OFI September 2018 Online Edition

OILS & FATS INTERNATIONAL ONLINE EDITION SEPTEMBER 2018

DEEP FRYING

Development in China

PALM OIL

Game of drones

Technology Online Edition Cover2.indd 1

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T HE BUSI NESS MAGAZINE FOR THE OILS A ND FATS INDUST RY

CONTENTS OILS & FATS INTERNATIONAL ONLINE EDITION September 2018

EDITORIAL: Editor: Serena Lim Tel: +44 (0)1737 855066 E-mail: serenalim@quartzltd.com Assistant Editor: Ilari Kauppila Tel: +44 (0)1737 855157 E-mail: ikauppila@quartzltd.com SALES:

FEATURES PALM OIL

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Game of drones

Sales Manager: Mark Winthrop-Wallace Tel: +44 (0)1737 855 114 E-mail: markww@quartzltd.com

THE OFI SEPTEMBER 2018 TECHNOLOGY ONLINE EDITION INCLUDES FEATURES ON THE LATEST PROCESSING AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTS IN THE GLOBAL OILS AND FATS COMPLEX, INCLUDING THE USE OF DRONES, COCONUT OIL PROCESSING AND REMOVING HARMFUL CONTAMINANTS

Sales Consultant: Anita Revis Tel: +44 (0)1737 855068 E-mail: anitarevis@quartzltd.com PRODUCTION: Production Editor: Carol Baird E-mail: carolbaird@quartzltd.com CORPORATE: Managing Director: Steve Diprose Tel: +44 (0)1737 855164 E-mail: stevediprose@quartzltd.com

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© 2018 Quartz Business Media ISSN 0267-8853 Website: www.ofimagazine.com

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The processing of coconut oil

Removing MCPDs and GEs from edible oil

DEEP FRYING

12

Rapid development in China

PACKAGING A member of FOSFA Oils & Fats International (USPS No: 020-747) is published eight times/year by Quartz Business Media Ltd and distributed in the USA by DSW, 75 Aberdeen Road, Emigsville PA 17318-0437. Periodicals postage paid at Emigsville, PA. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Oils & Fats c/o PO Box 437, Emigsville, PA 17318-0437 Published by Quartz Business Media Ltd Quartz House, 20 Clarendon Road Redhill, Surrey RH1 1QX, UK Tel: +44 (0)1737 855000 Fax: +44 (0)1737 855034 E-mail: oilsandfats@quartzltd.com

14

Ensuring quality and shelf life

PLANT, EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY

19

Plant & technology listing 2018

STATISTICS

22 @oilsandfatsint

Oils & Fats International

Market data and statistics

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Contents.indd 1

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PA LM OIL

Game of D drones

Rose Hales looks at the role of drones in oil palm plantation management and crop cultivation rones, also called unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or remotely piloted aerial systems (RPAS), are remotely controlled flying machines that since their earliest use in the 1930s, have become popular and are used extensively for various applications including news gathering, data collection and by the military. Using a drone is usually quicker, cheaper or safer than a piloted vehicle.

The machines vary in size, from large plane shaped drones, to small flying objects weighing less than 20kg.

Drones and agriculture The use of drones in agriculture is a market that has been increasing rapidly in recent years and looks set to continue. In June 2016, Research and Markets estimated the agricultural drone market to be worth US$864.4M and growing fast.

Agricultural drones are used across all farming sectors including vineyards and oil plantations, in particular soya and oil palm. According to an article in Technology Review in April 2014, drones are cheaper, offer higher resolution images that are unobstructed by clouds and are available anytime, compared to satellite imagery.

In addition, the article highlights the three types of detailed view that drones provide:  From the air, farmers can better observe patterns that expose many different issues, including irrigation problems, soil variation and pest and fungal infestations;  Drone cameras can take multispectral images, meaning they can capture data within spectrums such as infrared, as well as the visual spectrum. A combined view of multiple spectrums can give landowners a complex view of their plantings, specifically highlighting the difference between healthy and unhealthy crops;  Low-cost drones can survey an area of land as often as it is required, hourly, daily or monthly. Such data creates a “time-series animation” that clearly provides a farmer with information on trouble spots, or where crops can be managed better.

In the edible oil industry, drones have two main uses: policing of land use and controlling illegal deforestation; and increasing the efficiency and productivity of plantations.

This feature will focus on how drones can be used to improve productivity and increase plantation knowledge for oil palm and soya plantations.

In his presentation ‘From precision plantation preparation to management via drone-enabled GIS mapping and remote sensing’ at PIPOC 2015, Mustaqiim Modh Abidin of Braintree Technologies outlined the various uses and advantages of using drones to help manage oilseed plantations.

The advantages of using drones over any other form of monitoring such as manned vehicles like light aircraft or simple human monitoring from ground level are many, Abidin says. Drones: Have speed on their side and are able to perform monitoring or photography much quicker than any other method; Can be deployed any time when needed; Are not affected by cloud as they fly underneath them; Reduce surveyors’ exposure to risk; Can remotely survey areas that are inaccessible or hazardous; Can capture high resolution images; Are a cost effective solution.

PHOTO: PRECISIONHAWK

According to Abidin, drones for these uses come in two types, quadcopter and octopter (used for filming). The drones used for oil palm plantations cover 200-500ha/day; reach speeds of 47km/hour; fly at an altitude of 100-300m (without an additional license needed); have endurance of 30 minutes to three hours (depending on battery packs); have a wingspan of 2.12m; and take images with a resolution of 32 pixels/cm. Technology is developing fast, and more powerful and higher quality drones have already been developed. u

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PALM OIL

What is the process?

The drone’s journey is in three phases, phase A: data acquisition, phase B: data process analogy, and phase C: on-site implementation. Data is retrieved in order to make tangible changes on site in the plantation.

For phase A, the drone is launched, flying over the selected area performing aerial photo capture.

Once the area has been covered, the machine lands or is recovered.

In phase B, the images taken by the drone are stitched together to make a complete photo of the area. The complete photo is imported into a geographic information system (GIS software) for further analysis.

Analysis The GIS software can use the aerial photo for various purposes including tree counting, plantation preparation, irrigation or disease detection.

Tree counting analysis (shown in Figure 1, below) uses the high-resolution images taken by a drone to semi-automatically count the number of trees in each block.

Such technology allows growers to budget better and calculate the amount of fertiliser and pesticide needed.

Plantation preparation analysis involves ensuring only healthy trees grow in a plantation by identifying the terrain before planting and establishing a budget for costs.

Preparation prior to planting should also help to avoid disputes later on by estimating the number of trees expected for each land owner.

Aerial images obtained by drones can help agricultural cultivators to better irrigate their crops, which helps to avoid crop loss due to a shortage of water, and saves farmers money by reducing water waste.

By mapping the terrain, farmers can identify peaks to install water reservoirs and distribute

the water through primary and secondary pipes using gravity. With a detailed image of the area, the lengths and quantity of pipes can be easily calculated, allowing landowners to better estimate costs and minimise waste.

Finally, disease detection is an important use for drone technology. Information on the health of a plantation can be collected regularly, allowing managers to quickly detect and identify the location of an unhealthy palm for diagnosis and treatment, as well as track the spread and severity of disease.

This also provides a cost saving for farmers who can better manage their use of pesticides and react quickly to changing situations with the most up-todate information.

Drone use in practice The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) carried out trials in September 2015 in Sri Lanka using an eBee drone equipped with a nearinfrared sensor to detect plant stress, the Guardian reported.

Head of IWMI’s GIS remote sensing and data unit, Salman Siddiqui, said near-infrared technology could detect plant stress 10 days before it was visible to the human eye. Stress, caused by water or fertiliser shortage or pest attack, caused a decrease in photosynthetic activity, the report said, which affects chlorophyll. Chlorophyll levels can be detected by near-infrared technology and utilising this on drones could prevent large-scale crop losses.

In April 2015, Cargill announced in its palm oil sustainability report that it planned to begin using drones in Malaysia, which was then moving into the operational phase.

Cargill planned to use drones to “help us map and monitor valuable pieces of forest land that need to be protected, and improve land and water use, so that we can grow more on the same amount of land and manage our environmental footprint better.”

Cargill also said in September 2015 that it plans to use the drones to “respond to land use issues, promote conservation, increase plantation management transparency and aid in the identification of High Carbon Stock (HCS) and High Conservation Value (HCV) forest areas”.

The Guardian called the move “an interesting example of a company employing the methods used by conservation charities campaigning against it as a tool for its own sustainability strategy”.

In May 2015, Cargill began training a group of prospective pilots in Sandakan, Malaysia. The students were taught how to plan missions, use autopilot, gather and extract vision data and create photo mosaics.

According to Cargill, the first drone in its fleet was the Skywalker UAV – six-foot long, battery powered, fixed-wing, can take 2kg in weigh and can produce images with 10cm/pixel resolution.

It says it hoped the drones “will aid our progress towards fulfilling the promises outlined in our July 2014 palm oil policy”.

Drawbacks Like any emerging technology, using drones in agriculture is not without its challenges. An article in The Wire in October lists a number of the challenges that the technology is facing: Outdoor use is weather dependent; Sunlight and cloud cover can make images vary; Limited internet access and cellular infrastructure in many oil palm regions make it harder to rely on cloud-based computer services; Small landowners in emerging economies will experience higher costs; Flight time/battery is limited; Maintenance costs and resources; Operators need to be skilled and trained; Government regulation is still uncertain on many aspects of drone use and will need to be overcome before drones can be widely used. u

FIGURE 1: TREE COUNTING ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

PHOTO: PRECISIONHAWK

u

PLANT COUNTING ALLOWS FARMERS TO AUTOMATICALLY QUANTIFY THE SUCCESS OF A PLANTING ACCURATELY, REACT QUICKLY AND REPLANT IF NECESSARY

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PA LM OIL

PrecisionHawk mentions the “unique mapping perspectives” that can be obtained by drones.

Traditional methods of mapping plantations from an aerial view include satellites and helicopters, but satellite imagery is often out-dated and obtaining aerial photography via helicopter is expensive.

Drones offer an answer to both of these problems, being inexpensive and providing real-time data.

In addition to plantation management for tree health and productivity, the company says drones “add a new layer of security for large plantations by providing a perspective that may otherwise be inaccessible”.

In August 2016, it became the first US company to be given permission to fly its unmanned aerial vehicles beyond the visual line of sight in US airspace, TechCrunch reports.

Future of the technology

DRONES ARE A PART OF THE INCREASING TREND TOWARDS AUTOMATION IN FARMING THAT IS PROJECTED POSITIVELY IMPACT MARKET GROWTH AND PRODUCTIVITY

u

Key players Some key players in drone production worldwide include DJI Technology, China’s largest marker of commercial drones; Trimble Ltd located in California USA, which was founded in 1978; PrecisionHawk headquartered in North Carolina, USA, which was founded in 2010; Parrot Group headquartered in France is a leader in consumer drones and owns a commercial drone subsidiary called senseFly which was founded in 2009 and develops “situationally aware systems”; Kespry, located in California, USA and founded in 2013; and 3D Robotics also located in California, USA and founded in 2009.

