparent’s death.

Rocking the Cradle: Gay Parenting. (2007) 38 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program captures six gay/lesbian families in their day-to-day lives. Two of these families are families by adoption, two are co-parenting families, and two are lesbian families by insemination. Man-on-the-street interviews as well as emotional testimonials from the 15 adults and 11 children featured in this film provide a range of perspectives on gay parenting.

Race, Ethnicity, and Family. (2007) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This program explores empirical data that suggests that there are certain patterns of behavior that can be linked to specific racial or ethnic groups, including different degrees of emphasis on religion and multigenerational solidarity. It explains that underlying details often go unexplained.

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Marriage and Family. (2008) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This program provides a nonethnocentric definition of family, including consanguinal family, conjugal family, and fictive kin. It describes the functions of the family in society, differentiates between families and households, identifies forms of family organization, and describes diverse residence patterns.

There’s No Place Like Home: Growing Up with Family Violence. (2007) 50 minutes, Insight Media. This video examines the impact of domestic violence on children and considers its longterm effects. It profiles several individuals of different ages who have experienced domestic abuse.

Child Abuse: We Can All Work Against It. (2004) 33 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This video speaks directly to adults and children with two helpful segments on confronting child abuse.

Hope Beyond the Breaking Point: No Child Ever Deserves to Be Abused. (2005) 19 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Inspired by “simulated baby” counseling programs for teenage students, this video uses a classroom setting and dramatizations to teach personal responsibility and self-awareness in parenting and childcare.

Web Sites Parenting Teens http://www.focusas.com/Parenting.html National Fatherhood Initiative http://www.fatherhood.org Parenting http://www.parentsoup.com Parenting Help http://www.parenting.org/ Talking to Your Teen http://children.webmd.com/features/talking-teen Grandparenting http://www.grandparenting.org/ Prevent Child Abuse http://www.preventchildabuse.org/index.shtml Treating Adolescent Survivors of Sexual Abuse http://www.athealth.com/Consumer/disorders/adolescentsurvivors.html

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Chapter 9 Different Family Patterns I.

II.

With Whom Do American Adolescents Live?

A. Almost all American adolescents below the age of 19 reside with at least one of their biological parents, and about two-thirds live with both of their biological parents.

B. There are four possible reasons that an adolescent might live with only one of his or her biological parents.

1.

The parents might be married but living apart due to certain circumstances.

2.

A parent may have died.

3.

The parents might be divorced or legally separated.

4.

The child might have been born to a single mother who has never been wed to the child’s father.

Divorce and Adolescents A. Attitudes toward Divorce 1.

Nearly half of all American marriages end in divorce. The great majority of these marriages involve children.

2.

A large number of mental health practitioners view divorce as a major, negative event that stimulates insecurity, confusion, and painful emotions.

B. Short-Term Emotional Reactions 1.

Immediate emotional reactions include shock and disbelief, anger and hostility, self-blame and guilt.

2.

Divorce is often followed by a period of mourning and grief. Feelings of sadness, dejection, and depression are common.

3.

If parents date, adolescents may become jealous and resentful.

4.

Negative emotions do not last. Three years after the divorce, most adolescents report that sadness and shock diminish.

5.

Negative emotions may be replaced with relief and gladness that the conflict is over.

C. Long-Term Effects 1.

Judith Wallerstein found that almost half of the children in her California study were, on reaching young adulthood, worried, underachieving, selfdeprecating, and sometimes angry young men and women. a. These results were challenged.

2.

More research confirmed and extended Wallerstein’s findings. a. Children and adolescents whose parents divorce are at a heightened risk for a variety of problem behaviors. b. Recent meta-analysis found that compared to children with continually married parents, children with divorced parents scored significantly lower on measures of academic achievement, acceptable conduct, psychological adjustment, self-concept, and social relations. c. Influence of having experienced one’s parents’ divorce extends into adulthood. Adults whose parents divorced when they were children are less likely to attend college and more likely to cohabitate without marriage, to have children at an early age, and to suffer from poor mental health. i. This pattern has been validated cross-culturally. .

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D.

E.

d. Longitudinal study found children of divorced parents were at twice the risk of getting divorced themselves. i. Risk most elevated if one’s parents showed only a low level of discord prior to their divorce. e. Relationships with siblings seem to suffer and have long-term disruptions. f. Remaining in a conflict-laden, unhappy marriage is no better for children’s development.

Factors Influencing the Effects of Divorce 1.

The most important factor in determining the children’s well being is the amount of discord that they experience at home.

2.

If the getting divorced will diminish the conflict in the home, then that is preferable to subjecting the children to an ongoing hostile family situation.

3.

Heredity and Temperamental Differences a. There are variations in how adaptable individuals are to change— namely, in the quality of their coping skills, their level of self-esteem, and their willingness to go to others for help.

4.

Predivorce Economic Circumstances a. Children whose parents have divorced are more likely to have experienced poverty or a decline in their standard or living than children whose families are stable.

5.

Predivorce Parental Behavior a. In addition to parental conflict, additional aspects of parents’ predivorce behavior are detrimental to the children living in the household. b. Adults are generally physically and psychologically distressed for a period of time leading up to a divorce, and being under stress clearly decreases the quality of parenting.

6.

Economic Resources a. In most cases, children’s economic status worsens after their parents’ divorce.

7.

Postdivorce Parental Behavior a. The psychological adjustment of parents, especially the custodial parents, greatly influences the adjustment of their adolescents. i. The more upset the parents are, the more likely adolescents will be disturbed. b. It is generally agreed that after a divorce, the quality of parenting goes down.

8.

Amicability of the Divorce a. Adolescents are particularly upset over the fighting if their parents are trying to get them to take sides or exploit them as spies, go-between, and informers in winning over the other parent. b. In most cases, adolescents love both of their parents and do not want to have to choose sides.

Custody and Living Arrangements 1.

Custody is comprised of two separate issues.

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III.

a. Legal custody refers to the right of a parent to make decisions affecting a child. b. Residential custody refers to where and with which parent the child will live.

2.

The greatest fear of adolescents who have good relationships with both parents is that divorce will result in their losing contact with a parent. a. Parents need to make it clear that they are not divorcing their children and they will continue to be active, concerned, and caring parents.

3.

Divorce often results in reduced attachment to the noncustodial parent.

4.

In many instances, joint custody is awarded to the parents. a. Joint legal custody means both parents are responsible for caring for the adolescent and making decision concerning his or her welfare. b. Joint residential custody means that a child alternates between living with each parent.

5.

What matters most is the quality of the relationship of the child with each parent and the quality of the relationships of the parents with each other after the divorce.

Single-Parent Families A. Grandparent Headed Families 1.

In 2000, more than 4.5 million American children and adolescents lived in households headed by grandparents.

2.

This phenomenon is most strongly practiced in African American families. a. African American families are more likely to emphasize extended family ties than are Caucasian Americans.

3.

Several different arrangements: a. Parental supplement pattern: mothers and grandmothers co-parent, although the grandmothers did not necessarily share a residence with their daughter and grandchild. b. Supportive primary parenting model: mothers were responsible for the full-time care of their children. Grandmothers helped with expenses, occasionally babysat, and sometimes lent a hand with the mother’s household responsibilities. c. Parental replacement: grandmother is a replacement for her daughter.

Grandmothers assume total parental responsibilities and the mother herself plays an insignificant role. d. Parental apprentice model: The grandmother acts as a mentor to her daughter. Grandmother acts as teacher and gradually turns responsibility over to the mother.

4.

Many studies have shown that raising grandchildren often takes a strong toll on the grandmother’s well being.

B. Single-Parent Families Resulting from Parental Death 1.

Another type of family that has not been well-studied is the single-parent family that results from parental death. a. More than two million American children and adolescents under 18 have experienced a parent’s death.

2.

Little is known about the effects of parental death on adolescent adjustment. .

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IV.

a. Adolescents are likely to experience sadness. b. They often develop fears about the safety of their remaining parent. c. Many develop symptoms of post-traumatic stress syndrome, especially if the death was a violent, unexpected one. d. It seems likely that the long-term effects of parental absence due to a parent’s death would be influenced by the same mediating and moderating factors that influence adolescents’ reaction to parental absence due to other reasons: frequency and distance of relocating, strength of a social support network, behavior of the remaining parent, child’s innate resiliency, and degree of change in economic circumstances.

C. Effects of Being Raised in a One-Parent Family 1.

Adolescents raised in single-parent families are more likely to exhibit emotional and personality problems, to engage in delinquent acts, to be involved in early pregnancies, to use drugs, to do poorly in school, and to be aggressive than those raised in two-parent families. a. Development of Masculinity/Femininity i. The effect of father absence depends on whether boys have surrogate models. a) Young father-absent male children seek the attention of older males and are strongly motivated to imitate and please potential father figures. ii. The effects of father absence on daughters seem to be just the opposite. a) Daughters are affected less when young but more during adolescence. b) A lack of meaningful male/female relationships in childhood can make it more difficult for them to relate to the opposite sex later on, b. Influences on School Performance i. Adolescents raised by single parents are less likely to do well in school than adolescents raised in two-parent homes. ii. This is especially true for girls.

Blended Families A. More than 50% of divorced women who have children remarry within 5 years of their divorce, and more than three fourths do so within ten years of the divorce.

B. The high rate of divorce and remarriage means that nearly half of marriages are now second marriages for one or both of the partners.

C. It has been estimated that almost one fourth of all American children under the age of 18 will spend some time living in a stepfamily.

D. Unfortunately, more than half of remarriages end in divorce, as the divorce rate for second marriages is higher than that for first marriages.

E. There are many different combinations of blended families.

F. Children are usually not pleased when their biological parents remarry, and so they do not gladly welcome their new stepparents.

G. In a majority of cases, at least one spouse has children when the remarriage begins.

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V.

H. Adolescent stepchildren particularly have difficulty accepting their new stepfather or stepmother.

1.

This apparent rejection is hard for the stepparent to take and sometimes leads to a battle of the wills.

I. Two-thirds of children whose parents remarry either immediately or eventually gain either a half-sibling or a stepsibling.

Adopted Adolescents A. Adopted adolescents have fewer problems and better educational attainment than adolescents raised in single-parent families.

B. Once they have been adopted, adopted adolescents may face more complex attachment issues and experience more conflict over regulation issues than other teenagers.

C. Adopted individuals may also find it more difficult to cope with increasing autonomy if they feel they have been abandoned before.

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Teaching Tips As you teach this unit, invite your students to discuss the type of family they were raised in as well as their expectations for the families they will or, in some cases, are raising. Given the discouraging divorce and remarriage statistics, it will be important and interesting to assess their attitudes about marriage.

Classroom Activities Stage a mock marriage. Students should apply for a marriage certificate that includes detailed questions about what constitutes a sound marriage and how they plan to have the marriage succeed. Successful applicants then will write their own vows before the ceremony.

Mediation allows divorcing couples to work out post divorce arrangements prior to going to court. Invite an attorney specializing in this work to come to your classroom. Students will be able to ask questions about custody, property and alimony.

Research Topics and Essay Questions Write an essay discussing the impact of divorce on adolescent development. Include short and long term effects, as well as the supports necessary to support the adolescent through the divorce.

Research the history of marriage in the United States. Include demographic information regarding age at first marriage and average numbers of children per marriage. Include current legislation regarding civil unions and gay rights.

Key Questions 1. Compare the lives of adopted adolescents to adolescents living in single parent homes.

2. Discuss some of the psychological problems experienced by adopted adolescents.

3. Name the highest “at risk” adolescent adoption group and discuss the problems that they face.

4. Discuss the issues of legal custody and residential custody.

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Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Divorce: A Survival Guide for Kids. (2002) 15 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. In this video, teens, psychologists, and divorced parents talk about the difficulties young people face when their parents decide to separate. Through interviews and commentary, the program outlines the six emotional stages a young person typically experiences after divorce has changed a family.

Changing Families. (2007) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This program examines the U.S. family in the 21st century and considers the notion that there is no single one-size-fits-all model of what constitutes a family. It discusses factors affecting the family as a social institution, including an increasing number of women in the labor force, rising divorce rates, and developments in contraception and reproductive technology.

Diversity Rules: The Changing Nature of Families. (2001) 25 minutes, Insight Media. This DVD explores nuclear, sole-parent, blended, gay, and extended families. It considers why the structure of families has changed over the years, addresses cultural differences within and among families, explains how foster families function, and describes the effects of divorce on the family.

Marriage and Family. (2008) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This program provides a nonethnocentric definition of family, including consanguinal family, conjugal family, and fictive kin. It describes the functions of the family in society, differentiates between families and households, identifies forms of family organization, and describes diverse residence patterns.

This is Family. (2009) 79 minutes, Insight Media. This documentary explores the diversity in gay and transgender households in contemporary U.S. society and questions whether society is adapting quickly enough to accommodate the diverse ways of life among gay and alternative households. It profiles households with two fathers and two mothers, examines shelters for children and young adults that have been thrown out of their traditional families because of alternative lifestyles, and considers how gay and transgender individuals cope with family rejection.

Families Today and Tomorrow. (2007) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This DVD explores the various forms of modern families, including single-parent families, stepfamilies, and multigenerational families living together. It also looks at the growing racial and ethnic diversity brought about by increasing immigration. The program emphasizes that the U.S. family remains an important and vital institution.

Remarriage and Stepfamilies. (2007) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This DVD explores the obstacles and the opportunities stepfamily members are likely to encounter. It features therapists who explain that families who value kindness, compassion, and maturity generally fare best.

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Web Sites Children of Divorce http://www.aacap.org/cs/root/facts_for_families/children_and_divorce Divorce: A Parents’ Guide for Supporting Children http://www.nasponline.org/resources/parenting/divorce_ho.aspx Children of Divorce Intervention Program http://www.childrensinstitute.net/programs/codip Single Parents Network http://singleparentsnetwork.com/ Single Parenting of Teens http://www.parentteen.com/single_parenting.html National Stepfamily Resource Center http://www.stepfamilies.info/ Parenting Your Adopted Teen http://www.focusas.com/Adopted.html

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Chapter 10 Being a Member of the Adolescent Subculture: Activities and Interactions with Peers I.

Adolescent Culture and Society A. Adolescent society refers to the structural arrangements of subgroups within an adolescent social system.

B. Adolescent culture is the sum of the ways of living of adolescents; it refers to the body of norms, values, attitudes, and practices recognized and shared by members of the adolescent society as appropriate guides to action.

C. Adolescent society is not one single, comprehensive, monolithic structure than includes all young people.

D. There are usually numerous adolescent societies with wide variations among various age groups, socioeconomic levels, and ethnic or national backgrounds.

E. The Adolescent Subculture 1. According to one point of view, adolescent subculture describes a uniform peer group whose values are contrary to adult values.

