Indigenous Australian soldiers in the First World War and their place in Australian history

BY AMY ZHANG, YEAR 8, 2021

In this essay, I examine the significance of Indigenous Australian soldiers within WWI and the circumstances behind their absence from the pages of Australian history. Through this, I prove that history matters, as I argue an understanding of this aspect of Australian history is necessary to advance the reconciliation process.

The ANZAC has immense significance in the Australian national story. Many believe Australia was born at Gallipoli1 . Indeed, the image of the ANZAC is fairly uniform: a young man, stoic but selfless, with discipline and a sense of humour, who is, overwhelmingly, white. Many people may not realise that over 1000 Indigenous Australians served in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) during the First World War2 . Their contributions have been forgotten and erased from Australian history, and only recently have been recognised.

This essay argues Indigenous Australians provided unique tactical and military contributions to Australia’s war efforts in WWI and were not sufficiently recognised. Indeed, sufficient recognition is necessary to aid the reconciliation process today, as only a truthful account of history will assist in reckoning with the errors of the past. It is for this reason, I argue, that history matters: the revision of history is significant, as historical knowledge allows us to challenge Australia’s dominant narrative and dismantle the structures of white supremacy.

1. CONTRIBUTIONS MADE

While the war efforts of Indigenous Australians have been erased from the dominant narrative of the ANZAC, their service within the AIF had demonstrable impacts. As Indigenous Australians were present in almost every branch of the AIF3, it is clear these soldiers conquered the significant barriers imposed upon their capacity to serve. The discrimination meant that many soldiers had to claim to be ‘half-caste’ to be permitted to enlist (See: Appendix A)4 . Indeed, as many Indigenous Australians were refused entry to the First AIF5 hundreds served in the Second AIF6 as well as militias later in the war, when Imperial reinforcements were depleted7. Indigenous Australian soldier Albert Knight was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for Conspicuous Gallantry during the war, receiving an honour and recognition, at the time, equal to other ANZACs (See: Appendix B)8. This demonstrates that the contributions of Indigenous Australian soldiers were not marginal or arbitrary, but instrumental to Australia’s war effort.

Indeed, Indigenous soldiers offered unique contributions to the successful execution of military strategy. The Charge of the Light Brigade, one of Australia’s biggest successes in the war, would have been impossible without the horsemanship skills of Indigenous Australians. Former Australian Ambassador to Israel, Chris Cannan9, and Australian Light Horse Director, Barry Rodgers10 have recently acknowledged this. One such contributor was William Rawlings, who led a bayonet charge in Morlancourt and received the Military Medal (See: Appendix C)11. This indicates Indigenous Australians were offered leadership roles in the war due to their unique skills. Therefore, history matters, as revisiting history helps unveil the contributions of Indigenous Australians to the Australian national story.

2. CONTRIBUTIONS IGNORED

The absence of Indigenous stories from the dominant record of Australian history can be attributed to two factors: the prejudices established in the community; and the political effort to minimise their achievements and uphold the unjust norms of White Australia.

Despite the valency Indigenous soldiers showed, the structural injustices within their home states ensured their contributions were insignificant to wider society. For many Indigenous soldiers, the chance to serve in the AIF offered an escape from the prejudice in the homefront12. A nurse who served in the war recalled there was “no discrimination on the battlefield [nor] in the military hospitals,”13 and a veteran claimed an Indigenous soldier from his unit “was his brother still.”14 This suggests Indigenous Australians were often considered equal to other ANZACs during their service; however, the cultural attitudes of wider Australian society guaranteed their efforts were ignored. These attitudes can be traced in the parliamentary acts of the time: the Aboriginals Ordinance

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1918 Act, for example, increased police powers over Indigenous peoples and land.15 Therefore, Australia at the time was not fertile territory for the recognition of Indigenous Australians’ contributions to WWI.

Indeed, there was a calculated effort to conceal the significant service of Indigenous soldiers. Indigenous soldiers received medals and positions of honour, but were not allowed to participate in commemorations.16 Wounded and fallen soldiers were not identified, and Indigenous Australians were not noted on the list of soldiers who had served.17 As a result, they were denied the money and land provided to non-Indigenous soldiers for their service.18 Thus, the political institutions of White Australia conspired to keep society oblivious to the impact of the Indigenous soldiers who fought in the war. Therefore, as the systematic erasure of the stories of Indigenous soldiers was designed to uphold the structures of white supremacy, the revision and study of history matters if we are to unravel the injustices of White Australia.