Most drone producers are new companies responding to technological advances and demand for this technology for commercial use. As well as the drones themselves, companies are investing heavily in writing advanced software and computer programs to analyse the information obtained

by UAVs. In March 2016, DJI Technology announced it was expanding its network of drones in order to increase their use in agricultural functions. It planned to train 10,000 people across China to operate the drones and, in addition, will set up around 100 after-sales service centres.

The company launched its first farm drone in November 2015, the MG-1. Public relations officer of the company, Wang Fen, said specialised sales and after-sales service was required for this specific market.

In particular, the company notes the use of farm drones for spraying pesticides. It says an agricultural drone can load 10kg of pesticides and spray an area of up to 4ha/hour, making it around 40 times more efficient than a human.

According to DJI, there is huge potential for

growth in China for agricultural drones. It reports that the penetration rate is only 3% in China, compared to 50% in the USA and Japan.

PrecisionHawk launched a data analysis software platform called DataMapper in 2012, originally under the name PrecisionMapper. The software “automatically converts aerial data into georeferenced orthomosaics, features a library of on-demand analysis tools, and makes aerial data easy to share”, DataMapper says. The website also includes an AlgoMarket page, which was launched in June 2015, and displays available, compatible algorithms that are useful for various industries, including agriculture. These algorithms include a field uniformity tool, apps to measure plant height, canopy cover and green leaf index, and row based plant counting all built by PrecisionHawk. In 2015 the name was changed to DataMapper and the platform was opened to all drones (making it platform agnostic).

In November 2016, PrecisionHawk announced the launch of its Plant Counting algorithm, which allows farmers to automatically quantify the success of a planting accurately, react quickly and replant if necessary.

The company announced a partnership with DJI in May 2016 to launch what it calls the ‘Smarter Farming Package’. The package offers customers DJI’s hardware platform (as well as sensors and additional batteries), PrecisionHawk’s in-flight and infield analysis software, and access to its online DataMapper platform.

OFI spoke to PrecisionHawk about the work the company does specifically in oil palm plantations.

It says it is using its drone collection and accompanying analytics platform “for inventory management… as well as utilising its automated algorithms to count plants, assess overall health and measure individual tree crowns”.

In a report published in July 2015 on phys.org, Dr Juan Enciso, a research engineer at AgriLife reiterated that drones would soon play a major role in the challenges faced by the need to improve food crop productivity. He said drones could help an agricultural producer to “effectively manage his crops, improve yields and optimise resources, especially water”. Through the data collected by a drone, a grower could “make decisions about when and where to perform farming practices, like irrigating, fertilising or using insecticides”, he continued.

Drone-collected data is an efficient form of detecting stresses in plants. In addition to the current technology, phys.org reported that additional sensors were being evaluated for use on drones including ultrasound sensors to measure plant height, infrared thermometers to measure plant and soil temperatures, hyper-spectral sensors to measure relative leaf water content and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) which can establish how well a plant canopy is performing photosynthesis. Although at the time of writing, Enciso said work still needed to be done to identify which sensors would be the most useful, and if any could be combined to make them light enough to be carried on a drone.

Finally, economic assessments would take place to determine “exactly how much cheaper it is to fly over a crop than to do it on a tractor”.

The agricultural drone market is estimated to be worth between US$3,770M and US$4,209.2M by 2024. Research and Markets reported last June, that the market would be worth US$4,209.2M by 2022, and a report published by Grand View Research on 25 October 2016 said the market was expected to reach US$3,770M by 2024.

Grand View Research said increasing technological enhancements in equipment and for enhancing the quality of farming techniques have led to a sharp rise in drone use in agriculture. In addition, market growth will be positively impacted by an increase in automating the agricultural process due to a labour crisis caused by a decline in skilled labour and an aging population of farmers.

Although at the moment the major application for agricultural drones is field mapping, Research and Markets said that the market for drones for crop spraying is expected to grow at the highest rate between now and 2022. l Rose Hales is OFI’s former editorial assistant

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PHOTO: BEBEBALL/ADOBE STOCK

LA URIC OILS

The processing of coconut oil The high content of medium-chain fatty acids in coconut oil makes it a unique ‘fat-burning’ functional oil, according to S. P. Kochhar, who looks at how processing can give coconut oil a longer shelf-life and better health aspects

C

oconut oil is derived from copra, which is the dried kernel or ‘meat’ of coconut.

Coconuts are fruit of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L), which is cultivated in tropical coastal areas. The usual tall variety of coconut tree reaches a height of over 30m. Typically, fresh coconut kernel contains (by % of weight), moisture (50%), oil (34%), carbohydrate (7.3%), protein (3.5%), fibre (3.0%) and ash (2.2%) (Canapi et al 2005).

World production of coconut oil (CNO) or copra oil is about 3.4M tonnes, about half of which is traded internationally. The main producing countries are India, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Solomon

Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand and West Malaysia.

The Philippines and Indonesia are major exporters, while the EU countries and USA are major importers. CNO is a lauric oil (about 50% lauric acid) similar in composition to palm kernel and babassu oils. In addition to triacylglycerols and free fatty acids, crude CNO also contains 0.51.5% unsaponifiable matter (Codex, 2009). This material consists mainly of sterols, tocopherols, squalene, pigments and odour compounds (such as lactones). The pleasant odour and taste of CNO when extracted from fresh material is mainly due to γ- and δ-lactones, present in trace amounts. γ-Valerolactone is considered to be responsible for the characteristic taste of coconut oil. u

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u Production

and processing

Coconut oil is generally classified into two categories: virgin coconut oil and refined, bleached and deodorised (RBD) coconut oil. Both types are referred to as pure coconut oil, and the main difference is in the production and refining process.

PHOTO: ADOBE STOCK

LA URIC OILS

REFINED COCONUT OIL The first step in CNO production is dehulling, which involves cracking the shell to take out the meat or kernel. The kernel contains about 50% moisture, and it is dried to a moisture content of 6-8% before oil extraction. This can be achieved by drying the kernel under the sun, with direct heat or through the use of hot air. The dried kernel, known as copra, has an oil content of about 64%. Usually, the oil is extracted from the copra by pressing in screw presses (expellers), followed by solvent extraction to recover the residual oil from the cake.

The crude CNO is then refined by traditional chemical or physical refining steps to remove impurities. making it suitable for human consumption and better prolonged shelf life.

In traditional physical refining, the crude oil is first treated with 0.05-0.1% aqueous phosphoric acid or a mixture of citric and phosphoric acid (plus a small amount of natural antioxidant, namely �-tocopherol 50mg/kg, as a processing aid to enhance shelf life) to remove phospholipids and heated to 80-90OC for 20-30 minutes. The pre-treated oil is then bleached with a mixture of bleaching earth and activated carbon (10:1 ratio) at 90-95OC for 20-30 minutes and finally de-acidified/steam deodorised at 220240OC under vacuum for about one hour. Due to the removal of desirable odour components in the last stage of refining, the RBD coconut oil possess little or no ‘typical’ pleasant coconut odour and taste.

VIRGIN COCONUT OIL Virgin coconut oil (VCNO) is extracted from fresh coconut milk obtained from the mature kernel of a coconut by mechanical means with or without heat application. Generally, the following steps are used to produce quality grade VCNO:

THE FIRST STEP IN COCONUT OIL PRODUCTION IS DEHULLING, WHICH INVOLVES CRACKING THE SHELL TO REMOVE THE KERNEL

t De-husking of coconuts; de-shelling; removal of brown testa; blanching; draining; grinding; grinded ‘meat’; press; coconut milk; centrifugation; separators

(2 or 3); oil (28-30OC); heat exchanger; vacuum drying; and filter.

TABLE 1: QUALITY CRITERIA LIMITS FOR REFINED COCONUT OIL (CNO) AND VIRGIN COCONUT OIL (VCNO) Parameter CNO VCNO Moisture (% weight)

0.1 max

0.2 max

1.448-1.450

1.448-1.449

0.05

0.05

≤ 0.15

0.2-0.5

Acid value (% lauric acid)

0.1 max

0.2 max

Peroxide value (meq O2 /kg)

1.0 max

1.5 max

Induction period (hrs) at 100OC

123-132

200-232

Trans fatty acids (% weight)

0.5 max

0-0.1 max

Copper (Cu)

0.1 max

0.4 max

Iron (Fe)

1.5 max

5.0 max

Refractive index (40 C) O

Insoluble material (% weight) Unsaponifiable matter (% weight)

Trace metals (mg/kg)

Note: Induction period indicates oxidative stability of the oil, which provides the likely oil shelf life SOURCE: IBRAHIM (2011); KOCHHAR (2016); APCC (ASIAN AND PACIFIC COCONUT COMMUNITY STANDARDS FOR VCNO)

Coconut milk is a natural oil-in-water emulsion.

The oil separated by centrifugation is filtered to remove any solids present. The residue, flake/ defatted desiccated coconut is dried and is often used as flour. Virgin coconut oil processed without any refining or deodorisation is colourless and has natural fresh coconut aroma and taste. VCNO is gaining popularity worldwide; the oxidative stability (shelf life) as well as health benefits of virgin coconut oil is better than that of RBD coconut oil – mainly due to its comparatively higher contents of tocopherols, polyphenols and other bio-active compounds.

Since VCNO and CNO come from the same source (coconut kernel or ‘meat’), differing only in the way they are processed, the major characteristics of the two oils are very similar. Quality criteria limits for RBD coconut oil and virgin coconut oil are presented in Table 1 (left).

Some physical characteristics, typical fatty acid composition and Codex ranges of coconut oil are shown in Table 2 (see opposite page). It can be seen that CNO contains about 92% saturated fatty acids; this makes the crude oil very stable against oxidation. However, RBD oil has less oxidative stability compared to the crude oil due to some

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LAURIC OILS

losses in natural antioxidants (tocopherols) during the refining process. The crude oil also contains, apart from unsaponifiable components, small amounts of protein, crude fibre and trace metals such as iron, lead and copper.

Most of these undesirable materials are removed during the refining, bleaching and deodorisation process. By applying modern technologies and refining under optimal conditions, the losses in contents of desirable minor components such sterols and tocopherols are minimised to 10 to 15% of their respective original amounts present in crude oil. The shelf life (oxidative stability) of the refined oil can be improved considerably by dosing with citric acid solution (as a chelating agent of any residual pro-oxidant trace metals) during the cooling stage of deodorisation.

