Wine & Viticulture Journal - July/August 2015 - V30N4

JULY/AUGUST · Volume 30 Number 4

RESEARCH REVIEW

• Evaluating the oxygen transfer rate in oak barrels • Exogenous tannins - what, when and why • Vintage 2015 - observations from the AWRI helpdesk • The influence of vine balance on berry composition • Tasting: Lagrein

Wine Roadshow XXIII

This year’s topic:

Decision Time?

Bringing an investor in or buying or selling a wine business Does your wine business need capital to go to the next level?

Or have you had enough and want to retire?

If you want to sell your business or take in an investor, Wine Roadshow XXIII is for you. You need to know where to find a buyer or investor and how to make your business as attractive as possible to them. Then you need to get the process right to maximise your return and protect yourself from a subsequent claim. As always, tax issues are critical.

Attend Wine Roadshow XXIII and learn how to attract an investor in, or buyer for, your business and to optimise the financial outcome.

Dates and Venue: 30 July

Swan Valley

31 July

Margaret River

10 August

Hunter Valley

11 August

Canberra District

12 August

Rutherglen

13 August

Yarra Valley

14 August

Launceston

18 August

Barossa Valley

19 August

McLaren Vale

21 August

Coonawarra

To register your interest or for more details please contact ashleigh.falconer-edwards@finlaysons.com.au

‘Barrel & oak alternatives to the stars’

PO Box 560, Terry Hills NSW 2084

Phone: (02) 9886 2277 Fax: (02) 9886 2299 Email: ncatt@radoux.com.au Mobile: 0418 832 967 (Nigel Catt)

Radoux distRibutoRs David Wardlaw South Australia m: 0409 316 729 david@enoltech.com.au

Peter Unwin VIC TAS NSW QLD t: 03 8786 4300 peter@enoltech.com.au

Sonya Logan, Editor

Publisher: Hartley Higgins General Manager: Elizabeth Bouzoudis Editor Sonya Logan Ph (08) 8369 9502 Fax (08) 8369 9501 Email s.logan@winetitles.com.au Editorial Advisory Panel Gary Baldwin Peter Dry Mark Krstic Armando Corsi Markus Herderich EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE Lauren Jones, Write Lane CONTRIBUTING WRITERS Kym Anderson Matthew Ayres Tony Battaglene Carl Behnke Johan Bruwer Aldo Cevaal Peter Clingeleffer Justin Cohen Armando Corsi Peter Costello Adrian Coulter Geoff Cowey Peter Dry Maria Del Alamo-Sanza Everard Edwards Marcel Essling Rachel Gore Steve Guy Peter Hayes Tony Hoare Matt Holdstock Bruno Holzapfel Dan Johnson Tony Keys Marius Lambrechts Larry Lockshin Mardi Longbottom Leanie Louw Erica McIntyre Anton Nel Ignacio Nevares Sharon Nitschke Michaela Nuebling Linda Ovington Paul Petrie Renata Ristic Mark Rowley Anthony Saliba Matt Schmidt Sam Scott Con Simos Jason Smith Mark Sosnowski Creina Stockley Pierre van Rensburg Amanda Walker Wayne Wilcox Damien Wilson Rebecca Willson Advertising Manager: Dan Brannan Ph (08) 8369 9515 Fax (08) 8369 9529 Email d.brannan@winetitles.com.au Production and Design: Luke Westle Subscriptions One-year subscription (6 issues) Australia $77.00 (AUD) Two-year subscription (12 issues) Australia $144.00 (AUD) To subscribe and for overseas prices, visit: www.winetitles.com.au The Wine & Viticulture Journalis published bi-monthly.

Correspondence and enquiries should be directed to Sonya Logan. The views expressed in the Journal are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Journal or its staff.

A

bout 18 months ago, we decided to embark on a somewhat ambitious undertaking to provide our readers with a snapshot of all the research currently being undertaken here in Australia and throughout the rest of the world by the wine industry’s key research institutions. As best we can tell, no-one has ever attempted to compile such a summary, but we felt it well worth the effort to enable you to compare and contrast the research being performed by us with our competitors.

In this issue of the Journal we are pleased to present Part 3 of our wine industry Research Review which been compiled with the assistance of industry strategist and advisor Peter Hayes, who has held various roles in wine sector R&D during his career, including council member of the Australian Wine Research Institute and executive director of the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC).

Peter has drawn on his R&D networks to delve into the work being carried out particularly in South America. His review starts on page 15.

Coinciding with this review is a summary of the projects now under way at the Australian Research Council (ARC) Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production (TC-IWP) that has just been established with Federal funding at The University of Adelaide. There are 14 postgraduate students and four postdoctoral fellows working across 13 research projects for three years at the Centre, which like the other centre’s established by the Federal Government is designed to foster close partnerships between university-based researchers and the industry members who benefit from their research outcomes. An overview of these projects starts on page 20.

This issue also includes our annual look at wine maturation, which comprises an article by Spanish researchers who have become what is believed to have been the first to determine the kinetics of oxygen entry in wine barrels. Their work will enable winemakers to more accurately quantify the rate of oxygen entry into wine barrels during ageing (page 26). Also on the topic of wine maturation is an article by wine consultant Rachel Gore on the use of exogenous tannins – what’s out there, why use them and when.

Over in viticulture we have first-season results from a study under way as part of a collaborative project between CSIRO Agriculture, the National Wine & Grape Industry Centre and industry partners to examine whether manipulating vine balance directly affects fruit composition.

Also, Tony Hoare looks at under vine mulching – the various options available to growers and their benefits.

And if you think Australia’s varietal mix has changed in recent years, think again.

Kym Anderson, from the University of Adelaide, presents an article starting on page 53 which draws on data from a new book he has compiled on the history of the Australian wine industry and shows that our winegrape varietal mix hasn’t diversified over the last 60 years as much as what we might think.

Much of south-east Australia was experiencing a rather lengthy cold snap as I wrote this - if the weather hasn’t warmed much by the time this issue arrives in your mailbox (or you access it in advance online at www.winetitles.com.au/wvj) then at least you’ve got the above articles and more in the following pages to keep you occupied while you snuggle up by the fire (glass of an accompanying warming red highly recommended!).

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REGULAR FEATURES

News 6 Wine Australia 8 WFA 9 ASVO 10 Tony Keys 11

4 www. wi n e t i t les.com.au

AWRI Report 38 Alternative Varieties 59 Varietal Report 75 Tasting 78

WIN E & V ITICULTUR E JO UR NA L JULY/A UGUST 2015

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IN THIS ISSUE

C O N T E N T S

V I T I C U LT U R E

R E G U L A R F E AT U R E S

8

WINE AUSTRALIA (Steve Guy): Working to improve access to international markets

43 Understanding the influence of vine balance on berry composition: 2013-14 season project update

9

WFA (Tony Battaglene): Building 30 years with strong research

49 Investigating angular leaf scorch disease in the USA and implications for Australian biosecurity

10 ASVO (Mardi Longbottom): Compressed, crushed and crowned 11 KEY FILES (TONY KEYS): Questions of taxation

S P E C I A L F E AT U R E S

15 RESEARCH REVIEW: Part 3 of our snapshot of the world’s grape and wine industry research projects, with a focus on South America, presented by Peter Hayes 20 RESEARCH REVIEW: A rundown of the projects being undertaken at the newly-established Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production at the University of Adelaide

51 TONY HOARE: Mulching under vine – options and their benefits 53 Is varietal or regional distinctiveness the key to rebuilding competitiveness?

W I N E M A K I N G

26 A dynamic evaluation of the oxygen transfer rate in oak barrels

59 ALTERNATIVE VARIETIES: Cortese

BUSINESS & MARKETING

62 A ‘show system’ approach for better marketing of Australian wine in China 64 VinExpo – should Australian and New Zealand wine producers reconsider?

30 Exogenous tannins – what, when, why 32 The influences of different winemaking techniques on the mouthfeel of Shiraz grapes 38 AWRI REPORT: Vintage 2015 - observations from the AWRI helpdesk

W I N E TA S T I N G

75 Lagrein 67 Total exports on the rise for volume and value 69 Wine on tap – an innovation for younger generations?

72 Reasons why people avoid wine: comparisons between consumers and non-consumers across five countries V3 0N 4

W I N E & VITICULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2015

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NEWS SNIPS

CHINA DEAL CLEARS WAY FOR WINE EXPORTS The free trade agreement between China and Australia has been officially signed and welcomed by the Winemakers’ Federation of Australia (WFA).

The deal will see existing wine tariffs reduced to zero over four years and it has been said has the potential to add tens of millions of dollars to the Australian wine industry’s export earnings.

WFA international affairs and strategy general manger Tony Battaglene, who was present for the signing of the FTA, said ending the import tariff in China opened the door for market expansion.

“China is currently our third largest wine export market by value, with around 44 million litres of Australian wine imported to the value of $242 million in the 12 months to March 2015,” Battaglene said. “Clearing tariffs opens the door for growth and the wine industry looks forward to working with government and others to seize these emerging opportunities.

“Removing the import tariff will put Australia on par with Chile which is tariff free from this year and New Zealand which has had no tariff since 2012.

“As part of the deal, we expect the current import tariff of 14% for bottled wine and 20% for bulk wine to be phased down to zero over four years and this is very significant for those attempting to tap into the China market as well as those already with their foot in the door.”

WINE AUSTRALIA CHAIR OFFICIALLY TAKES UP POST Brian Walsh has become the inaugural chair of the Australian Grape and Wine Authority (AGWA) - better known as its trading name Wine Australia - having held the position as acting chair of the organisation since July 2014.

“Under Brian’s leadership, AGWA has been established quickly and effectively at a very important time for the industry,” said the Federal Minister for Agriculture Barnaby Joyce in announcing Walsh’s

appointment for a two-year term.

“Australian winegrape growers are facing many challenges and Brian and the board have made a substantial contribution to improving returns across the industry.”

Walsh has extensive experience within the wine industry both as a winemaker, manager and executive since 1968. He has also held chair and director positions on various wine industry bodies, including being a member of the former Wine Australia Corporation.

His previous roles include president of the South Australian Wine Industry Association, chair of the South Australian Wine Tourism Advisory Board, and chair of Barossa Winemakers Committee. He is also currently the independent chair of Riverland Wine.

A selection process is under way to appoint directors for the next three years.

WINE AUSTRALIA RELEASES 5-YEAR STRATEGIC PLAN Increasing the demand and premium paid for Australian wine and its competitiveness in the global market are the two priorities underpinning Wine Australia’s recently-released five year strategic plan for 2015-2020.

The plan was developed after extensive consultation with the nation’s grapegrowers, winemakers and the broader Australian grape and wine community about their priorities.

Wine Australia chair Brian Walsh said, “Over the next five years, we will annually invest somewhere in the order of $35 million in research and development, building markets, disseminating knowledge, encouraging adoption and ensuring compliance as we work towards our goal of a united and prosperous Australian grape and wine community.

“Our investments will be guided by the strategic research priorities of the Australian grape and wine community and the Australian Government.”

For those who participated in the consultation process and wish to understand how their feedback was incorporated into the final strategic plan, this is are outlined in the Strategic Plan 2015–2020 Feedback Summary.

The feedback summary, the strategic plan and a summary version can be viewed at www.wineaustralia.com.

MANAGEMENT OF ENTWINE CHANGES HANDS

Brian Walsh

6 www.win eti tl es .c om.au

The management of the national environmental assurance program Entwine Australia, which was formerly the responsibility of the Winemakers’ Federation of Australia (WFA), has been transferred to the Australian Wine

W I N E & V I T I C ULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2015

Research Institute (AWRI).

The Entwine program was launched in 2009 and has more than 700 vineyard and winery members.

WFA chief executive Paul Evans described the shift as “an opportunity to refresh the approach to improving the industry’s environmental performance and how we collaborate with others on letting the world know of our successes”.

“The timing is right to transfer the future management of Entwine Australia to the AWRI which is well placed to ensure research and innovations in environmental management are incorporated into the industry’s behaviours and practices,” he said.

“The decision also reflects WFA’s focus on its core roles of policy development and advocacy. While WFA will retain its leadership role in progressing environmental policy and will remain strongly engaged in the issues with the support of the Wine Industry National Environment Committee, we now believe the AWRI has the right people and expertise to build on a strong foundation and grow participation and our reputation in Australia and internationally.”

Evans said the WFA board will review the transition of Entwine to the AWRI at its September meeting and in the future to ensure these goals were being supported.

The Entwine Australia program provides Australian winemakers and winegrape growers with formal recognition of their environmental practices according to recognised international standards.

To qualify for membership, companies must be certified against an approved, independently audited environmental management system and report annually against a set of defined resource use indicators.

WINETITLES MEDIA - A CHANGE FOR THE FUTURE Winetitles Pty Ltd, publisher of the Wine & Viticulture Journal, Wine Industry Directory and the Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker has undergone a name change.

Effective since the 1 July, the company is now known as Winetitles Media, reflecting the company’s plans to further develop and create new media and online services.

At the same time the company’s website has been rebranded, with Winetitles.com. au replacing Winebiz. An expanded online Winetitles Classifieds site has also been relaunched (www.winetitlesclassifieds. com.au).

Winetitles Media general manager Elizabeth Bouzoudis said, “Winetitles Classifieds, which includes Australia’s leading industry employment site WineJobs.com.au, will now offer the V30N4

NEWS SNIPS

industry free ad postings for winegrapes and bulk wine, used barrels and equipment, real estate and services.”

For more information visit www. winetitles.com.au NATIONAL WINE INDUSTRY CONFERENCES JOIN FORCES The 16th Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference and the Winemakers’ Federation of Australia’s Outlook Conference will be held together in Adelaide from 23-28 July, 2016.

The combined event will bring together industry policy, business and marketing content with the latest technical breakthroughs in grapegrowing and winemaking. Both conferences will be complemented by the Australian Wine Industry Trade Exhibition (AWITE) – a showcase of wine technology, equipment and services.

“Partnering with the AWITC and bringing Outlook to the technical conference will give grapegrowers and winemakers a place to discuss ideas but also to learn and share experiences and drive the national policy agenda in new ways,” said WFA chief executive Paul Evans.

VINTAGE VALUE DROPS FOR MURRAY VALLEY GROWERS The average prices of the major red grape varieties harvested this year in the Murray-Darling and Swan Hill wine regions were the lowest in a decade, falling to under $300/tonne.

Data provided by wineries to Wine Australia for the Murray-Darling/Swan Hill Wine Grape Crush Report revealed an average price for Cabernet Sauvignon of $295/tonne (-10%), $293/tonne for Merlot (-5%) and $289/tonne for Shiraz (-8%). Of

the white varieties, Pinot Gris increased 10% to $530/tonne, while Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc nudged up 3% to $223/ tonne 2% to $319/tonne, respectively.

Overall, production in the region dropped 8% to 381,732 tonnes, of which 285,402 tonnes were contributed by independent growers which was valued at $82 million, down 15% on earnings last year.

Across all varieties, growers received an average price of $288/tonne. Ten years ago, when growers were paid $192 million for 399,000 tonnes, the average price was $481/tonne.

Murray Valley Winegrowers (MVW) executive officer Mike Stone said more growers would be forced out of the industry this year as a result of another season of prices that generally failed to cover production costs.

He said the capacity of growers to “hang on” until market conditions improved was limited, even though prospects had improved on several fronts.

“The lower Australian dollar, particularly in North American markets, and recently-signed free trade agreements, will assist in boosting export sales. Wine Australia successfully promotes our wines internationally, but could do a lot more with additional funds; submissions from the grape and wine sector to the Federal Government have recommended tax reform measures as a means of diverting extra funds to Wine Australia,” Stone said.

VALE GUENTER PRASS Guenter Prass, the recipient of the inaugural Wolf Blass Award in 2003 for his contribution to the development of Riesling in Australia and the Maurice O’Shea Award in 2004 for his industry involvement, has died aged 88. The

Guenter Prass son of a winemaker and grandson of grapegrowers, Prass’ career began in Germany where he studied viticulture and winemaking. One of the first flying winemakers, he went on to work in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and Australia.

Prass held different positions at Orlando Wines between 1955 and 1988, including table wine maker during the launch of Barossa Pearl in 1956 – the wine credited with shifting consumptionin Australia from fortified to table wine.

He also helped develop Australia’s expertise in controlled fermentation.

Prass worked as trading director of Thomas Hardy & Sons, was general manager at Barossa Valley Estate Winery and later was a consultant to The Hardy Wine Company.

“I had the pleasure to get to know Guenter over the last two to three years and he was a passionate advocate for the industry and he lived a life dedicated to the pursuit of rigorous standards and excellence,” said Paul Evans, chief executive of the Winemakers' Federation of Australia of which Prass was a life WVJ member.

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WINE AUSTRALIA

Working to improve access to international markets

By Steve Guy, General Manager, Regulatory Services, Wine Australia

E

xporting wine internationally involves complying with many market-based requirements of the importing country – such as tariffs, certification, winemaking practices, wine composition and labelling – all of which can, at times, seem like an impenetrable maze for many in the Australian wine industry.

Wine Australia works to break down these barriers and improve access to international markets for the Australian wine community, so that the pathway for exporters is clear.

To demystify in-market obligations, we gather the requirements and regulations for key markets of interest and compile the relevant information in Export Market Guides.

The Export Market Guides are an essential reference point for Australian wine exporters and we currently have guides on the critical access requirements for 28 export markets.

The guides cover detailed information on duties and taxes, wine standards, labelling requirements, and import and certification requirements. We compile this information by researching the regulatory environments in those export markets and by monitoring technical notifications to the World Trade Organisation.

Export Market Guides also provide brief market information on the market size and scope, consumption trends and import analysis, and Australia’s position in the import category. They are updated as market and trade conditions change.

The guides are free for winegrape and export levy payers, and also for licensed wine exporters, while others can purchase them.

Wine Australia’s guides for Japan and Korea were recently updated to reflect the recent Free Trade Agreements with Australia and they now include the tariff reduction schedules and requirements for self-certification for certificates of origin, so that exporters can declare this information themselves.

We are always exploring new markets of interest and encourage exporters to contact us to propose a market for investigation.

An example of one of our newer Export Market Guides is the one for Cambodia, which is a market that has been identified

by Euromonitor International as one of the 20 Markets of the Future. The Cambodian wine market was estimated at 1.5 million litres in 2013 and European wines accounted for just over half of that volume (806,000 litres)1. Historically, Cambodia has links with France, and French wines have traditionally dominated the

EXPORT MARKET GUIDES ARE AVAILABLE FOR: • • • • • • • • •

Brazil Cambodia Canada China EU Fiji Hong Kong India Indonesia

• • • • • • • • • •

Japan Korea Malaysia Mexico New Zealand Norway Philippines Qatar Russia Singapore

• • • • • • • • •

South Africa Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey UAE UK USA Vietnam

wine market. However, Australian products in general have a strong reputation in Cambodia, with our beef and dairy products particularly sought after. In 2014, 27 Australian export licence holders shipped 284,088 litres of wine to Cambodia, with red wine representing 66 percent of this volume.

In addition to the Export Market Guides, we also promote market access by answering numerous labelling and technical enquiries from the sector in an effort to support an educated exporter base.

Market access alerts are distributed to Australian wine exporters as required and checklists and labelling advice are published on the Wine Australia website (www.wineaustralia.com) We place a high priority on cultivating and maintaining relationships with overseas regulatory agencies. We meet regularly and participate in international fora including the International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV), FIVS, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Wine Regulatory Forum, and the World Wine Trade Group (WWTG).

We also support the reduction of tariffs on Australian wine exports through Free Trade Agreement negotiations by making submissions to the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade on behalf of the wine community.

For more information about Wine Australia’s Export Market Guides, visit www.wineaustralia.com or email steve.guy@ wineaustralia.com WVJ European Commission’s Market Access Database.

1

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W FA

Building 30 years with strong research

By Tony Battaglene General Manager, Strategy and International Affairs, Winemakers’ Federation of Australia

W

ith the finalisation of the Australian Grape and Wine Authority (AGWA) five-year plan, it’s timely to focus on developments in wine research, development and extension (RD&E).

RD&E not only underpins the profitability of the wine sector, but is an important generator of income in its own right. Australia is fortunate to have a number of internationally-recognised, world-class research providers including the Australian Wine Research Institute, CSIRO, SARDI, the National Grape and Wine Industry Centre, and a vibrant university sector including Adelaide, Melbourne, Flinders and Curtin to name just a few.

Australia’s research direction is driven through the peak bodies – Wine Grape Growers Australia and Winemakers’ Federation of Australia, AGWA (which now operates as Wine Australia), the research institutions themselves and the National Primary Industries Research, Development and Extension (RD&E) Framework.

We also have a Wine Sector RD&E Wine Strategy implementation committee which is informed by the National Wine Research Network and the National Wine Extension and Innovators Network.

This strategy supports a strong culture of collaboration and coordination to ensure the effective and efficient use of RD&E resources and collaboration.

Wine Strategy participants have come together to develop a 30year blueprint vision for wine and the research we need undertaken.

This dovetails perfectly with Wine Australia’s aim for Australia to be recognised internationally as the world’s pre-eminent wineproducing country. To achieve such an objective requires (in AGWA’s words) a 30-year timeframe with a map of the next five years.

Wine Australia’s focus is on increasing both the demand, premium paid for Australia wine and our cost competitiveness. A key premise underpinning this is that increasing demand will be largely driven through building image and reputation for our fine wines, those wines of exceptional quality and finesse that reflect their provenance and terroir, and command a premium. And the benefits are expected to be felt across the offering, especially the branded and commodity wine segment.

Of course there are environmental, regulatory and economic challenges. During the next 30+ years, the Australian wine industry faces climate change, increasing pressure to reduce agrochemical inputs and carbon emissions, limits to water availability, and changing market demands and consumer preferences together with increasing competition from other wine-producing countries.

Research and innovation can give Australian producers a competitive edge. World-class research plays a key role in enhancing the sector’s image as a global leader in innovation, assisting the marketing of Australian wine through a message that is well recognised by customers and consumers in our key overseas markets.

R&D outcomes need to target both incremental improvements and game-changing breakthroughs, and support value creation and premiumisation by all sectors of the industry: grapegrowers, producers of popular premium wine made in large batches, and wines of distinction made typically in smaller batches.

As the major funding body for wine sector research it is vital that AGWA’s/Wine Australia’s five-year plan not only sets specific strategic priorities, but underpins these with significant long-term R&D funding.

It is vital that funding enables the appropriate level of technical capability to exist and also to give the wine sector the long-term ability to address ongoing and evolving challenges as they arise.

V3 0N 4

This requires recognition that a vibrant, resourced research sector is an important component of success, not only in giving industry the tools it needs but also to demonstrate that Australia is the world’s pre-eminent wine-producing country.

An Australian wine industry research, development and extension system must: • have clear market-driven priorities that cover the whole value chain and are updated regularly • comprehensively meet industry’s needs • be integrated, inter-dependent and specialised, with a large critical mass and less fragmentation across the nation • fund research on the basis of programs requiring collaboration rather than on the basis of projects • have a high level of collaboration and exploitation of synergies through strategic partnerships and sharing of expertise and research infrastructure • be efficient and effective including in its use of infrastructure • retain and build capability in areas strategically important to participants • have national centres of research excellence supported by welllinked development and extension systems so that wine sector research developed in one location will be available nationally for the whole industry • have a high level of industry access to international and Australian RD&E capabilities with faster and more effective ‘concept to application’.

As the principle funder of R&D in this country, Wine Australia has a role to play. Research is a vital cog in enabling industry innovation and enhancing demand opportunities and higher margins. This means that assessment of research projects should be able to provide building blocks to achieve our 30-year vision. This is consistent with the WFA/WGGA R&D policy which supports the targeting of a percentage of available research funds towards ‘bluesky’ research.

Critically, a 30-year vision requires a focus on building and maintaining research capability. As the major funder of grape and wine research, Wine Australia has a key responsibility in developing targeted strategies that ensure this. The Wine Strategy also plays a part by working with governments at all levels and research providers to identify capability gaps. This should include strategies to attract bright undergraduates as well as foster postgraduate study.

Implicit within the AGWA/Wine Australia plan to deliver on the strategies is the need for collaboration by research and extension bodies. This supports the collaborative national RD&E model, developed under the National Primary Industries Research, Development & Extension Framework. This need for collaboration is one that should be emphasised within the plan.

Extension and adoption leading to innovation are fundamental to the attainment of the vision and the successful completion of each five-year plan. I would also draw attention to the ASVO extension activities and the flagship event of the Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference – the next event being in July 2016 (see http:// www.awitc.com.au/ ) - which also keeps research and innovation at the forefront of our industry.

AGWA’s five-year plan needs to fund research to meet the sector’s needs as well as put in place the building blocks necessary to deliver the longer-term strategic vision. This can be achieved with the right mix of strategies to fund RD&E and maintain capability within our key research institutions and deliver the results into the field where they are needed. The plan must also WVJ continue to be owned and driven by an engaged wine sector.

W I N E & VITICULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2015

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A S V O

Compressed, crushed and crowned

By Mardi Longbottom President, Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology

J

ust days ago, the ASVO board, its members and a host of Australian and international wine industry personnel finished meeting in Mildura for the ASVO’s annual viticulture seminar. If you weren’t able to attend, you can watch how the event unfolded on social media (@ASVOtweet), especially the highlights from our international speakers Kendra Baumgartner and Vaughn Bell and, of course, the seminar dinner on Wednesday night and the morning after breakfast on Thursday. A full run down of the event will be presented in this column in the next issue of the Wine & Viticulture Journal, with updates also available on the ASVO website.