2. An opposite point of view is that the theory of an adolescent subculture segregated and different from adult culture is a myth. a. When conflict does arise between the generations, it is usually centered in mundane, day-to-day issues such as noisiness, tidiness, punctuality, and living under the same roof, rather than on fundamental values such as honesty, perseverance, and concern for others. b. The more studies that are conducted and the more closely these studies are analyzed, the more evident it becomes that adolescents choose to follow neither parents nor friends exclusively. i. In many instances, parents and friends are quite alike, so the peer group serves to reinforce rather than violate parental values. ii. Some teenagers are relatively more influenced by peer and others by parents. c. Certain aspects of adolescent lives are distinguishable from U.S. adult culture because in these areas, adolescents can exercise control and make their own decisions. Such matters as styles of dress, tastes in music, language, preference of popular movie and recording stars, dating customs and practices, and behavior at youth hangouts are particular to the adolescent subculture, and sometimes may even run counter to adult preferences. d. Two especially notable areas of adolescent-adult disagreement are drugs and sexual behavior. i. The primary reason adolescents and adults disagree in these matters is the cultural change has been so rapid and so great that youthful behavior is different from adult values. For example, sexual attitudes of adolescents are more liberal than the sexual attitudes of adults. .

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II.

III.

IV.

e. Eventually, as adolescents age and become adults, many aspects of youth culture are absorbed into mainstream adult society.

Adolescent Societies A. Formal adolescent societies primarily include groups of in-school youths. Linkages with peers are determined by whether adolescents are enrolled in school, which school they attend, and which student organizations they join. There are also out-ofschool religious or youth groups.

B. Informal adolescent societies generally describe loosely structured groups of out-ofschool youths who get together socially but who have little opportunity to participate in a formally structured network of social relationships.

Formal Systems A. Formal Academic Subsystem 1.

Adolescents are involved in a formal academic subsystem shaped by the school administration, faculty, curriculum, classrooms, grades, and rules.

2.

In this system, seniors outrank freshmen, and the honor roll students outrank the D students.

3.

The degree to which students subscribe to this academic ranking varies according to gender, neighborhood, and ethnicity.

B. The Activities Subsystem 1.

Most youths are involved in a semiformal activities subsystem, which includes all sponsored organizations and activities such as athletics, drama, and departmental clubs.

2.

Each group has a prestige ranking in the eyes of the students, which conveys a certain status rating to its members.

3.

There are also groups that meet outside of school, such as church-based groups.

4.

Students who participate in structured extracurricular activities tend to do better in school than those who do not. a. The self-confidence that comes from higher self-esteem may spill over into other areas of endeavor. b. Participants must develop time management skills that help them juggle all of their responsibilities. c. Involvement in extracurricular activities puts adolescents in the company of high-quality peers.

5.

More students participate in athletics than in any other activity. a. Positive benefits associated with athletic involvement are not quite as clear as the positive benefits of other types of extracurricular activities.

The Informal System A. This is the only subsystem unencumbered by adult sponsorship.

B. It includes cliques 1.

Cliques are relatively small, tightly knit groups of three to ten friends who spend considerable and often exclusive time with each other.

2.

The clique is the most prevalent and important friendship structure for adolescents.

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3.

V.

VI.

Cliques are characterized by members being similar to one another in age, gender, race/ethnicity, and social status, as well as in the types of interest and activities of the members.

4.

Cliques, especially female cliques, have a very definite status hierarchy.

5.

The high-status members ridicule outsiders and low-status members to keep them in line.

6.

High-status members also determine who is permitted to join the clique.

7.

Not everyone belongs to a clique; fewer than half of adolescents do. About 30% are liaisons.

8.

Liaisons are individuals who have friends from several different cliques but belong to none.

C. Schools also contain crowds 1.

A crowd is larger than a clique, often having about 20 members.

2.

Crowds are loose associations of cliques.

The Darker Side of Peer Interactions: Bullying A. Bullying is unprovoked aggressive behavior that is intended to hurt another.

B. It is usually repeated over and over again, and stems from a perceived power difference between the bully and his or her victim.

C. It is common in schools.

D. Victims of bullies are often insecure, quiet, and shy.

E. Bullying has major effect on the victims. They may begin to avoid school, become depressed, and attempt or complete suicide.

F. Bullies, especially male bullies, are often poor students who have cold, rejecting authoritarian parents. A minority of bullies are also victims.

G. Effective intervention: 1.

All students must be actively involved, not just the bullies and victims.

2.

Teachers must participate.

3.

Fair, school-wide policies must be enforced.

4.

The best programs get parents and other members of the community involved.

5.

The specific motivations for bullying each individual school must be addressed.

6.

The efforts must be continued over time.

Friendship A. The need for close friends becomes crucial during adolescence.

B. Adolescents now turn to their peers to find the support formerly provided by their families.

C. Having good friends is related to increased self-esteem, whereas having abusive “friends” is related to low self-esteem.

D. Early adolescents form relationships with others based on common interests.

E. As they grow older, they desire closer, caring relationships that involve sharing mature affection, problems, and their most personal thoughts.

F. One of the reasons friendships are crucial is that adolescents are insecure and anxious about themselves.

1.

They lack personality definition and secure identities.

2.

From friends, they learn the necessary personal and social skills and societal definitions that help them become part of the larger adult world.

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G. As they get older, adolescent self-disclosure to friends increases and becomes greatest among older adolescents.

H. Females of all ages exhibit greater emotional disclosure to both parents and peers than do males.

I. Loneliness 1.

One of the greatest detractors from happiness is loneliness.

2.

Adolescent boys appear to have greater problems with loneliness than girls, probably because they have problems expressing their feelings.

3.

Adolescents are lonely for a variety of reasons. a. Some have trouble knowing how to relate to others b. Some have a poor self-image and feel very vulnerable to criticism. c. Some have a history of victimization so they mistrust peers. d. Some feel a lack of support from parents, which makes it harder to make friends.

4.

Youths are lonelier than children or adults, possibly because youth culture emphasizes that being alone is awful.

5.

Lonely youth are no less bright, good looking, or athletic than non-lonely youth.

6.

Adolescents cope with their loneliness in different ways. a. It is important for adolescents to develop strategies to help them deal with bouts of loneliness in positive, productive ways.

J. Family and Peer Relationships 1.

The ability to form close friendships is partly learned in the family.

2.

There is a significant correlation between relationships with parents and adolescents’ social adjustments. a. Adolescents who had health secure attachments have intrinsic trust in others, and so relate warmly to others. b. Adolescents who have never developed healthy attachment to their parents are rigid and hostile in their dealings with peers.

3.

Asian American parents are less likely than African American and Latino parents to encourage their children to develop close friendships K. Age Changes in Early Adolescent Friendships 1.

The need for companionship causes young adolescents to choose a best friend, almost always of the same sex.

2.

Usually this best friend is from a similar socioeconomic, racial, and home background; from the same neighborhood, school, and school grade; of the same age and with numerous interests, values, and friends in common.

3.

Friends rarely coerce each other into doing things. Rather they provide information, give or withhold approval, and are respected models for each other.

4.

Early adolescent friendships are intense, emotional, and sometimes stormy.

5.

Although the rigid single-sexed structure of friendships breaks down during adolescence, adolescents continue to have predominantly same-sex friends. a. Intimacy truly begins to distinguish friendships between males and females. b. Adolescent girls report that they disclose more than boys do. .

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c. Boys believe that they will be teased if they disclose much to their friends. d. Adolescent girls are more likely to turn to their friends for emotional support than boys are.

6.

Friendships become more stable as adolescents move through adolescence.

Group Acceptance and Popularity A. As their number of acquaintances broadens, adolescents become increasingly aware of their need to belong to a group.

B. By mid-adolescence, the goal toward which boys and girls strive is acceptance by members of a clique or crowd they strongly admire.

C. What Does it Take to be Popular?

1.

When adolescents refer to the popular kids, they mean the socially dominant leaders who are the social center of the school. These adolescents have perceived popularity rather than sociometric popularity (being liked due to possessing many prosocial behaviors).

2.

Teens with perceived popularity are usually physically attractive.

3.

They are fashionable and look good.

4.

Everyone knows who they are, and they are considered hot by members of the opposite sex.

5.

Two tools popular adolescents often employ to hold onto their high status are relational and reputational aggression. a. Relational aggression involves using your friends to keep another in line. b. Reputational aggression involves spreading lies and rumors about another to damage his or her social standing.

D. Routes to Social Acceptance 1.

Conformity a. One way the individual can try to be liked by a particular group is to be like other members of the group. When a fad is in fashion, every person in the group adopts it. Those who are different are excluded.

2.

Achievement a. Another way of finding group acceptance and approval is through achievement in sports, club membership, recreational activities, or academic subjects. b. The recognition and acceptance the individual achieves depends on the status accorded to the activity by the peer group.

3.

Participation a. Joining in-school clubs and participating in a variety of out-of-school social activities are other ways the adolescent has of finding social acceptance.

4.

Physical Attractiveness a. Physical attractiveness influences popularity. b. The older they become, the more adolescents emphasize interpersonal factors and de-emphasize achievement and physical characteristics in friendship bonds.

5.

Deviance

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a. Although it might seem that antisocial adolescents would be incapable of being good friends, this is not true. i. Friendships among deviant youths are frequently quite close.

VIII.

Heterosociality A. In the process of psychological development, children pass through three stages: 1.

Autosociality: The first stage, autosociality, is the early preschool period of development in which the child’s chief pleasure and satisfaction is himself or herself. This is seen in the parallel play of most 2-year-olds.

2.

Homosociality: The second stage, homosociality is the primary school period of development in which the child’s chief pleasure is in being with others of the same sex, not for sexual purposes but for friendship and companionship.

3.

Heterosociality: The final stage, Heterosociality, is the adolescent and adult stage of development in which the individual’s pleasure and friendships are found with those of both sexes.

B. With sexual maturity comes a biological and emotional awareness of the opposite sex, a decline in hostile attitudes, and the beginning of emotional responses.

C. Overall, the average age for choosing opposite-sex companionship has been declining.

D. A boyfriend/girlfriend relationship at early stages may not be reciprocal, and the object of affection may not be aware of the love affair.

E. With advancing age, however, expected and actual reciprocity begin to converge.

F. Gay and lesbian teens must learn to pursue same-sex romantic relationships.

1.

Due to prejudice and increased fear of rejection, gay and lesbian youth often find doing so even more difficult than negotiating cross-sex romantic attachments.

G. Adolescent Love and Crushes 1.

Love and romance are common interests for adolescents.

2.

Most American teens fall in love for the first time when in early adolescence.

3.

Romantic involvement can foster the identity search and help adolescents break away emotionally from their parents.

H. Loss of Love 1.

The loss of a romantic relationship constitutes a major life change, and adolescents are often devastated when a boyfriend or girlfriend leaves them.

2.

Parents and other adults commonly underestimate the grief that an adolescent feels over a breakup.

3.

Experiencing a romantic breakup is among the most common causes of adolescent depression, suicide, and murder.

4.

Adolescents are especially vulnerable to loss because their egos are still evolving and their range of coping skill may not be fully developed.

5.

The following techniques are things adults can do to help adolescents survive such a loss. a. Help them to view the intense feelings as normal. b. Encourage them to express feelings and thoughts. c. Teach them about the process of grief. d. Encourage them to rely on a network of family and friends, those who will accept their pain and not offer comforting clichés.

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e. Give them permission to slow down and allow the healing process to begin. f. Encourage a balance between the need for connectedness and the need for withdrawal. g. Encourage them to take care of themselves physically through rest, diet, and exercise. h. Suggest they put away mementos. i. Help them view themselves as survivors. j. Help them to understand that there will be ups and downs and to anticipate sadness occasionally. k. Suggest that they postpone major decisions and avoid other significant changes in their lives. l. Encourage them to find new ways to enjoy the extra time and new freedom.

IX.

X.

Dating A. Dating is not a universal phenomenon. Many societies actually prohibit dating or even close premarital contact with members of the opposite sex.

B. Dating as American adolescents practice it by freely and independently choosing romantic partners and having no sense that the experience will culminate in marriage is a recent cultural custom.

C. Reason adolescents date: 1.

Recreation: One major purpose of dating is to have fun.

2.

Companionship without the responsibility of marriage 3.

Status 4.

Socialization 5.

Sexual experimentation or satisfaction 6.

Achieving intimacy 7.

Mate selection D. The Development of Dating 1.

Adolescents move from having primarily or exclusively same-sex friends to belonging to mixed-sex groups.

2.

Next some members of these mixed-sex groups begin to date and be together in these mixed-sex groups.

3.

Finally, adolescents pair off and the pairs go their separate ways and spend a good deal of time by themselves.

E. Violence 1.

Physical, emotional, and sexual aggression is all too common when adolescents date.

2.

Males report being shoved, kicked, or pushed.

3.

Females report being forced to engage in unwanted sexual activities.

Nonmarital Cohabitation A. Incidence 1.

The rise in nonmarital sex has been accompanied by an increase in cohabitation.

2.

More than half of young adults will live with someone prior to marriage. .

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B. Meanings Attached to Cohabitation 1.

Arrangements without commitment a. They simply want to live, sleep, and have fun together. They are very good friends and lovers but want no permanent, intimate commitment.

2.

Intimate involvements with emotional commitment a. The majority of cohabiting college couples place themselves in this category. Monogamy is the rule and while there is a strong emotional commitment, there are no long range plans for the future or for marriage.

3.

Living together as a prelude to marriage a. In this type of relationship, the couple has already committed to legal marriage. They are engaged, formally or informally, but find no reason to live apart while they are waiting to be married.

4.

Living together as a trial marriage a. The couple decides to live together to test their relationship to discover if they are compatible and want to enter into legal marriage.

5.

Living together as an alternative to marriage a. This arrangement has been called companionate marriage, a covenant of intimacy, or a nonlegal voluntary association. It is intended not as a prelude to marriage but as a substitute for it.

C. Cohabitation versus Dating 1.

The benefits of cohabitation include convenience, cost-sharing, increased time together, the opportunity for meaningful interaction, and enhanced sex life.

2.

The downsides to cohabitation are mismatched expectations, arguments about dividing chores and sharing resources, the potential for feeling used, and lack of privacy.

D. Cohabitation versus Marriage 1.

People who cohabit are more prone to split up than are married couples.

2.

Cohabiting individuals are less happy than married people.

3.

One similarity between married couples and cohabiting couples is their likelihood of having children.

E. Effects on Subsequent Marriage 1.

Compared to couples who do not cohabit prior to marriage, those who do score significantly lower on measures of marital quality, have more extramarital affairs, and have a significantly higher risk of marital dissolution at any given marital duration.

Adolescent Marriage A. Trends and Incidence 1.

The median age of first marriage for men is 27.1 and for women is 26.0.

2.

Even so, some youths, especially girls, still marry young.

B. Profile of the Young Married 1.

Very young married couples are usually from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

C. Reasons for Adolescent Marriage 1.

The number-one reason for early marriage is pregnancy.

2.

Adolescents often hold very magical views of marriage.

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3.

XII.

Marriage is sometimes used as a means of escape from an unhappy home situation, lack of school achievement, personal insecurities or inadequacies, or unsatisfactory social adjustment with one’s peers.

D. Adjustments and Problems 1.

The less mature are less likely to make a wise choice of a mate.

2.

The difficult and complex adjustments needed to solve the problems of marriage are not handled well by immature couples.

3.

Most youths have not yet become responsible enough for marriage.

4.

One of the major problems of early marriage is financial worry.

Material Concerns of Adolescent Culture A. Adolescents as a Consumer Force 1.

Teenagers have more disposable income than ever before.