Sterols composition (% of total) and Codex ranges of coconut oil are presented in Table 3 (right). It can be seen that total sterols amount to about 800 mg/kg of oil and the major ones present are β-sitosterol (about 47%) and ∆5-avenasterol (about 27%). On comparison with palm kernel oil, coconut oil contains less β-sitosterol and more ∆5-avenasterol. The ratio of β-sitosterol to ∆5-avenasterol is about 1.8 in coconut oil and about 11.6 in palm kernel oil. The determination of this ratio will add extra support to assess any adulteration of palm kernel oil into pure refined coconut oil or virgin coconut oil, which is analysed by fatty acid composition data alone.

The total tocopherols content of coconut oil vary from trace to 50 mg/kg, and Codex ranges of individual tocopherols content (mg/kg) are reported: α-tocopherol (nd-17), β-tocopherol (nd11 ), �-tocopherol (nd-14 ), α-tocotrienol (nd-44) and �-tocotrienol (nd-1; nd = not detected).

Fatty acids with 8 to 12 carbon atoms are classified as medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs). The sum of MCFAs in coconut oil is about 62%, which makes the oil the richest source of MCFAs among vegetable oils. In spite of being highly saturated, the oil has a relatively low melting point since it contains mainly short- and medium-chain fatty acids. Therefore, coconut oil can be used without any modification in a vast variety of food products.

Uses in food and oleochemicals Coconut oil, which has a high quality image, is used for a vast variety of food products but its nonfood, oleochemical use is also very large. Coconut oil is commonly used as a frying medium (mainly shallow frying for domestic purpose, but also on small scale deep-frying e.g. frying banana chips in South India) in tropical countries, especially in the Philippines and India. However, it is not suitable for industrial frying due to the liberation of quite volatile medium-chain fatty acids, which causes excessive smoke development.

Coconut oil is very popular for use in personal care products. It is interesting to note that the products (medium-chain triglycerides [MCTs]) made from glycerol and coconut fatty acids (caprylic C8:0 and capric C10:0) are easily absorbed in the digestive tract (List, 2016). Therefore, MCTs are used as an immediate energy source in the body, avoiding being stored in adipose tissue and are thus useful ingredients in sports foods, infant foods and in clinical nutrition applications. There are also many commercial products that use lauric acid and monolaurin as antimicrobial agents.

TABLE 2: SOME CHARACTERISTICS, FATTY ACID COMPOSITION AND CODEX RANGES OF CNO Parameter

Mean

Range

Codex 2009

8.5

6.3-10.8

6.3-10.6

24.1

23.0-25.0

-

C6:0

0.4

0-0.6

nd-0.7

C8:0

7.3

4.6-9.4

4.6-10.0

C10:0

6.6

5.5-7.8

5.0-8.0

C12:0

47.8

45.1-50.3

45.1-53.2

C14:0

18.1

16.8-20.6

16.8-21.0

C16:0

8.9

7.7-10.6

7.5-10.2

C18:0

2.7

2.5-3.5

2.0-4.0

C18:1

6.4

5.4-8.1

5.0-10.0

C18:2

1.6

1.0-2.1

1.0-2.5

C18:3

-

-

nd-0.2

C20:0

0.1

0-0.2

nd-0.2

Iodine value Slip melting point (OC) Fatty acid (% weight)

TABLE 3: STEROLS COMPOSITION (% OF TOTAL) AND CODEX RANGES OF CNO Parameter

Mean

Range

Codex

Cholesterol

1.7

0.6-3.0

nd-3.0

Brassicasterol

0.5

nd-0.09

nd-0.3

Campesterol

8.7

7.5-10.2

6.0-11.2

Stigmasterol

12.5

11.4-13.7

11.4-15.6

β-Sitosterol

46.7

42.0-52.7

32.6-50.7

Δ -Avenasterol

26.6

20.4-35.7

20.0-40.7

Δ -Stigmastenol

2.4

nd-3.0

nd-3.0

Δ -Avenasterol

1.1

0.6-3.0

nd-3.0

Others

1.1

nd-3.6

nd-3.6

Total (mg/kg)

807

470-1,110

400-1,200

5

7

7

SOURCE: IBRAHIM (2011); CODEX ALIMENTARIUS (2009). KEY: ND = NOT DETECTED

Health aspects Coconut oil is high in lauric acid (45-50%) and a rich source of MCTs. Many of the health claims of CN0 correspond to these unique property contents.

Studies conducted on people living on Pacific Islands, where coconut oil constituted 30-60% of calories, have shown nearly non-existent rates of cardiovascular disease, and the inhabitants are healthy and trim.

Several positive health benefits of coconut oil are reported to include heart health, promotion of weight loss, better immune system health, healthy skin and thyroid function. Recently, Dayrit (2015) has reviewed in depth the mechanistic support for various beneficial effects of coconut oil. The positive supplementation effects of consuming VCNO on quality of life among breast cancer patients have been reported (Law et al, 2014).

From animal studies, it has been reported that CNO supplementation reduces the blood pressure and oxidative stress in spontaneously hypertensive rats (Bendeira-Alves et al, 2014).

In the body, the lauric acid containing MCTs are converted into monolaurin, which reportedly has antiviral, antibacterial, and antiprotoza properties.

It is claimed this monoglyceride is capable of destroying lipid-coated viruses such as HIV, herpes, measles, pathogenic bacteria, and giardia lamblila protozoa (List, 2016).

Moreover, lauric acid has also been reported to have a more favourable effect on lowering HDL cholesterol ratio than other higher chain saturated fatty acids (Mensink et al, 2003). Coconut oil containing about two-thirds medium-chain fatty acids can permeate cell membranes easily. In other words, they are easily digested and sent directly to the liver where they are converted to energy rather than stored as fat. This is why CNO is sometimes reported as being a ‘fat-burning’ health beneficial oil, which should be taken as a part of balanced diet and active lifestyle. l This feature was written by S P Kochhar, Speciality Oils, Antioxidants and Functional Lipids Consultant, Reading, UK. For references, please go to www.ofimagazine.com/ processingcoconutoil

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DEEP FRYING

IN 2016, CHINA PRODUCED AROUND 1.35M TONNES OF FRYING OIL PHOTO: ADOBE STOCK

Rapid development in China F China has the world’s largest food consumer market. With increasing demand from the food industry, catering sector and household use, production of frying oil is expected to rise by 7-8%/year to reach 17-18M tonnes in 2020, according to Ruiyuan Wang and Prof Xingguo Wang

ried food is popular all over the world, imparting incomparable colour, flavour, texture and taste to food products.

Americans love fried chicken, doughnuts, and potato chips. The Japanese are fond of tempura and instant noodles.

In China, it is estimated that the annual output value of fried food in 2016 was more than RMB250bn (US$40bn) including convenience food, leisure food and fast food (see Table 1, following page).

China has the world’s largest food consumer market with a population of 1.3bn people. As the country’s economy steadily develops, an improvement in living standards and a change in eating patterns is occurring, and the food industry is entering a period of rapid development.

China’s per capita consumption of edible oils is 24.8kg and its total consumption was 34.265M tonnes in 2015-2016. ‘Special’ oils and fats, including frying oil, only account for 8% of China’s total edible oil consumption.

In 2016, China’s special oil production totalled 2.75M tonnes in 2016, with frying oil accounting for nearly half of this total, at 1.35M tonnes (see Table 2, following page).

Frying is one of several traditional food processing techniques in China, both in family and restaurant cooking. The frying oil segment is therefore an important part of the Chinese special oil market, and frying oil is an indispensable raw material in Chinese cuisine.

In China, almost all varieties of oils can used for frying, including vegetable oil, animal fat and blended oils and fat products, such as margarine and shortening.

Palm oil and its fractionated products are widely used in the catering and food industries due to their high stability in frying, good taste, stable supply and low prices.

Many regions in China also use other oils for frying, such as soyabean oil. In terms of yield and price, soyabean oil is the most consumed vegetable oil in China today.

In traditional fried food, such as fritters, soyabean oil is preferred due to its flavor and taste.

Current frying oil consumption In China, frying oil is mainly used in household and catering, fast food and industry frying. Ordinary cooking oil and blending oil are usually used but

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DEEP FRYING

their consumption is not included in special frying oil consumption figures.

In terms of the proportion and amount of frying oil used in 2016, the total was 3.6M tonnes, with 2.5M tonnes going towards Western food (76.04%), one million tonnes (19.79%) used for instant noodles, and 0.1M tonnes (4.17%) for potato chips and other snack food (see Figure 1, below right).

It is estimated that the edible oil consumption of the Chinese catering industry totals some 10M tonnes, of which about one-third is used for panfrying, with deep-frying not generally counted in the special frying oils category.

The effect of frying Frying is a process in which food is cooked in oil or fat, combining thermal dehydration and decoction (the process of boiling a substance in water to extract its essence) processing from the food surface to the interior.

Suitable frying oil should have the following characteristics: n The content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PFAs) should be lower, ideally below 30%, because PFAs are more unstable at high temperature. n There should be a low content of impurities and a high smoke point. n There should be high oxidation stability. In China, frying oil often contains a certain amount of solid fat in order to impart a better flavour to fried products.

Frying oil can contribute many important characteristics to fried foods, including texture, flavour, taste, shape, colour and aftertaste. It can enhance the nutrients of foods and kill bacteria, prolonging the shelf life of foods effectively.

The oil plays two roles in the process of frying.

One is as the heat transfer medium between the food and equipment. The oil also transports, enhances, and releases the flavour of other components, forming a good texture and taste.

During frying, the oil – along with the fat-soluble nutrients – is absorbed into foods. This can increase the energy content of the food and its nutrients.

The oil will be also be subjected to many desirable and undesirable physical and chemical reactions. It also penetrates into the food, which can influence the quality and nutrition of fried foods.

Studies indicate that the quality of fried foods and corresponding frying oil are closely related.

Therefore, the frying oil’s quality can directly influence the fried foods’ quality and health of consumers. The quality of fried food can be guaranteed by controlling the quality of the frying oil.

Frying oil standards Along with most countries in the world, China has not yet developed national standards for frying oil products. Instead, frying oils usually follow the national quality standard for cooking oil.

However, in order to standardise and promote the development of the frying industry, as well as better adapt to the requirements of modern food processing, China began developing industry standards for frying oil products in 2016 to differentiate them from other oils.

Specific standards for frying oil are necessary

TABLE 1: ANNUAL OUTPUT VALUE OF FRIED FOOD IN CHINA, 2016 (BILLION RMB) Products

Output value

Convenience food

4.3 (US$0.68bn)

Leisure food

34.5 (US$5.49bn)

Western cuisine

86.0 (US$13.68bn)

Chinese cuisine

86.5 (US$13.76bn)

TOTAL

250.0 (US$39.76)

oil) or when the polar component content (the main component is the oxidative polymer and hydrolyzate) reaches 27%.