The next event in the ASVO calendar is the Adelaide seminar on the topic of ‘Dealing with compressed vintages’, which will be staged at the Plant Research Centre at Urrbrae on Thursday 19 November. The ASVO’s 2015 Awards for Excellence dinner will be held following the seminar at beautiful Carrick

Hill, in Springfield, South Australia. For the first time the celebratory dinner will be held in conjunction with the Wine Innovation Cluster’s ‘Crush’ Symposium dinner, to be followed on Friday 20 November by the Crush Symposium itself. The bringing together of these two popular industry events will allow wine industry practitioners, researchers, academics and students from across Australia and beyond to celebrate and sustain their shared industry connection.

The ASVO will present two awards to the Winemaker and Viticulturist of the year (last year won by Sue Bell, from Bellwether, and Matthew Bailey, from Taltarni) and awards for the best oenology and viticulture papers from the Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research (won by Richard Gawel, AWRI, and Jason Smith, Charles Sturt University, in 2014). Once again, the major sponsors of these awards are Bayer Cropsciences and the Australian Grape and Wine Authority.

In addition to these awards, this year ASVO is offering members a new award to further develop their advanced sensory skills and ultimately enhance the wider wine industry. The award is a scholarship to participate in the highly regarded Advanced Wine Assessment Course (AWAC) presented by the Australian Wine Research institute (AWRI). The AWAC is an intensive four-day course designed for participants with considerable formal wine tasting experience. It aims to prepare potential new wine show judges and develop the sensory analysis capabilities and the vocabulary of Australian wine industry personnel at an elite level. The scholarship is made possible through sponsorship from Seguin Moreau Australasia and the support of the AWRI. For more details about the ASVO Awards and to download an application form visit the ASVO website (asvo.com.au) WVJ

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Questions of taxation

By Tony Keys

Tony looks at the many sides of the debate surrounding the Wine Equalisation Tax.

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axation. It’s a bane that affects us all, although there is an anomaly that those who have great wealth seem to pay proportionally less into government coffers.

Another anomaly is that any proposed change in taxation is viewed with suspicion. It is in our nature to think the change will possibly affect us directly - our greatest fear being the change will not be for the better.

There is colossal turbulence in the Australian wine industry regarding changes in taxation and the possible abolition of the wine equalisation tax (WET).

I have had many conversations and received numerous emails on the subject of tax. I can say that passions are running high. Therefore, in this article I have taken many opinions and woven them into my own.

What this means is, if when reading this article the thought crosses your mind, ‘I told Tony that’, you probably did. All contributors have been made anonymous for simplicity as there are so many, but I do thank everyone for their assistance.

As with all arguments or contentious issues there are many opposing views. Before looking at what may be beneficial to wine and the thousands of people who find employment within the industry or those businesses associated with it, let’s start with some opposing views. I put them in no order of importance, just as they came to mind.

The beer and spirit industries are asking for the mythical ‘level playing field’. Many outside of alcohol industries also see this as a fair route to take and it makes sense to have a tax that is based on alcohol content: a volumetric tax. This way, beer would be cheaper than wine, which would be cheaper than spirits. So simple. So, why won’t it work? One reason given: “I think the wine industry needs to arrive at a tax policy on its own without looking to beer and spirits for leadership. Both of those groups have a vested interest in raising the price of wine.”

Tax on alcohol may be considered a revenue raiser; no need to deny it, as it has been for centuries. It has also been used as a protectionist measure to keep foreign spirits from penetrating domestic markets. An example is the heavy tax England imposed on imported spirits in the early 17th century, therefore promoting the consumption of domestic gin. In

turn, this brought the issue of alcohol abuse to the attention of authorities. The abuse was on such a huge scale economic issues came to the forefront, as did health and violence, but they were harsher times. The government was more interested in declining revenue than the health of citizens or drunken domestic violence.

Nowadays alcohol has many issues greater than simple revenue raising and it’s extremely important that they are all considered. The government wants the tax in its coffers, but also wants to demonstrate responsible leadership. I make the assumption that whatever happens with the government’s Rethink program on Australian taxation, it will not want to reduce income. At best, any changes implemented will remain revenue neutral.

The biggest opposition wine faces is not the beer or spirit industries, but health and social issues, said to be the result of excess alcohol consumption. According to the health and social pundits, wine is the major offender.

The Foundation for Alcohol Research and Education (FARE) submission to Re-think is obviously anti-alcohol but wine gets a huge flogging. In my opinion, it is prejudice towards wine bordering on obsession and far greater than that of beer or spirits. The second paragraph of the overview starts: “The current alcohol taxation system is illogical, incoherent and does not adequately recognise the extent of harms that result from the consumption of alcohol in Australia. The most illogical part of the alcohol taxation system is the wine equalisation tax (WET).”

This is followed with the accusation that WET is the reason wine can be sold as cheaply as 24 cents per standard drink and the more than 60 percent of wine sold for under $8.00 a bottle.

One has to see the sense in FARE's argument for a volumetric tax. The evidence FARE puts forward is based on the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ Apparent Consumption of Alcohol, Australia, 2013-14 report released in May this year.

According to the FARE submission, wine consumption has increased considerably over the years. Expressed in the form of pure alcohol, wine consumption rose from 1.18 litres of pure ▶ alcohol per capita in 1962-63 to 3.64 litres in 2013-14.

The biggest opposition wine faces is not the beer or spirit industries, but health and social issues, said to be the result of excess alcohol consumption.

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…how healthy is an industry that has four of its largest producers on opposite sides of this debate?

FARE presents this increase in wine consumption as evil incarnate and expresses the good news that beer has fallen from 7.09 litres of pure alcohol per capita to 4.01 litres over the same period.

With spirits, including ready-to-drink, FARE admits to an increase from 1.2 litres of pure alcohol per capita to 1.84 litres.

The statistics FARE uses show the overall consumption of pure alcohol has declined from 9.49 litres to 9.29 litres. There is more irony in the fact that the Winemakers’ Federation of Australia (WFA), Accolade Wines, Riverland Wine, The Australian Hotels Association and probably others use the same ABS report to show the consumption of alcohol has decreased.

FARE lists nine recommendations; six of them argue in various ways for the abolition of WET. FARE is also focussed on the evils that lurk in every cask of wine. FARE says: “Cask wine drinkers are consuming alcohol more often and more on average than those who select other drink types as their main drink of choice, with 31.6 percent of cask wine drinkers drinking daily. More than one-third (36.3%) of cask wine drinkers exceed the guideline to reduce the risk of alcohol-related injury on a single occasion.”

This information comes from the report, ‘What do Australians drink? Analyses by demographic and social characteristics', by Dr Sarah Callinan and Jason Ferris.

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The pair work for the Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, but this paper is in partnership with FARE, so it is looking to results that will back FARE’s belief on the wickedness of alcohol.

It is Callinan and Ferris’ research that says more than 30% of cask wine drinkers consume wine on a daily basis. They also, on average, drink 2.25 drinks per day which is 0.25 above the National Health and Medical Research Council’s 2009 recommendation of two standard drinks a day.

Summing up the facts as presented it appears the naughty drinkers are cask wine drinkers and they are causing huge damage to themselves by consuming a quarter of a glass of wine a day above the recommended limits.

This article is not dismissing the harm that alcohol plays in our society, but it is pointing out the use of reports and the statistics contained within that are being turned to many uses and presented as arguments both for and against.

A comment received in a private email is also relevant to the issues of health: “I don’t think there is a solution that will make the neo-temperance lobby happy. Their goal is to lower population-wide alcohol consumption by making it expensive, and thereby address the tragedy of abuse. There are so many issues with that approach it is hard to contemplate that intelligent people can be so blinkered. Domestic violence is an absolute tragedy, but I don’t know that simply making alcohol more expensive is going to resolve the issue.”

Leaving health issues aside, it came as a surprise to several industry people that Pernod Ricard and Treasury Wine Estates came out in favour of the abolition of WET. The question arises, are the duo advocating such a move for the benefit of the Australian wine industry, or for their own future prosperity?

Without criticism, both are international companies trading in many parts of the world. It is to be expected that company and self-interest comes first.

Both companies are seeking a straight tax rate around $2.20 per litre of wine. Both point out the fall in exports and want investment in the export sector.

From reading their submission, I got the impression the fall in exports is the fault of others and nothing to do with these two giants. They want to appear victims and innocent of any involvement in the past two decades of the responsibility for the industry being in the situation it is today.

Both show charts of how grape prices have fallen in recent years and more than 80% of grapes are being produced at a loss. Neither say anything about taking advantage of lower grape prices or in making sure any deals they struck with independent grapegrowers was of sufficient worth to give growers a return on their investment.

Both companies talk a lot about premium, which to me appears to put them at the top of the pecking order rather than a part of the collective Australian wine industry.

Pernod Ricard: We believe it [Australian wine industry] can recapture its position as a world-leading producer of premium wines.

TWE: The WET rebate is undermining value creation and threatening the wine industry’s sustainability in Australia whilst simultaneously eroding its premium positioning globally.

Ignoring their blatant self-importance, I have to agree with their view on the perception of Australian wine in many of our export markets. It has slipped but can it be recaptured as these two assume?

There are many who believe the damage done in the UK and USA is too great and it appears an equal amount say a new image in these markets can be built. Perhaps it can, but simple logic indicates strongly that if successful, the total volume would be much smaller.

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A smaller wine industry may be of benefit to these two companies and a few others, but is the wine-drinking consumer going to pay the price premium wines command?

Why would a wine consumer in the UK or USA buy Australian wine above their preferred price point when there are a host of wines from many countries available within their budget?

Opposed to the stance TWE and Pernod Ricard have taken are Accolade Wines and Australian Vintage. Both have portfolios of what are called premium wines, but both produce huge amounts of entry level wines and Accolade is heavily involved in cask wine production. Both do not want to move to a volumetric tax. Opinion and free thinking is the base of democracy. The question that lingers here is how healthy is an industry that has four of its largest producers on opposite sides of this debate?

WET has been described as ‘heroin that a part of the industry is hooked on’. A reader has pointed out for the five years prior to the introduction of GST, 300 new producers entered the industry. In the five years after the introduction of the rebate to compensate for anomalies created by the GST, 700 new producers entered the industry. This slowed down considerably, but then in 2006 when the rebate was almost doubled, another growth spurt resulted in an extra 500 players entering an industry that was already under severe profitability pressure and experiencing a massive decline in key export markets.

It is this person’s estimate that around 70-80% of wineries are not profitable in the sense of operating on the principle that revenue minus costs equals profit. Instead they are working on profit via WET. Many articles have appeared on the New Zealanders being eligible for WET. I have had conversations where the other person has almost had a fit, so outraged by this practice, but there is this view (figures not confirmed): “In a time of flat domestic sales between 2008-2012 the number of rebate claimants increased by 21 per cent and the rebate paid increased by almost 50% from $210 million to $310 million – this puts the $25 million paid to the New Zealanders in perspective.”

There is also the view that WET is the reason NZ Sauvignon Blanc has been so successful in Australia. It is not, but it doesn’t stop the finger being pointed or muttering in the background. Is the Australian industry losing the true threat New Zealand wine offers in the domestic and overseas markets because it’s obsessed with the WET that can be claimed?

In an opinion piece written by Chester Osborn (d’Arenberg Wines, McLaren Vale) published in the May/June 2015 issue of the Wine & Viticulture Journal , he says Paul Evans, chief executive of WFA, is between a rock and a hard place. Osborn sees the industry divided, saying many larger producers are unhappy with WFA. The issue here is possibly diminishing WFA funding. The big producers have clout and, excluding rorts, WET is of the greatest benefit to the small producer. Unfortunately, too few small producers belong to WFA.

Is the Australian industry losing the true threat New Zealand wine offers in the domestic and overseas markets because its obsessed with the WET that can be claimed?

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Evans has had a difficult path to walk with Pernod Ricard, Treasury Wine Estates and others pushing him for volumetric tax and small producers fearing if WET is withdrawn, they will fold. One can understand both sides, but will the small producers disappear if volumetric tax is introduced? Some undoubtedly will. The question here is how many of them are generating enough revenue with costs in proportion that equals profit?

The WFA submission to the Australian Government’s Review of Taxation is a document that attempts to placate all in the industry, but with the industry division gaining greater public attention, can the rift be repaired no matter the outcome?

Although the WFA submission is lengthy it has three basic principles: •

no increase to the level of wine tax revenue

•

no reforms to wine tax arrangements that are driven by social policy objectives

•

a differentiated tax rate for wine from other alcohol categories.

WFA, along with all in the industry, accepts the need for a change in alcohol taxation. It has become complex and needs simplifying. The crux is we all want change but do not want to see increased taxation for wine.

Is WFA or, indeed, any in the industry strong enough to fight the social policy objectives? We know all the arguments.

Hardened drinkers, like committed smokers, will continue to indulge their habit. After a night out fine dining it’s unlikely a couple will end up brawling in Federation Square. Or, why deprive the older couple who, not so wealthy, enjoy a glass or three of wine in the evening while watching television?

Social policy objectives may be the nail in the coffin of wine, but what does wine contribute to Australian economic coffers?

The WFA Re-think submission compares the wine industry with those of beer and spirits: 1.

The wine industry contributed about $1.77 billion to the national economy in 2013-14.

2.

The wine industry directly employs 16,122 people in 1867 businesses.

3.

The beer industry contributed about $1.17 billion to the national economy in 2013-14.

4.

The beer industry directly employs 3918 people in 228 businesses.

5.

The spirits industry contributed about $130 million to the national economy in 2013-14.

6.

The spirits industry directly employs 800 people in 55 businesses.

People employed in the wine industry work mainly in the regions, with just 29% working in metropolitan areas and 62% working in inland regional areas.

Wine contributes more money and employs more people than beer or spirits, but: •

profits in the wine industry are 5.3% of total revenue

•

profits in the spirit industry are 11.8% of total revenue

• profits in the beer industry are 16.1% of total revenue.

Wine again shows its clear superiority to the economy when it comes to exports: •

export revenues for the wine industry are $2 billion per annum (with rounding)

•

export revenues for the spirit industry are $168.3 million per annum

•

export revenues for the beer industry are $51.2 million per annum.

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It’s commonly thought that the wine industry is dominated by big producers, and it is, but not as much as other alcohol industries: •

the four largest Australian wine producers account for 40.8% of industry revenue

•

the market share of the top two major beer manufacturers is 82.7% of industry revenue

•

the top four in the spirits industry are estimated to account for about 65% of industry revenue.

Why any individual or, indeed, company bothers making wine is not expressed clearly in these figures. Over the past three years, the average level of invested capital required to generate a dollar of profit is about $11 in the wine industry.

Compare this with the amount of invested capital required to generate a dollar of profit in the beer industry, estimated to be $8.00.

Profit margins across the Australian wine industry are expected to be about 5.4% in 2014-15. Yet, the average profit margin of the beer industry is 16%, for spirits, it's 13%. Again, I wonder why there is an Australian wine industry, as the average return on invested capital (ROIC) is less than 1%. For beer ROIC is estimated to be 20.3%.

Wine contributes more in every sense and earns less for its efforts. It is also a tourism draw far larger than beer or spirits. Wine has thousands of cellar doors, restaurants and B&Bs selling trinkets, jams, pickles, books and other assorted paraphernalia. Surely this aspect far outweighs the alleged social harm.

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of alcohol. What will hold the taxman’s attention: health and social issues, WET rorts and rebates to New Zealand, or the full contribution wine makes both socially and economically?

There are so many angles and blind alleys it’s hard to see a clear way forward. All are worried how they will be affected should taxation or WET change. What is unfortunate about this issue is the industry is divided, and being divided it has weakened. A reader put to me the following: “Before the industry can make a decision on its approach to tax, it needs to figure out if we want an industry base that is similar to what it is now. Large volumes of warm climate wine with relatively low volumes of premium wine? Or, do we want an industry that looks completely different - very little warm climate, and slightly higher volumes of premium?

“Note I say slightly higher volumes of premium.

Internationally the premium market is very, very thin, so ultimately an industry aimed at the premium market will be competing just as hard as it is now for a slice of a very small international market.

“There is need to think about those options and the very different nature of the industry in those two scenarios before you think about the tax approach. The Australian wine industry needs to think about whether it wants to go the way of the wool industry.”

Wine industry commentator Tony Keys has spent more than 30 years in the wine industry including the retail sector in the UK and roles with the Australian Wine Export Council and the Australian Wine Bureau in London. He is author of The Key Report, a weekly report containing news, views, analysis and opinions on the wine industry: www.thekeyreport.com.au

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What’s the world doing in grape and wine research? Part 3

By Peter Hayes, Independent Wine Industry Strategist and Advisor

Peter Hayes presents Part 3 of a series of articles published by the Wine & Viticulture Journal in recent months that have provided a snapshot of all the projects currently being undertaken by the world’s key grape and wine research organisations. Part 1 was published in the March/April 2014 issue and focussed on Australia’s projects while Part 2, published in the May/June issue the same year, looked at France, Germany, Italy, New Zealand, South Africa, UK and US. Part 3 gives readers an insight to what our competitors particularly in South America are up to.

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his, the third in a series on international research and development in the wine industry sector, focusses on work being undertaken in the Americas with particular emphasis on South America.

Sourcing of information was facilitated by several collaborators including, for Argentina, Dr Jorge Perez Peña (‘Pata’) and Dr Jorge A. Prieto, of EEA Mendoza INTA, and Dr Carla Aurani, of Instituto Nacional de Vitivinicultura (INV); and for Brazil, Dr Alberto Miele, of Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Embrapa) Uva e Vinho. Their assistance is gratefully acknowledged.

It appears that considerable public and private R&D is being undertaken in Chile, however, attaining clear feedback on the actual current structures for R&D and projects has been difficult. In 2006 two consortia linking public institutions with wine company investor-collaborators were established, and it may now be that that consortia approach has been further consolidated. The Wines of Chile Strategic Plan 2020 (http://www. winesofchile.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/woc-plan2020-eng.pdf) notes, “The Vinnova and Tecnovid technological consortiums are entities whose objective is to develop R&D projects that meet the needs of the wineries. These projects will be carried out by the technical experts from the universities in conjunction with the wineries and the results transferred to the sector for their prompt adoption. As the result of this trade unification, the Vinnova and Tecnovid technical consortiums work together, along with Chile’s five major universities and more than 70 multidisciplinary researchers and in conjunction with all of the wineries. They began with US$10 million for five years and 24 projects that covered all of the areas, including viticulture, enology [sic], environment and marketing. The investment has increased in the past year and the project has been renewed for a second term. The needs of this second stage—the Consortium 2.0—have already been determined by defining a strategic agenda for innovation with the wineries. The primary lines identified are genetic resources, sustainability, terroir, consumer preferences and market intelligence. The new R&D projects are based on the same lines and incorporate major strategic alliances for collaboration, such as those made with the University of California at Davis and the Australian Wine Research Institute.”

Collaborative activity between Chilean and Australian researchers has been facilitated via the climate change focussed Vineyard of the Future project (http://www.vineyardofthefuture. wordpress.com). Significant private investment is also evident with Concha y Toro recently establishing a new research facility (http://www.harpers.co.uk/news/concha-y-toros-new-researchcentre-set-to-benefit-wine-industry-throughout-chile/516085. article).

There is no doubt that other work is being undertaken in countries such as Uruguay, however, their scale and funding is relatively modest.

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Previous reports (see the May/June 2014 issue of the Journal) detailed considerable work being undertaken in the United States, specifically at California State University, Fresno and Cornell University. Other work of significant scale and importance is undertaken within the University of California system, most notably at UC Davis, but also involving other UC campuses, the US Department of Agriculture and other universities. However, no consolidated schedule of such work is available. Likewise, a number of other states undertake programs of work for the industry including Oregon, Washington, Arizona, Missouri and Texas among others.

Professor Thomas Henick-Kling, director of the viticulture and oenology program at Washington State University, notes that, “Washington grape and wine research program combines state, federal, and industry funds and supports about $900,000 worth of research per year. This number grows as the industry grows and revenue from industry imposed levy increases. In addition, this year the Washington wine industry contributed about $1 million towards the new Wine Science Center. This is part of a commitment to contribute $7.4 million to the project over 10 years.

This commitment will be paid off in another three to four years.”

Other research funding sources are the regional program NW Center for Small Fruits Research and federal funding through the Specialty Crops Research Program (http://www.nwsmallfruits. org/research/2014_ncsfr_funded_research_list.pdf) and the Clean Plant Program (http://healthyplants.wsu.edu/grape-program-atcpcnw/) The construction of the Wine Science Center was a $23 million investment - all donated, with only $5 million from Washington state and $2 million from a US federal program.

Regarding the broader programs of investment in the United States, reference might be made to the following sites which list R&D coordination and investments made by each party: • American Vineyard Foundation (AVF): http://www.avf.org/ research.html • National Grape and Wine Initiative (NGWI): http://ngwi.org/ projects-underway_241.html • California Grape Rootstock Improvement Commission (CGRIC) and the California Grape Rootstock Research Foundation (CGRRF): http://www.avf.org/assets/files/articles/ b8d438ba9be8729a2edf89c508b63419c34d80.pdf • CDFA Pierce’s Disease and Glassy Winged Sharpshooter Board: http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/pdcp/Research.html).

Returning to the South American programs, each of Argentina and Brazil have developed clearly themed programs of R&D which address current and projected industry priorities including cultural and genetic adaptation to environmental conditions, optimising performance of ‘signature’ varieties and addressing ▶ environmental management issues.

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RESEARCH REVIEW

ARGENTINA Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Mendoza del Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria - INTA Grapegrowing Projects

Duration

• Heat waves and water deficit: Effects on physiology and anatomy of cv. Malbec.

Aim: Evaluate the effects of heat waves and water deficit during budbreak on vegetative growth, physiological response and shoot anatomy; understand possible effects of climate change effects on grape production.

2012-2015

• Row orientation effects on vine physiology, yield and fruit and wine composition (cv. Malbec).

Aim: Evaluate in field grown grapevines the effect of different row orientation on radiation interception, canopy microclimate, water consumption, growth, yield, fruit and wine composition; generate information as decision support for new vineyards.

2013-2018

• Effects of pre-harvest water deficit on yield and fruit composition (cv. Malbec) Aim: Generate information to clarify dogmas and discussions between grapegrowers and winemakers about irrigation before harvest; evaluate the effects of cut-off irrigation before harvest at different dates.

2013-2018

• Physiological mechanisms determining water use efficiency of different grapevine varieties Aim: Evaluate the different strategies and mechanisms related to WUE on different varieties; quantify the relative contribution to WUE of stomatal, mesophyll and biochemical limitations during water deficit.

2013-2018

• Analysis and modelling gas exchanges at the whole plant level Aim: Evaluate the impact on whole plant gas exchanges of different environmental and management factors (canopy structure, irrigation, and temperature); improve whole canopy gas exchange chamber system.

2013-2015

• Agronomic, oenological and genetic characterisation of different autochthonous varieties Aim: Genotype a collection of autochthonous varieties; elucidate their genetic origin and progenitors; evaluate their viticultural and oenological performance (yield, fruit composition and wine quality).

2013-2018

• Spur-pruning of old plants and its impact on shoot hydraulic conductivity and fertility Aim: Evaluate different strategies of pruning for renewing spurs and plant architecture; evaluate pruning renewal strategies on shoot hydraulic conductivity and fertility.

2012-2015

• Grapevine rootstocks resistance to abiotic stress (water deficit and salinity) Aim: Evaluate the resistance of grapevine rootstocks to water deficit and salinity; elucidate their tolerance/resistance mechanisms.

2013-2016

• Agro ecological management of vineyards Aim: Evaluate agro-ecological management alternatives for sustainable production of grapes and wine.

2013-2016

• Suitability of solid organic wastes from local industries as raw material for composting Aim: Characterise raw materials from solid organic wastes from local industries and appropriate mixtures for composting and use of the product as an organic amendment in vineyards.

2013-2016

• Mechanisation of the composting process Aim: Design and build a low-cost experimental prototype for small-scale composting by grapegrowers; reduce labour and composting costs.

2013-2016

• Drift recovery panel for phytosanitary treatments in vineyards Aim: Prevent losses caused by the drift of pesticides and reduce their impact on the environment.

2013-2016

• Assistance, adjustment and calibration of vineyard spraying machines Aim: Improve the quality of phytosanitary treatments and reduce their impact on the environment.

2013-2016

• Low cost mechanical fertiliser for vineyards Aim: Design and build of a low cost fertilising machine for applying granular fertilisers.

2013-2016

• Cover crops in drip irrigated vineyards: physiological response of native herbaceous species to different environments Aim: Evaluate six native herbaceous species for cover crops for drip irrigated vineyards.

2013-2016

• Development of molecular techniques for rapid detection of trunk disease pathogens Aim: Develop molecular methodologies to easily detect and identify in plant samples fungi involved in wood decay.

2013-2016

• Fungal trunk pathogens in grapevine nurseries Aim: Evaluate the presence of pathogenic fungi causing trunk diseases at different stages of plant production in nurseries in order to decide the sanitation procedures to apply to the plant material.

2013-2019

• Field evaluation of products for disease control Aim: Evaluate the effectiveness of different products to control grapevine trunk diseases, powdery mildew, downy mildew, botrytis grey mold and acid rot.

2013-2019

• Characterisation and molecular identification of Agrobacterium species isolated from grapevine Aim: Develop a specific and sensitive method to detect and identify tumorigenic Agrobacterium.

2013-2019

• Effect of hot water treatment to reduce the incidence of fungi on grapevine cuttings Aim: Develop a method to reduce the incidence of trunk disease pathogens on grapevine propagation material.