2.

The majority of adolescents report getting money from their parents.

3.

A large minority of teens works at any given time.

4.

Teenagers spend the most money in an average week on clothing and accessories and make plans to purchase MP3 players, cell phones, digital cameras, used cars, contact lenses, DVD burners, car stereos, video cameras, sunglasses, and digital video recorders.

B. Clothing 1.

One of the most noticeable aspects of adolescent culture is the preoccupation with clothing.

2.

Clothing is an important means by which adolescents discover and express their identity.

3.

Clothing and appearance are expression of themselves as they strive to control the impressions that they make on others.

4.

By choosing which of the current popular brands to wear, teens make a statement about who they are and how they would like to be seen.

5.

Clothing and hairstyles have been used by some youths as an expression of rebellion against particular mores and values in adult society.

6.

For adolescents, the most important function of clothing is to assure their identity and sense of belonging with peer groups.

7.

One function of adolescent clothing is to indicate the clique to which an adolescent belongs.

8.

The importance of clothing wanes over the course of adolescence.

C. Automobiles 1.

The automobile is a status symbol. a. Owning a car is becoming ever more common among high school students.

2.

The automobile is a means of freedom and mobility. a. A car allows adolescents the opportunity to get away from home. In addition, a car means you don’t have to rely on the school bus.

3.

For a number of youths, an automobile has become a hobby.

4.

The automobile has become a symbol of glamour and sexuality, or romantic conquest and acceptability.

D. Cell Phones

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1.

XIII.

Adolescents love to use cell phones. They can spend literally hours and hours on the phone talking about every conceivable subject.

2.

In 2008 77% of all American teenagers owned their own cell phone.

3.

One benefit of cell phones is the sense of security they provide both adolescents and their parents. a. Parents are often willing to give their adolescents more freedom.

Paradoxically, adolescents have given up a certain amount of true autonomy for this increased freedom.

E. Computers and the Internet 1.

Virtually all adolescents have access to computers and the Internet.

2.

Internet use has become ubiquitous.

3.

Internet allows adolescents to interact with strangers, some of whom may become friends or part of one’s support network. a. Interacting with strangers is not all good.

4.

Due to its anonymity, the Internet offers unprecedented opportunity to experiment with one’s identity. a. You can present yourself in different ways with minimal real life consequences to see how others react to you. b. You can pretend to be things you are not and no one can know that you are not being truthful.

Nonmaterial Concerns of Adolescent Culture A. Slang 1.

Slang is a shorthand way of expressing a concept that would take longer to express using conventional language.

2.

Using slang correctly identifies one as a member of a subculture, just as clothing does.

3.

Using slang also provides teens a certain degree of privacy.

B. Music 1.

Music is an important part of adolescent culture.

2.

Most studies reveal that adolescents spend somewhat more than 3 hours/day listening to music.

3.

Strasburger identified four reasons for youths listening to music: a. Music can help one relax and improve one’s mood. b. Music can enhance a social event. c. Music can help pass the time and relieve boredom. d. Music can allow one to express one’s feelings about various issues and can provide something or someone to identify with, 4.

Although different genres of music emphasize different themes, in mainstream rock, pop, and country and western music, songs about love predominate.

5.

In addition to love and sexual themes, popular music sometimes discusses the problems that teenagers confront. a.

Rock Music i. When rock music was invented in the 1950s, it was the music of youth. Prior to this time, adults and adolescents listened to the same types of music.

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ii. Although much rock consisted (and continues to consist) of rather gentle love songs, some of it extolled the virtues of sex, drug use, and rebellion. b.

Rap Music i. Rap has been in existence for about 30 years and its hallmark is its spoken lyrics, which are accompanied by a rhythmic beat. ii. Rap music is now by far the most popular music with U.S. adolescents. iii. With its roots in African and Caribbean music, rap was invented in New York City. iv. As rap became more established, it diversified. v. Gangsta rap became violent, sexist, and homophobic. c.

The Effects of Antisocial Music i. The principles of social learning theory suggest that being exposed to music with antisocial themes, especially when performed by one’s heroes or idols, will be harmful. ii. There is clearly a correlation between preference for antisocial music and alienation. iii. No study to date has been demonstrated a direct causal link between the preference for songs with antisocial lyrics and harmful behavior. iv. Similarly there is correlational data showing that adolescents who listen to music that contain sexually degrading lyrics (but not sexual, non-degrading lyrics) are more likely to engage in early sexual intercourse.

C. Music Videos 1.

With the advent of MTV in 1981, an immensely popular new form of entertainment was spawned.

2.

Today’s adolescents do not spend nearly as much time watching music videos as those in the 1980s.

3.

Targeted at teenagers and containing more violence and sex than conventional television, the music video industry attracted a notable group of critics.

4.

The U.S. Senate held hearings in 1985 to examine the rock music industry and its effect on youthful consumers, but at the time, there was insufficient research to support the allegation of the critics or to allay the anxieties of concerned parents.

5.

There are good reasons, however, why music videos have the potential to affect youths more than any other popular medium. a. Music can evoke very strong feelings; the mood-altering effects of music make people more susceptible to behavioral and attitudinal changes. b. It is well known that a combined audio and visual presentation enhances learning and has a greater impact on attitudes and behavior than music alone. c. Rock music has always contained rebellious, anti-social, and sexually provocative messages.

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d. Concept music videos are frequently interspersed with unconnected segments of violence. e. Some research reveals that a relatively short exposure to music videos can result in desensitization to violence and an increased acceptance of socially violent behavior. f. The family environment is an important moderator of the impact of music videos on youth.

Teaching Tips Refer to “Mean Girls” as you teach friendships, subsystems, and cliques.

When introducing subcultures, remind students of the historical context of Prohibition and flappers. Point out also that this subculture was one of women only and that women have never been looked upon in quite the same way again.

As you teach this unit, invite students to recall their best friend and their first romantic relationship. These are often pleasant memories that are readily available and can be incorporated into their study of the material.

Classroom Activities Have students work in pairs or small groups to write a script of the typical conversation between males and between females. Have students share them with the class. Are these scripts representative of the text’s information about levels of intimacy and topics of conversation?

Invite students to consider and discuss which is more important, the content of conversation or the frequency of conversations. Ask the males in your classroom to recall when or if they understood that it was no longer acceptable to cry in public or to be excessively emotional in public.

Show excerpts from the film, “Mean Girls.” Use the film to discuss popularity and relational aggression.

Assign students to a local mall on a Friday night. They should observe adolescents for about two hours and return to class with a written observation to be shared during class time. Have them observe styles of dress, group behavior, etc. They should also go into several different stores and notice if the type of adolescent in the store fits a particular subculture. For example, is there a notable difference between adolescents in The Gap and those in Hot Topic?

Ask students to bring CDs to class to share the types of music currently popular with adolescents. The CDs might be theirs or belong to their children or other adolescents they know.

Listen for themes in the music and discuss them in class.

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Research Topics and Essay Questions Discuss the adolescent identity process in relationship to friendship and coupling. How does romantic involvement affect identity development? What happens to identity during the throes of early love and intimacy? How do adolescents negotiate dependency and interdependency?

Discuss cohabitation. Include reasons adolescents cohabit and the adjustment problems they face. What impact does cohabitation have on marriage? Which adolescents are more likely than others to cohabit?

Discuss the impact of music on adolescent development.

Key Questions 1.

List and explain five different meanings attached to the cohabitation decision.

2.

List several adjustment problems faced by cohabiting couples and explain how these compare to those encountered by married couples.

3 Explain how cohabitation affects later marriage.

4.

List six different causes or reasons for early marriage.

5.

List and explain some common problems of early marriages.

6.

How does early marriage impact educational attainment?

7.

Explain why many professional organizations are critical of the music videos that adolescents watch.

Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Cliques. (2000) 30 minutes, Insight Media. This program explores the various cliques that exist in schools; examines the reasons for being part of a group; and reveals that kids in all groups, including the popular girls and loners, experience harassment and feel misunderstood. The program features interviews with “loners” who explain how they reach out to make friends and shows how stereotyping creates rifts between groups and often leads to cruelty and mistreatment of individuals.

Real Life Teens: Peer Pressure. (2001) 21 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

This program is designed to help teens feel comfortable discussing issues surrounding the topic of peer pressure. Subjects covered include the positive effects of peer pressure; the negative effects of peer pressure; how to avoid negative peer pressure; where most peer pressure situations occur; and where to turn for help.

Cyber Bullying: Cruel Intentions. (2006) 41 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

This ABC News program reports on how cell phones, digital cameras, and personal websites encourage and amplify the frequent cruelty of teen behavior.

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Boys Will Be Boys, But What about Girls? Childhood Aggression and Gender. (2008) 50 minutes, Insight Media. Featuring Nicki Crick, this program explores relational aggression and questions why this form of bullying is highly prevalent among girls and young women. It combines entertaining vintage footage from Candid Camera with research findings to explore three forms of relational aggression: manipulating friendships, excluding peers, and spreading rumors to instigate rejection.

Real Life Teens: Lessons of Love. (2001) 21 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

This program can help teens cope with the experiences and complex lessons of early dating and opens up the definition of dating to match the reality teens face today. Subjects covered include how to define a “date”; choosing who to date; what to do before the first date; dating outside of one’s social clique; emotions and dating; the first date; sexual intimacy; dating options; safety and dating; and dating and life lessons.

Healthy Relationships. (2000) 33 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Emotional abuse, fits of jealousy, and the use of physical force have no place in a healthy romantic or friendly relationship. This enlightening program offers teenagers practical approaches to nurturing healthy behavior in themselves and in others. Experts offer guidelines for dealing with specific dating or friendship problems and for handling peer pressure, which often leads to poor choices in teen relationships.

You Oughta Know: Teens Talk about Dating and Abuse. (1997) 24 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. In this straightforward program, a youth relationships facilitator and a diverse group of teenagers speak out about abusive relationships: how to identify them; what causes them; why, once in them, couples often try to make them work; and what should be done about them.

Real Life Teens: The Dark Side of Dating. (2001) 19 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Dating should be a positive and enriching experience. Unfortunately, dating can also have a dark side. This program discusses negative and dangerous aspects of dating.

Date Rape: A Violation of Trust. (2008) 29 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

To the average student, the definitions of date rape and sexual assault are notoriously unclear.

Use this program to eliminate the confusion so young adults understand exactly what these things are—and the attitudes and biases that typically accompany them—before anyone gets hurt.

Growing Up Fast. (2004) 25 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. In this engrossing documentary, filmmaker and author Joanna Lipper follows six teen mothers and several young fathers through their last months of high school. This film goes beyond explaining the difficulties of early parenthood to reveal the compassionate strength, resilience, self-awareness, and insight of these adolescents as they look back on past decisions with enhanced understanding of their consequences.

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The Summer of Love: 1967. (2007) 32 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. The “Summer of Love” is remembered today through a haze of nostalgia, hindsight, and hype. But how was the emergence of the youth counterculture actually covered at the time? In this program, selections from the NBC News archives offer an insightful look at the beginning of a cultural shock wave that is still being felt and debated today.

Deadheads: An American Subculture. 28 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. The program examines the operation of the Deadhead subculture from within. It examines the kind of people that are attracted to this group and some reasons for this attraction.

Generation Next: Speak Up. Be Heard. (2007) 58 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Journalist Judy Woodruff takes viewers across the United States to examine the lives of 16- to 25-year-olds—a demographic that many are calling “Generation Next.” The program demystifies an age group that is hooked on technology, generally supportive of gay rights and racial differences, but also swamped in debt and facing uncertain career paths.

Generation Next 2.0. (2007) 58 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. What distinguishes the members of Generation Next from their predecessors? This program—a sequel to the celebrated public television documentary Generation Next—looks at the beliefs, concerns, and goals that galvanize young people today.

Merchants of Cool. (2001) 56 minutes, Insight Media. This PBS program explores the world of marketing popular culture to teenagers and shows how merchants of cool sift through reams of market research data; conduct endless surveys and focus groups; and comb streets, schools, and malls to determine what will snare the attention of a market segment worth an estimated $300 billion a year.

Paris Hilton, Inc.: The Selling of Celebrity. (2007) 44 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Perhaps the best example of paparazzi-aided self-promotion, Paris Hilton has almost single-handedly refocused Big Media’s editorial priorities. This program studies the cultural and technological forces that have shaped the modern tabloid industry and propelled Hilton’s bizarre ascent to worldwide stardom.

In Brands We Trust. (2002) 52 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. How did branding evolve into a global shadow force that packages lifestyles, commodifies personal values, and stands in for cornerstone cultural institutions? In this provocative program, scholars astutely address the concept of branding, its history, its impact on youth, key visionaries, and the convergence of brands and culture.

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Web Sites Peer Relationships http://www.focusas.com/PeerInfluence.html Teen Friendships http://www.youngwomenshealth.org/friendship.html Adolescent Dating: What Makes a Good Relationship http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/surviving-your-childsadolescence/200905/adolescent-dating-what-makes-good-relationship Teen Dating Violence http://www.acadv.org/dating.html Youth Culture http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_alt_category.html?category_id=348 Information about Cults http://www.religioustolerance.org/cultmenu.htm National Association for Media Literacy Education http://www.amlainfo.org Computers and the Internet http://www.youngmedia.org.au/mediachildren/06_internet.htm The Media Awareness Network http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/index.cfm

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Chapter 11 Sexual Behaviors I.

Changing Attitudes and Behavior A. Sexual ethics in the United States have changed greatly since the late 1960s and early 1970s, the time of the so-called sexual revolution.

B. Research documents the increasing sexual permissiveness of youths, especially of girls, and the fact that society now is pluralistic as far as sexual morality is concerned.

1. People now tolerate and accept not one standard of sexual behavior but many.

C. Along with increased sexual activity have come increases in sexually transmitted diseases, abortions, and unwed pregnancies.

D. Youths have the same sexual drives and urges today that other generations have had, but the difference is that these urges are being constantly stimulated and the guidelines for their control or expression are less clearly defined.

1. Premarital Sexual Behavior a. Overall, today’s adolescents are having sex earlier than their grandparents but not their parents. b. Since the average of marriage is now in the mid-20s, few Americans are waiting until they marry to have sex 2. Correlates a. Age i.

The older they are, the more likely adolescents are to have had premarital sexual intercourse. b. Race/Ethnicity i.

Other things being equal, African Americans report a higher incidence of premarital sex than do Caucasian Americans. c. Religion i.

A large number of adolescents who indicate they are abstinent claim to be so due to religious reasons. d. Boyfriend or Girlfriend i.

Adolescents who report having a boyfriend or girlfriend are more likely to have premarital sexual intercourse than those who do not. e. Young Age at First Intercourse i.

Those you are younger at first intercourse tend to engage in more sexual behavior later in adolescence. f. Age at Puberty i.

The earlier puberty is reached, the earlier first intercourse occurs. g. Parental Behaviors and Relationships i.

Parents who have warm, close relationships with their adolescent children have offspring who remain abstinent, delay intercourse, and have fewer sexual partners. ii. Parents who regulate and monitor their children’s behavior, such as setting rules and enforcing curfews, are less likely to have sexually active teens.

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iii.

II.