Some large catering and food processing enterprises in China have also had good manufacturing practices (GMP) for frying operations in place for many years.

For the recovery of waste oil and resource conversion, the Chinese government has formulated strict regulatory requirements to prevent the misuse of used cooking oil.

SOURCE: RUIYUAN WANG, 9TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON DEEP FRYING, CHINA, OCTOBER 2017

Development prospects

TABLE 2: CHINESE MARKET OF SPECIAL OILS AND FATS (MILLION TONNES)

The development of frying oil in China tallies with plans for the grain and oil processing industry in the social and economic development initiatives of the 13th Five-Year Plan, 2016-2020.

The initiatives promote structural reform in the supply side of the edible oil industry, making it important to actively develop special oils such as shortenings and frying oils.

Since 1980s, the development of fried food in China has gone through several stages.

Traditional fried food continues to be popular today, including classic snacks such as the Tianjin fried dough twist.

The 1980s saw the introduction of fried instant food with a long shelf life, such as instant noodles.

In the early 1990s, US food giants – such as McDonald’s and KFC – entered the country. Now, fried products such as fried chicken and french fries form a huge part of the industry.

According to the China food chain association, the number of Western fast food stores was 13,671 in 2014, 14,486 in 2015 and 16,083 in 2016, and is increasing year by year Within the last decade, Chinese restaurants have become more industrial and convenient. Chinesestyle fast food, in particular, has taken over a large share of the domestic fast food market through competitive pricing and the variety of food its offers.

This has provided the frying industry with rapid expansion opportunities.

As well as expanding use in the food and catering industries, frying oil use will also develop in families with the introduction of refined and diversified household special frying oils.

To meet the demands of individual consumption in families, more oils with different compositions will be manufactured.

Lipid scientists have developed a new generation of frying oils that are tasty and nutritionally balanced, contain endogenous natural antioxidants, and where health hazards such as trans fatty acids and 3-MCPDs are minimised.

For example, blends with high-oleic rapeseed oil and high-oleic sunflower oil have proved to be excellent frying oils, and have good potential in fast food chain restaurants.

Taking into account the demand from the food industry, catering sector and domestic use, the production of frying oil in China will develop rapidly and is expected to increase at a rate of 7-8%/year to reach 17-18M tonnes in 2020. l This article is based on a presentation made at the 9th International Symposium on Deep Frying in Shanghai, China, on 30-31 October 2017 by Ruiyuan Wang, chief expert at the China Cereals and Oils Association (CCOA) and president of its oil branch; and Xingguo Wang, a professor at Jiangnan University

Products

Usage amount

Shortening

0.40

Frying oil

1.35

Cocoa butter substitute

0.20

Baking lipids

0.50

Emulsifier

0.15

Baby food lipid

0.08

Sandwich, coating etc

0.05

Other lipids

0.02

TOTAL

2.75

SOURCE: RUIYUAN WANG, 9TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON DEEP FRYING, CHINA, OCTOBER 2017

FIGURE 1: PROPORTION AND AMOUNT OF FRYING OIL USE, 2016 Western foods (2.5M tonnes) Instant noodles (1M tonnes) Potato chips and other snack foods (0.1M tonnes) 4.17%

19.79%

76.04%

SOURCE: RUIYUAN WANG

because oil deterioration occurs more easily during the lasting and intense high temperature created by frying.

The key to food frying is process management, and China has some of the most stringent standards relating to the frying process.

In order to better implement frying process management, China is accelerating the establishment and improvement of fried food production, management and standard systems covering the whole industry chain including raw and auxiliary materials, additives, end products and waste oil treatment, which includes quality standards, operation norms, arbitration methods and quick check methods.

China’s ‘hygienic standard for edible vegetable oils used in frying food’ stipulates that oil should be discarded when the acid value reaches 5mg KOH/g (5mg of potassium hydroxide per gram of

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PA CKA GING

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Ensuring quality and shelf life When it comes to oils and fats, good things can come in many packages, with metal, glass and plastic all utilised today. Each material offers advantages and drawbacks. Other factors – such as oil-package interactions, packaging geometry and filling and capping systems – must also be taken into account to ensure product quality

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ackaging is a very important factor for any food product and, when it comes to edible oils, incorrect storage practices can influence the sensory quality of an oil, leading to rancidity and off-flavours.

Oils and fats spoil due to environmental factors that affect their stability, namely oxygen, moisture, heat and light, according an Indian Centre for Plastic in the Environment (ICPE) publication.

Oxygen is the most critical factor affecting stability. The presence of oxygen leads to oxidation and formation of hydroperoxides and peroxides and then aldehydes and ketones, resulting in off-odours.

These reactions increase in rate and intensity in the presence of light and heat.

Each oil or fat has a different degree of susceptibility to oxidation, depending on their fatty acid composition. Oils containing a high degree of unsaturated fatty acids – such as safflower, soya and sunflower – are highly prone to oxidative rancidity, whereas oils with a high degree of saturated fatty acids are less susceptible, the ICPE says.

In unrefined oil, natural antioxidants are present and the oil is therefore less prone to rancidity compared with refined oil, when antioxidants are removed during the refining process. Often, oil manufacturers will then add antioxidants to refined oil in order to extend the shelf-life of the product.

Oxygen may gain access to oils or fats in several ways. Atmospheric oxygen may be present in the oil. It may also be present in the headspace of the package, or may enter the package through the body or the seals.

Another important factor that contributes to the deterioration of oil is moisture, with even very small amounts of moisture being detrimental.

Hydrolysis of triglycerides results in the formation of glycerol and free fatty acids, and off-flavours may occur due to hydrolytic rancidity.

This is more common in oil and fats with high levels of saturated fatty acids. Moisture may also gain entry through the body or seams of packaging by permeation.

Light and heat act as initiators of oxidation reactions, which ultimately lead to degradation.

Therefore, control of these factors is also important.

Traditionally, oil and fats were packed in tinplate

PLASTIC BOTTLES HAVE BEEN INCREASINGLY USED TO PACKAGE EDIBLE OILS IN RECENT YEARS DUE TO THEIR RELATIVELY LOW PRICE AND WEIGHT AND EASE OF HANDLING.

containers but other types of packaging, such as plastic containers, lined cartons and flexible pouches are now used, says the ICPE. Today, the array and availability of packaging materials, sizes and shapes of package construction are unlimited. Modern packaging technology provides many opportunities to maintain product protection while reducing the cost. Any packaging system for edible oils and fats should be: n Non-toxic and compatible Protect against environmental factors n Machineable n Leak-proof and transport-worthy n Easy to store, use and handle

Packaging selection Marketing and economics are usually the factors driving the selection of packaging. However, proper packaging will provide the conditions to ensure adequate shelf life for distribution and sale, according to the Luciano Piergiovanni and Sara Limbo of the Department of Food Science and Microbiology, University of Milan, Italy.

Even though oils are quite stable products, physicochemical characteristics of packaging materials may significantly affect oil quality during their shelf life, they write in the book, ‘Food Packaging and Shelf Life – a Practical Guide’.

In addition, packaging geometry, and filling and closing techniques may also be very important.

Physicochemical characteristics: Oxygen permeability and ultraviolet (UV)/visible light transmission are the major physicochemical factors, due to the oxidative sensitivity of vegetable oils.

Oxygen permeability applies to plastic materials

only, whereas light transmission is important for glass and plastic. Many additives are available to reduce UV transmission in both plastics and glass.

Packaging geometry: The geometry of packaging can act in different ways to protect the product. The size and shape of plastic packages can affect the ratio between permeable surface area and product volume. For plastic, glass or metal packages, shape and size can influence the headspace and, therefore, the amount of oxygen available.

Filling and capping: The filling and capping steps are relevant in the process of oil packaging. In order to reduce the residual oxygen inside bottles, the oil is generally stripped with gaseous nitrogen to lower the initial level to below 0.5ppm. Gaseous nitrogen can be pressurised by injecting liquid nitrogen into the headspace prior to closing.

The effectiveness of closures is also important in order to reduce oxygen ingress during shelf life. Closure efficiency is related to several factors including material used, design and liner adopted.

These factors must guarantee hermeticity, easy opening and the possibility of reclosing. As these goals are sometimes contradictory, efforts to develop new devices is ongoing, including the use of active and intelligent packaging.

Oil-package interactions: Selection of packaging materials may also be made based on their interaction with oils. Oil-package interactions can affect product shelf life, reducing nutritional value and stability – by scalping – or increasing the level of chemical contamination by migration.

Generally speaking, glass is the most inert material, followed by metals and plastics. Plastic

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packaging can absorb different compounds from food in a phenomenon called scalping (sorption).

In particular, flavour scalping is a term used to describe the loss of quality of a packaged food due to either its volatile flavors being absorbed by the package or the food absorbing undesirable flavours from the packaging material. Several investigations have shown that considerable amounts of aroma compounds can be absorbed by plastic packaging materials, resulting in loss of aroma intensity or unbalanced flavour profiles.

In addition, non-volatile compounds may be absorbed by packaging materials, affecting the packaging itself, such as its permeability, barrier and mechanical properties, or causing delamination of multi-layer package.

Migration is an important safety aspect to be considered when selecting food packaging materials.

Plastic additives and residual monomers or oligomers are not chemically bound to the polymermolecules and can, therefore, move freely within the polymer matrix. Consequently, at the interface between the packaging material and food, they can dissolve in the food product and adversely affect the flavour and acceptability of the food.

The chemical nature of the packaging material has a notable influence on oil quality.

A review by Kanavouras et al (2006) suggested that edible oils should not be stored in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic materials as vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and plasticisers can migrate into fatty foods, leading to the contamination of the oils.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is one of the most inert plastics and, in recent years, packing of oil into PET bottles has increased. Nevertheless, PET monomers, oligomers (cyclic trimers, pentamers, heptamers), plasticisers, colourants, stabilisers and different additives used for flexibility purposes are all prone to migration.The migration of acetaldehyde from PET bottles is a major problem, as its presence may affect the organoleptic properties of oil.

In general, PET bottles are usually considered suitable to contain not only seed oil but also olive oil.

Packaging materials Metal: Tinplate containers have been used for a long time for oil packaging and are still appreciated because of their many advantages. They provide total protection against light, oxygen, water vapour and micro-organisms.

In addition, the inside of the container is protected with food-approved special enamels (lacquers) that protect the metal from the corrosiveness of the product.

Edible oils are generally packed in tinplate containers of different capacities, typically from 500g to 15kg.

The quality of oil packed in new containers can remain unchanged for a year. However, reuse of containers increases corrosion of the tin coating and the exposed steel base readily reacts with the free fatty acids in oil, leading to oxidative rancidity and organic tin salts with high toxicity.