2013-2019

• Updating information on occurrence of systemic diseases in vine: trunk diseases, viroids, phytoplasmas and bacteria Aim: Evaluate sanitary status of vineyards; develop biotechnological strategies to preserve the sanitary status of vineyards in Argentina.

2013-2019

• Degradation of pesticides in order to assure wine safety Aim: Evaluate the degradation time of fungicides and insecticides used in vineyards cv. Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon.

2013-2019

• Effect of industrialisation on pesticide levels on wine Aim: Understand the impact of industrialisation on the levels of fungicides and pesticides cv. Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon.

2013-2019

evelopment and validation of the method QuEChERS by quali-quantitative UPLC mass/mass chromatography determination of D pesticides residues on industrialised products (juices, wines) Aim: Analyse new pesticides and decrease their detection level; increase the laboratory capacity to analyse samples in quantity and number of products; reduce the quantity of solvents used and lab residues.

2013-2019

•

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RESEARCH REVIEW

• Comparative physiological responses of grapevine rootstocks under water deficit and salt stress Aim: Compare physiological and vegetative responses of cv. Cabernet Sauvignon grafted onto 101-14Mgt and 1103P under salt stress and water deficit.

2013-2016

• Development of a method for vineyard classification Aim: Develop a new method for vineyard evaluation based on potential productivity and berry composition; develop training programs for professionals and growers in field measurements and analytical techniques for grape and wine analysis.

2013-2016

• Development of methodology for determining winegrape maturity Aim: Develop a new method to assess optimal maturity for winegrapes; develop multi-criteria maturity indices based on berry components; assess best harvest time according to wine target characters.

2013-2016

• Physiological mechanisms and genetic approaches to study the vigour induction of rootstocks Aim: Study the physiological mechanisms and the genetic basis involved in grapevine vigour and growth; understand how rootstocks may confer vigour to the scion.

2013-2018

Winemaking Projects

Duration

• Reduction of sulphurous anhydride in wine production Aim: Evaluate different technologies to reduce sulphurous anhydride content in wines of cv. Bonarda and Malbec without modifying wine characteristics but improving their quality and stability.

2014-2016

• Improvement of regional wines quality Aim: Improve regional wine quality by technology development and adoption by the industry; evaluate consumer consumption and preferences of regional wines in Argentina; characterise regional wines and evaluate alternatives to improve their quality.

2013-2015

• Effect of temperature and ammonium nitrogen on the fermentation performance and aromas of Torrontés Riojano wines Aim: Evaluate the combined effect of temperature and nitrogen nutrition on fermentation performance and aromatic composition on Torrontés Riojano wines.

2014-2016

• Effect of crop load and maceration time on the phenolic composition of Malbec wines from Mendoza, Argentina Aim: Determine the effect of maceration length on the phenolic composition of Malbec wines from vines with different crop load.

2013-2016

• Use of unripe grapes to reduce pH and alcohol level of red wines Aim: Evaluate the use of unripe grapes from veraison cluster thinning as a technique to simultaneously reduce pH and alcohol levels of Malbec and Bonarda wines; evaluate the effects of this technique on wine chemical composition and sensory characteristics.

2014-2016

• Matrix effects on wine tannin extraction and retention into wine Aim: Understand the role of the non-phenolic matrix of grape must on the extraction and retention of wine tannins; focus will be also given to sensory analysis, with emphasis on mouthfeel characteristics.

2015-2018

• Maceration techniques for flavour optimisation in Malbec, Bonarda and Pinot Noir Aim: Flavour optimisation by a combination of maceration techniques (cold soak, carbonic maceration, stem addition, whole cluster addition) of Malbec, Bonarda and Pinot Noir wines.

2014-2015

• Microwave assisted extraction (MWAE) of phenolics during winemaking Aim: Understand the microbiological, chemical and sensory impact of MWAE in Malbec, Bonarda, Syrah, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon musts and wines.

2014-2016

• Impact of berry size on wine chemical and sensory traits Aim: Understand how natural variations of berry size observed in field conditions impact the chemical and sensory composition of Malbec and Bonarda wines.

2015-2016

• Biotechnological tools for ethanol reduction in wine: construction of mutants variants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Aim: Construct genetically engineered yeasts with a slight inefficiency for ethanol production, to be used as a yeast starter for ethanol reduction in wine.

2014-2019

• Construction of GMO yeasts and application of mixed cultures to reduce the alcohol concentration in wine Aim: Reduce the ethanol content in wine through a combined use of GMO yeasts and mixed cultures.

2013-2019

• Genetic screening of mutant Dekkera bruxellensis strains with low-ethylphenol production Aim: Screen and select Dekkera bruxellensis mutant strains with reduced ethylphenol production; develop a reliable biocontrol method for the treatment of contaminated barrels, and for its use as a starter in fermentations with non-conventional yeasts.

2013-2019

• Oenological quality of cv. Bonarda wines coming from high yield vineyards in different regions of Mendoza Aim: Evaluate the interaction between climate, soil and training system observed on different regions and their impact on yield and fruit composition on high yielding vineyards of cv. Bonarda.

NOT SUPPLIED

• Evaluate different hybrids of Saccharomyces in winemaking Aim: Design and select hybrids of Saccharomyces as inoculum for obtaining wines with different characteristics.

2015-2019

• Stuck fermentation in the wine industry: assessment of the effect of cold shock on alcoholic fermentation Aim: Evaluate the effect of cold shock on the development of alcoholic fermentation; understand the molecular and physiological basis of S. cerevisiae to this stress.

2015-2018

• Bioprospecting genes of interest in wine in Saccharomyces cerevisiae native strains Aim: Find genes with oenological interest in Saccharomyces cerevisiae native strains associated with vineyards; based on this information, design new strains with enhanced fermentation of wine characters.

2014-2020

• Prevention of the occurrence of Brettanomyces off-flavour in wines Aim: Develop and validate a mathematical model to predict the risk of phenolic off-flavour caused by yeast Brettanomyces considering red wine characteristics.

2010-2016

• Biopesticides from indigenous yeasts to reduce pathogenic fungi and yeast in vines Aim: Reduce the impact of ochratoxin A in grapes and by-products through a biopesticide based on Kluyveromyces thermotolerans; reduce the impact of pathogenic fungi and spoilage yeasts in grapes and by-products by biopesticides based on indigenous yeasts; promote sustainable agriculture and conservation of the biological balance.

2009-2016

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Wine Business Projects

Duration

• Development of economical and risk indexes for grape production systems in North Mendoza Aim: Evaluate the economic sustainability of relevant farming systems in the Northern Oasis of Mendoza, Argentina; assess relevant farming systems profitability through economic indicators; generate information about the levels of economic risk faced by relevant farming systems; generate basic information for economic assessment of innovation impact.

2013-2019

• Dynamics of agricultural systems in the North Mendoza Aim: Generate information about farming systems dynamics (structure, historical evolution and trends); identify in each district the relevant farming systems; identify and quantify structural processes in time and space; prospectively analyse and propose policies for institutional intervention in the territories; design a method to be reproduced in other zones.

2013-2019

• Economical evaluation of vine pest and diseases control strategies Aim: Evaluate sustainable vineyard management in Northern Oasis of Mendoza, Argentina; evaluate the economic impact of pest and disease problems in vineyards; evaluate the costs and benefits of pest and diseases management; assess their impact on the economic farming system indicators.

2013-2019

• Economic evaluation of anti-hail net installation using family grower hand labour Aim: Evaluate the economic convenience of the anti-hail net in vineyards of Northern Oasis of Mendoza, Argentina; evaluate the impact of installing a passive protection system (net) on economic and risk indicators in family-owned vineyards; propose strategic alternatives for family grapegrowers.

2013-2019

• Profitability of organic vineyard management Aim: Develop an organic wine production protocol for different vineyard systems, focussing on family-owned vineyards of Northern Oasis of Mendoza, Argentina; evaluate the impact of the innovation due to the adoption of the protocol.

2013-2019

conomic evaluation of ecosystemic services of the Northern Oasis of Mendoza - the oasis landscape as an ecosystem service E provider Aim: Increase our understanding of the multi-functionality of the local rural space; assess the total economic value of the agroecosystem of Oasis Norte; propose alternatives to land use planning and management; analyse existing policies in relation to agroecosystem sustainability and competitiveness of the agri-food system.

2013-2019

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Instituto Nacional de Vitivinicultura (INV) Winemaking Projects

Duration

anotechnology in wines - piloting nanosilver particles during vinification of grapes cv. Malbec fermented with Saccharomyces N cerevisiae strains, Mendoza, Argentina.

Aim: To determine the antiseptic power and possible sulfur dioxide replacement.

2015-2016

• Importance of nanosilver as an antimicrobial agent in the wine industry Aim: Determine the bactericidal power of silver nanoparticles compared with sulfites.

2014-2015

• Varietal identification through molecular biology techniques, in winegrapes and wine Aim: Monitoring of genetic material from grape to wine.

2015-2017

• Optimising the timing of DNA extraction of vines Aim: Analysis of genetic material from different parts of the vine organography.

2015-2018

• Study of dipeptides and tripeptides in red and white wines by Capillary Electrophoresis Gel Aim: To differentiate between varieties using DNA degradation products.

2015-2018

ensory, physicochemical and climatic characterisation of wines and vineyards from high altitudes of Argentina, Brazil, and Bolivia S (in collaboration with CNRS France) Aim: To determine common characteristics of wines and areas of high altitude, and to define those concepts to better communicate them to consumers.

2013-2015

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Facultad De Ciencias Agrarias - Universidad Nacional De Cuyo Grapegrowing Projects

Duration

ffect of salicylic acid and methyl jasmonate on the biosynthesis of trans-resveratrol in grapevine plants of Malbec and dwarf E varieties Aim: Evaluate the effects of salicylic acid and methyl jasmonic acid on the accumulation of trans-resveratrol in grape berries of Malbec variety at postveraison and preharvest; evaluate the impact of salicylic acid and methyl jasmonic acid on the accumulation of trans-resveratrol in clusters at different developmental stages, leaves and berries in the dwarf grape Pixie variety; elicitation of gene expression that codify the synthesis of trans-resveratrol by spraying salicylic acid and methyl jasmonic in Malbec and Pixie varieties.

2014-2016

• Identification of phylloxera biotypes present in Argentina Aim: To identify the different biotypes of phylloxera infecting roots of cultivated varieties of winegrapes in different provinces of Argentina by molecular markers.

2014-2016

• Effect of climate change on the physiology, phenology and productivity of the vine: predictive simulations using the STICS model Aim: Study the physiological responses of vines to high temperatures (climate change); evaluate strategies to mitigate its negative effects by agro-meteorological simulations.

2014-2016

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• Plant extracts and grapevine disease control Aim: Study the potential value of extracts of Argentinean native flora species to control grapevine diseases.

2013-2015

• Biocontrol of grapevine pests Aim: Study the potential of native and foreign isolates of Beauveria bassiana to control Lobesia botrana.

2013-2015

Wine Business Projects

Duration

• Grape production costs: identification of factors affecting the competitiveness and sustainability of companies (Mendoza, Argentina) Aim: Quantify the grape production costs for wine for different wine qualities and production regions of Mendoza; identify and study the factors involved in each region and each wine quality to describe their behaviour and propose indicators to monitor them.

2013-2015

BRAZIL Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA) Grapegrowing Projects

Duration

• TERMOCAMP Aim: To evaluate the application of hot airflow technology for grape disease control.

2013-2015

• CADVITI Aim: To update viticultural data and vineyard georeferencing to support the development of geographical indications and public policies.

2014-2017

• EVAPOSUCO Aim: To determine grapevine water requirements in different Brazilian viticultural regions aimed at grape juice production.

2015-2018

• IPCAMPANHA Aim: To develop the Geographical Indication ‘Campanha’ for wines and sparkling wines.

2013-2016

• BRS GRAPES Aim: To develop new cultivars adapted to Brazilian conditions - Stage III.

2014-2018

• DOEFUNVIDE Aim: To determine the conditions of grapevine fungal disease occurrence in tropical regions and to propose alternative strategies of control.

2012-2015

• VIRUS-VID Aim: To identify grapevine viral pathogens from foundation collections and grapevine germplasm using next-generation sequencing, viral diagnosis, and clonal cleaning and induction of polyploidy in grapevine rootstocks to reduce scion growth rate.

2014-2017

• PRO-UVA Aim: To develop technologies for the production of organic grape juices by small growers from the Serra Gaúcha viticultural region.

2012-2015

• RENOVITIS Aim: To develop technologies for the viability and sustainability of vineyards in renewal areas of southern Brazil.

2015-2018

• MUDAVITIS Aim: To establish local units of grapevine vegetative propagation for productive systems of ecological base.

2014-2016

• PHENVITIS Aim: To add values to grape genetic resources with the aim of meeting the demands resulting from the expansion of Brazilian viticulture and consumers.

2014-2018

• GEOVITISUL Aim: To characterise vineyards by applying remote sensing and geographic information system techniques in the Metade Sul Region, RS, Brazil.

2012-2015

Winemaking Projects

Duration

• SPBVINHOS Aim: To develop new technologies for winemaking in tropical and temperate regions.

2015 – 2019

Wine Business Projects

Duration

• BRS VITTIS Aim: To establish strategies to improve the presence of grapevine varieties created by Embrapa in the Brazilian wine and juice industry

2014-2017

• PROVITSUL Aim: To characterise typical rural grape producing farms in the southern states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina.

2012-2015

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TC- IWP

New training centre projects to deliver new tools and optimise existing practices for industry

By Renata Ristic, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide

The University of Adelaide recently received funding from the Australian Research Council to establish a Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production aimed at better placing the wine industry to make the products consumers want.

T

he Australian Research Council (ARC) Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production (TC-IWP) has been established at The University of Adelaide. The centre is one of only four funded in the first round of the ARC’s Industrial Transformation Research Program, which is designed to foster close partnerships between university-based researchers and the industry members who benefit from their research outcomes.

The TC-IWP has been formed with support from industry partners and the Australian Grape and Wine Authority (AGWA) and links the scientific and industrial expertise, contributions and facilities of the University of Adelaide (UA), Charles Sturt University, the Australian Wine Research Institute, CSIRO, NSW Department of Primary Industries, SA Research and Development Institute, BioInnovation SA, Treasury Wine Estates Vintners Ltd, Laffort Oenologie Australia Pty Ltd, Lowe Wines Pty Ltd, Memstar Pty Ltd, Tarac Technologies Pty Ltd and Sainsbury’s Supermarkets Ltd. The centre is led by director Professor Vladimir Jiranek (UA) with the help of the TC-IWP advisory committee.

The research projects of the TC-IWP aim to deliver new tools or to optimise existing viticultural and winemaking practices to enhance the quality of grapes and wines, reduce waste components of vinification and define market and consumer preferences for wines with a lower alcohol level. The topics will be addressed through an integrated whole-of-production-chain approach that starts in the vineyard, integrates vinification and post-vinification, and finishes with wine consumers. There are 14 postgraduate students and four postdoctoral fellows working across 13 research projects for three years. The TC-IWP offers unique training opportunities by enabling researchers to undertake extended industry placements to acquire workplace skills and knowledge, in addition to their scientific training.

The suite of projects and their participants are detailed in the following discussion. Opportunities for additional researchers and collaborations are available. Interested parties should contact the centre’s director by email at vladimir.jiranek@adelaide.edu.au

VITICULTURE The sugar-potassium nexus within the grape berry Researcher: Zelmari Coetzee Supervisors: Associate Professor S. Rogiers, Professor A. Deloire, Professor R. Walker, Dr S. Clarke Management practices targeted at lowering the sugar content of grapes include harvesting earlier at a lower Baumé, managing irrigation, or choosing varieties that do not accumulate high concentrations of sugar. Conversely, potassium (K+) can be manipulated in the vineyard through the selection of rootstocks and potentially also by irrigation strategy, and depending on soil type and available K+ concentrations, by modifying fertilisation regimes. The aim of the project is to investigate the apparent sugar-potassium nexus in ripening grape berries and to determine if it can be manipulated to optimise the berry sugar and K concentration at harvest, without negatively impacting on other aspects, e.g. aromatic development during ripening. If the sugar content of the grape berry can be lowered by reducing K+ transport towards the grape berry, it may result in the production of lower alcohol wines due to the decreased sugar content in the grape juice at the time of harvest. In addition, by lowering the berry K+ content at harvest, there would be a consequential reduction in grape juice pH and reduced requirement for the costly practice of adjusting pH by the addition of tartaric acid.

Cell death in the berry and berry weight loss Researcher: Dr Simon J. Clarke Supervisors: Associate Professor S. Rogiers, Professor S. Tyerman, Professor A. Deloire Mesocarp cell death in some grapevine varieties could influence flavour and aroma development, extractability of the juice, berry water relations, sugar concentration, and

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ultimate wine quality. Cell death is potentially important to the production of lower alcohol wines because vital grape berry cells are thought to be necessary for maintaining a high water content in the fruit. Vital berry cells promote water inflow from the parent plant, compensating for water lost to the atmosphere through the berry surface. In the absence of vascular inflows, the fruit water content will decrease and the concentration of solutes will increase. The concentrated sugars resulting from these processes are anticipated to increase the alcohol content of wine.

The general aim of this research, as well as the two projects described below, is to provide fundamental information on the processes responsible for inducing grape berry cell death. The aim of this particular research is to identify viticultural practices with the potential to delay or enhance grape berry cell death. This research will proceed by assessing whether processes extrinsic to the grape berry (such as canopy manipulations) have an effect on berry cell death. The research will then turn to assess the role of intrinsic berry characteristics (such as developmental stage) on berry cell death. These paired experimental themes will be used to identify where scope exists for manipulating berry cell death in the vineyard.

Investigation of the physiological cause of grape berry cell death Researcher: Zeyu Xiao Supervisors: Professor S. Tyerman, Associate Professor V. Sadras, Associate Professor S. Rogiers Cell death in grape berries is linked to berry shrivel for some varieties late in ripening. This event is hypothesised to affect quality, fermentable sugar content due to shrivel, and juice extractability of the berries. Oxygen depletion is one of the key determinants influencing plant physiological processes, especially in non-photosynthesising organs.

Pericarp cells may be under hypoxic/anoxic stress during the late ripening stages due to reduced gas exchange across the exocarp and respiratory consumption of oxygen. The resultant oxygen shortage restricts aerobic respiration causing a rapid change in the intracellular energy status, which could impact on cell metabolism, ultimately with effects on biochemical reactions and solute partitioning, and tissue vitality. Grape berry internal oxygen status, as well as changes in berry metabolism during ripening will be examined using cutting-edge oxygen microelectrode techniques. This project also aims to establish the potential links between berry cell death and wine quality.

Molecular events underlying death in grape berry Researcher: Siyang Liao Supervisors: Professor S. Tyerman, Associate Professor S. Rogiers Cell death is characterised by a breakdown of cell membrane integrity. In order to assess the broader impact of cell death on berry quality it is important to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying cell death. It is still not clear if cell death in the berry is apoptosis-like

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(programmed) or necrosis. Reactive oxygen species are versatile signalling molecules playing an essential part in regulating plant apoptosis-like cell death, of which the loss of cell membrane competence is one of several hallmarks.

In this project, mesocarp cell death in the grape berry will be examined to determine if it is an apoptosis-like cell death.

The potential role of reactive oxygen species in cooperation with other cell death specific signalling molecules and gene signalling pathways will be investigated.

The biochemical response of grapevines to smoke exposure Researcher: Lieke van der Hulst Supervisors: Associate Professor K. Wilkinson, Associate Professor C. Ford, Associate Professor R. Burton Global warming is increasing the frequency of heatwaves and the incidence of bushfires. In some instances, fires are occurring in close proximity to wine regions, resulting in vineyard exposure to smoke. Grapes from smoke-exposed vines can be tainted and so, too, can the resulting wines, making them unsaleable and a significant challenge to grapegrower and winemaker viability in fire-prone areas.

Previous research has demonstrated that smoke-derived volatile compounds accumulate in grapes in glycoconjugate forms, i.e., with one or more sugar moieties attached. This complicates both the detection of smoke taint in fruit and the amelioration of smoke taint from wine, and is also thought to be the reason that smoke taint intensifies in wines with bottle age. This project, therefore, aims to investigate the biochemical response of grapevines to smoke exposure, in particular, the enzymes responsible for glycosylation of smoke-derived volatiles in grapevine fruit and leaves following exposure to smoke. The outcomes of this research will aid development of practical solutions for eliminating smoke taint in wine.

Optimisation of an early harvest regime – impact on grape and wine composition and quality Researcher: Olaf Schelezki Supervisors: Dr D. Jeffery, Professor A. Deloire, Dr P. Smith One approach to reduce the alcohol level in wine involves several portions of the crop being harvested at an under-ripe stage and fermented to a lower alcohol blending material.

Unlike water, this blending material can then legitimately be incorporated in any proportion into the wine produced from the remainder of the fully ripened crop to decrease the potential ethanol content (and pH) of the must. In this project, wines produced by sequential harvest will be chemically and sensorially compared with wines with similar alcohol levels made from grapes harvested at specific Baume. Treatments will be tested by descriptive analysis to examine limiting thresholds for ethanol reduction, and finally, to address whether it is better to reduce ethanol by blending or simply to pick the fruit earlier, and what is the potential of either treatment to reduce ethanol without compromising wine

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quality. Cultivar-specific quality attributes will be tracked back from the glass to the grapes, with consideration of both vintage effects and the influence of temporal variability of the berry population on grape and wine composition, to provide deeper insight into components related to quality other than sugar that can be targeted for more precise harvest decisions.

Application of reverse osmosis/ perstraction to wines made from grapes with different levels of maturity: chemical and sensory evaluation

Managing ethanol and sensory compounds by non-Saccharomyces yeasts Researcher: Ana Hranilovic Supervisors: Professor V. Jiranek, Associate Professor P. Grbin, Dr Theunes Johannes van der Westhuizen

Researcher: Rocco Longo Supervisors: Dr L. Schimdtke, Dr J. Blackman, Dr P. Torley, Associate Professor S. Rogiers This project will use a combined approach that involves a sequential harvest regime and blending of dealcoholised wines. Targeted grape harvests will be subjected to membrane separation technologies, such as reverse osmosis and evaporative perstraction, to achieve wines with reduced level of alcohol. This research will investigate viticultural and wine production approaches that will enable the production of lower ethanol wines that retain the compositional components responsible for the enjoyment of wines that have naturally occurring higher alcohol concentrations.

Exploiting communication between yeast and grapevine Researcher: Dr Shifeng Cao

This project intends to focus on exploring nonSaccharomyces biodiversity to select yeasts capable of diverting sugar from ethanol to other favourable or flavouractive end-products. The major objective is to define yeast strains and oenological practices leading to lower ethanol yield in high sugar must fermentations. Use of newlyselected and improved non-Saccharomyces strains will lead to the establishment and implementation of more efficient methods for ethanol reduction, alongside reduced risk of quality loss. This approach, permitted in the current legislative setting, is highly economically feasible and environmentally viable, as it does not generate additional capital investments and energy inputs associated with conventional methods for ethanol management. Outputs of this project are, therefore, expected to generate contributions relevant both the research community and the wine industry.

Impact of high sugar content on the efficiency and sensory outcomes of un-inoculated fermentations Researcher: Federico Tondini Supervisors: Professor V. Jiranek, Associate Professor M. Herderich, Dr Theunes Johannes van der Westhuizen

Supervisors: Professor V. Jiranek, Professor S. Tyerman Grapevine surfaces provide a physical environment suitable for the growth of microbial communities that depend on the grapevine for nutrients, water and protection. Yeast populations are spatially distributed over the grapevines and are dynamic during the course of grape development.

The community dynamics is also influenced by external factors such as geographical location, climatic conditions, grape cultivar, vine canopy and the use of agrichemicals.

It has been clearly established that phytopathogenic fungi, bacteria, and viruses exert biotic stresses on plants. Much less is known, however, about the interactions between oenological species of yeast and their host plants. Although evidence exists that S. cerevisiae was a potential pathogen towards grapevines, to date there have been no reports that indicate that the association of the yeast with the plants changing physiological conditions leading to restricted entry of pathogens through stomata or cell wall. To test this assumption, we will examine the importance of stomata and fruit cell wall in the phytopathogenicity of yeast towards grapevines and reveal previously unknown features of grapevines’ behaviours in response to yeast attack. The mechanisms observed here may be of significant ecological importance and may help to explain the long periods of yeast survival found to occur in vineyards.

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This project aims to uncover how wild yeast populations deal with winemaking conditions, particularly with the stressful environment created by high sugar concentrations.

Different phenotypes will be identified together with the molecular rationale for their stress response and targets that can be used for selection. This can ultimately provide a guide for selection of yeast strains with improved resistance to hyperosmotic stress and more desirable metabolic outcomes. Solutions for problematic fermentations and recommendations for the yeast strains, the type and condition of fermentation, and the prediction of the final fermentation bouquet will be evaluated.

Cyclodextrins – an inert carbon sink for grape sugars Researcher: Chao Dang Supervisors: Professor D. Taylor, Professor V. Jiranek The project aims at exploring the utilisation of specific enzymes to convert fermentable grape sugars (especially glucose) in must to non-fermentable cyclodextrins, ultimately producing wines with lower alcohol level. Cyclodextrins

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are non-toxic, naturally occurring, cyclic oligosaccharides formed by the action of certain microorganisms on starch.

The utilisation of Cyclodextrin forming enzyme (CGTase), fate of carbon from metabolised sugars, steps to remove the cyclodextrins and the oenological acceptability of the enzyme products will be explored and determined using suitable chromatographic and sensory techniques.