Parents who speak clearly to their children about sexual values have children who delay intercourse and have fewer sexual partners. h. Peer Standards i.

Adolescent peers provide more positive, affirming messages about sexual activity than do parents. i. Siblings i.

There is a link between an older sibling’s sexual behavior and the younger sibling’s sexual behavior. j. Gender i.

Girls are more likely than boys to link sex and love. k. Problem Behaviors i.

Delinquency, drug use, and promiscuity are correlated with premarital sexual intercourse. l. Educational Expectations i.

The higher adolescents’ educational expectations, the less likely they are to have premarital sexual intercourse. m. Socioeconomic Status i.

There is a higher incidence of early sexual intercourse among youths of low socioeconomic status.

3. Other Mutual Sexual Behaviors a. Some adolescent virgins report masturbating a partner and engaging in oral sex.

4. Masturbation a. Commonly practiced among males and females, married and unmarried. b. A greater percentage of males than females masturbate. c. Normal part of growing up and does not have any harmful physical or mental effects. i.

The only ill effect may come from guilt, fear, or anxiety.

Sex and Its Meaning A. What Are Adolescents Seeking?

1. Adolescent sexuality is often driven by emotional needs that have nothing to do with sex.

B. Sexual Pluralism 1. Society accepts not one but a number of standards of sexual behavior. a. Friends with benefits: friends with whom one has sex; there is no implied commitment and no intent to move the relationship into a romantic partnering.

C. Gender Differences in Sexual Ethics 1.

Males generally accept sex without love more readily than females.

2.

Women more than men emphasize a desire for emotional closeness.

D. Sexual Aggression 1.

Distressingly common.

2.

Forcible rape more commonly experienced by females than males.

3.

Rates higher when coercive, as well as forcible, rape is counted. .

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4. Rates are higher still when unwanted sexual activity is considered.

Contraceptives and Sexually Transmitted Diseases A. Use of Contraceptives among Adolescents 1. Recent figures indicate that almost 96% of adolescent girls use contraception at least sporadically.

2. The most common contraceptive method used by American adolescents is the condom. Next most common is the birth control pill. Withdrawal, an unreliable method, is the next most popular method.

3. Condoms are being used increasingly by sexually active teenagers, probably due to the fear of contracting the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). The use is, however, sporadic.

4. An individual’s preferred birth control method is a function of race/ethnicity, age, and sexual orientation.

B. Why Contraceptives Are Not Used 1. Some are misinformed about what are supposedly safe times to have sex and the likelihood of pregnancy.

2. Many do not believe pregnancy will happen to them 3. A small minority want to get pregnant.

4. They hesitate to obtain help for fear of parental disapproval.

C. Should Adolescents Have Contraceptives?

1. Supreme Court affirmed that no state could legally restrict the distribution of contraceptives to minors, that nonprescription devices could be dispensed by those other than registered pharmacists, and that such devices could be openly displayed and advertised.

2. Clinics do not have to notify parents before prescribing contraceptives for adolescents, regardless of age.

3. Question remains controversial a. Some adults are worried that the availability of contraceptives will increase teen promiscuity. b. Availability has almost no influence on whether youths have sex, but it may be a major determinant as to whether a particular girl gets pregnant.

D. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 1. Sexually active teens are at risk of contracting a sexually transmitted disease due to biological vulnerability and a variety of risk-taking behaviors.

2. 50% of the new cases of STDs contracted by persons in this country each year are contracted by individuals 15-24 years of age.

3. HPV (human papiloma virus) is the most commonly contracted STD. a. Sometimes HPV causes genital warts. b. HPV is associated with cervical cancer.

4. The second most likely STD for an adolescent to contract is trichomoniasis.

5. Adolescent girls are more at risk for STDs than boys.

6. Many STDs do not always cause symptoms. Individuals frequently have STDs but do not know it.

E. AIDS

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IV.

1. AIDS is the sixth-leading cause of death among Americans 15 to 24 years old. a. Most young adults who have AIDS most likely acquired the virus during their teenage years.

2. Causation and Diagnosis of AIDS a. AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). b. When HIV gets into the bloodstream, it attacks T cells. c. The immune system weakens. d. A person is considered to have AIDS when symptoms develop. e. The incubation period for AIDS may be from a few years to up to 10 years. f. As the virus gradually destroys the body’s immune system, other infections invade the body. It is these secondary diseases that eventually cause death.

3. Treatment and Transmission of HIV/AIDS a. To date, there is no cure for AIDS. b. Most successful treatment is HAART, which stands for highly active anti-retroviral therapy. i. Greatly reduce the virus’s ability to replicate itself. ii. Can cause major side effects. c. Disease may be transmitted from an infected mother to her unborn child, to her child at the time of birth, and after birth through breastfeeding. d. HIV can also be acquired by contact with infected blood or blood products, usually through needle sharing. e. Virus can be passed between individuals engaging in either heterosexual or homosexual activity in which body fluids are exchanged, especially blood and semen. f. AIDS cannot be contracted by casual contact.

Unwed Pregnancy and Abortion A. Incidence of Teen Pregnancy 1. With the exception of the Russian Federation, the United States has the highest rate of teen pregnancy among industrialized societies.

B. Causation Theories 1. American teens are no more likely to be sexually active than European teens.

Thus, differences in pregnancy rates are not due to higher rates of intercourse.

2. American adolescents are less likely to use contraceptives than adolescents in other countries. When they do use contraceptives, they are less likely to employ the most reliable methods.

3. The poverty rate is higher in the United States than in many developed countries. Poverty is associated with a higher pregnancy rate.

4. The United States government provides fewer health-care services to middleclass citizens. American teens do not uniformly have access to free or lowcost prescription contraceptives.

5. Primary care physicians in the United States are less likely to concern themselves with birth control. American adolescent girls must often go to a gynecologist or separate clinic to receive prescription birth control.

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6. Youths in other countries are more likely to receive assistance from outside sources as they make the transition from adolescence to adulthood.

7. Parental leave policies in other nations provide incentives to postpone childbearing.

8. Attitudes toward adolescent sexual behavior are more accepting in many European nations.

9. American society is more tolerant of adolescent childbearing.

10. In contrast to the abstinence-only approach to sex education adopted by many American school districts, comprehensive sex education is favored in other nations.

C. Pregnancy Outcomes 1. The adolescent can choose to have and keep her baby.

2. The adolescent can elect to have an abortion.

3. The adolescent might miscarry.

4. The adolescent can have the baby and then give it up for adoption.

D. Adolescent Mothers 1. 97% of adolescent mothers decide to keep their babies.

2. Adolescent girls choose motherhood for several reasons. a. To have someone to love b. For the young mother to fulfill herself through her child c. To cement her relationship with the father of her child 3. The single mother who decides to keep her baby may become entrapped in a downward spiral consisting of failure to continue her education, repeated pregnancies, failure to establish a stable family life, and dependence on others for support.

4. A new perspective is that although it is true that teenage mothers fare poorly, motherhood is not the causal reason for their poor outcomes.

E. Adolescent Fathers 1. In many ways, adolescent boys who become fathers are demographically similar to adolescent girls who become mothers.

2. Many teenage fathers say they want to maintain contact with and to support their children and the mothers of their children. But in reality, contact steadily decreases. a. Fewer than 40% were living with their child and the child’s mother when that child was one year of age (Larson et al.,1996) b. Only about ¼ had been living constantly together as a family unit since the child had been born.

3. Teenage fathers are usually poor and frequently have problems that predate the pregnancy.

4. Professionals need to increase attempts to assist teenage fathers. Teenage fathers respond favorably to appropriate outreach initiatives.

F. Abortion 1. Teenagers obtain approximately 20% of the abortions performed in the United States.

2. The higher the girl’s income level, the more likely she is to choose abortion.

3. A large majority of parents support the daughter’s decision of abortion.

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VI.

G. Adoption 1. Very few adolescent girls give up their baby for adoption.

Gay and Lesbian Youth A. Homosexuality refers to a sexual orientation in which one has a sexual interest in those of the same sex.

B. Homosexuality does not describe physical appearance, sex roles, or personality C. The American Psychiatric Association does not consider homosexuality a mental disorder.

D. Causation Theories 1. Biological Theories a. Genetic differences, exposure to atypical concentrations of prenatal sex hormones, and differences in brain structure can biologically influence sexual orientation.

2. Psychoanalytic Theories/Parenting Theories a. Traditionally, homosexuality was thought to be caused by problems in parent-child relationships in the family. b. There is little evidence that parents have much effect upon their children’s sexual orientation.

3. Social Learning Theories a. According to behavioral theories, psychological conditioning through reinforcement or punishment of early sexual thoughts, feelings, and behavior is what influences sexual preference.

E. Adjustment 1. Many gay and lesbian adolescents find it extremely difficult to come out to their parents.

2. They are at heightened risk for harassment and victimization in school, and males are at heightened risk for AIDS. 3. Homosexual teens are much more likely to be depressed and to attempt suicide.

Sex Knowledge and Sex Education A. Sources of Sex Information 1. 25% report siblings as a primary source of information 2. 20% report teachers 3. 12% report parents 4. 5% report relatives 5. About a third report other sources, e.g., friends, mass media B. The Role of Parents 1. Parents are an important source of transmission of values and attitudes and do have an influence on adolescent attitudes and behaviors. As far as providing formal sex education, many parents are deficient because: a. Some parents are embarrassed to discuss the subject, or they deal with it in negative ways. b. Some parents have difficulty overcoming the incest barrier between themselves and their adolescents. c. Some parents are uninformed and do not know how to explain sexuality to their children.

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d. Some parents are afraid that knowledge will lead to sexual experimentation; they do not tell their children because they want to keep them innocent. e. Some parents tell too little too late. f. Some parents set a negative example at home.

C. The Role of Schools 1. Majority of parents favor comprehensive sex education.

2. Schools have a responsibility for several reasons a. Family life and sex education are natural parts of numerous courses already offered to adolescents. b. Preparing youths for happy marriage and responsible parenthood is an important educational goal. c. The school is the only social institution that reaches all youths and therefore has a unique opportunity to reach youths who need family life and sex education the most. d. The school, as the professional educational institution, is or can be equipped to do a fine job.

3. Some individuals are opposed to sex education in the school because they believe talking about sex tacitly gives adolescents permission to engage in sexual behaviors. a. Research does not support this belief. Instead, research shows that sex education tends to decrease early intercourse.

D. Approaches to Sex Education 1. The most common policy teaches sex education using an abstinence-preferred model.

2. Another model is comprehensive sex education.

3. Increasingly common is the abstinence-only model, with 1/3 of school districts mandating it (even though it’s not what most parents want). a. The federal government earmarked $176 million to fund abstinenceonly programs.

Teaching Tips Remember this topic is embarrassing and often controversial. Be sensitive to cultural and religious differences in the classroom.

Key Questions 1. List and illustrate four sex education content categories.

2. List and describe three theories of homosexuality. Which one seems most plausible?

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Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Teen Sex. (2004) 46 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program seeks to understand how and why teens are rewriting the book on sexual mores. Adolescents ages 13 to 19 share their intimate views and concerns as they talk about peer pressure, double standards, the influence of the media, having intercourse, whether oral sex is sex, STDs, birth control, pregnancy, and whether they and their families are emotionally prepared to deal with all of this.

Silence Ain’t Sexy. (2008) 27 minutes, Insight Media. In this innovative program, actual teenagers discuss their personal sexual experiences, which range from abstinence, to sexual intercourse within committed relationships, to casual hook-ups. The DVD covers such topics as media messages, education, STDs, pregnancy, and personal regret.

Buying Into Sexy: The Sexing Up of Tweens. (2005) 26 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Ads targeting girls between the ages of 8 and 12 employ an increasing level of sexuality. Are advertisers responding to neo-feminist notions of “girl power” or are they leading girls toward harmful self-images? This program examines the trend by following a group of tween girls through their daily lives, recording their perceptions of fashion, celebrities, boys, and themselves.

Being Gay: Coming Out in the 21st Century. (2003) 25 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Today, while gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgenders are no longer forced to hide their sexual orientation, there is still prejudice and discrimination, which can make coming out a difficult decision. This program presents the accounts and stories of people who have recently taken the step of coming out.

Sexual Minority Adolescents. (2005) 50 minutes, Insight Media. Featuring experts and gay and lesbian youths, this program considers the gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) adolescent experience. It covers such topics as healthy GLB identity development and stressful aspects of GLB identification during adolescence.

Deadly Desires. (2004) 24 minutes, Insight Media. Explaining that one quarter of sexually active teenagers will contract a sexually transmitted disease, this DVD questions why teens are not taking a more proactive role in protecting themselves.

Real Life Teens: Lessons of Love. (2001) 21 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

This program can help teens cope with the experiences and complex lessons of early dating and opens up the definition of dating to match the reality teens face today.

Inside the Lives of Children Having Children. (2009) 42 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. As teen pregnancy rates rise in the U.S., this ABC News program follows four families coping with the day-to-day realities of the issue.

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Young Men As Fathers. (2001) 35 minutes, Insight Media. This program defines fatherhood, discusses myths and misconceptions, describes the implementation and maintenance of fatherhood programs for teens and young men, and explains how to build and maintain support systems. It examines the belief that children need both mothers and fathers.

3 girls i know: intimate stories of personal responsibility. (2004) 54 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This poignant documentary follows three teenage girls from varied ethnic backgrounds through explorations of sexuality, relationships, and HIV/AIDS.

Web Sites Teen Talk http://www.plannedparenthood.org/teen-talk/ Teen Sexuality http://teensexuality.org/ Sex, Etc. http://www.sexetc.org/ LGBTQ Youth Resource http://www.amplifyyourvoice.org/youthresource Parents, Families, & Friends of Lesbians and Gays http://www.pflag.org/ Resource Center for Adolescent Pregnancy Reduction http://etr.org/recapp/index.cfm?fuseaction=pages.home Sexuality Information for Teens http://www.planetahead.ca

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Chapter 12 Education and School I.

Trends in U.S. Education A. Traditionalist versus Progressives 1.

Traditionalists argue that the purpose of education is to teach the basics, English, science, math, history and foreign language; to increase student knowledge and intellectual powers.

2.

Progressives urge that the purpose of education is to prepare student for life: citizenship, home and family living, a vocation, physical health, gratifying use of leisure time, effective personality growth.

3.

The traditionalist-progressive debate has continued partly because of the insistence that education has an important role in reforming society and solving social problems.

B. Rise of Progressive Education 1.

Until the 1930s, traditionalism was the dominant emphasis in United States schools. Then came the Depression, which destroyed the job market for adolescents, so that many who would have gone to work stayed in school instead.

2.

John Dewey felt the classroom should be a laboratory of living, preparing students for life.

3.

Many schools introduced vocational and personal service courses, restricting academic courses to the college-preparatory program.

C. Sputnik and After 1.

The United States was shocked when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first space satellite, in the 1950s.

2.

Americans became obsessed with the failure of the schools to keep pace with the technological advances of the Soviet Union.

3.

Congress passed the National Defense Education Act and appropriated nearly $1 billion in federal aid to education, which supported the teaching of math, science, and foreign languages.

D. 1960s and 1970s 1.

By the mid-1960s, the cold war with the Soviet Union had abated.

2.