Aluminium is also employed as a packaging material for edible oils as it is light and highly resistant to corrosion. In order to increase its mechanical resistance, aluminium alloys with small amounts of magnesium, manganese, and magnesium silicide are recommended.

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PA CKA GING

COLOURED GLASS BOTTLES ARE WIDELY USED TO PACKAGE OLIVE OILS TO PREVENT OR SLOW THE OXIDATION PROCESS

All these metallic containers are considered inert against oils, even though trace levels of metal ions – such as iron and copper – are known to have adverse effects on the oxidative stability of olive oil.

Glass: Glass bottles are heavy and fragile but are widely used for bottling olive oils and virgin olive oils in particular. This is not only due to marketing factors but also because glass containers prevent the permeation of oxygen molecules into the bottle, slowing down the autoxidation rate.

Transparent glass, however, leads to photooxidation of olive oil and reduction of its shelf life.

The use of coloured glass bottles prevents or slows down the oxidation process.

Metal and glass are the only packaging materials that provide a virtually total barrier to moisture and gases. The word ‘virtually’ is used because such containers require a closure that incorporates other materials, such as polymeric sealing compounds in cans and in closures, through which oxygen can easily permeate and promote oxidation.

The shelf life of edible oils packaged in metal containers or non-transparent glass bottles is dictated by the initial quality of the oil, processing conditions and filling operations.

Plastic: Plastic containers are a relatively new means of packaging edible oil and have been increasingly used in recent years due to their relatively low price and weight and ease of handling.

The polymers most frequently used are PET, high density polyethylene (HDPE) and PVC. Although they do not provide as long a shelf life as metal containers, they are economical and suitable for use where a very long shelf life is not required.

PET is one of the most commonly used plastics in food packaging covering a wide range of

packaging structures. It satisfies many important requirements including good aesthetic aspect with brilliance and transparency; suitability for colouring; good mechanical, thermal, and chemical resistance; low production cost; good barrier properties against CO2; suitability for prolonged storage, easy recyclability and low weight.

The trend toward incorporating modifier compounds into PET packaging resins has grown in order to produce containers with a high degree of clarity, in a wide variety of custom shapes, and free from residual acetaldehyde.

In addition, the incorporation of antioxidant stabilisers in PET increases its application in the food area, particularly for vegetable oil storage.

HDPE is largely used as a packaging material because of its tensile strength and hardness and good chemical resistance. Blow-moulded HDPE containers in the form of bottles, jars, and jerry cans are used for packaging edible oils.

PVC is a popular packaging material for edible oils in many countries, mainly due to its transparency, adaptability to all types of closures, total compatibility with existing packaging lines, and potential for personalised design features.

Mainly driven by issues such as the protection of the environment, PET has been supplanting PVC in the edible oil market.

As with other transparent plastic materials, PVC increases light exposure of the oil, enhancing oxidation. UV absorbers can be added to plastic materials in order to reduce their light transmission.

Multi-layer pouches and paper-based cartons: In recent years, the adoption of multi-layer pouches for oil storage has increased due to consumer preference for unit packages. Generally, limited quantities of edible oil are packed in flexible pouches (up to 500g). Flexible pouches may be manufactured from laminates or multi-layered films of different compositions and the pouches may be in the form of a pillow or stand-up pouch.

The selection of a laminate or multi-layer film is governed primarily by the compatibility of the contact layer, heat sealability, heat seal strength, and shelf life required, together with machinability and physical strength parameters.

Active packaging: In order to reduce the diffusion of oxygen into bottled oil, various solutions have been used. The most popular involves the use of ‘oxygen scavengers’ (OS), which remove oxygen dissolved in the oil and provide a barrier to oxygen diffusion from the atmosphere. These scavengers can be easily incorporated into the packing material without altering its other properties.

Conclusion With such a wide array of packaging materials available to oils and fats manufacturers, the selection of packaging combines both marketing, product quality and economic factors.

Good packaging will ensure product safety and quality, as well as contributing to low wastage and better logistics. It will also ensure good shelf appeal, branding and visibility. l This article is based on information from Chapter 17 of the book, ‘Food Packaging and Shelf Life – a Practical Guide’, written by Luciano Piergiovanni and Sara Limbo of the Department of Food Science and Microbiology, University of Milan, Italy

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BLEA CHING EA RTHS

Removing MCPDs and GEs from edible oil Bleaching earths alone cannot provide a complete solution to the formation of 3- and 2-MCPDs and GEs in edible oils. Preston Shanks explains how different oil types and their quality can affect the level of these potentially carcinogenic compounds and the role that heat- and acid-activated bleaching earths can play

T

he reduction of 3-MCPD esters and glycidic esters (GE) is a high priority for the oils and fats industry. On 26 February 2018, the EU enacted Regulation (EU) 2018/290, amending the earlier Regulation (EU) 1881/2006.

The amendment sets maximum limits for glycidyl fatty acid esters or GEs, with the level for edible oils and fats set at 1ppm (see annex to regulation EC No 1881/2006). It covers:  Vegetable oils and fats placed on the market for the final consumer (maximum 1,000µg/kg)  Vegetable oils and fats for the production of baby food and processed cereal-based food for infants and young children (maximum 500µg/kg)  Powder infant formula, follow-on formula and foods for special medical purposes (75µg/kg until 30 June 2019, then 50µg/kg from 1 July 2019)  Liquid infant formula, follow-on formula and foods for special medical purposes (10µg/kg until 30 June 2019, then 6µg/kg from 1 July 2019) In addition, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published the “Update of the risk assessment on 3-monochloropropane diol (3-MCPD) and its fatty acid esters” in January 2018. In its scientific assessment, the EFSA set a tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 2µg/kg body weight per day (0.002ppm/kg body weight) for free 3-MCPD. The EFSA found palm oil and palm fats to have the highest levels of 3-MCPD, 2-MCPD (including esters) and GEs. Roughly 6M tonnes of tropical

fats are refined across Europe, with 90% refined in the EU. Given the EFSA findings, it is likely to be a question of when, rather than if, the EU regulates 3- and 2-MCPDs as well. Palm oil is found to have 3-MCPD esters in its refined oil and the esters are also present in soft oils. Glycidol is considered a genotoxic carcinogenic compound and 3-MCPD is a non-genotoxic carcinogen.

To solve or comply with this issue of carcinogenic compounds, each step from the plantation to the final refined bleached deodorised (RBD) product must be considered. GEs are produced during the deodorising stage from partial glycerides, such as diacyl glycerides (DAG) at temperatures in excess of 230°C. Bleaching earth does not affect the production of GE but does remove it from RBD palm oil.

A post-deodorising bleaching step adds significant cost incurred by effectively double-refining the RBD oil. This route also means that during the required additional deodorisation step, GE may again form and would have to be monitored. Post-deodoriser bleaching with activated bleaching earth can also convert GEs to monoglyceride by acid catalysis (there is no reduction of 3-MCPD during this bleaching step).

The alternative is to deodorise at a lower temperature to prevent the production of GEs. However, this has concerns of free fatty acid (FFA) reduction, organoleptic quality and stability criteria. Adding additional refinery capacity would overcome any production bottleneck but at a cost.

Caustic refining remains an expensive choice with high refinery losses and greater environmental considerations of soap-stock treatment. As far as

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PHOTO: CARLO DANI

GE is considered, a lower deodorising temperature is the preferred route. For 3-MCPD, the EU awaits the outcome of further assessments of 3-MCPD and its fatty acid esters.

3-MCPD precursors The mitigation of 3-MCPD depends on several criteria, including production of crude palm oil (CPO) from the fruit bunches, the design of the refinery, the oil/fat in question, processing criteria and the type of bleaching earth used. All have their parts to play.

The chlorine precursors leading to the formation of 3-MCPD esters are reported as inorganic chlorine from water treatment, including ferric chloride, fertilisers, acid conditions that give rise to organochlorine compounds in the CPO, and hydrochloric acid (HCl)-activated bleaching earth containing chloride. A low partial glycerides content assists in mitigating 3-MCPD formation.

GEs may be formed from DAG during deodorising at high temperatures of more than 230°C. CPO typically has a DAG content greater than 5% within a range of 5-12%. Reports of no apparent correlation between mono acyl glycerides (monoglycerides) and 3-MCPD formation leave the DAG as a source of 3-MCPD formation during deodorising. A high FFA content will also increase levels of 3-MCPD esters during deodorisation.

GEs can also be formed from MCPD mono-esters but due to the almost total lack of this mono-ester compound and low conversion rates (approximately 20%) they are not discussed further. CPO with a low DAG content (max 4%) and low FFA (<1.5%) is desirable to assist in reduced 3- MCPD formation, but this level of DAG and FFA in the CPO is difficult to guarantee.

Bleaching earth considerations Acid activated bleaching earths have traditionally been the most effective products in the bleaching of edible oils and fats. Furthermore, acid activated calcium montmorillonite (bentonite) clay products have been dominant in this area.

Other natural activated bleaching earths (NABEs), such as attapulgite and sepiolite clays, are alternatives. They are not acid activated but may also be utilised in the bleaching process.

Acid activated clays are capable of bleaching the most challenging of oils but, during the 1980s, attapulgite/sepiolite heat activated clays were increasingly promoted. These clays were not acid activated with mineral acid but were capable of heat activation, which increased the surface area.

Whilst effective on good quality oils, the heat activated NABE products were found to be less effective with the more challenging edible oil applications, especially in respect to colour removal in general and chlorophyll more specifically.

Acid activated clays provide a large surface area ranging from 160m²/g to more than 300m²/g.

The large surface area accommodates acid sites and pores of varying sizes and volumes. These sites greatly contribute to the bleaching performance.

The optimum pore sizes and volumes are more specifically located within a particle size distribution band, which is responsible for conducting the main bleaching process.

Natural clays have a more neutral pH with a much smaller surface area of around 60-160m²/g, along

THE EU SET MAXIMUM LEVELS FOR GE CONTENT IN FOOD IN FEBRUARY AND IT IS LIKELY THAT IT WILL ALSO ENACT REGULATIONS FOR 3- AND 2-MCPDS, BASED ON FINDINGS BY THE EUROPEAN FOOD SAFETY AUTHORITY (HEADQUARTERS PICTURED ABOVE)

with reduced quantities of sites with optimum pore sizes and volumes. Although these natural clays exhibit reduced pore size, pore volumes and surface area, they have proved capable in bleaching a range of edible oils, notably in the physical refining of CPO to a colour specification, provided the CPO is of good quality.

With improvements seen in CPO production in recent decades and refineries adopting improved oil pre-treatment and refining techniques, natural bleaching earths are effective in bleaching good quality pre-treated edible oils and fats.

When considering 3-MCPD mitigation, natural activated clays can be useful due to their neutral pH and, although having a reduced surface area, can be adequate in terms of overall colour removal.