OENOLOGY Selective and deliberate use of winemaking supplements to modulate sensory properties of wines Researcher: Sijing Li Supervisors: Associate Professor K. Wilkinson, Professor V. Jiranek, Associate Professor S. Bastian Alcohol reduction can be achieved by several methods prior to, during or post vinification and this project will investigate two specific approaches: (i) an early harvest (12.5 Baumé) and (ii) a harvest at commercial maturity (~14.5 Baumé) with fermentation arrested at various residual sugar levels. The aim of the project is to evaluate the quality of red wines made from the above-described approaches through chemical analysis and sensory evaluation. Maceration enzymes and mannoprotein will be added individually and in combination to determine the optimal addition regime.

Different combinations of residual sugar levels and lactisole concentrations will also be trialled to achieve the best sensory outcome. The results of this project will further wine researchers’ and winemakers’ understanding of the effect of maceration enzymes and mannoproteins on wine.

The results will also help winemakers make informed decisions regarding the timing and dosage of these wine additives, should they choose to use them. The findings will also demonstrate the potential of lactisole as a sweetness repressor in wine; either to produce low alcohol wine or to ameliorate excessive sweetness in stuck fermentations.

Ultimately this project will provide winemakers with more tools to produce quality red wines with lower alcohol levels, which are increasingly in demand by consumers.

Getting alcohol content right: The compositional and sensory basic for an alcohol sweet spot Researchers: Duc-Truc Pham and David Wollan Supervisors: Associate Professor K. Wilkinson, Dr D. Jeffery, Dr V. Stockdale, Professor V. Jiranek The wine alcohol ‘sweet spot’ refers to the observation that relatively small changes in a wine’s alcohol content

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can have a substantial effect on its sensory properties. For dealcoholised wine, there often appears to be one or more alcohol concentrations at which the wine seems to exhibit greater flavour intensity and superior overall balance and, thus, is preferred over other concentrations. However, to date, the available scientific evidence does not support these observations. Current sensory research suggests that tasters cannot distinguish wines with less than a 0.4% (ABV) difference and raises questions as to whether the phenomenon exists or is of any commercial significance.

This is an issue for all wines but particularly for reduced alcohol products. Indeed, many of those winemakers who have regularly practised alcohol reduction believe strongly in the idea of the sweet spot and actively target their alcohol reduction to these levels. If the prevailing research is correct, they are wasting their time and effort. If it is not correct, then winemakers who choose an arbitrary alcohol concentration could be missing an opportunity to optimise the quality of their wine. The aim of this project is to investigate more appropriate sensory evaluation techniques to test the sweet spot phenomenon on a range of wines. Presuming this can be demonstrated, more detailed chemical and sensory analyses will attempt to characterise and explain the changes in marginally reduced alcohol wines.

Controlling unripe characters using molecularly imprinted polymers or specific microbials to eliminate methoxypyrazines from wine Researcher: Chen Liang Supervisors: Professor D. Taylor, Professor V. Jiranek, Dr D. Jeffery Methoxypyrazines (MPs) are primarily responsible for the green characters in wine, displaying green bell pepper, grass, green bean, asparagus and herbal notes.

Low concentrations can add varietal flavour, however, high concentrations are deemed undesirable and overpowering of the natural fruit berry characters by wine consumers.

MPs are produced early in the development of most grape varieties and are largely unaffected by winemaking practices. Recent research has developed novel approaches to reduce methoxypyrazines in wine, such as molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs). MIPs are a kind of matrix that possess structurally complementary cavities for target molecules. The functional polymer is first templated with the target compound to provide recognition sites that will selectively bind and remove MPs from juice or wine. Using this approach, unripe characters within wine caused by using early harvested grapes can be remediated, which will aid in the beneficial development of low alcohol wines. The use of magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers will be an innovation and add convenience to practical industrial operations, since they can be removed from a wine by simply applying an external magnetic field. Though some microbes will transform methoxypyrazines into other forms, currently no wine yeasts have been found to have such ability, thus, we are also on the hunt to find such new strains to use in combination with the MIPs. ▶

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MARKETING

Large scale processing of wine components of vinification for the creation of useful products streams

Because you are worth it: Self-sacrifice vs. product authenticity (The case of wine)

Researcher: Dr Ravichandra Potumarthi

Researcher: Bora Qesja

Supervisor: Dr D. Jeffery During the 2012 vintage alone, close to 500,000 tonnes of grape marc required a suitable disposal method, with that responsibility resting with the respective wineries. Marc is one of the important by-products from wineries and has the potential to generate revenue from recovered alcohol through marc processing and distillation. However, an opportunity exists to improve the efficiency of the current process by adopting alternate fermentation methods, process optimisations and pre-treatment techniques. This project aims to address process improvement of marc fermentation and its integration with existing distillation processes by undertaking a cost-benefit analysis, characterising marc samples, improving fermentation efficiency, and increasing alcohol yield and quality. Enhancing grape marc processing capabilities will enable greater conversion of this industry waste stream into a valued product, thereby addressing both the environmental and financial sustainability concerns of industry stakeholders.

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Supervisors: Dr R. Crouch, Professor P. Quester The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of a substantial innovation of a product with a strong traditional and historical heritage, on perceived authenticity and congruence. Consequently, the trade-off between the innovated product’s perceived loss of functional benefit and authenticity (if any) will be analysed with flow-on effects to purchase intensions (word of mouth and willingness to recommend) and, ultimately, quantity purchased. The innovation is the manipulation (lowering) of the alcohol level across a number of varietals and styles to be tested.

In addition to determining the effect of the innovation on the level of authenticity and congruence, the percentage of alcohol together with the type/colour of wine (red, white, rose, sparkling) and the varietals/styles will be used as variables with the purpose of determining the optimum new product (as perceived by consumers). Consumer-oriented variables relating to product category usage, involvement, etc, will be explored to determine any moderating effect on consumer perceptions and expectations of the product and, ultimately, on its desirability. The study will not only be a contribution to the literature on authenticity, congruence and low/partially dealcoholised wines, but will have managerial implications as it will show how consumers deal with innovations of traditional products. Moreover, it will also be a contribution to the wine industry by providing an insight as to how consumers perceive the innovation as well as what is the ‘optimum’ innovated product when it comes to low/partially reduced alcohol wine. This would, in turn, help towards the bigger cause of lowering the alcohol consumption per capita.

Translation of ‘whole of production chain’ wine science research to industry outcomes Researcher: Dr Renata Ristic Supervisors: Professor V. Jiranek, Professor A. Deloire Dr Ristic will coordinate research between Charles Sturt University, the University of Adelaide and remaining industry partners and translate research outputs from all ITTC projects into industry-ready applications. The main aim is to assemble the outcomes from a range of flavour and alcohol modulation techniques into an integrated strategy that can be easily implemented in the wine industry. This project is funded by AGWA. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

communicate. collaborate. create. www.gldesign.com.au

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The ARC Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production is funded as a part of the Australian Research Council’s Industrial Transformation Research Program (Project No IC130100005) with support from the Australian Grape and Wine Authority and industry partners.

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A dynamic evaluation of the oxygen transfer rate in oak barrels

By Maria Del Alamo-Sanza and Ignacio Nevares UVaMOX-Universidad de Valladolid, Avda. de Madrid 44, 34004 Palencia, Spain. Email: inevares@iaf.uva.es

Researchers from Spain measured the oxygen transfer rate and the distribution of oxygen within barrels, becoming what is believed to be the first to determine the kinetics of oxygen entry into wine barrels. The results will be able to be used to quantify the annual rate of oxygen entry into wine barrels during the ageing process and showed that American oak barrels resulted in greater oxygen doses than their French equivalents.

T

he ageing of wine and other alcoholic beverages in oak barrels is common practice in most wine regions of the world. The interactions of wood compounds with wine have been extensively studied. However, information regarding the supply of oxygen to wine in barrels is limited.

Oxygen directly and indirectly determines the phenomena experienced by wine during barrel ageing, such as polymerisation of tannins and anthocyanins (which improve the stability of organoleptic characteristics), consumption of free sulfur dioxide, oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde, and general modifications of phenolic wine profiles. These phenomena reflect changes in wine compounds and their interactions with wood-extracted compounds. In addition, these changes are often led by oxygen and may be either beneficial or harmful. In general, the more slowly and

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evenly these reactions take place, the better the results.

Therefore, to control this process it is important to know how much oxygen is entering barrel of wine, the mechanisms that govern this process, and the factors that affect oxygen transfer rates.

Different theories have developed in the last 100 years regarding how oxygen enters wine barrels. In the 1930s, Ribereau-Gayon (1933) confirmed that oxygen entered barrels by assessing the formation of sulfate after filling a barrel with an aqueous sulfur dioxide solution. RibereauGayon found that the oxygen transfer rate (OTR) through oak wood was limited (2-5mg/L per year) and that the main route of oxygen entry occurred where wine is in contact with the gas in the headspace of barrels. The total rate at which oxygen enters wine barrels varies with the time of year from 15-20mg/L per year in hermetically-sealed barrels to 0.7-3.3mg/L per year in unsealed barrels. Peterson (1976) also worked on this topic and argued that the oxygen present in wine barrels was mainly introduced during barrel filling and packing, which adds approximately 8mL/L per year to the oxygenation capacity of the barrels.

Subsequently, Singleton (1995) postulated that oxygen primarily enters barrels through dry wood because virtually nothing passes through wine-soaked wood. Therefore, wine would only receive oxygen from the air in the gas space at the top of the barrel during ageing. In addition, wine would receive atmospheric oxygen incorporated during barrel topping.

Vivas and Glories (1997) measured the sulfuric acid concentrations formed within barrels filled with a 500mg/L solution of sulfur dioxide, allowing them to quantify oxygen entry after six months of ageing. Data from these authors indicated that the rate of oxygen entry into new barrels was greater than the rate of oxygen entry into used barrels. In addition, the rate of oxygen entry depended on the type of oak and the position of the bung. They found oxygen entry rates of 10mg/L per year for two used French oak barrels and 28mg/L per year for two new barrels from central France. Regarding the bung position, these authors found that if the bung is closed without sealing, the annual rate of oxygen entry is 28mg/L per year. In contrast, if the bung is closed with the traditional technique with the bunghole on the side, the rate of oxygen entry is 36mg/L per year. Furthermore, if the bunghole is sealed with a silicone bung to ensure an airtight seal, the rate of oxygen entry is 45mg/L per year. The authors also determined that 21% of the total oxygen entered through the bung, 63% entered between the staves and 16% through the wood itself. This result was made possible by performing the study in two barrels that were sealed differently for individual quantification.

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The four oak barrels tested for a year to evaluate the overall rate of oxygen entry.

OXYGEN TRANSFER RATE For our study we used 12 Bordeaux barrels (225L) comprising both French and American oak that were either fine or medium grained. The daily increase of oxygen within each of the 12 barrels was determined by considering the mean values that were obtained from two optical probes installed in each barrel through the silicone bung. The position of these probes in the barrels – in the lower half and at the top - was determined in the first part of this study in which eight probes were immersed in a barrel at various depths. Readings from these probes showed that dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations decreased as the distance from the bung increased. The two probes used for the next stage of the study were chosen after being assessed as being representative of the evolution of DO within an entire barrel.

Daily values from the two probes were added to determine the cumulative concentrations of dissolved oxygen that reached the model wine in each barrel for each day of the test. It was important that we used a liquid that does not consume oxygen but has the same pH and ethanol content as wine and allows for oxygen mass balance calculations.

By using a model wine (pure water and ethanol at 15%v/v, pH3.5) we were able to calculate the exact oxygen transfer rate (OTR) in each barrel as there were no compounds to consume the oxygen. The potential roles that the compounds in wood have in oxygen consumption (Feuillat 1996, Vivas and Saint-Cricq de Gaulejac 1999) were considered in these trials, allowing for the determination of the true OTR of wine barrels. The measurement technology and procedures are detailed in the scientific article already published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.

ANNUAL RATE OF OXYGEN ENTRY INTO THE BARRELS Stage two of this study involved measuring DO concentrations during the first 24 hours and for three weeks after filling of the 12 barrels (data not shown). These concentrations were not significantly different between the American and French oak, although concentrations were higher during the first 10 hours for the American oak. No significant differences were also observed between the finegrained and medium-grained American oak barrels, although the fine-grained barrels provided more oxygen to the model

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wine during the first few hours (del Alamo-Sanza and Nevares 2014).

To evaluate the overall rate of oxygen entry into wine-soaked oak barrels, the OTR in four of the 12 barrels – specifically, four fine-grained American oak barrels - was analysed over 12 months. Figure 1 shows the oxygen transfer rate (mg/L per day) in the tested barrels throughout the year. Analysis of the cumulative daily intake for 12 months showed that the observed trend during the first few weeks continued throughout the entire year of ageing. In addition, the dissolved oxygen (DO) content decreased following the first three to four weeks. These results indicate that the actual rate of oxygenation per year is much lower than the rate that would be estimated if measuring only during the first weeks of testing.

Therefore, it is important to test the evolution of oxygen entry kinetics for one year. In this study, the daily average doses throughout the year was 32µg/L. Furthermore, after the first month of ageing, the fine-grained American oak barrels continued to provide the wine with between 28.7µg/L and 38µg/L of oxygen daily for the remainder of the year. Based on these results, we

Ageing time (days) Figure 1. The evolution of the cumulative daily intake of the four oak barrels throughout the year. calculated the total dose of oxygen that a wine would receive in a fine-grained American oak barrel was 11.62mg/L per year.

These results were significantly lower than the results published up to now by other authors who measured oxygen entry into new barrels. In other studies, Riberau-Gayon (1933) observed an oxygen entry rate of 15-20mL/L per

year, while Vivas and Glories (1997) observed an oxygen entry rate of 20mg/L per year in two new Limousin barrels from central France. In these studies, the sulfate formed from sulfur dioxide in the solution inside of the barrels was evaluated at six months.

The methodologies of these studies may explain the high rates of oxygen entry found by these authors given

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they did not consider the influences of progressively increasing wood moisture content leading to decreasing OTR. The results we obtained are also lower than those estimated by Kelly and Wollan (2003). These authors treated wood as a semi-permeable membrane that allowed for oxygen diffusion according to Fick’s law. Based on their calculations, the maximum amount of oxygen that could enter a barrel is 26mL/L per year. However, this approach is erroneous because wood is a porous membrane that does not always function the same. Specifically, the moisture content of wood can modify its properties and oxygen permeability. This study also didn’t assess the amount of oxygen entry into barrels across an entire year. Instead, these results were obtained from theoretical approaches or extrapolated from six months of ageing data at different times of the year.

Based on the annual dose results of oxygen in the four barrels of this study, the percentage of daily oxygen intake for each barrel (shown as a percentage) was calculated relative to the oxygen that was supplied throughout the year (which is considered to be 100%). On average, the fine-grained American oak barrels supplied the wine with 7% of the total yearly oxygen within the first week. After a month, 23% of the total oxygen was supplied. Finally, four months (120 days) were required to dose the wine with 50% of the total oxygen received in a year. These results suggest that adding wine to new barrels before filling, or developing young oak wine (which corresponds with maintaining these wines in new barrels for two to four months), reduces the potential for barrel oxygenation. For instance, if barrels are used for two to four months for one batch of wine and then used for nine months for a second batch of wine, the latter would receive only 50% of the potential oxygen that these barrels would provide in a year.

We used these results to extrapolate the behaviours and annual OTR calculations for the other eight studied barrels (four medium-grained American and four fine-grained French oak barrels) between 19 and 24 days during the second phase of the study.

After approximately three weeks, the oxygen received by a wine in a barrel represents 17-20% of the total oxygen that will be received in a year (observed in fine-grained American oak barrels and valid for medium-grained American and French oak barrels). For the medium-grained American oak barrels, it took 19 days to dose the wine with

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17.3% of the total yearly oxygen dose.

Therefore, these barrels would provide an average of 11.3mg/L per year of oxygen to aged wine. Fine-grained French oak barrels were measured after 24 days and provided an average of 1.66mg/L. Thus, the annual rate of supply for these barrels was 8.18mg/L per year.

In summary, we analysed the kinetics of oak barrel oxygen permeability for one year to establish the kinetics of the annual OTR of a barrel. The results of this study indicate that American oak barrels result in greater oxygen doses than French oak barrels. In addition, different wood grains (fine and medium) do not significantly affect the oxygenation rates of barrels.

REFERENCES del Alamo-Sanza, M. and Nevares, I. (2014) Recent advances in the evaluation of the oxygen transfer rate in oak barrels. J. Agric. Food Chem.

62(35):8892–8899. DOI: 10.1021/jf502333d.

Feuillat, F. (1996) Contribution à l’étude des phénomènes d’échanges bois/vin/atmosphère à l’aide d’un “fût” modèle. Relations avec l’anatomie du bois de chêne (*Quercus robur* L., *Quercus petraea* Liebl.). Thesis, Ecole Nationale du Génie Rural des Eaux et des Forêts, Nancy, France.

Kelly, M. and Wollan, D. (2003) Microoxygenation of wine in barrels. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 473A:29-32.

Peterson, R. (1976) Research note: formation of reduced pressure in barrels during wine ageing Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 27:80-81.

Ribereau-Gayon, J. (1933) Contribution à l’étude des oxydations et réductions dans les vins.

Thesis, Université de Bordeaux, France.

Singleton, V.L. (1995) Maturation of wines and spirits: comparisons, facts, and hypotheses. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 46:98-115.

Vivas, N. (2003) The quality of oak wood and its use for the vinification and ageing of wine. J. Sci. Technol. Tonnellerie 9-16.

Vivas, N. and Glories, Y. (1997) Modélisation et calcul du bilan des apports d’oxygène au cours de l’élevage des vins rouges. II. Les apports liés au passage d’oxygène au travers de la barrique Prog.

Agric. Vitic. 114:315-316.

Vivas, N. and Saint-Cricq de Gaulejac, N. (1999) The useful lifespan of new barrels and risk related to the use of old barrels. Aust. N.Z. Wine Ind. 14:37-45.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Spanish government VA124U14, MICINN (AGL2011-26931), MINECO (AGL2014-54602-P).

This article was adapted with permission from ‘Recent Advances in the Evaluation of the Oxygen Transfer Rate in Oak Barrels’ by María del Alamo-Sanza and Ignacio Nevares as published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Copyright 2014 WVJ American Chemical Society.

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Exogenous tannins – what, when, why

By Rachel Gore, Principal Consultant and Director, Free Run Consulting.

Email: rgore@freerunconsulting.com.au

Exogenous tannins are one of many tools available to winemakers. Winemakers aim to create wine that meets quality and style requirements and commercial specifications, but exogenous tannins are often used without a clear understanding of their impact. Rachel sheds some light on the subject.

O

enological tannins are phenolic compounds that can be found in many plants, and are identified by their ability to complex with, and precipitate proteins. Their astringent taste is due to the tannin’s combination with the proteins in saliva.

It is this characteristic that is important in winemaking as it inhibits enzymes and contributes to the protein stability of a wine. It is only recently, through sophisticated techniques, we have been able to explain how tannins work.

Tannins play a large and important role in the sensory characteristics of wines - interacting in diverse and individual ways, expressing their capacity for protein, oxidative and colour stabilisation according to their own nature. The winemaker’s principal aim is to create a wine according to the quality and style required and commercial specification. In recent years, the range of oenological tannins available to winemakers has increased dramatically. Exogenous tannins are one of many tools available to winemakers in Australia, however, they are often used without a clear understanding of their impact. Some winemakers consider their addition essential, while others consider their addition ‘taboo’ - but the real difference lies in knowing the demands of the winemaker and examining the affinity of the tannin to perform the action required.

Tannins available to winemakers include hydrolysable tannins (ellagic and gallic) and condensed tannins (catechinic) (Table 1).

Traditionally, oenological tannins are extracted from nutgalls, which are the result of pathological excrescences that develop on the trunk of certain trees under the influence of insect stings (gallic tannins). This type of tannin is also found in grape stems, seeds and skins. Ellagic tannins are not present in grapes but they are constituents of oak and chestnut trees. Condensed tannins are polymers with basic units comprising (+) catechin and (-) epicatechin and are found in grapes and some types of exotic wood.

Commercial tannin products may contain any of the tannin types listed in Table 2 (see page 31) but the quality of the tannin depends on the purity, which is determined by the botanical origin of the tannins, the maturity of the originating plant and the extraction and purification techniques that are employed in their isolation.

Oxidation can interfere during the preparation phase, which can cause a rapid degradation of the product, so it is not only important to know the botanical origin to determine the action of a tannin but it might pay to ask a few more questions to find out the extraction method used to obtain the tannin and to consider its reactivity case by case. Studies done on the diversities that exist within tannin Table 1. The types of hydrolysable (ellagic and gallic) and condensed tannins (catechinic) available to winemakers.

Name

Derived from

Classification

Ellagic

Oak and chestnut trees

Hydrolysable tannins

Gallic

Oak gall, chestnut, tara or myrobalan trees

Catechinic

Grapes or quebracho trees

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fractions now make it possible to control the raw materials used in the production of oenological tannins, and offer a new approach to the use of tannins according to the wine type desired.

The principal effect of adding tannin to wine is to structure the mouthfeel. Palate balance is a critical feature influencing wine quality because it contributes to the integration of structural components. The major factors determining palate balance in dry wines are the quantity and quality of tannins, concentration of alcohol and concentration and types of acidity. The palate balance formula is functionally analogous to the suppleness index described by Peynaud (1996): Suppleness index = alcohol (vol/vol) – (titratable acidity + tannin) This formula indicates that the perception of sweetness derived from alcohol, polysaccharides and sugar must be in balance with the sum of acidity, astringency and bitterness.

The strategic use of exogenous tannins should be implemented from the start of alcoholic fermentation and continued during wine ageing. Taste and colour reveal the phenolic maturity of the grapes, and indicate which treatments should be implemented.

Regular sensory and chemical analysis can expose a polyphenolic imbalance in quantities that can vary with grape variety or vintage, the sanitary condition of the fruit or the maceration management, which may indicate a deficiency or an excess of tannins or anthocyanins. This imbalance can produce a wine with harsh, bitter or unstructured tannins, wines with weak or unstable colour and/or wines with oxidative characters - so it is important to add tannins carefully and according to the polyphenolic status of the individual wine.

There is a currently a wide range of tannins available to winemakers, each of them with different technological aims.

Highly active tannins require smaller additions and as a result, there are less detrimental sensory effects on the wine. In contrast, tannins with lower activity require higher doses and can result in an imbalance in the sensory properties of the wine, so it is crucial to bench trial tannins prior to addition to the wine to test for overall sensory modifications.

Although it is widely understood that the quality of tannins in grapes strongly correlates with the quality of tannins in finished wines, now, more than ever, winemakers have access to such a diverse range of specialised exogenous tannins that with some background research, a better understanding of what is required and some benchtop trials, the potential exists to enhance the overall organoleptic properties of wine.

REFERENCES Bertrand A.; Vivas N.; Kahn N. and Caillet, M.M. (2005) Characterisation of proanthocyanidins from grapes and from the heartwood of quebracho – The tailored use of tannins. Proceedings of Advances in tannin and tannin management, ASVO Oenology Seminar, Adelaide, SA, October 2005.

Peynaud, E. (1996) The Taste of Wine. Willey 98-200.

Condensed tannins

Obradovic, D. (2005) Grape-derived tannins and their application. Proceedings of Advances in Tannin and Tannin Management, ASVO Oenology Seminar, Adelaide, SA, October 2005.

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Table 2. Exogenous tannin recommendations.

Observation

Spoiled harvest/ juice oxidation

Lack of fruit maturity resulting in a deficiency of anthocyanins and potentially immature, bitter and astringent tannins

Desired effect

Minimise the loss of indigenous polyphenols by reacting with oxygen and free radicals.

Preserve anthocyanins and soften tannins.

Young wines with unstable colour and subtle tannins

Stabilise colour before MLF and improve tannin potential.

Young wines with palate astringency

Balancing the natural phenolic character of the wine.

Recommended oenotannin

Timing and application

Gallic tannin

Before alcoholic fermentation it will react quickly with oxygen

Targeted split addition of ellagic or a mix of ellagic/gallic and catechinic – initial addition at crush to protect against oxidation, then second addition at press tray or before MLF has finished.

During vinification tannin will react with dissolved oxygen in wine. The mixed tannin will provide oxygen scavenging/ reaction against proteins and will enable initial binding of liberated anthocyanins.

Catechinic tannin (choose a tannin that is highly reactive with proteins)

During pressing or at the beginning of the ageing process.

Combination of ellagic oak tannin + catechinic tannin

During vinification ellagic tannins will add structure and help soak up or bind unripe undesirable green tannins.

They will also initiate the tannin-anthocyanin condensation.

High quality gallic, ellagic or catechinic tannin

Before MLF skin tannin will assist with mid-palate weight and improve harsh acidity on the back palate. An addition of seed tannin will focus more on back palate structure.

Ellagic tannin

Best tannin for binding anthocyanins when they are still free, so should be added before the end of MLF.

Toasted ellagic or catechinic

For back palate structure – toasted ellagic or seed tannin.

Skin tannin adds mid-palate, hence, a good tool to use when conditions are not right for extended maceration on skins.

Catechinic tannin

To build up mid-palate weight and balance out any pronounced acidity or astringency - added during maturation or finishing. By improving mid-palate weight, the back palate astringency is balanced out – altering the perception of astringency.

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The influences of different winemaking techniques on the mouthfeel of Shiraz grapes

By Anton Nel1,2, Leanie Louw3, Marius Lambrechts1,3 and Pierre van Rensburg1,3 1 Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa 2 Department of Agriculture, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Elsenburg, South Africa 3 Distell, PO Box 184, Stellenbosch, 7599, South Africa

South African researchers examined 20 young Shiraz wines from both cool and warm regions to determine the effect of ripeness and different tannin extraction methods on the sensory properties, particularly the mouthfeel, of wine.