Major school legislation was passed, primarily to benefit poor children, as part of the Johnson administration’s War on Poverty.

3.

Educators claimed that school were not preparing young people for adult roles and that adolescents needed to spend more time in community and work settings.

4.

Academic programs gave way to career and experimental education so that adolescents could receive hands-on experience.

5.

By the late 1970s, over 40% of all high school students were taking a general rather than college-preparatory or vocational course of study, and 25% of their educational credits came from work experience outside school, remedial course work, and classes aimed at personal growth.

6.

Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) scores showed a steady decline from 1963 –1980.

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E. 1980s 1.

The National Commission on Excellence in Education drew these conclusions: a. The number and proportion of students demonstrating superior achievement on the SATs had declined. b. Scores on achievements tests in such subjects as physics and English had declined. c. There was a steady decline in science achievement scores of 17-yearolds by national assessments in 1969, 1973, and 1979. d. The average achievement of high school students on most standardized tests was lower than when Sputnik was launched. e. Nearly half of high school seniors could not draw inferences from written material.

2.

This time, the reason given for demanding a back-to-basics education was not a threat from the Soviets but a fear that the nation was falling behind the economic competition from Japan and Western Europe and was losing its competitive edge in world markets.

3.

The American Association of School Administrators pointed out: a. The decline in SAT scores had stabilized and appeared to be reversing. b. Students had been taking an increasing number of academic courses in each of the last six years. c. Many states had already adopted stricter graduation requirements. d. Many school districts had already raised expectations for students. e. The percentage of adolescents enrolled in school continued to climb, and United States schools were educating a larger percentage of 17year-olds than any other educational system in the world. f. The average citizen was more literate and exposed to more math, literature, and science than the average citizen of a generation ago. g. According to the United Nations, the United States had one of the highest literacy rates in the world.

F. 1990s 1.

The optimism of the American Association of School Administrators was short lived.

2.

Education in the 1990s was marked by a move toward alternative forms of instruction. a. Magnet schools have existed for decades, but enrollment jumped dramatically. Magnet schools are theme schools within public school systems. b. Charter schools are newer in concept, and are a hybrid between public and private schools. They are public in the sense that they are supported by tax dollars and accountable to the government. They are private in the sense that they are free from most district-level regulations. c. In a voucher system, the school district subsidizes the cost of a student attending a private school.

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d. A tech-prep school is designed for students who are not interested in obtaining a four-year bachelor’s degree after high school. High schools have developed partnerships with community colleges so that their graduates can earn a career-focused, two-year associates degree along with their high school diploma. e. Open enrollment is a policy in which students may attend any public school they wish, even if it is outside their own school district.

3.

The home-schooling movement began in the 1980s and was primarily endorsed by conservative Christians who wanted to shield their children from what they perceived to be immoral, secular influences. Today, it is a broad based movement, and about 2 million American children are currently homeschooled.

G. Early Twenty-First Century 1.

The No Child Left Behind Act a. Schools should be made accountable for the success of their students and rewarded or punished commensurate with their success. b. Local control of schools should be increased. c. Parents and students should have expanded options. d. Specific teaching methods should be promoted.

2.

Yearly testing of all students in grades three through eight measures their abilities in content areas.

3.

The No Child Left Behind Act is controversial. Opponents claim that testing is stressful and actually decreases the quality of education, since teachers teach to the test. There is also fear that schools that are below acceptable standards will lose funding and fall even further behind.

Middle Schools A. There has been recognition that the junior high school model was not well suited to the special needs of early adolescents.

B. Depending on the community, middle schools can include grades five through seven, five through eight, six and seven, seven and eight, or seven through nine.

C. The term middle school was created to indicate that younger adolescents need a different kind of education, one intended to help them in their transition to adolescence.

D. Many students still go into a slump when they enter middle school.

1.

Middle schools are larger and more impersonal them elementary schools.

2.

Old peer networks break down.

3.

Students often have little peer continuity during the seven or eight periods of the day.

4.

Large student enrollments usually mean that teachers don’t know all of their students by name.

5.

Goal structure of most schools does not meet the needs of young teens.

6.

Task mastery structure is less competitive and values effort and improvement.

7.

Attributes of successful middle schools: a. Teachers who work with early adolescents should have special training in interacting with this age group as well as opportunities for ongoing professional development.

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III.

b. The curriculum should be rigorous, and there should be high learning expectations. c. The curriculum should be presented so that the students understand its relevance to their own lives. d. The atmosphere of the school should be caring and supportive.

Students should feel that they share a community with their peers and teachers. e. Middle-schoolers need to feel that their opinions and thoughts are respected. f. The school should strive to ensure the success of all of the students, both academically weak and strong. g. Parents should be involved in the school. h. The school should be part of the larger civic community, and there should be interaction with businesses, community service centers, and the like. i. Students should be encouraged to develop good health habits.

Characteristics of Good Schools A. Size 1.

Students fare better in smaller schools for two reasons. a. Students will more likely be able to enjoy active, meaningful participation in activities. b. The quality of monitoring by teachers is less adequate in larger schools.

2.

Atmosphere a. A school’s overall climate can enhance or detract from achievement. b. School must create an atmosphere of learning in which students feel that they are responsible for their own learning.

3.

Teachers a. Teachers can use many strategies to make students feel responsible for their own learning. i. Students generally do better and are more interested if they are allowed to discover answers for themselves, rather than be expected to memorize large quantities of information. ii. Teachers can directly instruct their students about how best to learn. iii. Teachers can also give students options for mastering course material and then demonstrate that mastery, allowing students to use their own individual strengths and learning styles. iv. Good teachers engage their students. v. Good teachers make information seem relevant and meaningful to their students, and show students how to apply the course material and skills they are learning in their daily lives. vi. Students do best when they believe that their teachers like them, care about them, and have faith in their ability to do well.

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4.

IV.

V.

Curriculum a. The curriculum of a school consists of the aggregate of the courses of study offered. Most comprehensive high schools today offer three basic curricula: i. College Preparatory: its goal is to prepare students for success in the type of college that leads to graduate school. ii. Vocational: is designed to prepare students for gainful employment. iii. General: students in general curriculum are often castoffs from the other two curricula or are not committed either to college or to one of the vocations taught in the vocational curriculum. a) Although students are assigned general education courses for perceived low ability or motivation, all too often, once placed there, they are left to flounder.

Private versus Public Schools A. About 70% of American high school students attend public schools.

1.

The majority of them attend their regular, neighborhood school; a much smaller percentage charter, magnet, or public schools in neighboring districts.

B. About 23% attend private schools.

C. About 7% are home-schooled.

D. Ultimately, parents choose what type of education a student receives.

E. Socioeconomic status, parent involvement, parents’ educational level, and so on help predict a student’s academic success, so determining how good each alternative is on its own merit is difficult.

1.

On average, charter school students did not perform as well as students in traditional public schools.

2.

Those who were home-schooled appear to do well academically. There is some concern that home schooling may hinder social development.

Achievement and Dropping Out A. There has been little overall change in dropout rates in the last 30 years. About 10% of those individuals with diplomas did not graduate from high school per se but instead received graduation equivalency degree certificates.

B. Who Drops Out and Why 1.

Children who are born prematurely or with low birth weight may be at a high risk for subtle defects that may appear in school functioning. a. Neurological problems are found more frequently in preterm children. b. Specific cognitive processes such as attention and short-term memory may be affected, and these, in turn, have an impact on reading and arithmetic ability and social adaptation.

2.

Not only is middle school adjustment predictive of adolescent school functioning, but so are certain aspects or an adolescent’s adjustment as a toddler.

3.

Signs of possible early school withdrawal: a. Consistent failure to achieve in regular school-work b. Grade-level placement two or more years below average age for grade c. Irregular attendance

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d. Active antagonism to teachers and principals e. Marked disinterest in school with feeling of not belonging, meaninglessness f. Low scholastic aptitude g. Low reading ability h. Frequent changes of schools i. Nonacceptance by school staff; estrangement j. Nonacceptance by schoolmates k. Friends much younger or older l. Unhappy family situation m. Marked differences from schoolmates with regard to size n. Inability to afford the normal expenditures of schoolmates o. Nonparticipation in extracurricular activities p. Inability to compete with or ashamed of brothers and sisters q. Performance consistently lower than potential r. Serious physical or emotional disability s. Discipline problems t. Record of delinquency 4.

Adolescents at risk for dropping out need to be identified early in their school careers so that preventive measures can be taken.

C. Dropouts and Employment 1.

Dropouts find themselves in dead-end jobs and their salaries do not rise.

Teaching Tips Keep in mind your students may represent several or all of the contemporary alternative forms of instruction. Ask students to contribute their experience as you discuss education and adolescence.

Classroom Activities Arrange a panel of adolescent students, teachers, administrators, and parents. Invite the panel into the classroom to discuss pertinent issues in schools today. Before the panel begins, have students think about and write down questions and concerns they have.

Divide the class into three groups. One group will be college preparatory educators, one group vocational educators, and one group will be general educators. Assign each group the task of designing a curriculum for college preparatory, vocation, or general education instruction. What should be included and why? How might their curriculum ensure educational and developmental success?

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Research Topics and Essay Questions Research and write about education trends in the United States. Why does the educational pendulum swing so widely? What is the current trend of choice and in what direction is education headed in the United States?

Discuss adolescent identity development and the role of schools. What kinds of people, policy and supports need to be present in educational systems to support identity development in adolescents?

Key Questions 1.

2.

Describe why the middle school concept came into being.

What is the No Child Left Behind Act? Why is it controversial?

Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Teaching the Adolescent Brain. (2006) 105 minutes, Insight Media. Exploring scientific discoveries about the adolescent brain, this program shows how to utilize these findings to increase the effectiveness of secondary classroom practice. It examines the changes that occur in the brains of healthy teenagers and explains how these changes affect thinking and learning. It considers teenage behavior and covers such attributes of teenagers as difficulties with planning, time management, and deadlines.

Portraits of the Children: Culturally Competent Assessment. (2003) 36 minutes, Insight Media. This video encourages schools to examine the issues that impact the learning abilities of individual students. It includes case studies of culturally diverse students.

The Way We See It: What Makes a School Worth Going To? (2005) 28 minutes, Insight Media. This program features short, personal documentaries created by four youth media teams about their schools. It tells the stories of Thomas, a student from New Mexico who does poorly in academic subjects until a school arts program improves his confidence; students from Evanston, Illinois; the students at a San Antonio magnet school; and the Perpich Center for Arts Education in Minnesota, which provides academic and personal security for its students.

A Visit to Classrooms of Effective Teachers. (2004) 45 minutes, Insight Media. This program visits the classrooms of two effective middle-school teachers from large urban schools with mostly minority students. It highlights effective teaching methods.

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What Does Normal Mean? (2006) 57 minutes, Insight Media. Emphasizing the value of equal educational opportunities, this documentary examines inclusion of children with disabilities in public schools. Over the course of one academic year, it follows seven children who range in age from elementary to high school and have a variety of disabilities.

Decision to Teach: The Middle Years. (2002) 38 minutes, Insight Media. This program explores the rewards offered by teaching students from fourth grade through ninth grade. It includes footage of fifth grade teacher Lori Dorn as she leads a classroom exploration of the Underground Railroad and features an interview with Dorn in which she discusses successful middle-years teaching.

Decision to Teach: Adolescents and Young Adults. (2002) 39 minutes, Insight Media.

Featuring high-school social studies teacher Chad Raisch, this program explores the motivations for teaching adolescent and young-adult students. It offers illustrative classroom footage.

High Quality Teaching for Classroom Success. (2003) 41 minutes, Insight Media. This program highlights the attributes of remarkable secondary teachers. It shows how to design classroom instruction, identify the need for intervention, address different learning styles, manage the classroom, and use data to improve student learning.

Emotional Intelligence in the Classroom. (2008) 31 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Adolescents have both the cognitive and the emotional capacity to deepen their emotional intelligence, and for that reason secondary schools are being viewed as an ideal setting in which to teach and promote EI.

Web Sites Foundation for Advancements in Science and Education http://www.fasenet.org/ How Can I Prepare My Child For Adolescent Education http://math-and-reading-help-for-kids.org/adolescent_education.html School Performance Problems in Adolescents http://www.keepkidshealthy.com/adolescent/schoolperformance.html National Middle School Association http://www.nmsa.org/ The Parent’s Guide to High School http://www.education.com/grade/high-school/ Center for the Prevention of School Violence http://www.cpsv.org

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Chapter 13 Work and Vocation I.

II.

Motives for Choice A. In their search for identity and self-satisfaction, adolescents are strongly motivated to make a vocational choice that will contribute to their fulfillment.

B. Under the best set of circumstances, choosing a vocation is an increasingly difficult task.

C. If adolescents fail to identify with the kind of work for which they are suited and in which they can find satisfaction and fulfillment, their vocational nonidentities will reflect their larger failure to discover their own identities.

Theories of Vocational Choice A. Compromise with Reality Theory: Eli Ginzberg emphasized that making a vocational choice is a developmental process that occurs over a long period of time.

B. Ginzberg divided the process of occupational choice into three stages.

1.

Fantasy Stage: generally occurs up to age 11. Children imagine workers they want to be without regard to needs, abilities, training, employment opportunities, or any realistic considerations.

2.

Tentative Stage: spans ages 11 through 17 and in subdivided into four substages. a. Interest period: from ages 11 to 12, children make their choices primarily based on their likes and interests. b. Capacities period: occurs between about 13 and 14 years of age.

Adolescents become aware of role requirements, occupational rewards, and different means of preparation. c. Values period: from ages 15 to 16. Adolescents attempt to relate occupational roles to their own interests and values, to synthesize job requirements with their own values and capacities. d. Transition period: at around age 17, adolescents make transitions from tentative to realistic choices in response to pressures from school, peers, parents, colleges, and the circumstances of graduating from high school.

3.

Realistic Stage: During the realistic stage, from age 17 on, adolescents seek further resolution of their problems of vocational choice. This stage is subdivided into a period of: a. Exploration: Ages 17 and 18. Adolescents make an intensive search to gain greater knowledge and understanding. b. Crystallization: Between ages 19 and 21. Adolescents narrowly define a single set of choices and commit themselves. c. Specification: General choice is further limited to a particular type of specialization.

C. Research generally supports the outlines of Ginzberg’s hypothesis, but not always the chronological ages associated with Ginzberg’s different stages.

D. Ginzberg reformulated his theory to take into account new data and criticisms.

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1.

III.

He emphasized that some people, such as those who are economically disadvantaged and those who belong to minority groups, do not have as many choices as people in the upper classes do.

E. Occupational Environment Theory: Holland’s theory of vocational choice. People select occupations that afford environment consistent with their personality type; they are more likely to choose and remain in a field when personal and environmental characteristics are similar.

1.

Holland outlined six personality types (realistic, intellectual, social, conventional, enterprising, and artistic) and occupational environments compatible with these types.

2.

Subsequent research has offered only partial support to Holland’s theory.

Even though personality often influences vocational choice, individuals sometimes elect and stay in occupations even when their personality does not match the vocational environment.

People Influencing Vocational Choice A. Parents influence their adolescent’s choice of vocation in a number of ways.

1.