Where CPO quality is lower than desired, acid activated earth remains the preferred choice as it is consistently more effective at the same or reduced dosage levels relative to natural bleaching clays.

Edible oil refineries processing a mixture of soft and tropical oils and fats prefer acid activated clays, due to their ability and flexibility to bleach a variety of oils and fats and, where the crude oil proves challenging due to higher levels of oxidative damage, FFA and trace metals.

For soft oils in general – and rapeseed oil

containing chlorophyll – acid activated earths are also preferred due to their higher affinity for chlorophyll. There has been increased use of NABEs at refineries processing palm oil via the physical refining route, which requires CPO of good, consistent quality.

Some of these refineries also have a second bleaching earth silo for acid activated clay, used to achieve specification when the CPO is difficult to bleach with natural clay.

Acid activation considerations Acid activated bleaching earth has been the main bleaching earth utilised in refineries and is produced from high purity calcium montmorillonite clays.

This clay is capable of activation to consistently high levels when using mineral acids, such as sulphuric or hydrochloric acid (HCl), in the activation process.

The activated clay is subsequently water washed to remove salts and free acidity.

Acid activation increases the surface area with the aluminium and iron salts being substituted with hydrogen cations, increasing silicic acidity. It is these silicic acid sites that are responsible for bleaching the colour of edible oils and fats.

However, traditionally acid activated clay impacts

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B LEA CHING EA RTHS

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on 3-MCPD, especially when considering clays based on HCl activation that have both a residual chloride value and a relatively high free acidity (approximately 0.8%).

The acidity and chloride from HCl activated bleaching earth has been demonstrated to increase the 3-MCPD level. When palm oil is bleached with HCl activated clay, the MCPD ester content increases together with chloride levels. With chloride levels of 7.1mg/100g, the MCPD produced after heating the bleached palm oil to 220°C is 2.6ppm, which rises to 3.9ppm when the bleaching earth has a chloride content of 14.20mg/100g.

At a chloride dose of 67.5mg/100g, the MCPD content increases to 9.7ppm. When bleaching the same oil under the same conditions with natural bleaching earth containing zero chloride, the MCPD increases to just 1.7ppm.

Today, acid and heat activated clays are being considered with the aim of reducing 3-MCPD formation by acting to remove or reduce the chlorine precursors during the bleaching step, which lead to the formation of 3-MCPD during the deodorising process at temperatures above 180°C. Natural raw clays are mixtures of different clay types. For example, attapulgite may contain calcium montmorillonite. This means the overall bleach effect and mitigation of 3-MCPD production will depend on the clay and degree and type of activation.

By successfully reducing the precursors during the bleaching step it may be possible to mitigate the formation of 3-MCPD to low ppm levels, with less than 1ppm being reported in RBD palm oil when using an activated clay with a low free acidity, large surface area, good pore size and pore volumes.

The acidity displayed by this clay is pH 3-4, meaning it is acidic, but there is little buffer action.

This acidity, when expressed as free titratable acidity, is very low at 0.05-0.1% expressed as sulphuric acid. A clay with a pH of 3-4 may also have a much higher free acidity, for example 1.2% expressed as sulphuric acid. When selecting an acid activated clay type for 3-MCPD mitigation, the low free acidity value may be worth greater consideration over the actual pH value.

The nature of the raw clay to be activated has a great influence on the colour and oxidative stability of the RBD oil.

The bleaching earth has the challenge of removing the precursors leading to the formation of 3-MCPD whilst at the same time possessing

enough bleaching ability to reduce colour to the specification required in, for example, the RBD palm oil.

Bleaching with normal quantities of acid activated earth (typically 0.5%-1.5%) has been shown to have little effect on reducing 3-MCPD, but reports that larger amounts of acid activated bleaching earth reduced the 3-MCPD formation indicate that the bleaching earth is removing or reducing the 3-MCPD precursors in the bleaching step.

Selecting a bleaching earth that is acid activated, providing a large surface area for bleaching whilst at the same time being low in free acidity, will assist in chlorine precursor reduction during the bleaching process, leading to reduced 3-MCPD formation in the deodoriser.

NABE produced with no free acidity or acid activated earths with very low levels of free acidity are currently being investigated and may offer alternatives, with the potential of mitigating 3-MCPD production whilst offering good bleaching characteristics.

After bleaching with either NABE or acid activated bleaching earth with very low free acidity levels, the deodorising temperature could be operated at 220°C with little 3-MCPD formation or glycidic acid formation. Increasing the deodorising temperature from 180°C to 250°C accelerates 3-MCPD ester formation, starting at 1.4ppm at 180°C and increasing to 2.3ppm at 250°C. When temperatures greater than 240°C degrees are used, GE formation increases rapidly over a much shorter period.

Caustic refining (chemical refining) can produce low levels of 3-MCPD/GE esters and is a possibility but considerations of soap stock, higher neutral oil losses, effluent treatment and expensive equipment, such as centrifugal separators, make this choice unrealistic. NABE or sulphuric acid activated bleaching earth with low free acidity would still be a recommendation if the chemical refining method was chosen.

Pre-treatment degumming The removal of phospholipids when refining palm oil (CPO) is normally carried out by the addition of phosphoric acid at a concentration of 0.1-0.2%. This process is called dry degumming pre-treatment step or gum conditioning.

This pre-treatment places a high reliance on the acid activated bleaching earth to remove the

conditioned gums (phospholids), but overall acid condition may result in the formation of 3-MCPD. Reports of the organo-chlorine precursors being removed by water degumming is due to their partial water solubility and is another step to consider.

Water degumming of CPO and bleaching with natural bleaching earth or acid activated bleaching earth with low free acidity offers the possibility of reduced 3-MCPD, with levels of 0.25ppm reported under laboratory conditions.

Care must be taken in consideration of complete removal of the phospholipids to ensure the RBD oil does not subsequently darken and develop poor taste and stability. Consideration of performing a water wash when the CPO is produced may offer more complete organo-chlorine removal and be preferable to water washing the CPO at the oil refinery after being transported over long distances.

Conclusion Bleaching earths alone cannot provide a complete solution to the problem of MCPD and GE formation.

Considerations of CPO production and refinery operations all play their part. There is natural variation in CPO quality along with varied refinery designs, so as far as bleaching earth is concerned, each refinery’s requirements will have to be individually assessed. Different oil types require different bleaching earth grades.

Bleaching earths can remove GEs but it is preferably to use low temperature deodorisation to limit its formation.

Bleaching earths cannot remove 3-MPCDs, which are formed by precursors present in the oil reacting in the deodoriser to produce the compound.

However, bleaching earths can mitigate 3-MCPDs production by removing their precursors in the refinery bleaching step.

Recent discussions with a refinery using acid activated clay revealed GE produced at a level of 80µg/kg, conforming to current limits. The 3-MCPD level was 300µg/kg with no limits as yet being set. The RBD oil was produced for inclusion in baby food and although the GE and 3-MCPD levels were encouragingly low, the market sector is requesting levels lower than those obtained. l Preston Shanks is a director at AMC (UK) Ltd E-mail: sales@amcuk.ltd.uk Website www.amcabsorbents.com References: Bertrand Matthaus, Frank Pudel, Gabriele Schtotz, Benoit Schilter, Claus Schurrz

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P L AN T, EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY

Plant & technology listing 2018 Oils & Fats International features a fully updated global selection of plant and equipment suppliers to the oils and fats industry, accompanied by a chart of company activities

Austria BDI-BioEnergy International GmbH Parkring 18, Raaba-Grambach Styria 8074 Tel: +43 316 4009100 E-mail: sales@bdi-bioenergy.com www.bdi-bioenergy.com GIG Karasek GmbH Neusiedlerstrasse 15-19 Gloggnitz 2640 Tel: +43 2662 42780 E-mail: office@gigkarasek.at www.gigkarasek.at Other: Thin film, short path and plate falling film evaporators; thin film dryers KEMIA GmbH Hietzinger Hauptstrasse 50 Vienna 1130 Tel: +43 1 8770553 E-mail: kondor@kemia.at www.kemia.at Other: Triglycerides of modified structure

Belgium Desmet Ballestra Group - Oils, Fats and Oleochemicals Division Belgicastraat 3 - B-1930 Zaventem Tel: +32 2 7161111 E-mail: info@desmetballestra.com www.desmetballestra.com De Smet SA Engineers & Contractors Waterloo Office Park, Building O, Box 32 Drève Richelle 161, Waterloo 1410 Tel: +32 2 6342500 E-mail: info@dsengineers.com www.dsengineers.com Other: EPC/EPCM contractor

Bulgaria Elica-elevator Ltd Promishlena Zona Zapad, Silistra Silistra 7500 Tel: +359 899 943497 E-mail: k.radulov@elica-elevator.com www.elica-elevator.com Other: Sunflower dehulling equipment

China Crown Asia Engineering 3rd Floor, Block A, Building 18 Innovation Base HUST Science Park No 33 Tangxunhu Bei Road Donghu High-Tec Zone, Wuhan City, Hubei Province Tel: +86 27 87223888 E-mail: sales@crownironasia.com www.crownironasia.com Famsun Oils&Fats Engineering Co Ltd No 1 Huasheng Road, Yangzhou Jiangsu 225127 Tel: +86 514 87770799 E-mail: myoil@famsungroup.com www.famsungroup.com Other: White flakes, fermenting meal, full fat soya Guangzhou Scikoon Industry Co Ltd Building C, Zengzailing, Huagang Avenue, Maxi Village Xinhua St Huadu District, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510800 Tel: +86 20 368 690788030 E-mail: export@scikoon.com www.scikoon.com Myande Group Co Ltd No 199 South Ji’an Road, Yangzhou Jiangsu 225127 Tel: +86 514 87849000 E-mail: lxd@myande.com www.myandegroup.com

Czech Republic Farmet AS Jirinková 276, Ceská Skalice, 55203 Tel: +420 491 450116 E-mail: oft@farmet.cz www.farmet.eu Other: Oilseeds and vegetable processing and feed extrusion technologies

Denmark GEA Process Engineering Denmark Gladsaxevej 305, Soeborg 2860 Tel: +45 41748485 E-mail: sascha.wenger-parving@gea.com www.gea.com Other: Vacuum and dry condensing systems Gerstenberg Services AS Vibeholmsvej 21, PO Box 196 Broendby 2605 Tel: +45 43432026 E-mail: info@gerstenbergs.com www.gerstenbergs.com

Haarslev Industries AS Bogensevej 85, Søndersø 5471 Tel: +45 63831100 E-mail: info@haarslev.com www.haarslev.com SPX Flow Technology Danmark AS Oestmarken 7, Soeborg DK-2860 Tel: +45 70278222 E-mail: ft.dk.soeborg@spxflow.com www.spxflow.com