T

he macromolecular fraction of red wines is mainly composed of polysaccharides and polyphenolic compounds like proanthocyanidins and anthocyanidins (Vidal et al. 2004a). It has been suggested that anthocyanins could modulate the astringency perception in red wines either directly or through reactions with proanthocyanidins (Gawel 1998, Vidal et al. 2004a, Gawel et al. 2007, Oberholster et al.

2009). Vidal et al. (2004b) observed that an anthocyanin fraction complemented grape proanthocyanidin astringency and did not contribute to bitterness. Astringency is a tactile sensation, which can be described in sensory terms as drying (the lack of lubrication or moistness resulting in friction between oral surfaces), roughing (the unsmooth texture in the oral cavity

marked by inequalities, ridges and/or projections felt when oral surfaces come in contact with one another) or puckering (the drawing or tightening sensation felt in the mouth, lips and/or cheeks) and is ascribed to the binding and precipitation of the salivary proteins (Gawel et al. 2001, Vidal et al. 2004b, Landon et al. 2008). It was found that seed tannins were more astringent (coarse, drying) than skin tannins of equivalent size, which were probably due to gallic acid derivatives (Oberholster et al. 2009).

Gawel et al. (2001) describes the tactile sensation of astringency as follows: “a result from the cross-linking of polyphenols with glycoproteins found between and above the epidermal cells of the mucosal tissue in the mouth and/or from the binding and subsequent precipitation of salivary proteins by polyphenols.

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Petunidin-3Procyanidin B1 M alvidin-3Caffeicgluc-acetate acid Cyanidin-3-glucEpicatechin glucoside Total p-coum Petunidin-3gallate Petunidin-3Hydroxycinnam anthocyanins Peonidin-3-glucDelphinidin-3Peonidin-3glucoside gluc-p-coum ate acetate glucoside glucoside M alvidin-3-glucM alvidin-3-glucacetate Procyanidin B2p-coum Total nonCoutaric acid Peonidin-3-glucflavanoids p-coum

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Figure 1. A PCA on the phenolic composition shows some differentiation between samples from a warm region and from a cooler region, respectively. The first letter stands for area (C – cool and W – warm), the middle letters stand for the treatments (PM – post-maceration, CS – cold soaking, CP – cold and post-maceration and E – enzyme) and the last letter stands for the time of harvesting (E – early and L – late).

Figure 2. PCA scores and loadings plot showing the differentiation of samples based on mouthfeel and phenolic properties. The first letter stands for area (C – cool and W – warm), the middle letters stand for the treatments (PM – postmaceration, CS – cold soaking, CP – cold and post-maceration and E – enzyme) and the last letters stand for the time of harvesting (E – early and L – late).

The polyphenol-protein interaction results in a saliva with poorer lubricating properties and greater friction between mouth surfaces. The increased friction ultimately activates the mechanoreceptors in the mouth leading to the perception of astringency.”

Therefore, astringency is a characteristic of unripe fruit (Vidal et al.

2004b). Astringency may be intensely perceived in young red wines but it will gradually decrease during maturation (Vidal et al. 2004b).

Other molecules also influence the perception of astringency or bitterness, like polysaccharides which are responsible for ‘mellowness’ and viscosity (Videl et al. 2004a), acidity which can contribute to astringency by increasing the efficacy of bonding of

polyphenols to salivary proteins (Gawel et al. 2001), and alcohol which can reduce the astringency sensation (Gawel et al. 2001, Fontoin et al. 2008). Gawel (1998) warned that astringency increases upon repeated ingestion with the rate of increase being greater when the time between ingestions is shortened. Lee and Vickers (2009) also found the astringent feeling can take as short as 15 seconds to fully develop (and can linger to over six minutes) and is known to build in intensity and become increasingly difficult to clear from the mouth over repeated exposures.

This study investigated the discrimination between Shiraz wine made in two different climatic areas and of two different ripeness

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levels and their mouthfeel properties. Different tannin extraction methods were used and, as such, the outcome of this study could also cast some light on the mouthfeel of wine made by different winemaking techniques.

RESULTS Three experimental factors were evaluated in this study, namely climatic region, ripeness level and tannin extraction method. Of these three, climatic region had the biggest effect on mouthfeel and phenolic composition (see Figures 1 and 2).

The wines from the cooler region were generally associated with higher levels of total non-flavonoids and total anthocyanins, and more intense numbing and puckering sensations. In contrast, the wines from the warmer region as a group were associated with a more drying and grippy mouthfeel, as well as less total anthocyanins and total non-flavonoids. There was also evidence that a warmer climate may encourage the binding of p-coumaric acid and delphinidin-3-glucoside, although this must still be confirmed in a follow-up vintage.

Within the group of wines harvested in a cooler climate, the ripeness level had a larger impact on the mouthfeel and phenolic composition than the treatment effects (see Figures 5, 6 and 7). There was a trend that the earlier harvested samples were more adhesive and grippy and had a finer surface smoothness overall, whereas the riper samples were generally more bitter and numbing. In the cooler region, the ripeness level also impacted on the phenolic composition of the wines. The wines that were harvested at a riper stage were associated with many of the anthocyanins/anthocyanin derivatives and were negatively associated with hydroxycinnamate, procyanidin B1 and delphinidin3-glucoside-p-coumaric acid. The inverse relationship between p-coumaric acid and delphinidin-3-glucoside-p-coumaric acid was observed again, where p-coumaric acid was associated with riper grapes. Compared with wines from the cooler region,

34 www.w i n eti tl es .c om.au

Overripe/Jamm y fruit Aroma

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Figure 3. PCA scores and loadings plot showing the differentiation among wines from a cool climatic region based on their sensory attributes. Wines, denoted with the letter E at the end, were harvested earlier than the wines denoted with the letter L at the end.

Observations (axes F1 and F2: 60.90 %)

Variables (axes F1 and F2: 60.90 %) 1

Adhesive

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smoothness Overripe/Jam Grippy of oral tissue my fruit Aroma Overripe/Jam Sulphury my fruitVeg Canned Canned Aroma flavour Vegetables Sour Sulphury aroma flavour flavour aftertaste

0.5

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F2 (18.64 %)

The Shiraz grapes were harvested in two climatic areas and at two different ripeness levels. The first ripeness level was before commercial harvest and the second ripeness level was after commercial harvest. The first area is classified as IV according to the Winkler scale (1965) i.e., a warm area. The second area is classified as III according to the Winkler scale (1965), therefore, it is regarded as slightly cooler than the first area.

Four different winemaking techniques (CM – cold maceration, E – enzyme, PM – post-maceration and CM+PM – a combination of cold and post-maceration) were used to extract the tannins and anthocyanins. These winemaking techniques were evaluated against a control. The cold maceration took place for three days at 15°C. With the post-maceration the skins were left for two weeks after alcoholic fermentation.

Two different tannin precipitation assays were used to quantify the tannin concentration of the Shiraz wine. The methylcellulose (MCP) assay uses a polysaccharide to precipitate tannin and is a more direct method as it is read with a spectrophotometer at 280nm. The bovine serum albumin (BSA) assay uses a protein to precipitate tannin and is a more indirect method as it is read by a spectrophotometer at 520nm. This method also took into consideration the bleaching effect of bisulphite. This method is, therefore, useful to follow the evolution of the monopigments (MP), small polymeric pigments (SPP) and the large polymeric pigments (LPP) as the wine matures. Monomeric phenolic compounds were determined in duplicate using the RP HPLC method of Donovan et al. (1998).

Quantitative descriptive analysis with a trained panel was used following the procedures outlined in Lawless and Heymann (1995).

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Figure 4. Differentiation between two ripeness levels of wines harvested in a cool region based on sensory attributes, without the C_CS_L treatment, on a PCA scores and loadings plot. The first letter stands for area (C – cool and W – warm), the middle letters stand for the treatments (PM – postmaceration, CS – cold soaking, CP – cold and post-maceration and E – enzyme) and the last letters stand for the time of harvesting (E – early and L – late).

Observations (axes F1 and F2: 67.19 %)

Variables (axes F1 and F2: 67.19 %) Fresh green Unripe/green flavour fruit flavour

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EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Variables (axes F1 and F2: 67.83 %)

Observations (axes F1 and F2: 67.83 %) 5

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Figure 5. The relationship between ripeness and its effect on the sensory attributes of wines from a warm climate as illustrated through PCA. The first letter stands for area (C – cool and W – warm), the middle letters stand for the treatments (PM – post-maceration, CS – cold soaking, CP – cold and post-maceration and E – enzyme) and the last letters stand for the time of harvesting (E – early and L – late). grapes harvested later resulted in a coarser surface smoothness, a more numbing sensation, bitter aftertaste and less adhesive mouthfeel. In terms of phenolic composition, the riper grapes were again associated with anthocyanins/anthocyanin derivates, but were this time strongly associated with procyanidin B2, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, catechin and coutaric acid and total nonflavonoids.

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Variables (axes F1 and F2: 82.33 %)

Observations (axes F1 and F2: 82.33 %)

Variables (axes F1 and F2: 57.32 %)

Observations (axes F1 and F2: 57.32 %)

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Peonidin Peonidin-3-glucacetate Peonidin-3Cyanidin-3-glucCyanidin-3- glucoside Hydroxycinnam acetate Delphinidin glucoside ate -3-Petunidin Delphinidin-3gluc-p-coum Petunidin-3Cyanidin M alvidin-3-glucDelphinidin gluc-acetate Total glucoside acetate Petunidin-3anthocyanins M alvidin M alvidin-3gluc-acetate glucoside

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Bitter Procyanidin B2 aftertaste Total nonNumbing Coutaric acid flavanoids Catechin Epigallocatechi Epigallocatechi Caftaric acid Grippy Particulate/Grai n Petunidin-3Total Flavanols n gallate ny Adhesive gluc-p-coum Peonidin-3-glucMDrying alvidin-3-glucp-coum Pucker Sour Aftertaste p-coum

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Figure 6. PCA scores and loadings plot showing the differentiation between samples based on mouthfeel properties in a warm region. The first letter stands for area (C – cool and W – warm), the middle letters stand for the treatments (PM – post-maceration, CS – cold soaking, CP – cold and post-maceration and E – enzyme) and the last letters stand for the time of harvesting (E – early and L – late).

Figure 7. PCA scores and loadings plot showing the differentiation between ripeness levels based on mouthfeel and phenolic composition. The first letter stands for area (C – cool and W – warm), the middle letters stand for the treatments (PM – post-maceration, CS – cold soaking, CP – cold and post-maceration and E – enzyme) and the last letters stand for the time of harvesting (E – early and L – late).

The effect of tannin extraction method on the sensory properties of the wines from the warmer region was more pronounced than in the wines from the cooler region. However, within both regions there was a larger variance between treatments when riper grapes were used, in terms of both mouthfeel and phenolic composition (Figure 8, see page 36). In both regions the specific effect of the treatments on mouthfeel changed as the ripeness levels of the grapes increased. This was especially evident in wines from a cooler climate. In addition, the treatment effect on the phenolic composition of the wines was more pronounced in riper grapes.

However, the enzyme treatment was generally associated with

a more drying and adhesive character. Interestingly, the enzyme treatment had a larger effect on mouthfeel than the phenolic composition suggested, especially in a cooler climate.

It also appears that the cold soak treatment generally had the smallest effect on mouthfeel and phenolic composition, while the post-maceration treatment had the largest effect, regardless of ripeness or region. The control and cold soak treatments were consistently associated with cyanidin-3-glucoside-acetate in grapes harvested at a lower ripeness level, while the postmaceration treatment was consistently associated with catechin, ▶ gallic acid and total flavonols in riper grapes.

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GRAPE /JUICE HANDLING

In conclusion, phenolic composition and mouthfeel is strongly influenced by climatic region. In warmer climates, the effect of ripeness on mouthfeel is smaller than in cooler climates. The effect of the five tannin extraction methods differed depending on climatic region and ripeness level. At this point it is not clear if the specific way in which astringent mouthfeel is manifested in wine can be consistently manipulated by tannin extraction methods.

SPP, LPP and MP are also correlated with bitter aftertaste, particulate (grainy), sour aftertaste, grippy and drying mouthfeel attributes.

Full details of the study have been published in the South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture (2015) 36(1).

Observations (axes F1 and F2: 61.32 %)

Variables (axes F1 and F2: 61.32 %) To tal Epicatechin p-Co umaric Epigallo catec Gallic acid To tal Flavano ls Catechin acid hin flavo no ids Cyanidin-3Epicatechin gluc-p-co um Bgallate itter M alvidin-3aftertaste Numbing P etunidin-3gluco side gluc-acetate Tonidin-3tal P eo P articulate/gr Caffeic acid APntho cyanins gluco side ainy eo nidin-3So ur P etunidin-3P etunidin-3gluc-acetate aftertaste gluc-p-co um gluco side Surface M alvidin-3smo o thness P uckergluc-p-co um P eo nidin-3o f o ral tissue gluc-p-co um Caftaric acid Toacid tal no nM alvidin-3- Co utaric Delphinidin-3Epigallo catec Grippy Drying gluc-acetate flavano ids Delphinidin-3gluco side hin gallate Cyanidin-3Cyanidin-3gluc-acetate Ferulic acid Hydro xycinna gluco side gluc-acetate A dhesive mate P ro cyanidin P ro cyanidin B2 B1 Delphinidin -3gluc-p-co um

1 6

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Fontoin, H.; Saucier, C.; Teissedre, P-L. and Glories, Y. (2008) Effect of pH, ethanol and acidity on astringency and bitterness of grape seed tannin oligomers in model wine solution. Food Qual. Pref. 19:286-291.

Donovan, J.L.; Meyer, A.S. and Waterhouse, A.L. (1998) Phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of prunes and their juice (Prunus domestica). J. Agric. Food Chem.

46:1247-1252.

Gawel, R. (1998) Red wine astringency: a review. Austr. J. Grape Wine Res. 4:74-95.

Gawel, R.; Iland, P.G. and Francis, I.L. (2001) Characterising the astringency of red wine: a case study. Food Qual. Pref. 12:83-94.

wines made with and without pomace contact and addedanthocyanins. Austr. J. Grape Wine Res. 16:59-69.

Gawel, R.; Francis, I.L. and Waters, E.J. (2007) Statistical correlations between the in-mouth textural characteristics and the chemical composition of Shiraz wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55:2683-2687.

Vidal, S.; Francis, I.L; Williams, P.; Kwiatkowski, M.; Gawel, R.; Cheynier, V. and Waters E. (2004a) The mouthfeel properties of polysaccharides and anthocyanins in a wine like medium. Food Chem. 85:519-525.

Landon, J.L.; Weller, K.; Harbertson, J.F. and Ross, C.F. (2008) Chemical and sensory evaluation of astringency in Washington State red wines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic.

59(2):153-158.

Vidal, S.; Courcoux, P.; Francis, I.L.; Kwiatkowski, M.; Gawel, R.; Williams, P.; Waters, E. and Cheynier, V. (2004b) Use of an experimental design approach for evaluation of key wine components on mouthfeel perception. Food Qual. Pref. 15:209217.

Lawless, H.T. and Heymann, H. (1995) Sensory evaluation of food. First edition.

USA: Chapman and Hall.

Winkler, A.J. (1965) (second edition) Climate and soils in: General Viticulture.

University of California Press. USA.

Lee, C.A. and Vickers Z.M. (2009) Discrimination among astringent samples is affected by choice of palate cleanser. Food Qual. Pref. 1-7.

Oberholster, A.; Francis, I.L.; Iland, P.G. and Waters E.J. (2009) Mouthfeel of white

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Figure 8. PCA scores and loadings plot showing the differentiation between ripeness levels and winemaking treatments of wines harvested in a cool region, based on mouthfeel attributes and phenolic composition. The first letter stands for area (C – cool and W – warm), the middle letters stand for the treatments (PM – post-maceration, CS – cold soaking, CP – cold and post-maceration and E – enzyme) and the last letters stand for the time of harvest (E – early and L – late).

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Vintage 2015 - observations from the AWRI helpdesk

By Adrian Coulter, Geoff Cowey, Paul Petrie, Marcel Essling, Matt Holdstock, Creina Stockley, Con Simos and Dan Johnson Australian Wine Research Institute, PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064

Managing director Dan Johnson

The AWRI helpdesk provides technical support to Australia’s grapegrowers and winemakers and monitors technical trends across the nation’s wine regions. During vintage 2015, helpdesk enquiries were again dominated by issues related to weather events, in particular rain and bushfires. The helpdesk responds to individual queries on a confidential basis, but also provides the latest information to industry via eBulletins, the AWRI website, webinars and face-to-face extension events.

• Vintage 2015 was characterised by an early start across Australia’s wine regions.

• Many regions experienced a rapid and compressed vintage.

• Wet weather caused bunch rots in some regions.

• Bushfires occurred in South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia.

• Despite the challenges, the overall fruit and wine quality has been good to exceptional.

IDENTIFYING KEY TECHNICAL ISSUES The close relationship between the AWRI helpdesk and industry places it in a unique position to capture knowledge associated with the technical issues encountered each vintage across Australia.

This allows the team to observe, react to and communicate any emerging issues to Australia’s grapegrowers and winemakers; to develop and deliver extension content; to implement any required emergency response; and to communicate ideas for new research projects to the AWRI research team. This report provides an overview of the major technical issues encountered within the Australian wine industry during vintage 2015.

Helpdesk activity started early in vintage 2015, and did not slow down until early April. More than 700 enquiries were received between 1 January and 1 May and 60 investigations were conducted during this period, slightly lower figures than during the same time in 2014. A summary of the most frequent topics where queries were received during vintage 2015 is shown in Figure 1.

Requests for articles from the AWRI library were at a high level over the vintage period, with more than 850 requests received (100 more than last year). More than 60% of the articles requested were on winemaking topics and nearly 30% related to viticulture.

CONDITIONS DURING THE GROWING SEASON Low rainfall The 2014-15 growing season was characterised by lower than average rainfall in many grapegrowing regions. This reinforced the need for careful monitoring of soil moisture, especially early in the season when irrigation is not usually applied. Higher than normal irrigation volumes and a lack of rain to flush salt from the soil profile caused an increase in reports of salt damage to the canopy. Salt toxicity symptoms can include browning of the leaf margins due to chloride toxicity and inky staining of the interior of the leaves due to sodium. Fruit with high salt levels is often described as having a dull and soapy (as well as salty) character.

38 www.w i n eti tl es .c om.au

Figure 1. Breakdown of the top 10 areas where queries were received by the AWRI helpdesk during vintage 2015.

For growers concerned about salt levels, the best time to apply leaching irrigation is at the start of spring when the soil profile is at its fullest following winter rainfall.

Restricted spring growth (RSG) A number of vineyards across south-eastern Australia showed symptoms of poor shoot growth and poor yield development during spring, typically described as ‘restricted spring growth’.

This issue may be caused by a range of factors including soil variations across a vineyard; micro-climatic conditions (e.g. frost hollows); weather conditions that affect budburst; lack of soil moisture at budburst and early in the growing season; viruses/ bud mites/rust mites or fungal diseases. After responding to a number of individual enquiries about this issue, the helpdesk team developed a new fact sheet on the causes and management of RSG and distributed an eBulletin in early December 2014.

Bunch stem necrosis (BSN) Cases of BSN were reported across many regions this season.

BSN is a physiological disorder of bunches that usually becomes obvious post-veraison. Early symptoms are areas of brown dead tissue on the rachis and/or pedicels which grow and girdle the rachis. The affected parts of the bunch then either dry out or drop off. In some cases part of the bunch can be affected, while the rest of the bunch develops normally. Bunches with BSN break easily from the vine and can fall off ahead of the harvester (Figure 2).

The causes of BSN are not fully understood, although there are a number of theories. Some suggest that environmental conditions may be responsible, for example low temperatures at flowering, high rainfall at flowering and/or high rainfall at veraison. Others implicate nutritional imbalances of nitrogen,

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Figure 2. Example of bunch stem necrosis (BSN) in Cabernet Sauvignon immediately prior to harvest. magnesium and calcium. It has also been noted that certain varieties, such as Cabernet Sauvignon, are more susceptible to BSN than others.

If BSN symptoms have been observed it is recommended that growers revisit the nutritional status of the vines and the nutrient history of the block. In particular, if petiole analysis from flowering last year is available, it’s worth looking at the magnesium and nitrogen status as these elements have been linked to the disorder.

Hail damage Hailstorms hit several regions in Western Australia, Victoria and New South Wales from October to December 2014. Damage in the Murray Darling region was estimated by the local industry association at up to $6 million, with approximately 20,000 tonnes of fruit lost. In some cases the storms were so severe that trellises were blown over or vines were stripped of all their leaves and fruit. Management options varied depending on the extent of the damage. After initial responses to queries from affected growers, additional information was provided via an eBulletin and a new fact sheet on managing grapevines after hail damage.

in some cases, red fruit being harvested ahead of white fruit.

Such compressions can place considerable strain on harvest and processing infrastructure, with competition for use of crushers, presses, tanks and refrigeration capacity. The AWRI’s ‘Adapting to difficult vintages’ workshop, which has been presented in 19 regions across Australia, provides some strategies for dealing with these conditions in both the winery and vineyard. Climate projections suggest that early and compressed vintages are likely to increase in frequency. As such, a review of the tactics employed ▶ in 2015 could provide valuable preparation for future vintages.

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Bunch rots Heavy rainfall and humid weather in early January provided conditions that were conducive to development of bunch rots including botrytis. Regions in NSW where vines had reached veraison were particularly affected. Botrytis was surprisingly widespread given the early stage of fruit maturity and affected varieties such as Verdelho that would normally be considered more resistant. The AWRI issued an eBulletin about the risk of bunch rots and presented a webinar and Q&A session on botrytis control to assist affected growers. Heavy rain was also experienced in the Hunter Valley in late January, impacting particularly on the harvest of red varieties.

HARVEST Early and compressed In many Australian regions the 2015 harvest was one of the earliest, if not the earliest on record. A warm spring and early budburst was followed by favourable summer conditions and an absence of extended heatwaves (or wet periods) that can often delay maturity. Combined, these factors led to fruit ripening quickly and contributed to generally good to excellent quality.

In many cases, the early vintage was also a compressed vintage, with different varieties maturing at the same time and,

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WA R IK I N G W I N EAM

hydraulic fluid may end up in a harvest bin or hopper. The difficulty lies in determining the presence of trace amounts of oil analytically. The AWRI has developed a method where the suspected hydraulic oil is first tested for a unique marker, and if one can be identified, the potentially contaminated wine is tested for that marker (provided it isn’t naturally present in wine). It must be noted that not all hydraulic oils have unique markers, so not all cases of contamination can be identified analytically.

Wines where there is evidence or suspicion of hydraulic oil contamination do not meet the requirements of the Australian and New Zealand Food Standards Code (Standard 4.5.1) and it is suggested by the AWRI that such wines be considered unsaleable. The AWRI recommends regular preventative maintenance on critical machinery such as machine harvesters to minimise the risk of hydraulic oil contaminations.

MOST UNUSUAL INFORMATION REQUEST FOR THE VINTAGE (VEGETARIAN OR VEGAN LABELLING) Figure 3. Percentage of queries regarding smoke taint by year, highlighting years 2003, 2009, 2013, 2014 and 2015. Note that the final percentage for 2015 may change by the end of the year.

Bushfires and smoke taint The single biggest issue that the helpdesk received calls about this vintage was smoke taint (Figure 3). Bushfires occurred in South Australia, Western Australia and Victoria, creating significant concern among growers and winemakers about smoke taint.

Face-to-face question and answer seminars were held in the Adelaide Hills and Western Australia to provide advice and information in response to the bushfires. An eBulletin was also distributed in early January, providing additional information for growers and winemakers on dealing with burnt vines and managing the risk of smoke taint.

A number of factors influence the likelihood of a smoke event causing smoke taint in wine. These include the thickness of the smoke, how long it hangs around and, most importantly, the growth stage of the particular grape variety at the time of exposure. This range of factors means that it is not an easy task to assess the level (if any) of damage to fruit following a fire event or to predict what will happen once the fruit is made into wine. Analytical data from testing volatile phenols and their non-volatile glycoside precursors give the best indication as to whether or not fruit has been exposed to smoke. Sensory and chemical analysis of small-scale ferments can assist in assessing the likely impact on final wines, however, this does take additional time to complete.

For vintage 2015 the majority of analytical results were found to be similar to, or only slightly higher than, levels that might be expected for non-smoke exposed vineyards. Consequently, the risk of smoke taint development was considered to be nil or low for most of the samples tested. This is consistent with the fact that many of the vineyards close to the fires of 2015 were exposed to smoke prior to veraison, when risk of uptake of smoke is relatively low for many grape varieties.

A review of the AWRI’s response to the 2015 bushfires is being conducted to identify areas where services can be improved and gaps in knowledge about smoke taint could be addressed through further research.

HYDRAULIC OIL CONTAMINATIONS Every year a number of wineries contact the AWRI helpdesk requesting assistance in dealing with a burst hydraulic oil line which has resulted in fruit and or wine being contaminated.

When a hydraulic line ruptures, small or trace amounts of

40 www.w i n eti tl es .c om.au

One repeated request this vintage has concerned appropriate wine for vegetarians and vegans and information on vegetarian or vegan-friendly wine labelling. In 2013 Roy Morgan research showed the number of Australians aged 14+ who agree with the statement, “The food I eat is all, or almost all, vegetarian” had grown from 1,608,000 in 2009 to 1,935,000, or 10% of the population. According to media reports, vegetarian-friendly wines now make up more than 50 percent of wines listed at Tesco, the UK’s biggest supermarket chain, with vegan wine numbers a little less. Unfortunately the majority of wines do not contain information on their back label to indicate whether or not they are vegetarian or vegan-friendly.