One way is through direct inheritance: A son or daughter inherits the parents’ business, and it seem easier and wiser to continue the family business.

2.

Parents also exert influence by providing apprenticeship training.

3.

Parents influence children’s interest and activities from the time they are young by the play materials provided, by the encouragement or discouragement of hobbies and interests, by the activities they encourage their children to participate in, and by the total experience they provide in the family.

4.

Parents provide role models for their children to follow. a. Regardless of whether parents try to exert any conscious, direct influence, the influence by example is there.

5.

Parents sometimes direct, order, or limit the choices of their children by insisting they not got to school or go to a certain school, enroll in a particular major, or start out on a predetermined career.

6.

Other parents have very low educational and occupational expectations for their children and limit their possible vocational choices.

7.

When two parents agree on educational expectations and goals for their adolescents, their children are more inclined to adopt the orientations held by both parents.

8.

Families that show a democratic family style and are able to resolve conflict exert strong influences on career development of the adolescents in the family.

B. Peers 1.

Studies of the relative influence of parents and peers on the educational plans of adolescents reveal somewhat contradictory findings.

2.

The majority of adolescents hold plans in agreement with those of parents and their friends.

C. School Personnel 1.

Teachers, coaches, and guidance counselors can help or hinder students in conducting a realistic appraisal of their skills and abilities.

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IV.

V.

VI.

Gender Roles and Vocational Choice A. Adolescents are strongly influenced by societal expectations as to the type of work that men and women should do.

B. Three types of barriers have been identified in efforts to explain why women are underrepresented in many high paying professions: 1.

Structural barriers are externally imposed limits on a woman’s career success that result from gender discrimination.

2.

Normative barriers stem from how girls are socialized to want to be feminine, which for most includes valuing motherhood and placing great importance on the relationships in their lives.

3.

Cognitive differences imply that women don’t make it into executive and other high-level positions because they are different than men. Specifically, women are supposed to be less talented in certain domains or lack other traits, such as assertiveness, that are needed to climb to the top of the corporate ladder or make important scientific discoveries.

4.

Many young women opt for careers that underutilize their talents and abilities.

The interplay of socialization, role expectation, discrimination, and different interests contribute to this drop.

Other Crucial Determinants of Vocational Choice A. Aptitudes and Special Abilities 1.

Different occupations require different aptitudes and special abilities.

2.

The measurement of some aptitudes, however, is not an exact science; therefore, it cannot always be determined which people are most likely to succeed in particular occupations.

B. Interests 1.

Interest is another factor considered important to vocational success.

2.

Intelligence, ability, opportunities, and other factors must be related to interest for success in a field.

C. Job Opportunities 1.

Being interested in a field does not mean that jobs are available in it.

2.

Some employment fields are becoming smaller, such as agricultural workers; others such as clerical workers are becoming larger.

D. Salary 1.

One factor that plays a role in vocational selection is the salary that can be expected.

2.

Salaries vary widely by profession; there are also regional variations in compensation.

Socioeconomic Factors A. Familiarity 1.

Socioeconomic status tends to influence the knowledge and understanding youths have of different occupations.

2.

The socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds of youths influence their job knowledge and their job preferences.

B. Social Status and Aspirations 1.

Middle-SES youths tend to choose occupations with higher status than do lower-SES youths.

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2.

3.

VII.

To aspire to a position is one thing; to expect to actually achieve it is another.

Poverty-level youths more often than middle-SES youths aspire to jobs they do not expect to achieve.

4.

The correlation between academic ability and socioeconomic status: the higher the status, the higher the academic performances, and the more prestigious the occupations to which they aspire. a. Apparently, students see their high academic ability as providing them access to high-prestige occupations.

C. Race/Ethnicity and Aspirations 1.

When race and ethnicity are considered apart from socioeconomic status, there is little evidence that race or ethnicity alone is the determinative factor in occupational aspirations.

2.

There are fewer employment opportunities for African Americans than for Whites, and they know it.

Youth Employment A. Working for Wages B. Scope of Youth Employment 1.

The number of adolescents who work outside home for wages has increased dramatically in the past few decades.

2.

Many teenagers begin working before they enter high school, especially when those with irregular jobs are included in the count.

3.

Most adolescent girls work in restaurants and retail stores, especially grocery stores.

4.

Most adolescent boys also work in restaurants, retail stores, and construction.

5.

Boys are more likely to work during the school year, and boys work longer hours. a. These gender differences decrease as teenagers get older.

6.

Fifteen- to seventeen-year-old who have jobs work an average of 17 hours a week during the school year, and 29 hours a week during the summer.

C. Correlates of Adolescent Employment 1.

In addition to gender, other factors predict which adolescents will and will not work. a. White adolescents are more likely to be employed than minority adolescents. b. Adolescents from higher-SES homes are more likely to work than those from lower-SES homes. c. Adolescents from intact families are more likely to work than those from single-parent families.

D. Effects of Employment 1.

American teens spend a lot of time working compared to teens in other industrialized nations.

2.

Although the data are somewhat contradictory, the best research converges on the same answer: in most cases any amount of working does more harm than good. a. The only positive effect was that those who worked were more likely to be employed after they left high school.

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3.

VIII.

IX.

Negative outcomes that have been associated with working include increased absenteeism, less time spent with family, diminished parental control, and increased use of alcohol and marijuana.

4.

Students who are disengaged from school and family are more likely to work, and those who work are more likely to see their grades drop, spend less time at home, and so forth.

5.

Many adolescents develop negative attitudes when they work because they work at stressful, fast-paced, unpleasant jobs that they feel are irrelevant to their future goals.

6.

From the adolescent’s point of view, working has benefits; it provides them with money to buy things they would like and gives them a sense of control over their lives.

7.

Several studies have suggested that working while in high school is not a risk factor for impoverished youth.

E. Volunteerism 1.

Participation in unpaid employment has increased over the past years.

2.

Between 50% and 65% of high school students do at least some volunteer work each year.

3.

Adolescents are more likely to engage in public service if their parents also do so, if they are from higher-level socioeconomic backgrounds, and if they have high grade point averages.

4.

Identity development is stimulated when individuals reflect on their place in society, their moral values, and their role in social change.

5.

Community service is correlated with high self-esteem.

6.

Volunteering increases the likelihood of attending college.

7.

Schools can enhance the benefits of community service by preparing the students beforehand and giving them opportunities for reflection afterwards.

Adolescents and Unemployment A. Numbers of Unemployed Youths 1.

In 2008, 16.8% of White 16-to 19-year-old adolescents were unemployed.

31.2% of African American adolescents were unable to find work.

B. Causes of Unemployment 1.

Adolescents are confined to a narrower range of the less-skilled occupations at which they can work only part-time.

2.

Many employers require educational degrees that have little relationship to job skills.

3.

State licensing boards often operate to restrict entry into business.

4.

It takes time and experience to acquire membership in a union.

5.

Employers often prefer hiring older people if they are available.

Career Education A. It is crucial that schools help prepare adolescents for careers.

B. Several types of programs have been developed to better link school with work and to improve the employment prospects of high school graduates.

1.

Tech-prep programs involve partnerships between high schools and two-year post-secondary vocational institutions. Students select a career at the end of sophomore year and then take classes in the last two years of school that are

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2.

3.

directly applicable to that career. Upon high school graduation, he or she transfers to the technical school.

Apprenticeships or internships are programs wherein students split their week among working at a company, taking career-related classes, and doing regular academic coursework.

School-based enterprises are programs in which schools essentially set up shop and simulate small businesses.

Teaching Tips Encourage students to notice teen employment. Who waits on them in restaurants (particularly fast food chains)? Who is the cashier at the local grocery store? Ask them to observe which jobs younger adolescents, older adolescents, and then adults hold. Bring these observations to class for discussion.

Classroom Activities Working in small groups, have students role play employment interviews. One role will be the employer, one the adolescent, and the other the observer. What kinds of questions are commonly asked? How might the teenager prepare himself or herself for the interview?

As a class, create the ideal job for teenagers. Brainstorm and list features that make the job ideal.

Research Projects and Essay Questions Research and discuss gender roles and vocational choice. What policies, legislation, and values are behind the current interest in nontraditional careers for male and females? What are some of those nontraditional careers? Include references to personal experiences with nontraditional careers. For example, what is your experience with male nurses or female construction workers?

Design a community service course for adolescents. What features of the course will support identity development? How will you prepare students? What is the basic purpose of community service?

Key Questions 1. Name and describe three career education programs.

2. What is the influence of parents on career choices?

3. What is the influence of peers on career choices?

4. What are the characteristics of good teachers? What is their influence on career choices?

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Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Pathways to Success: Making the Transition from School to Work, (1994) 48 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program, hosted by Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Hedrick Smith, chronicles the challenges that confront America's youth as they move from high school into the labor force. The program focuses on three young people to examine the potential solutions to this problem.

The Seven Competency Skills for the Workplace. (2009) 20 minutes, Insight Media. This onthe-job program teaches employee success skills. It follows actual teens as they approach their first jobs and learn such skills as communication, leadership, problem solving, negotiation, computer literacy, and multitasking. The DVD includes commentary from the teenagers’ bosses.

Teens for Hire. (1999) 15 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. By following teens on the job and examining the responsibilities each job holds, viewers gain invaluable insight into what awaits them in the workplace. Each of our storytellers is successful on the job, but discusses the challenges required in keeping up with schoolwork and home responsibilities.

You’re Hired: Job-Winning Interview Strategies. (2010) 26 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. After watching this video, young adults will know how to define personal employment goals; research a company of interest; do mock interviews for practice; dress for success; make a good first impression; communicate strengths, skills, accomplishments, and more; ask and answer a wide variety of pertinent questions; and follow up strategically via phone, mail, or e-mail.

You’re Fired. (2005) 20 minutes, Insight Media. Offering tools that teenagers should utilize to remain employed, this program explores issues that can lead to job loss, including tardiness, improper appearance, poor attitude, dishonesty, and incompetence. It also covers insubordination, substance abuse on the job, sloppiness, and unreliability.

Web Sites Should Your Teen Work? http://www.bhg.com/health-family/parenting-skills/teen-challenges/should-your-teen-work/ The Effects of Work on Adolescent Development http://www.centerforyouth.org/60816.ihtml U.S. Department of Labor’s “Youth Rules” http://youthrules.dol.gov/ Teen Unemployment: Young Workers Struggling in Recession http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1952331,00.html

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Chapter 14 Adolescent Stress and Alienation I.

Running Away A. It has been estimated that one in seven adolescents will run away at least once before his or her eighteenth birthday.

B. Adolescents raised in single-parent home are many times more likely to run away than those from two-parent homes.

C. A minority of adolescents who run away are running from foster care, group homes, and residential treatment facilities.

D. Most runaways are 15 or older, but 9% are under 16.

E. Young teens’ small size leaves them especially vulnerable to victimization and makes it impossible for them to find legitimate work.

F. Classes of Runaways 1.

Intent runaways are those who, when they leave home, really mean to flee.

They want to be gone, if not forever, then for a long time.

2.

Transient runaways are those who leave more at the spur of the moment and do not intend to stay away for more than a few hours or a day or two. These teens often leave home because they are afraid.

G. Half of all runaways return home within two days.

1.

The fact that an adolescent would take the rather extreme measure of running away for even a short time does not speak particularly well of his or her family’s dynamics, and it is quite possible that this behavior is an early warning of more serious problems to come.

2.

Transient running is far less serious and less risky behavior than intent running with no plans of returning.

H. Reasons for Running Away 1. Deserted by their parents due to parental death or divorce 2. Thrown out of their homes by their parents 3. Left home because their parents could not cope with their homosexuality 4. Left home after having been sexually abused by their parents 5. Left home or thrown out because they have substance abuse problems 6. Left home or thrown out because they have long-standing mental health problems 7. The most common thread running through the backgrounds of intent runaways is that they come from dysfunctional homes.

8. Most have been pushed out of their homes. They flee from what they perceive to be an intolerable situation.

9. Other teens are throwaways; that is their parents have actively encouraged them to leave or have actually thrown them out of their homes.

10. Runaway girls generally view their parents as more controlling and punitive of their behavior in the home, whereas many runaway boys report minimal family control and supervision, which leads to outside forces, such as peers, becoming causal agents in running away.

11. Given their poor family relationships, it is not surprising that most adolescents who run away exhibit a host of problem behaviors before they leave home.

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II.

I. Throwaways 1.

Parents are distressed at their child’s incorrigible behavior, whether it be substance abuse, promiscuity, delinquency, or the like.

2.

The parents of a throwaway are not making a good, mature decision when they decide to abandon their child.

3.

Another reason parents ask their children to leave home is dire poverty.

J. Life on the Street 1.

Life on the street is extremely difficult. a. Homeless youths are likely to be victimized. b. Boys more often robbed and beaten and girls more often sexually assaulted.

2.

Adolescents who have been on the street for more than a few days are usually forced to turn to drug dealing, shoplifting, and theft.

3.

Large numbers engage in prostitution, taking money for sex, or in so-called survival sex, swapping sexual favors for food or shelter.

4.

Homeless youths are subject to high rates of psychological problems.

5.

The mortality rate of street youth is estimated to be 40 times as high as that of at-home adolescents.

6.

Runaway youth need a variety of services to help with their many problems.

K. Worldwide Scope 1.

An estimated 100 million children and adolescents are homeless across the globe.

2.

These children and adolescents suffer from malnutrition, self-destructive behaviors, and substance abuse.

Depression and Suicide A. Depression 1.

Depression is common during adolescence.

2.

Episodes of depression are frequently recurrent, with each bout usually lasting seven to nine months.

3.

Depressed adolescents are three times more likely to have a close family member with depression. The families of depressed youths are more likely to be filled with discord, and divorce is more common.

4.

Girls who experience depression are more likely to have that depression continue into adulthood.

5.

Some question remains as to whether depression in adolescence is the same condition as depression in adults. a. Some antidepressants that relieve symptoms in adults have little effect on adolescents. b. There is increasing concern that prescription SSRI antidepressants such as Prozac can trigger suicidal thoughts and behavior in adolescents.

B. Suicide 1.

It is the third-leading cause of adolescent death.

2.

The suicide mortality rate increases with age.

3.

The suicide rate in the 15 to 24-year old age group tripled from 1950 to 1995. .

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4.

About 4500 young people between 15 and 24 years of age successfully commit suicide each year.

5.

Girls are about twice as likely as boys to attempt suicide, but 85% of successful suicides are committed by boys.

6.

Native American adolescents have the highest suicide rates.

C. Causes and Motives of Suicide 1.

90% of persons who commit suicide have psychological disorders. Most commonly, they are depressed, but they also are likely to have a substance abuse problem or an anxiety disorder.

2.

The two best predictors of suicide are clinical depression and a previous suicide attempt.

3.

When people are depressed they feel both helpless and hopeless.

4.

Parental psychopathology and substance abuse is correlated with attempted and completed suicide.

5.

Many studies have found that loss and low family support are predictors of an adolescents’ suicide attempt.

6.

Other Psychological Correlates a. The risk of suicide among adolescents increases with alcohol and drug abuse. b. Conduct disorder, post-traumatic stress syndrome, anxiety disorders, and eating disorders increase the likelihood of suicidal behavior. c. Sexual Orientation i.