France Promill RN 12, Serville 24810 Tel: +33 2 37389193 E-mail: info@promill.fr www.promill.fr

Germany Air Liquide Engineering & Construction Olof Palme Strasse 35 Frankfurt am Main 60439 Tel: +49 69 58080 E-mail: oleo@airliquide.com www.engineering-airliquide.com/ oleochemicals Other: Multi-seed sliding cell extractors; oil, fatty acid and methyl ester hardening; fatty alcohol production; glycerine to propyl glycol production Buss-SMS-Canzler GmbH Kaiserstrasse 13-15, Butzbach 35510 Tel: +49 6033 850 E-mail: info@sms-vt.com www.sms-vt.com Other: Monoglyceride production, thin film and short path evaporators, molecular distillation Centrimax – Winkelhorst Trenntechnik GmbH Kelvinstrasse 8, Cologne, NRW 50996 Tel: +49 2236 393530 E-mail: info@centrimax.com www.centrimax.com Crown Europe - CPM SKET Niederbieberer Str 126, Neuwied 56567 Tel: +49 2631 97710 E-mail: branchoffice@cpm-sket.de www.cpm-sket.net/en/contacts/neuwied GEA Group - Product Group Separation Werner-Habig-Strasse 1 Oelde 59302 Tel: +49 2522 770 E-mail: www.gea.com/contact www.gea.com Other: Miscella clarification, aquaeous extraction, press oil clarification, soap stock splitting, alkali neutralisation and fractionation, dewaxing, centrifugal separators and decanters u

19 – September 2018 l TO RECEIVE REGULAR COPIES OF THE MAGAZINE CLICK HERE

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P L AN T, EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY

u GekaKonus GmbH Siemensstrasse 10, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344 Tel: +49 721 943740 E-mail: info@gekakonus.net www.gekakonus.net HF Press+Lipidtech Seevestrasse 1, Hamburg 21079 Tel: +49 40 77179122 E-mail: service-plt@hf-group.com www.hf-press-lipidtech.com Other: Screw presses, spare parts and services HTI-GESAB GmbH Sauerbruchstrasse 11, Ellerau, SchleswigHolstein DE-25479 Tel: +49 4106 70090 E-mail: info@hti-ellerau.de www.hti-ellerau.de INTEC Engineering GmbH John-Deere-Strasse 43, Bruschsal D-76646 Tel: +49 7251 9324312 E-mail: christian.daniel@intec-energy.de www.intec-energy.de Other: Biomass- and coal-fired power plants, sludge drying and incineration systems, ORCbased power generation modules, thermal oil heaters, steam generators Körting Hannover AG Badenstedter Str 56, Hannover 30453 Tel: +49 511 21290 E-mail: st@koerting.de www.koerting.de Maschinenfabrik Reinartz GmbH & Co KG Industriestrasse 14, Neuss 41460 Tel: +49 2131 976113 E-mail: info@reinartz.de www.reinartz.de Other: Screw presses, screw dryers, seed conditioning, oil storage, animal feed and bioenergy production Schneider Engineering GmbH Hildburghauser Strasse 70, Berlin 12249 Tel: +49 30 754493990 E-mail: info@schneider-kessel.de www.schneider-kessel.de Other: Waste heat, natural circulation, electrical heated, three-pass steam and hot water boilers VTA GmbH & Co KG Bernrieder Strasse 10, Niederwinkling 94559 Tel: +49 9962 95980 E-mail: info@vta-process.de www.vta-process.de Other: Wiped film and short path distillation, distilled monoglycerides

Mectech Process Engineers Pvt Ltd 66 Udyog Vihar, Phase 2 Gurgaon Haryana 122016 Tel: +91 88 26091466; E-mail: anik.roy@ mectech.co.in www.mectech.co.in Other: Hydrogenation and IE plants Sharplex Filters (India) Pvt Ltd R-664, Rabale MIDC Navimumbai 400701 Tel: +91 22 69409850 E-mail: sales@sharplexfilters.com www.sharplexfilters.com United Engineering (E) Corporation Plot 75, Sector 3, IMT Manesar, Gurugram Haryana 122051 Tel: +91 1244273011 E-mail: sales@uec-india.com www.uec-india.com Other: Complete turnkey oilseed processing plants, skid-mounted vacuum dryers Veendeep Oiltek Exports Pvt Ltd N-16/17/18 Additional MIDC Patalganga Maharastra 4102097 Tel: +91 9769315463 E-mail: mbhandari@veendeep.com www.veendeep.com

Italy Andreotti Impianti Spa Via Di Le Prata 148 Calenzano Florence 50041 Tel: +39 055 44870 E-mail: info@andreottiimpianti.com www.andreottiimpianti.com Other: Complete hydrogenation and process plants Binacchi & Co Srl Via Gramsci 84 Varese Gazzada-Schianno 21045 Tel: +39 0332 461354 E-mail: mail@binacchi.com www.binacchi.com Other: Soap and detergent processing plants and equipment, packaging machinery

India

CM Bernardini International SpA Via Appia km 55.9 Cisterna di Latina LT 04012 Tel: +39 06 96871028 E-mail: info@cmbernardini.it www.cmbernardini.it Other: Oil hydrogenation

Kumar Metal Industries Pvt Ltd Plot No 7, Mira Industrial Estate, Western Express Highway, Mira Road (E) Mumbai, Maharashtra 401104 Tel: +91 98 60272757 E-mail: dilip@kumarmetal.com www.kumarmetal.com

CMBITALY-TECHNOILOGY Via D Federici 12/14 Cisterna di Latina Lazio 04012 Tel: +39 06 9696181 E-mail: info@technoilogy.it www.technoilogy.it

Desmet Ballestra SpA - Detergents, Surfactants and Chemicals Division Via Piero Portaluppi 17 20138 Milano Tel: +39 02 50831; E-mail: mail@ballestra.com www.desmetballestra.com Servizi Industriali Srl Marie Curie N 19, Ozzano Dell’Emilia Bologna 40064 Tel: +39 051 795080 E-mail: commerciale@macfuge.com www.macfuge.com

Malaysia Besteel Berhad Lot 9683 Kawasan Perindustrian Desa Aman Batu 11, Desa Aman, Sungai Buloh, Selangor 47000 Tel: +6012 6729683 E-mail: michaelchan@besteerlberhad.com www.besteelberhad.com Other: Turnkey contractor for palm oil mills JJ-Lurgi Engineering Sdn Bhd No 7-13A-01, Jebsen & Jessen Tower UOA Business Park (Tower 7) Jalan Pengaturcara U1/51A, Seksyen U1 Shah Alam, Selangor 40150 Tel: +60 3 50306363 E-mail: jj-lurgi_enquiry@jjsea.com www.jj-lurgi.com Muar Ban Lee Group JR52, Lot 1818, Jalan Raja Kawasan Perindustrian Bukit Pasir Muar 84300 Johor Tel: +60 6 9859998; E-mail: mbl@mbl.com www.mbl.com OILTEK Sdn Bhd Lot 6, Jalan Pasaran 23/5 41200 Klang Shah Alam Selangor 40300 Tel: +60 162091608 E-mail: beenah@oiltek.com.my www.oiltek.com.my

Netherlands CPM Europe BV Rijder 2 1507 DN, Zaandam Noord-Holland Zaandam Tel: +31 75 6512611 E-mail: info@cpmeurope.nl www.cpmeurope.nl Geelen Counterflow Windmolenven 43, Haelen 6081 PJ Tel: +31 475 592315 E-mail: info@geelencounterflow.com www.geelencounterflow.com Other: Coolers and dryers Van Mourik Crushing Mills Boylestraat 34, Ede 671 8XM Tel: +31 318 641144 E-mail: info@crushingmills.com www.crushingmills.com

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P L AN T, EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY

Serbia

Ukraine

T-1 Ada Karadordeva 60 Ada 24430 Tel: +381 24 854585 E-mail: sales@t-1.rs www.screw-presses.com Other: Screw presses, spare parts, refurbishing

TAN LLC 20 Ushynskogo Street Chernihiv 14014 Tel: +380 462 672112 E-mail: tan@tan.com.ua www.tan.com.ua

Singapore

United Arab Emirates

LIPICO Technologies Pte Ltd 61 Bukit Batok Crescent #06-03 to #06-06 Heng Loong Building, Singapore 658078 Tel: +65 631 67800 E-mail: sg.enquiry@lipico.com www.lipico.com

Metan FZCO Office 2203 Jafza View 18 Jebel Ali Dubai 61389 Tel: +971 4 8895647 E-mail: m@metan.ae www.metan.ae

Sweden

United Kingdom

AAK AB Skrivaregatan 9, Malmö 215 32 Tel: +46 40 6278300 E-mail: info@aak.com www.aak.com

Chemtech International Crown House 1A High Street Theale, Berkshire RG7 5AH Tel: +44 01189 861 222 E-mail: nigel@chemtechinternational.com www.chemtechinternational.com

Switzerland Bühler AG Gupfenstrasse 5 Uzwil St Gallen 9240 Tel: +41 71 9551111 E-mail: media@buhlergroup.com www.buhlergroup.com Other: Cracking & flaking mills, vertical seed conditioners, horizontal & vertical impact dehullers and hammer mills, fluidising beds, bagging stations, chain conveyors, ship loaders/ unloaders, filters, throw & drum sieves, hull separators, drum magnets, cylindrical case aspirators Buss ChemTech AG Hohenrainstrasse 12A, Pratteln 4133 Tel: +41 61 8256462 E-mail: info@buss-ct.com www.buss-ct.com Other: Hydrogenation process design Sulzer Chemtech Ltd Neuwiesenstrasse 15, Winterthur 8401 Tel: +41 52 2623722 E-mail: chemtech@sulzer.com www.sulzer.com

Turkey Keller & Vardarci Industries Ltd Sti Cinar Sok No 12 Ege Serbest Bolgesi Gaziemir Izmir Izmir 35410 Tel: +90 232 4784814 E-mail: gulservardarci@vardarci.com.tr www.keller-vardarci.com Other: Delinting machinery and equipment

Crown Europe - Europa Crown Waterside Park Livingstone Road Hessle, East Yorkshire HU13 0EG Tel: +44 1482 640 099 E-mail: sales@europacrown.com www.europacrown.com Lovibond Tintometer Lovibond House Sun Rise Way Amesbury, Wiltshire SP4 7GR Tel: +44 1980 664800 E-mail: sales@tintometer.com www.lovibond.com Other: Colour measurement for quality control

Crown Americas - Crown Iron Works 2500 W County Road C Roseville, Minnesota 55113 Tel: +1 651 6398900 E-mail: sales@crowniron.com www.crowniron.com The Dupps Company 548 North Cherry Street Germantown, Ohio 45327-0189 Tel: +1 937 8556555 E-mail: info@dupps.com www.dupps.com Other: Process drying French Oil Mill Machinery Company 1035 W Greene Street PO Box 920 Piqua, Ohio 45356 Tel: +1 937 7733420 E-mail: oilseedsales@frenchoil.com www.frenchoil.com Other: Mechanical screw presses, conditioners/ cookers, animal feed, rate bins, oil settling tanks, oil filters, cleaners, cake coolers Pope Scientific Inc POB 80018 Saukville, Wisconsin 53080 Tel: +1 262 2689300 E-mail: dsegal@popeinc.com www.popeinc.com Other: Degassers, evaporators, reactors, foods, flavours, fragrances, portable vessels, pilot plants and turnkey processing systems, Nutsche filter-dryers The above companies are a selection of plant, equipment and technology suppliers to the oils and fats industry who have replied to an Oils & Fats International questionnaire this year.