Vegans, according to dictionary definitions, are individuals who do not eat or use any animal products. Alcohol consumption is an accepted part of the vegan diet; however, when winemaking is carefully considered, not all wine is suitable for vegans. Any wines fined with the animal-derived processing aids casein, potassium caseinate, skim milk, egg albumin/egg white, gelatin and isinglass are not vegan-friendly. Clay-based bentonites are a vegan-friendly alternative fining agent. To aid appropriate buying decisions by vegetarians and vegans, wine producers could consider including information on back labels about the fining agents used.

A SIGN OF VINTAGES TO COME? In summary, 2015 will be remembered as an early vintage across Australia’s wine regions; possibly a sign of things to come as the Australian climate changes. It will also be remembered as a compressed vintage for many, with lessons to be learned on how to allocate harvesting and winemaking resources to cope with fruit coming in over a shorter than usual timeframe.

As with every vintage, there were viticultural and weatherrelated challenges - but overall the warm and dry conditions that led to the early vintage contributed to excellent grape and wine quality across the majority of regions. Those who were able to adapt to the compressed vintage and allocate resources appropriately reaped the benefits of the fruit quality, ensuring that 2015 wines will be sought-after in years to come.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is supported by Australia’s grapegrowers and winemakers through their investment body, the Australian Grape and Wine Authority, with matching funds from the Australian Government. The AWRI is a member of the Wine Innovation Cluster, in Adelaide, South Australia. The authors thank Ella WVJ Robinson for her editorial assistance.

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VINE BALANCE

V V II T T II C C U U L LT T U U R R E E

Understanding the influence of vine balance on berry composition: 2013-14 season project update

By Everard J. Edwards1, Peter R. Clingeleffer1, Amanda R. Walker1, Jason Smith2, Bruno Holzapfel2, Celia Barril2, Cleggett Wines3, McWilliams Wines3, Wingara Wine Group3 1 CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, 2National Wine and Grape Industry Centre, 3Industry partners

Does manipulating vine balance directly affect fruit composition? The answer to this question is the aim of a collaborative project under way between CSIRO Agriculture and the National Wine and Grape Industry Centre (NWGIC) and the results from the first season are in.

BACKGROUND Vine balance is a concept that everyone in the wine industry is familiar with, but despite this, few can effectively define it.

Part of the reason for this is that the definitions tend to be somewhat recursive; vine balance is usually deemed to be the condition where the canopy and crop load of a vine are in ‘balance’. Interest in the concept is due to the idea that when the balance is right, the fruit is right. Both canopy size and yield can be measured directly, so vine balance can be assessed objectively. As a result, there are a variety of indices that can be used to measure vine balance, such as the Ravaz index (yield/pruning weight) or leaf area/crop weight. Logically, if vine balance is driving fruit quality and we can measure vine balance, then we can use that measurement to produce a balanced vine and the best possible fruit for winemaking.

However, fruit composition is the result of a complex interaction between vine, environment and viticultural management and some have complained that reducing vine balance to a single number fails to effectively represent that complexity.

The leaves of a vine are the source of all the sugar and other carbohydrates that the vine requires for energy, growth, fruit production and filling of reserves, whereas the fruit represents the single largest sink for that sugar during the maturation period. The source-sink relationship is a central concept in plant biology and vine balance, where changes in canopy and yield can modify the carbohydrate supply and demand relationship, is directly analogous to this. Consequently, if the source (vine leaves) is inadequate to meet the demand of a sink (the grape bunch), there will be a limit on that sink, for instance, slower berry maturation or even incomplete ripening at the end of the season. The effect of the reverse situation is less intuitive, what happens if the source is in excess of the demand of the sink? One possibility is faster ripening, another may be increased carbohydrates available for growth, resulting in increased shoot vigour, but are there benefits for fruit composition other than simply promoting earlier maturation?

Decades of research have demonstrated that the rate of sugar accumulation in the berry and the development of the secondary metabolites, such as anthocyanins, flavonols and condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins), essential to wine are intricately linked. Where canopy manipulations or yield adjustments are used to modify vine balance, thereby altering carbohydrate supply to the fruit, the question is raised as to whether the accumulation rate of sugar and those other metabolites are altered to the same extent, or whether that relationship is changed. If the former, it could be argued that

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the main effect of vine balance is on harvest date, if the latter, then manipulation of vine balance may allow more targeted effects to drive different wine styles.

With these considerations in mind, in 2013 the Australian Grape and Wine Authority (then the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation) funded a collaborative project between CSIRO Agriculture (then Plant Industry) and the National Wine and Grape Industry Centre (NWGIC) to examine this question; does manipulation of vine balance directly affect fruit composition? If so, by understanding the mechanism for this, we may be able to more effectively manage vine balance ▶ and more reliably produce fruit that is fit-for-purpose.

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VINE BALANCE

Figure 1. Early defoliation at Hilltops (left), crop thinning at Sunraysia (centre) and late defoliation at Langhorne Creek (right).

PROJECT RATIONALE From the conception of the project to the commencement of field trials in the 2013-14 season, the project has aimed to be as broad an approach as possible, hoping to understand the physiological basis of vine balance effects on fruit and wine quality, rather than just document a specific field trial. The planned work spans scales from the molecular, looking at key genes linked to flavonoid production and sugar transport, through to field trials in commercial vineyards spread across a distance of 900km, and includes detailed fruit analysis, research scale winemaking and wine sensory analysis. The vine balance treatments have been devised, not only to maximise the chance of identifying physiological responses to vine balance adjustments, but also to trial management practices new to warm climate viticulture. The project will combine multi-site data on gene expression; analysis of the fruit compositional components those genes are expected to control; and results from the direct manipulation of vine carbohydrate supply through controlled environment studies. Using this, we can determine the extent to which vine balance adjustment directly affects fruit composition or whether differences in fruit composition are driven by indirect factors, such as changes in bunch light environment.

MANIPULATING AND MEASURING VINE BALANCE Following the source-sink approach, the source component of vine balance is the vine’s potential for fixing carbon into sugar from the atmosphere (photosynthesis). In the absence of

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other limitations, such as nitrogen deficiency or water stress, the main driver of whole vine photosynthesis is the amount of light intercepted, in other words, the size of the vine canopy. The vine has a range of sinks, represented by a wide range of growth and metabolic processes, but during the berry development period, the sugar requirement for the ripening crop is both the largest sink and the sink we are primarily interested in. Consequently, this project has used the ratio between canopy size (in m2) and yield (in kg) to produce a numerical value for vine balance.

This relationship was manipulated in a consistent manner, using crop and canopy adjustments at three field sites, representing three different winegrape growing regions: Langhorne Creek (SA), Sunraysia (Victoria) and Hilltops (NSW). All three sites were commercially managed blocks of Shiraz, selected due to the variety's importance to the Australian wine industry, two on own roots and one (Sunraysia) on Schwarzmann rootstock. The treatments were applied in a complete randomised block layout at each site.

The first was a control (T1), where normal site management practise was maintained, with the vine balance adjustments being early defoliation (T2), crop thinning (T3) and late defoliation (T4).

The early defoliation treatment was based on a management practice developed in Italy for vertically shoot positioned vines and involved the removal of all the fully expanded leaves immediately prior to capfall (E-L stage 19). The crop thinning treatment was the random removal of 50% of the bunches from the vine shortly before the onset

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of veraison (E-L stage 32) and the late defoliation treatment was based on a summer pruning strategy, with the vines hedged just beyond the bunch zone and was carried out at the same time as the crop thinning. The photographs in Figure 1 visually demonstrate the impact of the treatments.

The canopy size was measured nondestructively during the maturation period with a light interception based canopy analyser (LiCOR LAI 2200) and the crop load was assessed at harvest, allowing vine balance to be calculated for each replicate of each treatment at each site. A fruit sampling regime was developed, both to measure treatment or vine balance effects on fruit composition, but also to provide material that would allow the expression of key genes to be examined.

Inflorescences were sampled immediately after T2 was applied and again two weeks later. Berry samples were taken at fruitset and every two weeks afterwards until harvest. Prior to veraison, berries were sampled for the gene expression studies, whereas from veraison onwards, berries were sampled for industry standard analyses, such as total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), total anthocyanins and total tannins.

Harvest date was determined for each treatment at each site and defined as the point where berry TSS reached 24°Brix. At harvest 50kg of fruit from each replicate (four per treatment per site) were taken to the experimental winemaking facility at the NWGIC. Wines were produced in 100-litre stainless steel variable-capacity tanks with a standardised protocol to ensure consistency of winemaking results ▶ across the three trial sites.

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Table 1. Vine balance and its components for the three field sites during the 2013-14 season. Data are means of four replicates and means from a given site with different superscript letters are significantly different from each other based on an LSD test (p<0.05).

Canopy (m2)

Yield (kg)

Vine Balance (kg m-2)

T1: Control

9.4a

5.3a

0.57a

T2: Early Defoliation

7.5a

4.2a

0.59a

T3: Crop Thinning

8.3a

2.3b

0.29b

T4: Late Defoliation

4.8b

5.4a

1.14c

T1: Control

12.8a

11.4a

0.93a

T2: Early Defoliation

13.8a

11.6a

0.84a

T3: Crop Thinning

14.7a

9.6a

0.68a

T4: Late Defoliation

9.6b

7.9a

0.82a

T1: Control

7.4a

1.9a

0.26ab

T2: Early Defoliation

6.0b

1.8ab

0.29b

T3: Crop Thinning

6.3ab

1.2b

0.18a

T4: Late Defoliation

5.2b

2.2a

0.43c

Region

Langhorne Creek

Sunraysia

Hilltops

Figure 2. Juice total soluble solids (TSS) on 3-4 February 2014 (approximately six weeks after application of T3 and T4). Data are means of four replicates and means from a given site with different superscript letters are significantly different from each other based on an LSD test (p<0.05).

VINE AND FRUIT RIPENING RESPONSES In general, the two treatments applied at E-L 32 were successful in significantly altering vine balance, with the T3 treatment reducing vine balance by up to half and T4 increasing vine balance up to two-fold (Table 1). In contrast, T2 had no consistent effect on vine balance.

The intention of the T2 treatment was to reduce yield with minimal effect on canopy size, thereby reducing the vine balance value (kg m-2) compared with the control (T1). However, where this did occur it was not statistically significant and there was a commensurate reduction in canopy size, so the vine balance value was only marginally affected, if at all. Due to the size of the canopy at Sunraysia, T2 was applied in only a limited way, which may explain the lack of any difference in canopy size or yield at this site.

The Sunraysia site was also impacted by frost at budburst and lost most of the emerging inflorescences in some patches. By poor luck, this was particularly pronounced in two of the T3 replicates, leading to a limited ability to apply T3 effectively at that site as well as T2.

There was no effect of T2 on the maturation rate of the fruit (as measured by sugar accumulation), whereas T4 reduced the maturation rate at all sites, resulting in harvest dates that were seven, 12 and six days later than the control treatments at Langhorne Creek, Sunraysia and Hilltops, respectively. The greater difference in date at Sunraysia was due to a large rain event occurring between the control harvest and the T4 harvest, whereas all harvests at Hilltops occurred before this event and all harvests at Langhorne Creek, after this event. Although the T3 treatment increased the maturation rate to some extent, at the two sites where it was effectively applied this effect reduced through the ripening period and the harvest dates were on the same day as the controls, with no difference in juice TSS at harvest at Langhorne Creek or Hilltops.

IMPACTS ON FRUIT AND WINE COMPOSITION

Figure 3. Wine colour density one month after bottling. Data are means of four replicates and means from a given site with different superscript letters are significantly different from each other based on an LSD test (p<0.05).

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To link with the molecular and berry physiology emphasis, the initial focus of the wine analysis has been on anthocyanins and tannins. These two classes of compounds, and their associated impact on wine colour and sensory attributes, have a key influence on wine style and quality parameters.

The ability to manage the accumulation

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V V II T T II C C U U L LT T U U R R E E

Table 2. Fruit anthocyanins and tannins at harvest 2014 and red pigments and tannins in the resulting wines, one month after bottling. Data are means of four replicates and means from a given site with different superscript letters are significantly different from each other based on an LSD test (p<0.05).

Berry anthocyanins (mg g-1)

Berry total tannins (mg g-1)

Wine total red pigments (OD)

Wine total tannins (mg L-1)

T1: Control

1.72a

3.40ab

47.0ab

1.20ac

T2: Early Defoliation

1.93a

3.27ab

51.1b

1.53b

T3: Crop Thinning

1.74a

3.73b

43.5a

1.28ab

T4: Late Defoliation

1.43b

2.87a

33.4c

0.92c

T1: Control

1.33a

4.52a

33.5a

1.38a

T2: Early Defoliation

1.27a

4.32a

33.1a

1.39a

T3: Crop Thinning

1.35a

4.55a

34.5a

1.39a

T4: Late Defoliation

1.02b

3.83a

27.2b

1.07b

T1: Control

1.82a

4.01a

49.8a

1.47a

T2: Early Defoliation

2.38b

5.77b

53.1b

2.08b

T3: Crop Thinning

2.02a

5.06ab

51.5ab

1.76ab

T4: Late Defoliation

1.74a

4.85ab

43.5c

1.52a

Region

Langhorne Creek

Sunraysia

Hilltops

of these compounds, and understand the effects of seasonal weather conditions on their production is of interest to viticulturists and winemakers alike.

Across all of the field sites, total red pigments in the wine (Table 2) and wine colour density (Figure 3) largely reflected the concentrations of anthocyanins in the berries (Table 2). Amongst the treatments, the most consistent response was a significant reduction in wine colour in T4. This occurred despite harvest of this treatment being delayed at all sites until berry sugar concentrations attained comparable values to control vines. The contrasting treatment (T3) had no significant effect on wine colour at the cost of up to a 50% reduction in yield, whereas some improvements in wine colour were observed at Hilltops with the T2 treatment, despite having only a minor impact on yield.

For wine tannins the picture is less clear, although treatment responses in the fruit were generally reflected in the wine. The lowest wine tannin concentrations were seen in T4 at the Langhorne Creek and Sunraysia sites and, in both cases, this was consistent with fruit tannins. Wine tannins were highest in T2 where the treatment was able to be fully implemented, but corresponding differences in fruit tannins

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were only observed at the Hilltops site. This may be a reflection of the greater variability associated with berry sampling, relative to winemaking, due to the difference in amount of fruit involved, but may also indicate treatment effects on the extraction of these tannins during fermentation. As with wine colour, the effect of T3 on wine tannins was minimal.

PROJECT FUTURE The project is planned for a further two growing seasons (2014-15 and 2015-16), with the potential to add an additional treatment without altering the experimental design. At the time of writing we are at the end of the second season and beginning on the sample analysis. In addition, the molecular biology work on the 2013-14 samples is under way and expected to help to separate direct versus indirect effects of vine balance, as well as suggest possible mechanisms for the observed treatment effects. So far this work has concentrated on identifying genes that are expressed in the berry and are relevant to sugar import, anthocyanin synthesis and tannin synthesis as well as the time-consuming task of sample preparation. Early results demonstrate both site and temporal changes in the

W I N E & VITICULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2015

expression of some of these genes, with a hexose transporter expressed much more strongly after veraison than before veraison and a cell wall invertase which has the reverse expression pattern (Figure 4, see page 48).

To complement the field trial work, the direct versus indirect effects on fruit composition are being further teased out by a chamber experiment which alters photosynthesis independently of the light environment. This is achieved by supplying air to fruiting vines at a reduced CO2 concentration (200ppm), thereby reducing the availability of carbohydrates from photosynthesis by half. The effect is analogous to T4 in the trial in that the carbohydrate supply is reduced in relation to the fruit, but has an advantage in that it does not affect the light environment of the bunch and is non-destructive, allowing vines to be carbon ‘stressed’ for defined periods through berry development. Results from this work will be presented in a future article.

SUMMARY With a single season of data from a three season project, it is too early to draw major conclusions about the role of vine balance in fruit and wine

www.winetitles. com . au

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Figure 4. Relative expression of a berry hexose transporter (left) and cell wall invertase (right) in fruit sampled four weeks apart at the same phenological stage (pre- and post-veraison) from control plots at the Langhorne Creek, Sunraysia and Hilltops field sites. All differences between pre- and post-veraison measurements were statistically significant. composition. However, by contrasting the results of the crop thinning (T3) and the late defoliation (T4) treatments it is clear that the relationships between vine balance and quality are neither simple nor linear, as the T3 treatment (approximately half the vine balance of the control) had little or no effect on the wine, whereas the T4 (approximately double the vine balance of the control) had a strong negative effect. The latter result also suggests that slowing maturation may be far from a panacea for current industry difficulties with compressed harvests. Of course, the reduced anthocyanin and tannin content of fruit from the T4 treatment may have been due to the change in bunch

environment rather than the change in vine balance, an area that will be explored as the project continues.

The lack of responses to T3 raises a significant question about the value of crop thinning if undertaken purely with the intent of reducing yield, at least in situations where vines are not clearly over cropped. Finally, the response to T2 is interesting and will be investigated in more detail during the coming seasons. With an increase in wine colour density and tannins achieved without a corresponding change in vine balance, it may provide the first example from the project where direct source-sink effects on the fruit have been separated from indirect treatment effects.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of Australia’s grapegrowers and winemakers through their investment body, the Australian Grape and Wine Authority, with matching funds from the Australian government; Cleggett’s Wines, McWilliams Wines and Wingara Wine Group, for their support, access to their sites and maintaining the vines; and the technical staff that make the project possible: Bronwyn Smithies and Jacinta Watkins, at CSIRO; David Foster and Robert Lamont, at NWGIC; and, in particular, Annette Boettcher, also CSIRO. WVJ

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VINE DISEASES

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Investigating angular leaf scorch disease in the USA and implications for Australian biosecurity

By Matthew Ayres1, Mark Sosnowski1 and Wayne Wilcox2 1 South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI), GPO Box 397, Adelaide South Australia 5001 2 Department of Plant Pathology, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, PO Box 462 Geneva, NY 14456 United States of America INTRODUCTION Angular leaf scorch (ALS) is an economically significant disease of grapevines which occurs in north-eastern North America but has not been reported in Australia, where it is listed in the Viticulture Industry Biosecurity Plan (VIBP) as a high priority exotic threat. The disease, caused by the fungus Pseudopezicula tetraspora, may cause significant yield loss in Australian vineyards if it becomes endemic and would incur significant costs for control programs. Therefore, it is vital to ensure that we are prepared for a rapid and effective eradication response in the event of an incursion.

WHAT IS ANGULAR LEAF SCORCH? Symptoms of ALS first appear on infected leaves as faint chlorotic patches that typically develop into reddish-brown necrotic lesions with a yellow (white grape cultivars) or red (red grape cultivars) margin between the necrotic and healthy tissue (Figure 1). The lesions are usually delimited by major veins.

Leaf symptoms reduce photosynthesis, thereby affecting yield (Pearson et al. 1988). In cases of severe infection, most of the leaf may be killed (Figure 2) and fall from the vine prematurely (Pearson 1992). Fruit infection has not been reported, but the pedicel and portions of the subrachis may become infected, causing fruit distal to the site of infection to wither and dry (Pearson et al. 1988).

The fungus overwinters in fruiting bodies (apothecia) on fallen, infected leaves, and ascospores are forcibly discharged after rain events during the following spring (Pearson 1992).

Spores that land on susceptible leaf tissue infect when prolonged wet and humid conditions occur. Such conditions can occur in Australia, particularly in the eastern states.

ALS can infect Vitis vinifera cultivars (Pearson 1992), although its effect on cultivars commonly grown in Australia is largely unknown. ALS is also reported to cause severe

infection of interspecific Vitis hybrids and also infects native North American Vitis species, as well as Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Pearson 1992), a relatively common ornamental plant in Australia. ALS is closely related to Rotbrenner (P. tracheiphila), found in cool grapegrowing regions of Europe (Pearson et al. 1988), which is known to occur on Boston Ivy (P. tricuspidata, Schuepp 1988), which is also relatively common in Australia.

DEVELOPING CONTINGENCY PLANS FOR ANGULAR LEAF SCORCH As part of a three-year project funded by the Australian Grape and Wine Authority, SARDI scientists travelled to New York, USA, in 2014 to initiate a project aiming to develop contingency plans for an incursion of ALS in Australia.

In collaboration with scientists at the Cornell University New York Agricultural Experiment Station, diagnostic training was undertaken for the identification of ALS symptoms in the vineyard and P. tetraspora in the laboratory, and a protocol was developed for use in Australia. Following endorsement by the Australian Plant Health Committee, the protocol will be made available to the industry.

In vitro experiments were conducted to assess the efficacy of a range of fungicides against ALS. Trifloxystrobin (Flint) and pyraclostrobin (Cabrio) prevented growth of P. tetraspora on agar plates at all concentrations tested. Tebuconazole (Folicur) and difenoconazole (Digger) prevented growth at most concentrations tested, with only insignificant growth at the lowest concentration. Myclobutanil (Mycloss) and boscalid (Filan) were not effective.

In order to assess the susceptibility of grapevine cultivars commonly grown in Australia to ALS, cuttings were collected from New York vineyards and propagated in the greenhouse.

Cultivars included Shiraz, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, ▶ Merlot, Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling.

Figure 1. Close up view of angular leaf scorch symptoms on (left) cv. Cabernet Franc, showing red margin and (right) cv. Riesling, showing yellow margin.

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Figure 2. Advanced leaf symptoms of angular leaf scorch on interspecific Vitis hybrid cv. Concord. www.winetitles. com . au

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New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York.

A field trial was established at the Cornell University experimental station utilising a vineyard previously used for similar research on black rot disease of grapevines (Sosnowski et al. 2012). Vines were inoculated in July 2014 and assessments in August confirmed that symptoms, simulating an incursion of ALS, were evenly distributed across the trial vineyard.

In May 2015, SARDI scientists returned to New York to screen the effective fungicides from in vitro experiments on potted vines infected with P. tetraspora and confirm the efficacy of fungicides for controlling ALS. Vines of the various cultivars propagated in 2014 were also inoculated with P. tetraspora in June 2015 to evaluate cultivar susceptibility to ALS. Finally, in the field trial, a drastic pruning protocol similar to that used for black rot was applied in order to attempt eradication of ALS. CONCLUSION Through this project, SARDI scientists are gaining expertise in the diagnosis, eradication and management of angular leaf scorch, as well as building on the collaborative partnership with Cornell University. If successful, the drastic pruning strategy may prevent establishment of the disease in Australia in the case of an incursion, whilst reducing the impact of the eradication by maintaining established vines for rapid return to full production and quality. This strategy would also be applicable for eradicating Rotbrenner disease given the close relationship between the casual pathogens.

Evaluation of the susceptibility of V. vinifera cultivars commonly grown in Australia to ALS, and the efficacy of fungicides in controlling the disease, will provide information to assist eradication or containment. Freedom from exotic pests and diseases provides the Australian wine industry with a competitive advantage in the world market.

The outcome of this research will be the inclusion of these threat-specific contingency plans in the VIBP and an increased capability in biosecurity for the Australian viticulture industry.

REFERENCES Pearson, R.C.; Smith, F.D. and Dubos, B. (1988) Plant Disease 72(9).

Pearson, R.C. (1992) Cornell University Integrated Pest Management Disease Identification Sheet No. 8.

Schuepp, H. (1988) Compendium of grape diseases. Rotbrenner, The American Phytopathological Society, Minnesota 19-20.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported by the Australian Grape and Wine Authority (AGWA). We would like to thank Judy Burr and Duane Riegel (Cornell University) for technical assistance.

WVJ

CORRECTION TO CAPTION PUBLISHED IN MAY/JUNE ISSUE In the May/June 2015 issue of the Wine & Viticulture Journal , there was an error in the caption to the photo that appeared on page 47 in the article ‘Keeping it all in perspective’, by Nuredin Habili.

The incorrect caption was published as supplied but was subsequently corrected in the online version of the issue. The corrected caption is also published here.

The culprits of these grapevine diseases can be fully or partially eliminated from dormant cuttings by hot water treatment: A & B, Grapevine Trunk Diseases (e.g., Eutypa); C, Crown Gall caused by Agrobacterium vitis; D & E, Australian grapevine yellows caused by ca Phytoplasmas australiense. It is important to know that this treatment cannot get rid of viruses.

Sosnowski, M.R.; Emmett, R.W.; Wilcox, W.F. and Wicks, T.J. (2012) Eradication of black rot (Guignardia bidwellii) from grapevines by drastic pruning. Plant Pathology 61:1093-1102.

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Mulching under vine – options and their benefits

By Tony Hoare Hoare Consulting, PO Box 1106, McLaren Flat 5171 South Australia Email: tony@hoareconsulting.com.au

U

nder-vine mulching in vineyards was found to be uneconomic by Agnew et al (2002) after their three-year research project in Marlborough, New Zealand from 1999-2000 to 2001-02 . The cost of producing and applying mulch under vine was found to outweigh the cost savings gained from applying the mulch. They did emphasise that while cost savings in irrigation, fertiliser and herbicide from mulching were not economically beneficial, there were long-term potential benefits that were difficult to quantify in economic terms. Since this study was carried out, there have been increases in the costs of irrigation, fertiliser and herbiciding. Why do successful growers mulch and what are some of the mulches they prefer?