3. CONTRIBUTION TO RECONCILIATION

Though the stories of Indigenous Australian soldiers have not been widely told within the classrooms of our nation, on history’s page, or on the screen, appreciating their stories is a prerequisite for reconciliation. This has been recognised by current and past national leaders. In his Sorry Speech in 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd claimed that the first step toward reconciliation is taken by acknowledging the past.19 20This is because progress cannot be possible without addressing and redressing wrongs.

The State of Reconciliation in Australia Report states that a lack of appreciation of historical and cultural injustice suffered by Indigenous Australians must be addressed for Australia to reconcile.21 In the wake of Rudd’s Sorry Speech, discovering lost parts of history gives Australia the opportunity to acknowledge the sacrifice of Indigenous soldiers, and give them the recognition they deserve.

Indeed, it is just as important that we learn about the historiography of Indigenous Australians’ contribution to the war, as it is to learn about the history of their contributions. By understanding why their contributions were erased from history, we can acknowledge the way prejudiced cultural attitudes can infiltrate the writing of history, and ensure this is not repeated. History matters, and the learning of lost truths from history matters, because only then can amends be made and mistakes be fixed.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mara, Darren. “‘Incredible mystery’: The Indigenous soldiers of the Light Horse Brigade.” SBS News. Accessed July 22, 2021. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/incrediblemystery-the-indigenous-soldiers-of-the-light-horsebrigade.

Darren Mara’s article for SBS News offers an interview with the grandson of an Indigenous soldier who fought in the charge of the Light Horse Brigade. The interviewee, Ray Minniecon, reveals the truth of his grandfather’s service, as he details the reasons why Indigenous Australians joined the national war effort and processes involved in their enlistment. This proved useful for my research project as the story Minniecon told sparked my interest in this issue, and prompted me to look further into this particular part of Australian history. Whilst consulting this source, I was exposed to the notion that these stories had been hidden from Australia, which helped shape my investigation into the significance of understanding the truth of Australia’s past. Indeed, as this source contained other primary sources, including photographs of Indigenous Australian soldiers, it was clear that Indigenous soldiers formed a significant part of the AIF.

“Australian Indigenous service during World War I.” Anzac Portal. Accessed July 24, 2021. https:// anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/ personnel/indigenous-service.

This page on the ANZAC Portal website provided an abundance of information on the enlistment of Indigenous Australians, documenting the struggles they overcame and freedom they gained through service in the war. This page also provided specific examples of many Indigenous soldiers who had fought in the War and received honourable awards and positions. This was particularly important to my research as it helped me understand that, not only did Indigenous soldiers serve and fight in the war, but they had great importance in the AIF. Through understanding the significance of Indigenous soldiers to the Charge of the Light Horse, I was able to research further into the unique contributions these soldiers brought to the battlefield, allowing me to measure their contributions to the AIF. I also learnt more about the way they were treated equally within the AIF, and this revealed to me many of the reasons Indigenous soldiers were so keen to enlist.

Gall, Sally. “Light Horse highlights role of Aboriginal soldiers.” North Queensland Register. Accessed July 27, 2021. https://www.northqueenslandregister.com.au/ story/5039523/indigenous-soldiers-honoured-in-israel/

Sally Gall’s news article provided specific information focusing on the impact Indigenous Australians had in the Charge of the Light Horse. Her article details the unique horsemanship skills of these soldiers, which made them so valuable in this particular part of the war, and the success it brought to the Allies. This was significant to my research process as it helped to demonstrate that, not only did these Indigenous soldiers serve in the War, but they had skills that other ANZACs did not. Thus, I was able to understand that certain military strategies may not have been executed without the contributions of these soldiers, validating their significance in the AIF. Furthermore, there were quotations from prominent figures with expert knowledge on Australian military history: figures, like Australian Light Horse Director Barry Rodgers, who recognised the contributions of Indigenous soldiers. This revealed to me that cultural change is occurring, as the efforts of these soldiers are being more widely recognised and appreciated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Bean, Charles. “Commonwealth of Australia Gazette No 39.” Commonwealth of Australia Gazette. May 17, 1915. Retrieved from: “Charles Bean’s first report from Gallipoli 1915.” Anzac Portal. Last modified July 23, 2020. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-andmissions/ww1/where-australians-served/gallipoli/landin g-anzaccove/beans-first-report. Distinguished conduct medal (DCM). c. 1916. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved from: “Albert Knight.” Australian War Memorial. Last modified August 25, 2020. https://www.awm.gov. au/learn/schools/resources/anzac-diversity/aboriginal-anzacs/ albert-knight. “Five half-caste brothers enlist,” The Warrnambool Standard, 6 October, 1917. Retrieved from: Trove: National Library of Australia. Accessed August 5, 2021. https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/ article/73969102#.