Please refer to ‘Summary Table of Company Activities’ chart for companies’ areas of operation.

‘Other’ refers to other activities selected in the accompanying chart

Oxford Instruments Tubney Woods, Abingdon Oxfordshire OX13 5QX Tel: +44 1865 393200 E-mail: magres@oxinst.com www.oxford-instruments.com

USA Anderson International Corp 4545 Boyce Parkway Stow, Ohio 44224 Tel: +1 216 6411112 E-mail: eric.stibora@andersonintl.com www.andersonintl.com Blackmer 1809 Century Avenue SW Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503 Tel: +1 616 2411611 E-mail: info@blackmer.com www.blackmer.com

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STATISTICS

UKRAINE SUNFLOWER SEED PRICE, 2015-18 (US$/TONNE)

STATISTICAL NEWS FROM MINTEC Sunflower seed Sunflower seed prices have fallen in June, driven by forecasts of increasing production in the 2018/19 season. Global production of sunflower seed has been estimated to increase 5% y-o-y to 50M tonnes. Higher production has been driven by increased sowing area in the main growing regions of Russia and Ukraine, alongside good growing conditions earlier in the planting period.

Rapeseed Prices for rapeseed fell at the beginning of June, driven by large opening stocks and prospective increases in production in the 2018/19 season. Global production of rapeseed is forecast to rise by 1% y-o-y to 75M tonnes in 2018/19, with opening stocks expected to climb 17% y-o-y to 6.6M tonnes.

Prices faced some upward pressure at the end of the month due to hot and dry weather conditions affecting crops in major producing countries. Dryness in Australia, the EU, Russia and Ukraine offset improving growing conditions in Canada.

EU RAPESEED PRICE, 2015-18 (US$/TONNE)

Soyabean Soyabean prices declined significantly during June due to forecasts of high global production for the 2018/19 season. In the USA, prices were pushed downwards, driven by reports stating that up to 71% of soyabean plantings were in good to excellent condition. They were considerably higher than in 2017, when farmers recorded a record harvest of 117M tonnes.

In addition, forecasts pointed towards a 2% increase y-o-y in US production during 2018/19 to 119.5M tonnes. Prices faced further downward pressure driven by expectations of record production from Brazil, up 0.5% y-o-y at 8.3M tonnes.

US SOYABEAN PRICE, 2015-18 (US$/TONNE)

PRICES OF SELECTED OILS (US$/TONNE) 2017

Feb 18

Mar 18

Apr 18

May 18

Jun 18

Soyabean

829.0

822.9

823.1

815.9

792.4

782.0

Crude Palm

690.0

691.8

684.1

675.6

663.4

638.3

Palm Olein Coconut Rapeseed Sunflower

661.0

672.6

656.5

654.0

640.9

615.6

1,537.0

1,245.0

1,124.3

1,130.0

1,040.3

937.3

855.0

821.9

795.2

791.8

807.7

811.9

800.0

799.5

798.5

815.2

789.9

759.6

1,250.0

1,142.9

1,019.5

1,010.8

944.1

851.4

Average price

946.0

885.0

843.0

842.0

811.0

771.0

Index

224.0

210.0

200.0

199.0

192.0

183.0

Palm Kernel

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Tel: +44 (0) 1628 851313 E-mail: sales@mintecglobal.com Website: www.mintecglobal.com

22 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; September 2018 l TO RECEIVE REGULAR COPIES OF THE MAGAZINE CLICK HERE Stats.indd 1

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Science behind Technology

87x265Annonce -OFI-2016v001.indd 1

P&E Chart 2018.indd 1

Oilseed crushing mills Solvent extraction Fish oil/meal processing Rendering/fat melting plant Pelleting mills Other Degumming Winterising Crystallisation Oil distillation/fractionation Alkali & physical refining Interesterification Miscella refining Deodorisers Bleachers Oil dryers Fat splitting Fatty acid distillation/fractionation Other Hydrogen generators Hydrogen systems Other Cooking/salad oils Butter formulation Shortening/margarine production Vitamin E production Lecithin production Suplhonation Ethoxylation/propoxylation Detergent formulation Detergent production Soap production Soap finishing Cosmetics production Glycerine refining Fatty acid derivatives Pharmaceuticals Biodiesel/methyl ester Other Pneumatic conveyors Belt conveyors Vibratory conveyors Slatted conveyors Elevators Loading arms/chutes Auger feeders Storage silos Storage tanks Other Screens Centrifugal separators Gravity separators Magnetic separators Membrane separators Filter presses Pressure leaf filters Other Packing equipment Instrumentation Pumps/fluid handling Vacuum systems/ejectors Process heating systems Steam boilers Thermal oil heaters Heat recovery systems Other

Austria

KEMIA

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GIG Karasek

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Guangzhou Scikoon Industry

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GEA Process Engineering Denmark

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Gerstenberg Services

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Promill

Germany

Crown Europe - CPM SKET

GEA Group, Product Group Separation

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Körting Hannover

Schneider Engineering

VTA & Co

India

Kumar Metal Industries

Fractionation • Hydrogenation • Interesterification

OLEOCHEMICALS

Methylesters • Glycerine • Biodiesel

Mectech Process Engineers

Sharplex Filters

United Engineering

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Science behind Technology

l l l l Oilseed crushing mills Solvent extraction l l Fish oil/meal processing l Rendering/fat melting plant l l Pelleting mills l l Other Degumming l l Winterising l l l l Crystallisation l l Oil distillation/fractionation l l Alkali & physical refining l l Interesterification l l v2-87x265General-OFI-2015.indd 1 Miscella refining l l Deodorisers l l Bleachers l l l l l Oil dryers Fat splitting l l Fatty acid distillation/fractionation l l l l l Other Hydrogen generators l Hydrogen systems l l Other l Cooking/salad oils l l Butter formulation l Shortening/margarine production l Vitamin E production l l l Lecithin production l l l Sulphonation Ethoxylation/propoxylation Detergent formulation l Detergent production l l Soap production l Soap finishing l Cosmetics production l l l Glycerine refining l l l Fatty acid derivatives l l l Pharmaceuticals l Biodiesel/methyl ester l l l l Other l l Pneumatic conveyors l Belt conveyors l Vibratory conveyors l Slatted conveyors l Elevators l Loading arms/chutes l Auger feeders l l Storage silos l Storage tanks l l Other Screens l l Centrifugal separators l l Gravity separators l l Magnetic separators l Membrane separators l l l l Filter presses l l l l l Pressure leaf filters Other Packing equipment Instrumentation Pumps/fluid handling Vacuum systems/ejectors Process heating systems Steam boilers Thermal oil heaters Heat recovery systems Other

Maschinenfabrik Reinartz

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INTEC Engineering

Fatty Acids • Fatty Alcohols Plant & technology chart 2018: Summary table of company activities

5/2/16 1:29 PM

Extraction Refining

Extraction

Refining

Hydrogenation

End user processes/equipment

PROCESS PLANT & EQUIPMENT

6/14/2018 9:57:53 AM

ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

Storage & handling

Screens & filtration

Other equipment

PROCESS PLANT & EQUIPMENT ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

Hydrogenation

End user processes/equipment Storage & handling Screens & filtration Other equipment

4/30/1

Oilseed crushing mills Solvent extraction Fish oil/meal processing Rendering/fat melting plant Pelleting mills Other Degumming Winterising Crystallisation Oil distillation/fractionation Alkali & physical refining Interesterification Miscella refining Deodorisers Bleachers Oil dryers Fat splitting Fatty acid distillation/fractionation Other Hydrogen generators Hydrogen systems Other Cooking/salad oils Butter formulation Shortening/margarine production Vitamin E production Lecithin production Suplhonation Ethoxylation/propoxylation Detergent formulation Detergent production Soap production Soap finishing Cosmetics production Glycerine refining Fatty acid derivatives Pharmaceuticals Biodiesel/methyl ester Other Pneumatic conveyors Belt conveyors Vibratory conveyors Slatted conveyors Elevators Loading arms/chutes Auger feeders Storage silos Storage tanks Other Screens Centrifugal separators Gravity separators Magnetic separators Membrane separators Filter presses Pressure leaf filters Other Packing equipment Instrumentation Pumps/fluid handling Vacuum systems/ejectors Process heating systems Steam boilers Thermal oil heaters Heat recovery systems Other

P&E Chart 2018.indd 2

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JJ-Lurgi Engineering

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French Oil Mill Machinery

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Science behind Technology

Oxford Instruments

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v2-87x265General-OFI-2015.indd 1

Science behind Technology

Methylesters • Glycerine • Biodiesel Fatty Acids • Fatty Alcohols

OLEOCHEMICALS

Fractionation • Hydrogenation • Interesterification

FAT MODIFICATION

Degumming • Neutralising • Bleaching Winterising • Deodorising

REFINING

Extractors • Desolventing Toasting Distillation • Solvent Recovery

EXTRACTION

Full Pressing • Prepressing

PRESSING

Cleaning • Cracking • Dehulling Conditioning • Flaking • Expanding

PREPARATION

4/30/15 10:34 AM

Leading Oils & Fats technologies

Fractionation • Hydrogenation • Interesterification

OLEOCHEMICALS Methylesters • Glycerine • Biodiesel

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Crown Americas - Crown Iron Works

Lovibond Tintometer

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USA

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PROCESS PLANT & EQUIPMENT

Veendeep Oiltek Exports Italy

Malaysia

Netherlands

Serbia

Singapore

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

United Kingdom

Fatty Acids • Fatty Alcohols Plant & technology chart 2018: Summary table of company activities

Extraction Refining

Extraction

Refining Hydrogenation

End user processes/equipment Storage & handling Screens & filtration Other equipment

PROCESS PLANT & EQUIPMENT ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

Hydrogenation

End user processes/equipment Storage & handling Screens & filtration Other equipment

Pope Scientific

4/30/15 10:34 AM

6/14/2018 9:57:55 AM