A mulch is essentially a cover for bare soil. It can be organic e.g., green waste, or inorganic, e.g., plastic sheeting, composted or uncomposted. Soil under vines has traditionally been kept bare. This was done to keep weeds from competing for water and nutrients, remove the habitat for vine pests such as lightbrown apple moth earwigs, elephant weevils, curculio beetle and for aesthetic appearance. In recent times, a wide variety of undervine mulches have been utilised in many vineyards for a range of benefits to the soil, vines and resultant wine.

While the initial costs can be prohibitive, mulching has probably become more economical in recent times as the costs of herbicides, fertiliser, power, fuel, water and labour have increased.

BENEFITS OF MULCHING The main benefits of mulching can be summarised as follows: • reduces soil moisture loss, improves retention of irrigation and water soil infiltration • assists in managing erosion from water and wind • improves soil organic matter and organic carbon • enhances soil biota macro and micro-organisms • reduces usage of herbicides • improves soil nutrient availability • reduces vine heat stress • reduces the risk of pests and diseases.

CURRENT TRENDS IN MULCHING Composted mulch blends that have a targeted approach to vine nutrition and soil health have become the preferred option for many growers in recent years. Compared with uncomposted mulches, composted mulches have the benefit of being partially degraded and, therefore, are more readily incorporated into the soil by macro-organisms such as earthworms. The composting process also has the benefit of ‘cooking’ any potential weed seeds so they are not able to germinate.

Mulching has allowed many wineries to overcome their solids waste disposal costs through the reuse of grape marc (skins, seeds and stalks) remaining after processing winegrapes. The amount of marc generated by wine production is estimated at 5% of the total weight of winegrapes processed. Grape marc is high in potassium and a good source of organic carbon. It is relatively slow to degrade and when mixed and composted with animal, bird and/or green waste produces a mulch that will last for up to three years. Composting can be done on site or left to the experts. A successful compost will need an inoculum of

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composted material and moisture. A great tip is to turn the heap on a full moon which really gets the heap up to the temperature required to compost.

VERMICOMPOST Vermicompost is the product of green waste and can contain various other materials such as offal, manures and paper products that have been digested by earthworms. When applied as a mulch, vermicompost has the benefit of adding worm castings to the soil that enhance soil structure and release nutrients held in the soil through worm activity. The activity of the worms converts the composted ingredients to a rich form of humus which is then transported from the surface into the rootzone by the worms themselves. As they move through the soil the capillaries created greatly improve soil aeration and drainage properties. Soil organic carbon levels increase as the vermicompost is incorporated by the worms and nutrients held in the rootzone become more readily available. This is aided by the increased retention of soil moisture from increased organic matter which allows the nutrients to be more soluble.

STRAW Straw can be used as an effective mulch in a number of ways.

It can be either grown in the mid-row or slashed to place it under vine or it can be imported in bales and spread under vine by specialist spreading equipment. The main benefit of straw is that it is probably the best weed suppressant of all the mulches with the positive effects lasting for at least two seasons depending on application rates. The price of straw fluctuates depending on the market demand at the time. The only downside to straw is that imported bales can introduce new weed species to the vineyard and there is a much higher fire risk from the increased fuel load. Pruners can find it slippery to stand on when it is freshly mounded and it can also make it harder to spot snakes in summer.

SOURSOBS (OXALIS PES CAPRAE) An accidental mulch, soursobs were imported into Australia as an ornamental plant for domestic gardens from South Africa and have since become a noxious weed in many vineyard regions in Australia. After fighting an expensive battle to control this weed species, some growers have adopted the weed in preference to all others and actively encourage its growth under their vines. It works effectively on a number of levels. It’s free to establish in the right region and will save the use of herbicides once used to control it. Soursobs emerge from the ground in early winter when vines are dormant and grow actively during the winter period.

They don’t, therefore, compete with winegrapes for soil moisture and nutrients. They have a very attractive yellow flower and the stalks are handy for cleaning sap from pruning snips. The weed then becomes dormant as vines are emerging from their winter dormancy and their bulbs act to supress spring and early summer weed growth. Soursobs are a great mulching option where they are already established but it is not recommended to introduce them to a vineyard where they do not already exist.

IMPROVED MULCH Mulches are a great tool for improving vineyard uniformity. Low vigour areas of vineyard can be improved in a short time frame through the addition of improved mulches under vine. When integrated with pruning and mid-row improvements, vine vigour can be improved in as little as two seasons. It is a useful strategy for blocks on hills where the top sections can be lower in vigour

than the bottom sections. It is also useful where the effects of wind or neighbouring trees have a negative effect on vine vigour.

Prescriptive mulch blends may incorporate additions of gypsum, lime, superphosphates and slow-release pelletised manures, mixed with green waste and animal and bird waste. These can be mixed on site using a front-end loader or purchased from a supplier. There is a synergistic effect where the components become more readily incorporated into the soil than if they were applied separately. There is also a saving with spreading costs.

The addition of microbes, such as predatory fungi for Botrytis cinerea, is being developed by Dr Dean Metcalf, in Tasmania.

Inoculating composted mulch with the Botrytis predatory microbe Trichoderma koningii Td67 allows it to colonise vine flowers at a critical risk period of Botrytis infection and provide protection.

Despite the obvious benefits of mulching there are still some grower concerns.

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT MULCHING There are some common misconceptions surrounding the use of mulch in vineyards.

Misconception 1 “Mulch under vine increases the risk of frost damage” A three year study by Agnew et al. (2002) found that “the use of under vine mulch did not increase the frost risk to the vines”. They found soil temperature did not vary between the mulched and unmulched treatments. Mulch in the mid-row, however, covers a greater surface of soil area and does increase the risk of frost damage.

Misconception 2 “Vine prunings in mulch contribute to a greater risk of botrytis infection”.

Not true. Of the 640 samples collected by Agnew et al. (2002) only one sample had detectable Botrytis cinerea. They concluded that “using grape prunings in the mulch did not result in increased Botrytis inoculum levels”.

There are various options for mulching all of which have benefits that may suit specific vineyards. A rotation of the various options could also be considered every few years. While the initial costs can be prohibitive, mulching has probably become more economical as the costs of herbicides, fertilisers, power, fuel, water and labour have increased since the initial work by Agnew in 2002.

REFERENCE Agnew, R.; Mundy, D. and Spiers, M. (2002) Mulch for sustainable production. (http://www.mrc.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/mulchbookAgnewDion_000.pdf)

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION Vermicompost: www.australianvermiculture.com.au Metcalf biocontrol: www.biocontrol.net.au Peats soils (SA): www.peatssoil.com.au Jefferies Soils (SA): www.jefferies.com.au

Before setting up his own vineyard and winery consultancy business with wife Briony, Tony Hoare established and managed the Ablington Vineyard Estate block, in the Lower Hunter, for five years before joining Wirra Wirra, in McLaren Vale, in 2002 where he managed the winery’s estate and contract vineyards.

He and Briony also have their own wine label and cellar door, Beach Road Wines.

WVJ

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Is varietal or regional distinctiveness the key to re-building competitiveness?

By Kym Anderson Wine Economics Research Centre, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005 Email: kym.anderson@adelaide.edu.au

Despite much discussion within the Australian wine industry in recent years about alternative or emerging varieties, data shows that our varietal mix is still very much concentrated on a few French varieties.

A

s Australian wineries strive to win back consumers now that the mining-induced appreciation of the Australian dollar has reversed, they are looking for new ways to differentiate their product. Emphasising regional differences is one option (as in the Old World). Differentiation through varietal labelling is another, as is the norm in the New World. Producers in both Old and New World countries also are differentiating by production technique (organic, biodynamic, etc).

Producers are also well aware of the effect that climate changes, particularly higher temperatures and more extreme weather events, are having on their winegrapes. Adaptation strategies include switching to warmer climate or more resilient grape varieties, and sourcing more from regions with a higher latitude or altitude to retain the firm’s current mix of grape varieties.

Especially in regions and sites whose varietal comparative advantages are still unclear, winegrowers are continually searching for attractive alternative varieties that do well in climates similar to what they expect theirs to become in the future. Where affordable water availability is becoming a moreimportant issue, the drought and salt tolerance of varieties also is influencing varietal (and rootstock) choices.

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This article looks at how Australia’s winegrape varietal mix has changed over the past 60 years, how both regions and varieties have changed in their area, yield and production of winegrapes since the turn of the century, how differentiated the nation’s wine regions are becoming, and what new varieties are emerging. The data are drawn from a new 600-page book on the history of the Australian wine

industry that is freely available as an e-book (Anderson 2015). The article concludes by addressing the question in its title in light of these trends.

EVOLUTION OF NATIONAL VARIETAL MIX SINCE THE 1950S Australia has changed its winegrape varietal mix enormously during the past six decades. Figure 1 reveals

Figure 1. Shares of varieties in Australia’s winegrape bearing area, 1956 to 2012 (%, three-year averages). Source: Anderson (2015)

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the expanded share of bearing area of reds through the 1960s and 1970s before whites emerged with the popularity of Chardonnay, and then reds re-emerged with the expansion of both Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah (Shiraz) plus Merlot. Accompanying the growth of these varieties was the demise in popularity of grape varieties such as Garnacha Tinta (Grenache), Muscat of Alexandria, Doradillo, Sultana, Palomino and Pedro Ximenes.

Those declining varieties had been the mainstay of fortified wines and/or served well as multi-purpose grapes able to be directed to drying when that was more profitable than their use in winemaking.

These trends in winegrape-bearing areas mean there have also been great changes in the country of origin shares of the nation’s winegrape varieties, as defined by Robinson, Harding and Vouillamoz (2012). Australia’s mix has become more ‘international’ or, more accurately, more French. In the 1950s, only 20% of the national vineyard was planted to French varieties, while 40% was planted to Spanish varieties and another 10% to Greek varieties.

Only small shares were from Italy and Germany and the shares from other countries were tiny. By contrast, by the early 2000s all but 10% of the bearing area was planted to French varieties, and Spanish and German varieties filled half of the remainder (Figure 2).

Table 1. Varietal area shares and Varietal Intensity Indexa, Australia, 2010 Variety

Share of Australian area, %

Australia’s share of global area, %

Varietal Intensity Index

Tarrango

0.0

100.0

30.3

Verdelho

1.0

76.6

23.2

uscat a Petits M Grains Rouge

0.2

37.5

2.0

Semillon

4.0

27.6

8.4

Syrah

28.1

23.0

7.0

Petit Verdot

0.8

17.0

5.1

Ruby Cabernet

0.6

16.8

5.1

Chardonnay

18.3

14.0

4.2

Marsanne

0.2

13.7

4.1

Arneis

0.1

13.6

4.1

Crouchen

0.1

13.1

4.0

Sultaniye

0.3

12.6

3.8

Viognier

0.9

12.3

3.7

Durif

0.3

11.7

3.6

Cabernet Sauvignon

17.1

9.0

2.7

Riesling

2.7

8.2

2.5

Muscat of Alexandria

1.3

7.8

2.4

Pinot Gris

2.2

7.6

2.3

Colombard

1.5

6.9

2.1

Sauvignon Blanc

4.3

5.9

1.8

Gewurztraminer

0.5

5.8

1.8

Pinot Noir

3.1

5.4

1.6

Savagnin Blanc

0.1

5.0

1.5

Roussanne

0.1

4.8

1.4

Muscadelle

0.0

4.1

1.2

Merlot

6.6

3.8

1.1

Other varieties

5.5

n.a.

n.a

TOTAL

100.0

3.3

n.a

. The share of a variety in the national vineyard divided by its share globally. Source: Anderson (2013).

a

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WHAT VARIETIES DOES AUSTRALIA DOMINATE GLOBALLY? The main reason for Australia’s varietal mix becoming more French has to do with Shiraz, or Syrah as it is called in most other parts of the world. The popularity that Australia brought to Syrah in the 1990s has led to many other countries expanding their plantings of this variety. In 1990 there were barely 35,000 bearing hectares globally, making it 35th in the area ranking of all winegrape varieties in the world.

But by 2000 there were 102,000 hectares, and by 2010 that had risen to 186,000ha, bringing Syrah to the sixth position on that global ladder and less than one-third below the global areas of the two now most widespread varieties, namely Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot.

Over the decade to 2010, the Syrah area grew more than either Cabernet or Merlot – in fact, only Tempranillo expanded faster globally. Certainly Australia contributed to that expanding area of Syrah, but expansion was even greater in France and Spain. There were also large plantings in other key New World wine countries, and in Italy and Portugal. As a result, Australia is no longer as globally dominant in this variety: its share of the global Syrah area has dropped from 29% in 2000 to 23% in 2010 – even though Syrah has increased its share of Australia’s own vineyards over that decade, from 22% to 28% (Anderson 2013).

There are four varieties in which Australia dominates global plantings even more than Syrah: Tarrango (100% of world bearing area in 2010), Verdelho (77%), Muscat a Petits Grains Rouge (38%) and Semillon (28%). Its global share of its other two popular varieties are 14% for Chardonnay and 9% for Cabernet Sauvignon (Table 1).

An additional way to express the extent of national varietal specialisation, or differentiation from the rest of the world, is to divide the share of a variety in the national vineyard by its share globally. That so-called Varietal Intensity Index (VII) is above one for Australia for 26 varieties, but above five for only two more varieties in addition to those already mentioned, namely Petit Verdot and Ruby Cabernet (Table 1). For all the varieties that had a VII above one in 2010 and, hence, are listed in Table 1, as many as two-thirds of them had a higher VII in 2000. That provides another indication of the extent to which Australia’s varietal mix has become less differentiated from the rest of the world’s.

VARIETAL DIFFERENCES ACROSS REGIONS WITHIN AUSTRALIA Varietal differences also are more muted between regions within Australia

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than is the case within other countries – notwithstanding the very large differences in growing conditions across Australia. In 2010, of the three most-similar regions in the world to each of Australia’s 94 regions, less than 7% were non-Australian regions.

In New Zealand, by contrast, more than two-thirds of the three most similar regions to each of its 10 regions were in other countries.

EMERGING VARIETIES IN AUSTRALIA There has been much talk in recent years about increased plantings of socalled emerging or alternative varieties that are presumed to be diversifying Australia’s vineyards. Of those varieties not in the world’s top 20 list, and have expanded from less than 200 bearing hectares in Australia in 2000, there

are just 10 whose areas have grown significantly since then. But in aggregate those 10 raised their share of Australia’s total area by only 1.7% (Table 2). The eight varieties whose area in Australia expanded most over the first decade of this century are, apart from Viognier, all in the top 20 globally. As for contracting varieties, Sultana is by far the most dominant – a variety whose global area also has shrunk greatly.

Since there is a total of less than 50 varieties separately identified in the Australian official data, that list excludes many of the small emerging varieties that are collected in a residual ‘others’ category1. Even so, that ‘others’ category accounted for just 5% of Australia’s total area in 2000 and for only 1.6% by 2010, which means the main varieties have expanded much more

100% 90% 80% 70%

Other

60%

Germany

50%

Italy

40%

Greece

30%

Spain

20%

France

10% 1956 1959 1962 1965 1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010

0%

Figure 2. Shares of Australian winegrape area, by varietal country of origin, 1956 to 2012 (%). Source: Anderson (2015) Table 2. Emerging winegrape varieties in Australia, 2001 to 2012a Bearing area (hectares)

Total area (including newly-planted, hectares)

2001

2010

2012

Arneis

-

153

81

Barbera

103

116

104

Dolcetto

-

154

124

Durif

181

417

500

Nebbiolo

50

98

122

Roussanne

-

83

-

Savagnin Blanc

-

94

140

Tempranillo

41

476

712

Tribidag (Zinfandel)

-

149

104

Viognier

117

1402

1197

SUB-TOTAL

492+

3142

3081+

% of total

0.4%

2.1%

2.1%

TOTAL

130,602

151,788

148,509

. Blank spaces mean data are unavailable, rather than zero. Source: Anderson (2015).

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than lesser alternative ones. As noted above, the share for Syrah alone rose six percentage points over that decade, while Chardonnay’s rose five points and the shares of Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Gris each rose two points.

REGIONAL AND VARIETAL QUALITY DIFFERENCES WITHIN AUSTRALIA That Australian winegrape regions vary substantially in terms of average winegrape prices received by growers is evident from estimates of the so-called Regional Quality Index, defined as the average winegrape price in a region (across all varieties) as a proportion of that average price nationally. Winegrapes from the hot inland irrigated regions of the Riverland, Riverina, Murray Darling and Swan Hill, which comprise nearly three-fifths of the national crush volume, received on average just 62% of the national average price in 2001, whereas regions with a warm (cool) climate received on average 42% (57%) above the national average price that vintage. Those differentials were muted at that time by the excess demand for winegrapes when wineries were rapidly expanding.

By the time the global financial crisis hit in 2008, however, when there were excess supplies of many types of winegrapes, those differentials widened as the national average price dropped. In 2010, the average winegrape prices in the hot, warm and cool regions were 57%, 154%, and 191% of the national average – which had fallen in nominal Australian dollar terms by twofifths over that decade (from $941 to $557 per tonne). By 2013 that national average price was one-tenth lower again and price dispersion was even wider, ranging from $320-360 in the hot climate regions to more than seven times that (almost $2500) in cool Tasmania and Mornington Peninsula (Figure 3(a), see page 56).

The dispersion is almost as wide even for just Shiraz winegrapes (Figure 3(b)).

This increase in regional price dispersion 1 Winetitles (2013) maintains a list of the varieties included on the labels of Australian wines. In 2013 it reported 144 varieties. This reflects the fact that many wineries like to advertise their novel varieties even if they represent only a small fraction of their total production. The Phylloxera Board (2013) has a much more detailed dataset for South Australia, and it reveals another dozen varieties that have shown some growth between 2006 and 2012. Those data refer to planted rather than bearing area and, so, provide a better indicator of recent changes. But even these data reveal that emerging varieties make up only a small fraction of 1% of the national area.

The total number of varieties in South Australia with more than 0.5 hectares rose by only 20 between 2006 and 2012, from 91 to 111.

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Figure 3a. The Regional Quality Index is the ratio of the regional to national average price for all varieties (AUD per tonne).

A

B 2500 2000 1500 1000

0

Riverina Riverland Murray Darling - Swan Hill Cowra Lower Murray - other Gundagai Goulburn Valley King Valley AUSTRTALIA Southern Flinders Ranges Currency Creek Hilltops Fleurieu - other Geographe Langhorne Creek Limestone Coast - other Wrattonbully Heathcote Blackwood Valley Hunter Yarra Valley Adelaide Plains Bendigo Margaret River Clare Valley Great Southern Padthaway Grampians Mount Benson Barossa Valley Coonawarra Eden Valley Pyrenees McLaren Vale Adelaide Hills

500

The Regional Quality Index is the ratio of the regional to national average price for all varieties. a

Figure 3b. Average price of winegrapes, by region, Australia, 2013 for Shiraz (AUD per tonne) Source: Anderson (2015).

Figure 4. Regional Quality Indexa dispersion, Australia, 2001 and 2013.

Source: Anderson (2015)

between 2001 and 2013 is clearly visible in the histograms of Figure 4.

Given that different varieties grow better in some regions than others, and that consumer tastes differ across varieties and over time, it is not surprising that there is also considerable dispersion in the national average prices by variety. In 2001 the difference between the lowest and highest varietal prices was more than six-fold, and it shrunk very little by 2010 despite the twofifths fall in the nominal average price for all varieties.

The ranking from lowest- to highestpriced varieties changed a lot over the past decade though. This reflects the fact that the mixes of varieties in all three climate zones in Australia have altered considerably. Figure 5 (see page 57) shows

WOULD GREATER VARIETAL OR REGIONAL DISTINCTIVENESS HELP RE-BUILD COMPETITIVENESS?

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that the range in 2013 from lowest-priced to highest-priced, even for just the main varieties, was four-fold, but it is six-fold if minor varieties such as Pinot Meunier are included.

Moreover, for each variety there is a wide spectrum of prices across and even within regions. As Figure 3 reveals, the cross-regional range for Shiraz prices is almost as large as that for the all-variety average regional prices, even though data are not available for including some of the highest-priced cool regions with emerging Shiraz vineyards. Notwithstanding that data limitation at the highest price levels, an increase in varietal price dispersion between 2001 and 2013 is clearly visible in the histograms for the Varietal Quality Index in Figure 6.

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Does it matter that Australia’s mix of winegrape varieties is not very different from the rest of the world’s and, since 2000, it has become even less differentiated? Perhaps the increasing concentration on major ‘international’ varieties is partly a result of producers in newly-expanding wine-producing regions finding it easier to market them because of France’s strong reputation with those varieties. Or might part of the explanation also be that those key varieties do well in a wide range of growing environments, or are more drought- or salt-tolerant, or have been found to be desirable for blending

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Sultaniye Colombard Ruby Cabernet Muscat of Alexandria Verdelho Chenin Blanc Semillon Petit Verdot Gewurztraminer Muscat Blanc a Petits Viognier Durif Sangiovese Chardonnay Monastrell Sauvignon Blanc AUSTRALIA Merlot Garnacha Tinta Riesling Pinot Gris Tempranillo Syrah Cot Cabernet Sauvignon Cabernet Franc Pinot Noir

CE L L AER VARIE DOOR WINE G RAP TIE S

Figure 5. National average prices of main winegrape varietiesa, Australia, 2013 (AUD per tonne). Source: Anderson (2015) with other varieties that grow well in the same regions?

This question of whether Australia’s mix of varieties is less than ideal for the terroir of its various regions is not a new one.

Hickinbotham (1947) believed more than six decades ago that Australia’s hot regions were not focussed enough on varieties from warmer parts of Europe. More specifically, McKay et al. (1999) felt that varieties from the warmer parts of Italy were under-represented in Australia. And Dry and Smart (1980) suggested that if acid addition had been outlawed in Australia, our hot regions would have been forced to at least add ‘improver’ varieties to their varietal mix.

The fact that Australia’s varietal mix is so concentrated on a few French varieties does suggest there is plenty of scope to explore alternative varieties. This is something grapegrowers are doing in any case as they consider ways to adapt to climate changes. However, the above data suggest that its impact on the overall varietal mix has been very small so far

– despite much discussion of alternative or emerging varieties in the media and at conferences.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful for research assistance by Nanda Aryal and for financial assistance from the Australian Grape and Wine Authority (formerly the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation, under Project UA12/08). Views expressed are the author’s alone.

REFERENCES Anderson, K. (with the assistance of Aryal, N.R.) (2013) Which winegrape varieties are grown where?

A global empirical picture. Adelaide: University of Adelaide Press, freely downloadable as an e-book at www.adelaide.edu.au/press/winegrapes Anderson, K. (with the assistance of Aryal, N.R.) (2015) Growth and cycles in Australia’s wine industry: A statistical compendium, 1843 to 2013. Adelaide: University of Adelaide Press, freely downloadable e-book at www.adelaide.edu.au/press/austwine

Figure 6. Varietal Quality Index dispersion, Australia, 2000, 2010 and 2013. Source: Anderson (2015) Anderson, K. and Aryal, N.R. (2015) Australian grape and wine industry database, 1843 to 2013, freely available at the University of Adelaide’s Wine Economics Research Centre, at www.adelaide.edu. au/wine-econ/databases Dry, P.R. and Smart, R.E. (1980) The need to rationalise winegrape variety use in Australia.

Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker 196:55-60.

Hickinbotham, A.R. (1947) Problems of viticulture.

Australian Brewing and Wine Journal pp. 24-28, May 20 and pp. 23-25, June 20.

McKay, A.D.; Crittenden, G.; Dry, P.R. and Hardie, J. (1999) Italian winegrape varieties in Australia, Adelaide: Winetitles.

Phylloxera Board (2013) SA winegrape crush survey: state summary report 2013, Adelaide: Phylloxera and Grape Industry Board of South Australia.

Robinson, J.; Harding, J. and Vouillamoz, J. (2012) Winegrapes: A complete guide to 1368 vine varieties, including their origins and flavours. London: Allen Lane.

Winetitles (2013) The Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry Directory. Adelaide: Winetitles.

Available also at www.winetitles.com.au

WVJ

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ALTERNATIVE VARIETIES

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Lost Valley Cortese found at Corvaal Wines

By Aldo Cevaal Corvaal Wines, Upper Goulburn, Victoria

I

n 2010 my family saw an opportunity to purchase a boutique winery. Lost Valley was one of Australia’s most respected cool climate boutique wineries growing four varietals in Victoria’s high country, just below the snow line at 430 metres.

In this pristine environment, without power or pollution, we continue to create excellent quality wines including the jewel in the crown, Australia’s first commercial Cortese, a rare northern Italian varietal.

There have been some necessary changes made, particularly in the branding of the product, but the team of Alex White, winemaker, and Paul Hilder, vineyard manager, remains in place.

Through an unfortunate set of circumstances, the Lost Valley brand was lost to us which required that we reinvent ourselves.

Bottling was about to commence when we discovered we no longer had the brand.

Together with my wife and two sons we dug deep to meet multiple deadlines resulting in the rebranding and reengineering of our marketing strategy. Our first vintage, 2013, completely sold out within months of bottling. The following vintage met with similar success.

When we discovered we no longer had the Lost Valley brand, we thought we were facing financial disaster. Instead, out of adversity came opportunity and we have successfully established a new brand that has two successful vintages under ▶ its belt and we look forward to the next vintage.

The Corvaal vineyard near Yea in Victoria’s Upper Goulburn region.