Home and Territories Department. An Ordinance Relating to Aboriginals. Ordained by the Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia, R. C. M. Ferguson. No. 9 of 1918. The Northern Territory of Australia: Commonwealth of Australia, 1918. Accessed August 12, 2021. https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/ resources/transcripts/nt5_doc_1918.pdf. Mara, Darren. “Incredible mystery: The Indigenous soldiers of the Light Horse Brigade.” SBS News. Last modified October 31, 2018. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/incredible-mystery-theindigenous-soldiers-of-the-light-horse-brigade. Rudd, Kevin. “Apology to Australia’s Indigenous People.” Speech, Parliament of Australia, February 13, 2008. Australian Government. https://info.australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/ourpeople/apology-to-australias-indigenous-peoples. Secondary Sources: Journal Articles Phelps, Claire. “Aboriginal Contribution to Australian War Efforts: Proving Their Citizenship?” MHIS201 Indigenous Settler Relations from 1750, vol. II, no. 1 (2014): 81-89. Secondary Sources: Websites “Albert Knight.” Australian War Memorial. Last modified August 25, 2020. https://www.awm.gov.au/learn/schools/resources/anzacdiversity/aboriginal-anzacs/albert-knight. “Australian Light Horse in World War I.” Anzac Portal. Last modified August 24, 2021. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-andmissions/ww1/military-organisation/australian-imperial-f orce/ australian-light-horse. “Charles Bean’s first report from Gallipoli 1915.” Anzac Portal. Last modified July 23, 2020. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-andmissions/ww1/where-australians-served/gallipoli/landin g-anzaccove/beans-first-report. Crotty, Martin. “The birth of a nation? Gallipoli, trial and trauma.” ABC. Last modified April 24, 2020. https://www.abc. net.au/religion/the-birth-of-a-nation-gallipoli-trial-andtrauma/10094786.

Dow, Coral and Gardiner-Garden John. “Overview of Indigenous Affairs: Part 1: 1901 to 1991.” Parliament of Australia. Last modified May 10, 2011. https://www.aph.gov.au/about_parliament/ parliamentary_departments/parliamentary_library/pub s/bn/1011/ indigenousaffairs1. Gall, Sally. “Light Horse highlights role of Aboriginal soldiers.” North Queensland Register. Last modified November 11, 2017. https://www.northqueenslandregister.com.au/story/5039523/ indigenous-soldiers-honoured-in-israel/.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY (CONTINUED)

Hirst, John. “Anzac Day: the curious notion of Australia’s ‘birth’ at Gallipoli.” The Sydney Morning Herald. Last modified April 24, 2014. https://www.smh.com.au/opinion/anzac-day-the-curious-notion-ofaustralias-birth-at-gallipoli-201 40424-zqyll.html. “Indigenous Defence Service.” Australian War Memorial. Last modified March 10, 2021. https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/encyclopedia/ indigenous. Lee, Tim. “‘They were back to being black’: The land withheld from returning Indigenous soldiers.” ABC News. Last modified April 24, 2019. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-14/land-withheld-fromindigenous-anzacs/10993680. Mara, Darren. “Incredible mystery: The Indigenous soldiers of the Light Horse Brigade.” SBS News. Last modified October 31, 2018. https:// www.sbs.com.au/news/incredible-mystery-the-indigenous-soldiersof-the-light-horse-brigade. McCulloch, Amber. “Indigenous Australian soldiers in First World War.” British Council. Last modified December 3, 2014. https://www. britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/indigenous-australian-soldiersfirst-world-war.

Powell, Marg. “Queensland’s Indigenous Light Horse Men.” State Library of Queensland. Last modified October 31, 2017. https://www. slq.qld.gov.au/blog/queenslands-indigenous-light-horse-men. Rudd, Kevin. “Apology to Australia’s Indigenous People.” Australian Government. https://info.australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/ our-people/apology-to-australias-indigenous-peoples. “Serving their country.” AIATSIS. https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/servingtheir-country#:~:text=More%20than%201000%20Aborigina l%20 and,in%20the%20 Second%20World%20War. “World War I: Indigenous Anzacs.” National Archives of Australia. https://www.naa.gov.au/learn/learning-resources/learning-resourcethemes/war/world-war-i/worl d-war-i-indigenous-anzacs.