Gay and lesbian teens are more likely to attempt and actually complete suicide. ii. They face the additional stressors of acknowledging their sexual orientation, of experiencing negative reaction by parents and friends, and of being victimized by hate-motivated individuals.

D. Copycat Suicides 1.

Knowing someone who commits suicide increases one’s feelings of loss and also disinhibits one’s restraints about suicide. One person’s suicide gives permission for others to commit suicide.

E. Unsuccessful Attempts 1.

Attempted suicide is not necessarily an effort to die but rather a communication to others in an effort to improve one’s life.

2.

Suicide attempts in a great majority of cases are considered in advance and weighed rationally against other alternatives.

3.

Most adolescents who attempt suicide talk about it first, F. Survivors 1.

Survivors typically experience fear, rage, guilt, and depression.

2.

They feel responsible for not recognizing the signals that might have been given and preventing the suicide, and they feel angry with the victim for deserting them.

3.

Recovering from the loss may take one to two years, depending on the survivor’s personality and the events surrounding the suicide.

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III.

Juvenile Delinquency A. The term juvenile delinquency refers to the violation of the law by a juvenile, which in most states means anyone under 18 years of age. The legal term juvenile delinquent was established for young lawbreakers so that they could avoid the disgrace stigma of being classified in legal records as criminals. Most are tried in juvenile courts where the intent is to rehabilitate them.

B. Violations of laws that apply only to minors are called status crimes.

C. Most statistics understate the extent of juvenile crime.

D. Incidence of Delinquency 1.

According to the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, in 2006 juveniles were responsible for 15% of all violent crime arrests and 29% of all property crime arrests in the United States.

2.

Since 1993, the juvenile violent crime rate has dropped and is lower than it has been since 1980.

3.

African American adolescents are far more likely to be the victims of homicide than White youths.

4.

Adolescent males are considerably more likely than females to murder and to be murdered.

5.

Teenagers are two and a half more likely to be the victims of violent crimes than adults.

6.

Girls account for about 25% of all juvenile arrests. However, girls’ arrest rate has been climbing faster than that for boys.

7.

Girls are more likely to assault or murder a family member than an acquaintance or a stranger; the reverse is true for boys.

E. Causes of Delinquency 1.

Causes may be grouped into three major categories: a. Environmental causes include elements in the adolescent’s neighborhood and community. i.

Poverty ii. Living in a high-crime area iii. The presence of gangs iv.

The availability of drugs v.

Having substandard schools vi.

Living in a fragmented, noncohesive neighborhood vii.

Exposure to media violence viii. Rapid social change b. Interpersonal causes refer to the influences of family, friends, siblings, and peers. ix.

Lack of family cohesion and troubled family relationships are particularly important correlates of delinquency. x.

Parents who model aggression or who reinforce the violent behavior that they observe in their children are most likely to have delinquent children. xi.

Youths who have a high degree of peer orientation are also more likely to have a high level of delinquency involvement.

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c. Personal causes refer to personality traits and biological predispositions to antisocial behavior. xii.

No single personality type can be associated with delinquency, but it is known that those who become delinquent are more likely to be socially assertive, defiant, ambivalent to authority, resentful, hostile, and lacking in self-control. xiii. Some delinquents consistently exhibit low self-esteem and a negative self-image. xiv.

In many cases, delinquents have psychological disorders such as ODD, conduct disorder, or ADHD. xv.

Drinking is strongly associated with serious delinquency. xvi.

There is a strong relationship between adolescents who are raised by substance abusing parents and juvenile delinquency. xvii.

F.

G.

Lack of school success, poor grades, classroom misconduct, and an inability to adjust to the school program and to get along with administrators, teachers, and parents is associated with delinquency. a) Delinquents experience greater conflict in all relationships, which reduces the quality and stability of friendships. b) Some organic or biological factors may be directly or indirectly influential. c) There is some evidence that tendencies toward delinquency may be inherited. d) High levels of testosterone and low levels of serotonin are also associated with aggressive behavior.

Juvenile Gangs 1.

During the 1980s and 1990s, youth gangs again surfaced as a major crime problem in the United States. a. Paralleling the decrease in juvenile crime overall, youth gang memberships shows a significant drop since the peak in the 1990s.

2.

The typical gang member is characterized as a lower-income, minority male adolescent who does not get along with his family.

3.

1990s saw many changes: gangs moved into the suburbs, more all female gangs formed, and the age range of gang members widened.

4.

Adolescents who join gangs engage in antisocial activities to raise money, to bond with their gang peers, and to protect themselves.

5.

Female gang members are less likely to engage in violent activities, but they are likely to engage in criminal activity.

6.

Girls tend to join and leave gangs at an earlier age than boys.

The Juvenile Justice System 1.

The Police a. When offenses are discovered, the police may take any one of several actions: ignore the offenses; let the juvenile go with a warning; report the problem to parents; refer the case to the school, a welfare agency,

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2.

3.

4.

clinic, counseling or guidance center, or family society; take the juvenile into custody for questioning; to be held or reprimanded by a juvenile officer: or, after investigation, arrest the juvenile and turn the matter over to a juvenile court. b. One problem is that in the beginning of the process, the matter is left entirely to the police discretion and so is inconsistent.

Juvenile Officers a. Discover delinquents, potential delinquents, and conditions contributing to delinquency. b. Investigate cases of juveniles who are delinquents or involved as accessories by association with adult criminals. c. Protect juveniles. d. Dispose of juvenile cases. e. Prevent juvenile delinquency.

The Juvenile Court a.

The best juvenile court systems hire judges with special qualifications for juvenile court work, who understand not only the law but also child psychology and social problems. b.

A variety of medical, psychological, and social services are available, along with adequate foster family and institutional care and recreational services and facilities. c.

A qualified probation staff is available with limited caseloads. d.

Detention of juveniles is kept at a minimum. e.

An Adequate record system is maintained and safeguarded against indiscriminate public inspection.

The Correctional System a.

The backbone of the correctional procedure is the probation system. b.

Probation based entirely on threat of punishment is poor rehabilitation. c.

Most juvenile correction systems include detention centers. i.

Many of these are reception and diagnostic centers where juveniles are placed under temporary restraint while awaiting a hearing. ii. House JINS adolescents as well. These adolescents have done nothing wrong, yet they are mixed in with juveniles who have committed serious assaults or even homicide. iii. If a juvenile is sentenced to be held in a facility, there are a number of options. These include detention centers, long-term secure training schools, group homes, shelters, boot camps, and wilderness/ranch camps. iv.

The juvenile justice system has been improved by the use of token economies, which place the emphasis on a 24- hour positive learning environment. v.

A small number of juvenile delinquents end up serving time in adult prisons.

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vi.

H.

I.

J.

Counseling and therapy, both individually and in groups, are important parts of any comprehensive program of treatment and correction of juvenile offenders. vii.

Work with parents is especially important in correcting family situations that contribute to the delinquency in the first place.

Critique of the Juvenile Justice System 1.

The biggest criticism is that it does not work. As long as the emphasis is on punishing the juvenile offender, treatment and rehabilitation will be neglected.

The Restorative Justice Movement 1.

This approach tries to balance the needs of the victim for reparation and confrontation, the community at large for security and protection, and the juvenile perpetrator to learn skills so he or she has alternatives to crime.

Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency 1.

Youth development programs are designed to provide skills, establish relationships, and increase self-esteem so that adolescents avoid delinquency and become well-functioning adults. a. Enhance academic, social, and vocational competence. b. Instill self-confidence and promote self-esteem. c. They foster strong relationships between adolescents and adult mentors and between peers. d. Build character and instill positive values. e. Promote caring and compassion for others.

2.

Successful programs provide emotional and nurturance support, motivational support for high expectations and standards, and strategic support in the form of help in planning and resources.

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Teaching Tips People often believe alienation is a normal part of adolescence. Encourage your students to think about that. If alienation and conflict are normal, when and what behaviors indicate a problem related to alienation?

Classroom Activities Show segments of the film, “Freedom Writer.” First minutes of the films speak loudly to causes of delinquency and gang membership.

Invite a police officer into the classroom to discuss issues relating to adolescents and the law.

Research Topic and Essay Questions Research and discuss the increasingly popular policy of placing police officers in schools full time. Why might this be helpful? Why might it be harmful?

Write an essay analyzing adolescent identity formation and its relationship to gangs.

Key Questions 1.

2.

3.

What percent of children are thrown out of their homes and not allowed back?

What is the restorative justice movement?

What is the youth development program?

Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Running Away. (2005) 40 minutes, Insight Media. This program examines issues related to children who run away from home or foster care situations. It covers such topics as the search for roots, running from rules, avoidance of love and intimacy, the need to be wanted, and participation in street crimes.

The Adolescent Addict. (2006) 30 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program combines informative case studies with analysis of two treatments found to be effective with child and teen patients. Viewers will learn about multi-systemic therapy—which engages not only the addict but his or her community, family, and environment—and structured, longterm residential therapy. The film follows a youthful addict through each approach.

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Teenagers and Gangs: A Lethal Combination. (2000) 26 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This documentary-style program features former gang members and their stories.

Real Life Teens: Teens and Gangs. (2007) 17 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

This program discusses why a teen might choose to turn to a gang and how gang involvement typically leads to personal risk and imprisonment. Subjects covered include what a gang is, problems a teen can have with gang involvement, different groups that can provide support, support or protection that is positive, why teens join gangs, violence, and racism and gangs.

Suicide: The Teenager's Perspective. (1990) 26 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Teenagers are accustomed to going to their friends with their problems. In this program, friends have been trained to recognize the signs of impending suicide. The purpose of this program is to provide some help before an attempt is made.

Behind the Mask. (2003) 20 minutes, Insight Media. This program examines the lives of teenagers coping with anxiety and depression. It explains that most teenagers hide feelings of anxiety and despair from their parents, teachers, and friends.

Real Life Teens: Teen Depression. (2001) 21 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

Subjects covered include defining depression, the warning signs of depression, identifying the roots of depression, depression and home life, self-medication, self-destructive choices, getting help, and teen suicide.

Teen Suicide: It Shouldn’t Be a Secret. (2005) 23 minutes, Insight Media. This program examines ways in which friends, schools, and parents can help prevent teenage suicide. It features the insights of a teenager who attempted suicide, national teenage suicide experts, and a panel of articulate teens.

Out of the Blue: Strategies to Combat Teen Depression. (2006) 29 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program will help teenagers recognize and deal with the “black dog” by explaining the causes and symptoms of depression, telling how and where to find help, and providing information on forward-looking treatments tailored for teens.

Am I Normal? Teens and Emotional Health. (2008) 22 minutes, Insight Media. The program highlights the differences between normal reactions to stressors and situations and instances that may require professional help and includes commentary from real teenagers regarding the problems they face. It also covers mental health basics, outlines steps to take when ordinary anxiety deepens, and shows how to cope with worries that become overwhelming.

Teen Suicide. (1994) 35 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This program examines the reasons why teens consider, attempt, or commit suicide and stresses specific measures to help prevent viewers or someone they know from becoming a suicide statistic.

Viewers learn how to recognize the warning signs in friends or relatives, how to help, and where to go for assistance.

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Understanding Teenage Violence. (2000) 16 minutes, Insight Media. This program examines real-life situations that can lead to violent behavior in teenagers. It teaches strategies for recognizing, redirecting, and avoiding anger and shows how feelings of frustration can be channeled to effect change.

Warning Signs: Messages to Our Families and Community. (2008) 24 minutes, Insight Media. This documentary identifies the signs and behavioral patterns that youth who are involved with gangs and drugs commonly exhibit. It features interviews with high-risk youth, parents, probation officers, and police officers.

Kids Behind Bars. (1999) 29 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. What happens to children convicted of felonies? How and where are they incarcerated? Can they be helped? And does their punishment really fit their crimes? In this program, judges, legal counsel, law enforcement officers, academic experts, and others examine the trend in the U.S. toward trying children as adults and discuss efforts being made to understand their violent behavior.

Death Row Kids. (2005) 27 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Filmed prior to the March 1, 2005, U.S. Supreme Court ruling barring execution for underage offenses, Death Row Kids tells the stories of confused and frightened young people awaiting the ultimate penalty. The program also alludes to medical findings that a 17-year-old’s brain lacks fully developed decision-making capabilities. The result is a provocative inquiry into complex issues of personal responsibility and the likelihood of criminal rehabilitation.

Web Sites Sirius Project: Self-Help for Self-Harm http://www.siriusproject.org American Foundation for Suicide Prevention http://www.afsp.org Teen Depression Symptoms http://psychcentral.com/library/teen_depression_symptoms.htm School Violence: Identifying At-Risk Teens http://psychcentral.com/library/teens_atrisk.htm Runaways http://www.focusas.com/Runaways.html When Your Teen is in Trouble with the Law http://www.focusas.com/JuvenileJustice.html

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Chapter 15 Substance Abuse, Addiction, and Dependency I.

Drug Use and Abuse A. There is no single, absolute heuristic for separating drug use and drug abuse.

B. Drug use qualifies as drug abuse when two criteria are met: 1.

Using the drug puts someone at significantly increased risk for having bad things happen.

2.

Taking the drug interferes in some way with her or her normal, daily responsibilities and accomplishments.

C. Most adolescents who experiment with drug use suffer no lasting consequences. No one knows before trying a drug if he or she is particularly susceptible to addiction and dependency.

D. Physical Addiction and Psychological Dependency 1.

As individual continues to take a drug, he or she runs the risk of developing a physical addiction or a psychological dependency.

2.

A physical addiction to a drug results because the body builds up a physical need for the drug, so that its sudden denial results in withdrawal symptoms.

3.

Psychological dependency is the development of a persistent, sometimes overpowering psychological need for a drug, resulting in a compulsion to take it.

E. Patterns and Intensity of Drug Use 1. Experimental use is defined as the short-term, investigational trial of one or more drugs. It is motivated by curiosity or by a desire to experience new feelings.

2. Social recreational use occurs in social settings among friends or acquaintances who wish to share an experience. This type of use tends to vary in frequency, intensity, and duration but to escalate in either frequency or intensity to patterns of uncontrolled use.

3. Circumstantial-situational is motivated by the desire to achieve a known and anticipated effect. Five common psychological conditions may lead to illicit drug use by adolescents: a depressed mood, normlessness, social isolation, and low self-esteem.

4. Intensified drug use is generally a long-term pattern of using drugs at least once daily to achieve relief from a persistent problem or stressful situation.

Drug use becomes a customary activity of daily life, with people ordinarily remaining socially and economically integrated in the life of the community.

5. Compulsive drug use is use at both high frequency and high intensity, or relatively long duration, producing physiological or psychological dependence, with disuse resulting in physiological discomfort or psychological distress. Users in this category include the street junkie or skidrow alcoholic but also the opiate-dependent physician, the barbituratedependent homemaker, and the alcohol-dependent business executive.

F. Types of Drugs .

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1.

2.

3.

Narcotics include opium and its derivatives, such as morphine, heroin, and codeine.