FOOTNOTES

1 John Hirst, “Anzac Day: the curious notion of Australia’s ‘birth’ at

Gallipoli,” The Sydney Morning Herald, accessed August 16, 2021. 2 “Serving their country,” AIATSIS, accessed July 24, 2021. 3 Sally Gall, “Light Horse highlights role of Aboriginal soldiers,” North

Queensland Register, accessed July 27, 2021. 4 “Five half-cast brothers enlist,” Warrnambool Standard, 6 October, 2021.

5 Coral Dow and John Gardiner-Garden, “Overview of Indigenous

Affairs: Part 1: 1901 to 1991,” Parliament of Australia, accessed July 27, 2021. 6 “Indigenous Defence Service,” Australian War Memorial, accessed

July 22, 2021. 7 “Indigenous Defence Service,” Australian War Memorial. 8 “Albert Knight,” Australian War Memorial, accessed July 24, 2021. 9 “Light Horse highlights role of Aboriginal soldiers,” North

Queensland Register 10 On a recent commemorative tour of the Middle East, Rodgers argued, “It took us some time to realise how good horsemen they were… That [made] them good soldiers too.” 11 “Australian Indigenous service during World War I,” Anzac Portal, accessed July 24, 2021. 12 “Australian Indigenous service during World War I,” Anzac Portal. 13 “Australian Indigenous service during World War I,” Anzac Portal. 14 “Australian Indigenous service during World War I,” Anzac Portal. 15 R C M Furguson, “Aboriginals Ordinance No. 9 of 1918”, Northern

Territory, Commonwealth of Australia, 1918. Accessed July 15, 2021.

16 “World War One’s forgotten Anzacs: The Indigenous Army,” BBC

News, accessed July 20, 2021. 17 JOL Admin, “WW1 Indigenous Roll of Honour,” State Library of

Queensland, accessed July 24, 2021 . 18 Tim Lee, “They were back to being black: The land withheld from returning Indigenous soldiers,” ABC. News, accessed July 26, 2021. 19 In the Sorry Speech, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd stated, “We today take this first step by acknowledging the past and laying claim to a future that embraces all Australians.”

20 Kevin Rudd, “Apology to Australia’s Indigenous peoples,” Australian

Government, accessed August 5, 2021. 21 The State of Reconciliation in Australia. Reconciliation Australia, 2016. Accessed July 30, 2021.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Hanna Cheung

1. Where did the inspiration for your work come from?

Having lived in a world where everything seemed stagnant – culture, social norms, and everything else – I’ve always been interested in exploring what ‘culture’ meant in Australia. Theoretically, the hybrid culture in Australia should make it an ideal society for everyone yet, as a cultural minority, I struggled to truly understand this ‘diversity’ and find my place in this community. Through my discursive piece, I wanted to encapsulate the complexity of Australia’s culture.

2. What was the most memorable thing learned from researching your topic/project?

The most memorable thing was coming to accept the fluidity of culture and the imperfection it contains. Initially, I tried to portray Australia as a country of diversity (as we have been taught), but through researching different perspectives and reflecting upon my own experience, I realised that there are still many hidden flaws in our society that needs to be represented. I could only present a holistic picture by displaying a delicate balance between the flaws and beauty of Australia’s diversity.

3. What challenges did you come across in your research?

As this was my first discursive essay, I tried to ‘tick all the boxes’ in my first draft — using humour, anecdotes, etc. But when I reviewed the importance of the criteria, the result was a piece that did not reflect my opinion. Working on my second draft, I paid less attention to meeting the rubric by just going with my flow. After the draft, I used the guideline to adjust certain sections, ensuring that my writing still aligned with the form of a discursive essay. This taught me that guidelines are helpful, but it takes time for us to learn how to utilise them in the most effective ways.

4. How did you overcome the challenges?

Talking to friends and teachers about their opinion has always been helpful and enlightening. It strengthened my attempt to portray a more vivid image of Australia. In addition to using the guidelines, I also got a few trusted friends to read over my work and provide some feedback. I discussed the feedback with them and then made changes accordingly.

5. Complete this line. Research is…

an exploration of the world and yourself.