They work by mimicking endogenous endorphins: chemicals produced by the body to dull the sensation of pain. a. Opium is a dark, gummy substance extracted from the juice of unripe seed pods of the opium poppy. Opium is usually taken orally or sniffed-that is, it is heated and its vapor inhaled. b. Morphine is the chief active ingredient in opium. It is extracted as a bitter, white powder with no odor. It is used medicinally to relieve extreme pain because of its depressant effect on the central nervous system. It may be sniffed, but the powder is usually mixed with water and injected. c. Codeine is the mildest morphine derivative. Often used in cough syrups or to relieve mild body aches, it has the same but milder analgesic properties as other narcotics. d. Heroin was first refined from morphine in 1874. It is a white, odorless, bitter-tasting powder. It is rarely sold in pure form but is instead “cut,” or mixed with other white substances. One reason heroin is so dangerous is that the amount of heroin in a bag or single dose varies widely and an overdose can easily kill. a) Although many current users still inject heroin, more and more are snorting it or smoking it. Both of these options are perceived by many adolescents as safer ways to use the drug, since they eliminate the risk of contracting the human immunodeficiency virus or hepatitis by sharing needles. b) Only a small minority of adolescents experiment with heroin. c) The synthetic opiates, Demerol and Dolophine, were created as chemical substitutes for the natural opiates and are used in medicine as pain relievers. They are addictive and restricted by law to medical use. e. Morphine and heroin are the most physically addictive of all drugs.

Because dependence becomes total and heroin is expensive, many users turn to crime or prostitution to support their habits. Without the drug, withdrawal symptoms begin to appear. i. Addicts are in a general devitalized condition. ii. Because the prognosis for curing heroin addiction is so discouraging, methadone is now given as a substitute drug through medically recognized methadone maintenance programs.

Stimulants a. Refer to a wide variety of drugs that rev up the central nervous system; they energize rather than tranquilize. a) One of the most well known stimulants is cocaine. It is extracted from the leaves of the South American coca plant and is available as an odorless, fluffy, white powder.

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a)

Users sniff or inject it intravenously into the bloodstream. b) Psychological dependence is severe. c) About 4% of high school seniors have used cocaine. d) Cocaine can be further processed by heating it with ammonia or sodium bicarbonate to produce crack, a form of the drug that can be smoked. e) Smoking crack produces a more intense but shorterlasting high than ingesting powder cocaine. f) Crack is one of the most addictive of all drugs. b) Amphetamines are stimulants that include such drugs as Benzedrine, Dexedrine, Ritalin and methedrine (speed). a) They are used medically for treating obesity, mild depression, fatigue, and other conditions. b) The drugs are usually taken orally in the form of tablets or capsules. c) Regular users do not develop physical dependence, but users soon develop an intense psychological need to continue taking the drug and require larger doses as their tolerance develops. d) Mental depression and fatigue are experienced after the drug is withdrawn. e) Patients usually need to be treated in mental hospitals, especially patients who inject the drugs into their veins. f) Methedrine is particularly dangerous because it is commonly injected under the skin or directly into a vein, often causing rupturing blood vessels and death. g) Methedrine is available in a smokable, crystallized form. c) Ritalin and Adderall are stimulants that are readily available to teenagers, since both are prescribed to help children and adolescents who have attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. d) Depressants a) Slow the functioning of the central nervous system.

Barbiturates, tranquilizers, inhalants, and alcohol are all depressants. i) Barbiturates are depressants that decrease the activity of the central nervous system, usually producing sedation, intoxication, and sleep. ii) All barbiturates are dangerous when abused because they develop total addiction: both physical and psychological dependence. iii) When the abuser has become physically dependent, withdrawal symptoms become severe in about 24 hours.

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4.

iv) Convulsions that can be fatal are an ever-present dangers with barbiturate withdrawal. Delirium and hallucinations may develop. v) Tranquilizers are similar to barbiturates in their effect. a.)) Inhalants are a subclass of depressants: solvents such as paint thinner, drycleaning fluid, gasoline, and some glues; gases such as the propellants used in spray paints and whipped cream dispensers; and nitrites such as amylnitrate. b.)) Unlike nearly every other drug, young children and early adolescents are more likely to use inhalants than are older adolescents. vi) Rohypnol: date rape drugs producing stupor, coma, or death when consumed with alcohol.

Because these drugs are colorless, odorless, and tasteless, they can be slipped into a person’s drink without his or her knowledge.

Hallucinogens, or psychedelic drugs, include a broad range of substances that act on the central nervous system to alter perception and the state of consciousness. a. Marijuana is most widely used and mildest hallucinogen. b. Another well-known hallucinogen is LSD, a synthetic drug that must be prepared in a laboratory. c. Other hallucinogens include peyote, mescaline, and psilocybin. d. In general, the drugs produce unpredictable results, including distortions of color, sound, time, and speed. e. LSD is the most potent hallucinogen. LSD is always a slow-acting, long-lasting drug. Its effects are generally not felt until 30 to 90 minutes after it’s been ingested, and the trip lasts for 8 to 16 hours. f. Flashbacks are hallucinogenic episodes that occur at a later time even though no additional LSD has been used. g. They occur when LSD that has been stored in fat cells is released into the bloodstream. h. Marijuana is the most widely used illegal substance. i. Marijuana is made from the dried leaves of the wild hemp plant. a) Hashish may have a THC content as high as 28%. j. Tolerance to cannabis, or diminished response to a given repeated drug dose, has been documented. k. An increase in heart rate and reddening of the eyes are the most consistently reported physiological effects. l. Clinical studies have begun to point to various harmful effects of marijuana on the lungs and as a cause of lung cancer.

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b) Marijuana impairs the functioning of the hippocampus, a region in the brain responsible for learning, memory, and motivation. c) Heavy marijuana use may impair the reproductive functioning in humans. d) There is substantial research evidence that marijuana use during pregnancy can harm fetal development.

G. Frequency of Adolescent Drug Use 1.

The drugs most frequently used by adolescents are alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. a. Alcohol and tobacco use have declined modestly. b. Illicit drug use, including use of marijuana, has risen. c. Adolescents in the 1970s and 1980s were generally more likely to use drugs, especially marijuana and cocaine, than teenagers today. d. Eighth-grade girls are now drinking as heavily as eighth-grade boys. e. Eighth-grade girls are now more likely to smoke than eighth-grade boys. However, young adolescent males are still using illicit drugs at higher rates than young adolescent females.

H. Reasons for First Drug Use 1.

The majority try drugs out of curiosity.

2.

Other adolescents begin using drugs as a means of rebellion, protest, and expression of dissatisfaction with traditional norms and values.

3.

Another reason for trying drugs is for fun or sensual pleasure.

4.

Another strong motive for trying drugs is a social pressure to be like friends or to be part of a social group. a. Research indicates that youths who use specific drugs almost invariably have friends who also use the same drugs.

5.

Drugs become a means of feeling more comfortable in social situations.

6.

There are those users whose primary motive for trying a drug is to gain selfawareness, increased awareness of others, more religious insight, or to become more creative.

7.

There are some youths who begin selling drugs at an early age, prior to taking drugs.

I. Demographic Differences 1.

African American youths are significantly less likely than White youths to use drugs.

2.

By late adolescence, Hispanic Americans fall midway between the other two groups.

J. Compulsive Drug Use 1.

Those who continue to use nonaddictive drugs as a means of trying to solve emotional problems become psychologically dependent on them. When individuals become psychologically dependent on drugs that are also physically addicting, dependence is secondarily reinforced by the desire to avoid the pain and distress of physical withdrawal.

2.

Familial factors contribute to substance abuse. The need to use drugs excessively originates within the families in which children grow up.

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3.

The other most commonly cited contributor to adolescent substance abuse is peer influence. a. Peer influence is only indirectly related to an adolescent’s substance use.

4.

Some of these contributing factors such as parenting style and poverty appear to affect adolescents of both genders equally, whereas others differ by gender.

K. Prevention and Treatment 1. Seek to enhance protective factors, such as good family functioning.

2. Work to decrease risk factors such as poverty and school failure.

3. Address all forms of substance abuse, including underage use of legal drugs.

4. Focus on what is happening in the local community.

5. Be tailored to the specific needs of the target population’s age, ethnicity, etc.

6. Seek to have a positive effect on a wide variety of parenting issues.

7. Begin early, perhaps as early as preschool.

8. Target social skills.

9. Seek to increase academic success.

10. Be multi-pronged and long-term.

11. Include a teacher training component.

12. Use interactive techniques, such as peer discussions or role-playing. a.

Most teenagers who receive treatment do so as outpatients. b.

Adolescents who have a drug abuse problem are more likely than adults to develop a psychological dependency and to have comorbid psychological problems that existed before the drug abuse began and do not disappear when it stops. c.

There are various approaches to treating chemical dependency. i. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) a) Emphasizes the individual’s inability to control drug consumption. b) Recovery is a spiritual reawakening process that is achieved through working the 12 steps. The 12-step program begins by accepting one’s powerlessness over drugs and then developing a sense of one’s higher power, which enables one to control the drug habit. ii. Behavioral Therapy a) Based on learning theory and focuses on building skills needed to refuse drugs, resist peer pressure, and make good decisions. b) Two techniques are used in combination, modeling and role-playing. Behavioral contracting is a third technique involving creating clear, specific agreements between the adolescent and his or her therapist or parents that detail what behaviors are acceptable, the rewards and privileges that will be earned, and the punishments that will accrue. iii. Professional counseling

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a) Treatment is focused on understanding and resolving the emotional problems that underlie the drug use, as well as medical treatment to restore health. iv. Medical treatment v. Psychiatric care vi. Family systems therapy a) Focuses on family-of-origin conflicts and issues as central in developing and maintaining chemical dependency. vii. Therapeutic Community Treatment a) Emphasizes both abstaining from alcohol consumption and addressing emotional factors associated with drug use. b) This is a residential treatment model, and clients are typically expected to live in the facility for at least one year. d.

Multimodal approaches recognize that chemically dependent people require a broad-based approach because of the various needs presented by them.

L. Effectiveness of Treatments 1.

Successful programs a. Minimize drop out rates b. Provide follow-up and after-care c. Are comprehensive in nature d. Include family therapy II. Tobacco and Smoking A. Incidence of Tobacco Use 1.

Adolescent tobacco use rose sharply during the early and mid 1990s and has been decreasing since then.

2.

Tobacco is the second most widely abused drug by youths age 12 to 17.

3.

White teenagers are more likely to smoke than Hispanic American teenagers, and members of both groups are more likely to smoke than African American teens.

4.

Rates for boys and girls are very similar.

5.

About 80% of adult smokers began to smoke before they were age 18, and another 10% began between ages 18 and 21.

6.

Tobacco is an important so-called gateway drug.

B. Reasons Adolescents Start Smoking 1.

Peer influence most often cited as the reason to start smoking.

2.

Defining image and being rebellious. a. Girls more likely to report that the reason they had their first cigarette was to feel mature or to enhance their image. b. Boys more likely to smoke to feel rebellious and relaxed.

3.

Many youths imitate their parents.

C. Effects of Cigarette Advertising D. Reasons Adolescents Continue Smoking

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1. Relief of tension: Heavy smokers tend to be overly tense and restless people.

2. Development of an unconscious habit: A reflex action develops so that it is hard to break the action of reaching for a cigarette.

3. Association with sociability and pleasure: Smokers associate the activity with after-dinner coffee, conversation, a social gathering, or pleasant surroundings.

4. Social coping mechanism: Smoking gives people something to do with their hands. In addition, inhaling and lighting up can provide several-second pauses in which to gather one’s thoughts before speaking.

5. Physical addiction to nicotine

Teaching Tips Make a point to create a non-judgmental climate in the classroom as you teach this unit. This is an opportunity for students to interact with one another as they learn about both adolescent drug use and perhaps their own.

Classroom Activities Bring a side effects description from recently filled prescription, and one from an over the counter medicine. Have students read the extensive chemical possibilities so that they may consider and discuss the effects and side effects of ingesting even the most trusted chemical.

Have a class debate on the efficacy of prevention programs such as DARE. Students should work in teams to create debate questions and points of view. You can pick sides, or ask students on what side of the question they stand and divide into teams accordingly.

Research Topics and Essay Questions Discuss why adolescents continue to engage in activities that put them at risk when compelling evidence, research, and instruction suggest they do otherwise. Include in your discussion the influence of the imaginary audience, personal fable, and egocentrism.

Research the most current statistics regarding percentage of teens drinking and driving.

Key Questions 1.

2.

3.

4.

Name and discuss the dangers of two “designer” drugs.

What is the difference between abuse and use?

How does young adult use compare with adolescent use, especially alcohol?

What are the most effective forms of treatment and why?

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Media Resources (Descriptions of films are provided by the publisher/distributor.)

Teen Danger Zone: Teens at Risk. (2006) 46 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

Combining hard-hitting personal stories with cold facts, the first six segments of this chaptered program report on some of the most common drugs currently being abused by teens: OxyContin, PMA, Special K (ketamine), the methamphetamine Ice, inhalants, and, in the form of binge drinking, alcohol.

Drugs: The Straight Facts. (2010) Five-part series, 17-20 minutes each, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. To combat the flashy appeal of drugs this video series gives honest information about a variety of different substances.

Addiction and Depression. (2005) 23 minutes, Insight Media. This program discusses the relationship between substance abuse and depression in teenagers. It explains that one often causes the other and shows how depressed teens can effectively deal with their illness.

Smoking Out the Truth: Teens and Tobacco. (2006) 24 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This video focuses on the illusions and misconceptions surrounding teen smoking, exposing the faulty reasoning that leads kids to start or continue the habit. It also offers several rock-solid motives to quit or abstain—and strategies for doing so. Taking a proactive, studentdriven approach, the program features myth-busting classroom presentations delivered by smoking and nonsmoking students alike.

Looking for a Fix: Teens on Teen Drug Abuse. (2001) 22 minutes, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. In this ABC News program, three recovering teenage substance abusers candidly reflect on their experiences with drugs. Topics include how they deceived their parents for years at a time, stole money from family and friends to pay for their habits, "graduated" from marijuana to harder drugs, and saw friends get killed in drug-related violence.

Young Addicts: Drugs, Alcohol, and America’s Future. (2006) 3-part series, 11-21 minutes each, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This three-part series of ABC News programs investigates disturbing new trends: teenage methamphetamine abuse, binge drinking among college-age women, and the alarmingly open access that many underage Americans now have to prescription drugs.

Stuff You Need to Know about Party Drugs. (2008) 25 minutes, Insight Media. This program examines the threats associated with such party drugs as alcohol, marijuana, ecstasy, amphetamines, and LSD. It features young party drug users discussing their experiences with drugs and includes commentary from a pharmacologist.

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Web Sites The Substance Abuse and Medical Health Services Administration http://www.samhsa.gov/ Institute for Youth Development http://www.youthdevelopment.org Teen Drug Abuse Health Risks http://www.teendrugabuse.us/teendruguse.html Underage Drinking http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa67/aa67.htm Teens and Smoking Tobacco http://www.teendrugabuse.us/teensmoking.html Smoking Facts for Teens http://kidshealth.org/teen/drug_alcohol/tobacco/smoking.html Drug and Alcohol Facts for Teens http://kidshealth.org/teen/drug_alcohol/ Information for Teens from the National Institute on Drug Abuse http://teens.drugabuse.gov/

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