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CORTESE

By Peter Dry Emeritus Fellow, The Australian Wine Research Institute BACKGROUND Cortese (kor-TAY-zay) has been grown in Piedmont, in north-east Italy, since the 17th century. Today it is the fifth most important variety of Piedmont and mainly grown in the south-eastern part of the province. It is best known in the DOCG Cortese di Gavi (Gavi di Gavi) and also used as a varietal in several DOCs: Cortese del Alto Monferrato and Cortese Colli Tortonesi. Synonyms include Bianca Fernanda, Corteis, Courteis, Courtesia, Cortesi and Raverusto. Cortese is also grown in Oltrepo Pavese (Lombardy) and Garda (Veneto). Garda Cortese DOC is produced in the hills near Lake Garda. Cortese may also be a minor component of DOC Bianco di Custoza, a blended white wine of the Veneto region mainly comprising Trebbiano Toscano, Garganega and Friulano. There were 2953 hectares planted in Italy in 2010. In Australia, there are currently at least three wine producers, in SA and Victoria.

VITICULTURE Budburst is mid-season and maturity is early to mid-season. Vigour is moderate with a semi-erect growth habit. Bunches are medium and well-filled with medium yellow-gold berries. Yield is good and regular. Cane pruning is used in Italy. Cortese has average susceptibility to downy and powdery mildews, but higher susceptibility to bunch rots. There is clonal variation in Italy with differences in wine flavour and structure, and suitability for sparkling wine—but there appears to be just the one clone available in Australia. Some reports suggest that yield control is necessary to avoid wines lacking in character. Also, acidity may be excessively high in cool sites.

WINE Cortese is used for both still and sparkling wine styles that are rarely of exceptional quality. Wines are pale lemon-white in colour, light with good acidity, crisp and elegant. The aroma is delicate, ranging from neutral to citrusy to notes of honey and stone fruit.

The best wines have good structure and body. Some producers use malolactic fermentation to mitigate the variety’s high acidity, but it is usually produced in a crisp, dry style.

For further information on this and other emerging varieties, contact Marcel Essling (marcel.essling@ awri.com.au or 08 8313 6600) at The Australian Wine Research Institute to arrange the presentation of the Alternative Varieties Research to Practice program in your region.

Cortese fruit in the Corvaal vineyard. The first Cortese vines were introduced to the Corvaal vineyard in 1998 when two acres were planted. A planned expansion program will see that acreage doubled.

VITICULTURE The first Cortese vines were introduced to the vineyard in 1998 when two acres were planted. We have embarked on an expansion program that will see this acreage doubled.

Hand pruning, leaf plucking, bunch thinning, handpicking - that is just part of the care given to producing the best fruit possible to in turn meet the level of quality for which our vineyard is known.

Budburst is generally mid-season with maturity tending towards late season. Vigour is high as are yields. The challenge is to contain the fruit to a maximum of three tonnes per acre.

The vines are planted one-and-a-half metres apart with row spacings of 2.4m. Vines are trained to a single wire with two foliage wires on either side, and are drought tolerant. They are not particularly susceptible to disease as is so often the case of other varieties.

Bunches are large and extremely compact with a greenyellow bloom. The canopy is very thick and requires severe pruning. Pruning itself is to long arched canes. Currently the vines are watered by a drip system.

WINEMAKING AND THE WINE The golden opalescent fruit for the 2015 Corvaal Cortese was hand-picked on 31 March at an optimum ripeness of 13.5 Baume, while still retaining a good acidity level. It was then crushed and pressed, cold settled and racked. The clear juice was cool fermented over four weeks before settling and racking off gross lees.

The wine has aromas of honeydew melon and citrus while the palate is dry and savoury with good texture and fine acidity.

WVJ

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BUSINESS & & MARKETING MARKETING BUSINESS

CHINA

A ‘show system’ approach for better marketing of Australian wine in China

By Justin Cohen, Armando Maria Corsi and Larry Lockshin Ehrenberg-Bass Institute for Marketing Science, School of Marketing, University of South Australia

G

rowing grapes and making wine are a science. So is spoke about the opportunity in retail for promoting Australian wine marketing. Yet, we are at times led astray by aggregate for relaxing occasions, as our evidence indicated that this was the economic data provided without context, varied forms most common off-premise consumption occasion. We also spoke of online media blurring the lines of reporting and promotion of the breadth of retail channels available to Chinese wine drinkers and, increasingly, more and the surprisingly high often anecdotal information penetration of most of these packaged as ‘market channels. A year later, these What is more of a concern for an industry focussing findings still hold true and intelligence’ by ‘local’ pundits in our export markets. This present a great opportunity on premium wine exports into China is that we see article will discuss the ‘head for Australian wine brands our most well-known wine regions. . . also dropping entering the China market. space’ of Chinese wine drinkers using findings from Detailed explanations of markedly in awareness.

Wave 4 of the China Wine the composition of these Barometer. numerous channels and, in The Australian Grape and Wine Authority (AGWA) continues particular, the cut through of both bricks and mortar and online to generously fund the Ehrenberg-Bass Institute for Marketing retailers are available in our most recent Wave 4 China Wine Science’s China Wine Barometer, a bi-annual tracking program Barometer report. that measures the brand health of Australian wine against its However, there is evidence that the global wine market has major competitors across nine cities in China. Our slide decks missed the mark. China has proved to be more complex than many continue to be readily available for download from http://www. anticipated. Most of the news has been about anti-corruption research.agwa.net.au. and its impact on high-end wine sales. This is not an issue for About one year ago, we published an article in this journal most Australian wine brands but, rather, an easy distraction to entitled, ‘Forget special occasions, it is time to relax in China’. We justify worse-than-expected outcomes. We should be fixating our attention on the performances and opportunities that Australian brands might have in the retail sector, for example, from Woolworths Liquor Group’s acquisition of the fine wine distributor Summergate, or Alibaba’s efforts to use its business-to-business platforms to directly put wine brands in contact with retailers. This will allow our wines to be put out for sale at a more attractive price point to the Chinese consumer.

There is a lot of buzz about ‘route-to-market’ and wine brands are increasingly reaching deeper into China beyond the Tier 1 cities in the east and also looking to grow penetration across the • 7,000 Industry plethora of retail channels available, particularly the online space. listings This is promising news. Despite these efforts to increase the • 9,000 Personnel physical and virtual availability of imported wine in China, there is • 3,000 Wineries a dearth of information on if and where this wine is sold. This won’t • 5,600 Wine brands change in the foreseeable future.

• 1,750 Grapegrowers Therefore, understanding the mental availability of wine in • 2,000 Buyers’ China is the best proxy we have for brand health at the moment. guide listings In retail, there is the phrase ‘what is unseen is unsold’. Taking one • 300 Distributors & retailers step back, if our Australian wine brands, grape varieties, regions of origin and country of origin are not in the consideration set of our • 210 Writers & media potential consumers, this leads shoppers to unconsciously screen PLUS out products. + Statistics Chinese consumers have a lot more choice available to them + 2014 Overview in wine, but also their world is getting bigger. They have more + Calendar of events freedom to travel and the disposable income that makes numerous + Wineshows previously unattainable product categories from electronics to + Courses fashion to food available to them. They probably have less mental + Organisations availability to think about wine due to increased competition from other growing categories. Table 1 shows this pattern.

Awareness for France is now stable, but was in decline. China is showing a slight downturn. There have been notable declines

by New Zealand and Australia, but markedly worse performance To order your copy: Ph: +618 8369 9509 by other wine exporting nations. We attribute this result, as E: orders@winetitles.com.au Visit: www.winetitles.com.au mentioned above, to the increased choice, complexity and availability of general consumerism in China. At the same time, it

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Table 1. Country of origin awareness over time.

Country awareness

March 2013 (%)

October 2013 (%)

March 2014 (%)

October 2014 (%)

France China Italy Australia Spain New Zealand Chile California

97 84 83 76 74 62 60 59

98 86 81 77 72 64 59 55

93 85 75 74 65 58 54 53

93 81 72 66 59 55 46 40

Difference Oct. ‘14/Mar ‘13 (%) -4 -3 -11 -10 -15 -7 -14 -19

is clear that whilst we are still fairing better than many, perhaps our collective marketing efforts could be more strategically intertwined to have a greater impact. What is more of a concern for an industry focussing on premium wine exports into China is that we see our most well-known wine regions, the Barossa Valley, McLaren Vale, Margaret River and the Hunter Valley, also dropping markedly in awareness.

So, what can we do about this? Table 2 shows the repurchase rates of wine by country of origin based upon retrospective recall measurement.

French and Chinese wines continue to be the most purchased with the Old World securing higher repurchase rates. Relative to its penetration, Australian wine should have a higher repeat purchase rate. This means that we are perceived more as a ‘change of pace’ alternative and perhaps not satisfying our buyers.

We produce great wines in Australia. It will always be harder for us than the French and Italians because they got there first. In the mind of the Chinese consumer, the Old World currently has more neuro-richness and stronger connections in their minds. We can do a lot to overcome this problem. We can achieve success through smarter marketing. Australia has a lot going for it. As an industry it funds consumer insights research in key export markets.

It also has people on the ground in those markets to support market development activities. However, our biggest competitive advantage has, and always will be, the sweat off the backs of our own wine brands doing phenomenal engagement in China.

Last year one of us was struck by a beautiful display of camaraderie by our wine industry. On the way home from the Hong Kong Wine Fair, a large group of Australian winemakers were sitting together enjoying a cleansing ale in the Qantas Club.

In between calling their families to say goodnight to their children, they were discussing their business outcomes from their whirlwind showcase in Hong Kong and discussing what the next few days would be like working at Prowine, in Shanghai.

Quite often we talk about what made Australian wine successful in the early days. Often this is attributed to the ‘show system’.

Regions came together, tasted their wines and discussed what worked and what did not. This helped rapidly improve the quality of our wine. Could this display of ‘mateship’ in an airport lounge in Hong Kong be the organic makings of a marketing ‘show system’ for China?

Sharing what works and what does not will help Australian wine brands compete in our key export markets. Growing the knowledge-sharing in our great Australian wine community will have exponential returns to our performance. Our premium brands, our commodity branded wines and our industry’s market development programs need to work together to raise the mental availability of our wines. In the case of China, there is a readily available product, the China Wine Barometer, that provides an evidence-based overview of the China market that can augment further discussions in our evolving marketing ‘show system’. WVJ

Table 2. Penetration and repeat purchase rate by country of origin.

• Searchable • Easy to use • Wine industry personnel ONLINE PHONEBOOK

Country of origin France China Italy Australia

Penetration (%) 48 30 4 4

Repeat purchase rate (%) 36 55 28 16

Chile Portugal Spain California Germany New Zealand South Africa

3 2 2 2 1 1 1

17 21 0 18 13 0 0

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WINE EXHIBITIONS

VinExpo – should Australian and New Zealand wine producers reconsider?

By Damien Wilson, School of Wine and Spirits Business, Burgundy School of Business, 21006 Dijon, France. Email: Damien.Wilson@escdijon.eu

When the 2015 edition of VinExpo closed its doors on 18 June, 2350 exhibitors from 42 countries had paraded their wares at the French wine and spirits fair, but only five of those were from Australia and three from New Zealand. Both countries have virtually abandoned the event since the early 2000s, so Damien Wilson spoke with VinExpo’s new CEO Guillaume Deglise to find out whether there is now good reason for them to return in light of recent initiatives to reinvigorate the event.

E

xhibitions are hideously expensive events for wine producers to attend.

Even though traditional means of demand generation, like securing wine show medals (Allen and Germov 2011) or wine critic reviews (Horverak 2009, Parsons & Thompson 2009) can help improve sales with a particular market segment, because the wine sector in Australia now has to rely on export markets as a means to clear a domestic oversupply, finding an importer or agent on the exhibition circuit is often seen as an essential commercial panacea.

The Wine & Viticulture Journal has previously published articles on the merits of trade shows for the wine producer.

Following on from Tony Key’s insightful commentary on the trends and value of attending trade shows in Europe (see the November/December 2013 and January/February 2014 issues of the Wine & Viticulture Journal), this year’s VinExpo underwent a face-lift under the stewardship of the new head honcho Guillaume Deglise. Under his guidance,

the aim has been to reinvigorate the event, and to focus on responding to the evolving interests of exhibitors. With competing events gaining traction in the exhibition marketplace, it is important to both look for ways to put VinExpo ahead of the curve, and to investigate how this year’s experience for exhibitors and attendees compares with other wine exhibitions.

Since 2003, when Antipodeans sweltered in the air conditioner-free exhibition hall, VinExpo has turned into a morgue in both a figurative and literal sense for the Australian and New Zealand wine sectors. These wine producers continue to question whether there is any benefit in considering a return to the event. Consequently, I decided to interview Guillaume Deglise ahead of the event in order to both canvass his opinions on the value of VinExpo as a wine exhibition, and to investigate the initiatives undertaken in an effort to relaunch it back to its former glories.

Damien Wilson (DW): You’ve launched a series of initiatives for this version of

VinExpo chief executive Guillaume Deglise gets into the spirit of the event Photo courtesy Philippe Labeguerie and Jean-Bernard Nadeau

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VinExpo, including The Blend, a new series of dining options, an expansion of hospitality tents around the lake, a focus on a specific wine producing country, and an introduction of spirits and wine-tasting flight zones. As a result, VinExpo was sold out this year. Given the invigoration that you’ve brought to the event, can you explain the process you undertook, which led you to launch all these initiatives.

Guillaume Deglise (GD): VinExpo is much more than just a trade show. It is a global event for the industry and we have built up a new strategy around three main strands: business, networking and hospitality. Business is the most important because all exhibitors and visitors must get a good return on investment when participating in VinExpo. Networking is also key in our industry and VinExpo is the perfect platform to make new contacts and [ex]change business cards. We expect 48,000 visitors from 120 countries this year. That means many opportunities to grow your business. Last but not least, hospitality is a clear focus for us this year. VinExpo is a premium show and our customers – exhibitors and visitors – should be happy when visiting us. It sounds simple, but it is a lot of work and investment for our organisation. For instance, the restaurant offer has been totally revamped and we have created The Blend, an environment for networking parties for professionals, so that all badge holders can enjoy their nightlife in Bordeaux.

DW: Given that this will be their first run, how are you going to decide what to keep, and what to modify for 2017?

GD: We have planned a survey to be distributed to exhibitors and visitors. And of course we shall analyse the profitability of each initiative.

DW: There are numerous comparisons between VinExpo and Prowein in the press. You indicated that VinExpo attracts everyone from Grand Cru Classé producers to the biggest wine corporations in the

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world. Given France’s advantage as the perceived home of prestige brands and being the heart of gastronomy, how should VinExpo leverage those perceptions to advantage over the Germanic counterpart?

GD: Our goal is not to become a fair on luxury products. VinExpo intends to reflect the reality of the market and to enhance the latest trends. However, VinExpo takes place in Bordeaux and this destination offers both, advantages and challenges. Gastronomy is a theme which we want to focus on. Firstly because many foreign professionals expect good food when visiting Bordeaux. Secondly, because food and wine matching is now a worldwide trend. This year, we will welcome more than 15 chefs from around the globe together with their sommeliers.

They will both run workshops on food and wine pairings.

DW: You suggested that VinExpo could (should?) launch regional versions of the show around the world. How would you decide on the markets and timing in which to launch such shows?

GD: First thing to keep in mind when exploring a new destination is whether there is a need for our exhibitors. An exhibition is a substantial investment for participants, so we have to remain very selective. Then come all the technical aspects: finding the right date for the industry’s agenda, looking for a venue, and working on the business model.

This is what we did when we launched VinExpo Tokyo in 2014. The next edition will take place on 15-16 November, 2016.

DW: Since 2003, there has been scant attendance at VinExpo from the Antipodes. Even this year, there are only around 10 representatives from Australia and New Zealand, and no generic bodies attending. Given the number of global brands and emerging wine trends coming from both of these countries, what (if anything) can you do to get them back into the event from 2017?

GD: Having a stronger presence from Australia and New Zealand [at VinExpo] is one of our next challenges.

We simply need to be more attractive to these wineries, so we have planned to meet them shortly to discuss a new partnership.

DW: VinExpo has the benefit of being one of the last wine exhibitions in the European wine circuit. What benefits does that provide the event over others presented during the year?

GD: VinExpo in Bordeaux is every two years in June. It is the right moment to not only meet your distributors, but to make new contacts, to launch new products, to attend tastings and parties and to think long term. Being the last exhibition of the European circuit also

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Exhibitors and visitors get down to business at VinExpo 2015.

Photo courtesy Philippe Labeguerie and Jean-Bernard Nadeau

Gastronomy is a theme that VinExpo organisers want to focus on.

Photo courtesy Philippe Labeguerie and Jean-Bernard Nadeau allows professionals to make a deal which has been initiated in previous fairs.

There is a special mood at VinExpo that remains incomparable.

DW: Further, given that exhibitors and distributors may already have completed their business deals earlier in the year, how do you combat the risk that VinExpo could be treated as a ‘last-hope’ event, where discounting becomes an issue for those businesses not having had success at earlier events?

GD: Our job is to facilitate and sometimes organise business meetings between professionals. We however do not interfere in the content of discussions.

I think the greatest advantage of VinExpo is the possibility for an exhibitor to meet with all its international distributors in five days. That is a lot of savings in time and money.

DW: What one key initiative do you expect to have to prepare for in 2017?

GD: The USA is this year VinExpo’s first-ever country of honour. We still have ▶ to decide who will be next.

W I N E & VITICULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2015

French President François Hollande officially opening this year’s VinExpo.

Photo courtesy Philippe Labeguerie and Jean-Bernard Nadeau www.winetitles. com . au

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#DigiZone was another new concept at this year’s VinExpo’s – an area comprising a work space with wifi, power points and the ability to recharge laptops, smart phones and other equipment, and a conference space which hosted a series of short presentations, tastings and talks including this one on lessons in wine communication by UK wine writer Robert Joseph and marketing and communications expert Réka Haros.

Photo courtesy Philippe Labeguerie and Jean-Bernard Nadeau DW: What are VinExpo attendees going to remember from your directorship of the event?

GD: They are going to remember that they met the right people and that they had a good time. VinExpo is a unique exhibition where business and pleasure can be mixed.

And I believe this is all what the wine and spirits industry is about.

It’s clear that Guillaume Deglise has arrived with a more innovative outlook on where VinExpo can improve. He not only references the image and expectations of clients regarding a French wine event, but he has already illustrated a penchant for innovation and risk-taking. By opening VinExpo with a keynote speech from François Hollande, the French President, Deglise has shown a global audience that VinExpo not only matters, but attracts attention from those with influence.

While previous VinExpos have attracted criticism from New World exhibitors because of a perceived focus on style over substance, a number of the initiatives mentioned above suggest that userfriendliness, and exhibitor experience are on the development radar. With the direction being taken to better engage stall owners, and to attract a more diverse range of wine producers, the reflections of a number of attendees were captured about the event this year.

Greg Corra, from Inland Trading Co, expressed his first thoughts simply: “There weren’t as many people there this year, but those who attended were invaluable for us. We have been here every year since the fateful event in 2003, and this year attracted a number of new clients

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for us that we would have never thought imaginable. As of today, I’ve just secured distribution in Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Ukraine. The importers are financially solid, and represent rapidly growing markets. We’d never have met them if we weren’t here.

“The lack of collaborators from Australia and New Zealand is a shame, but it just means that we get better access to better clients. We set up our meetings before we even arrived, but even then, we had a number of clients who said they weren’t going to attend, but turned up anyway. Even with lower attendee numbers we’ve been busy from the first day, and have been able to spend more time, with better customers. We’ll be back.”

This sentiment was echoed by De Bortoli through their representative Francis Aguilar, who reinforced the idea that from 10 years of prior experiences, this year’s event was very well organised. The event felt “lighter in numbers, but a number of new leads [of good quality]”.

With other producers like Nugan also in attendance, VinExpo looks like offering the opportunity for the European continent to be broached by Pacific raiders. Additionally, the online traffic captured during the event not only suggests that business is being conducted at VinExpo, but that the emerging media for wine businesses are being put to good use in VinExpo’s strategic direction.

Wagner et al. (2007) explained that producers often use wine exhibitions as a means to secure market information, and to keep up with trends. To that effect, VinExpo has historically been known for its workshops to be more promotional than

W I N E & V I T I C ULTUR E JO UR NA L JULY/A UGUST 2015

Ll Demei, one of the most followed wine experts in digital China, presided over a tasting of Chinese wines at this year’s VinExpo.

Photo courtesy Philippe Labeguerie and Jean-Bernard practical. However, other initiatives like this year’s e-business focussed #DigiZone, as well as having invited one of China’s most popular online wine personalities in LI Demei, suggest that this year’s changes are more than cosmetic.

The real challenge now is for VinExpo to convince exhibitors that a stand in Bordeaux will create business for their wineries. The changes that cater to emerging trends, combined with improvements in the user-experience suggest that the crowd is being led down the right path. If Deglise can now convince the sceptical folk in the South Pacific, the perception of VinExpo as a white elephant may just end up morphing into a commercial Phoenix.

REFERENCES Allen, M.P. and Germov, J. (2011) Judging taste and creating value: the cultural consecration of Australian wines. Journal of Sociology 47(1):35–51. http://doi.org/10.1177/1440783310380988 Horverak, Ø. (2009) Wine journalism - marketing or consumers’ guide? Marketing Science 28(3): 573–579. http://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.1090.0489 Parsons, A.G. and Thompson, A.-M. (2009) Wine recommendations: who do I believe? British Food Journal 111(9):1003–1015. http://doi. org/10.1108/00070700910992899 Wagner, P.; Olsen, J. and Thach, L. (2007) Wine Marketing - Strategies for success in a saturated market. (E. Mackey, Ed.). San Francisco.

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BUSINESS& &MARKETING MARKETING BUSINESS

Total exports on the rise for volume and value

By Mark Rowley, Industry Analyst, Wine Australia

The figures on Australia’s wine exports for the 2014-15 financial year are in, which show an increase in value for the first time since 2006-07.

I

n 2014-15, the volume of Australian wine exports increased by 4 percent to 724 million litres, value increased by 5% to A$1.89 billion1 and the average value of total exports increased by 0.3% to A$2.61 per litre. Value increased for the first time on a financial year basis since 2006-07 while the volume was the highest since 2010-11.

There are a number of factors assisting growth, such as the weaker Australian dollar, the free trade agreements with Japan and South Korea, a rebound from austerity measures in China, improved economic 1

All values are Free On Board (FOB)

This includes exporters that exported in 2013-14 but not in 2014-15 hence they are not included in the 1405 that exported in 2014-15 2

conditions in the United Kingdom and the United States, favourable response to promotional activities such as ProWein and the Vancouver International Wine Festival, and the growing positivity towards Australian wine around the world.

Australian wine was exported to 122 countries by 1405 exporters, 45 more than the prior year. More exporters recorded volume growth compared with those in decline (904 in growth vs. 8162 in decline). The opposite was true in 2013-14.

The number of products exported also grew, from 16,360 in 2013-14 to a record 17,731, with the increase spread across a broad cross-section of companies and markets.

Volumes increased in all price points, with exports at: •

below A$2.49 per litre up 5% to 432 million litres

•

A$2.50-4.99 up 3% to 220 million litres

•

A$5.00-7.49 up 1% to 38 million litres

•

A$7.50-9.99 up 3% to 15 million litres

•

above A$10.00 up 16% to 19 million litres.

The strong growth at the higher price points contributed to the average value of bottled exports increasing by 4% to A$4.91 per litre, the highest since 200304 (Figure 1, see page 68). In contrast, the average value of bulk exports fell

Our purpose is to provide buyers the best choice and sellers the best opportunities when dealing with Australian Bulk Wines.

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WINE EXPORTS

$1.00 $1.00

2014-15

2013-14

2012-13

2011-12

2010-11

2009-10

2008-09

2007-08

2006-07

2005-06

2004-05

2003-04

2002-03

$0.90

2001-02

$0.00

Bulk average value (AUD per litre)

$1.10

$2.00

2000-01

The top five countries for Australian wine exports remained the United Kingdom (UK), the United States (US), Canada, China and Germany with a combined volume share of 78%. Exports increased to 74 countries, with the biggest volume increases to China (up 16 million litres), the UK (6 million litres), Italy (6 million litres), Germany (5 million litres), Russia (3 million litres), Finland (3 million litres), Japan (3 million litres) and Canada (1 million litres).

The key wine styles each recorded solid growth. Red table wine exports grew by 5% to 405 million litres, white table wine increased by 1% to 300 million litres and sparkling wine grew by 40% to 16 million litres.

$1.20

1999-00

North America down 2% (down 4 million litres).

$3.00

1998-99

•

$1.30

1997-98

South East Asia up 7% (up 1 million litres)

$4.00

1996-97

•

$1.50 $1.40

1995-96

Europe up 5% (up 18 million litres)

Bulk

$5.00

1994-95

•

Glass Bottle

1993-94

North East Asia up 36% (up 20 million litres)

$1.60

1992-93

•

$6.00

1991-92

by 7% to A$0.95 per litre. This was driven by a 25% increase in bulk exports below A$1.00 per litre combined with a 21% decline above A$1.00 per litre.

Growth in volumes to Europe and Asia offset a decline in exports to North America:

Bottled average value (AUD per litre)

BUSINESS & & MARKETING MARKETING BUSINESS

$0.80

Figure 1. The average value of bottled and bulk Australian wine exports since 1991-92.

Table 1. Exports from the 10 biggest exporters.

COMPETITOR ANALYSIS The OIV recently estimated that global wine production fell by 7% in 2014 to 27 billion litres. France is the biggest producer and production increased by 11% to 4.7 billion litres. After huge crops in 2013, production in Italy, Spain and the US declined by 17% to 4.5 billion litres, by 16% to 3.8 billion litres and by 5% to 2.2 billion litres, respectively. There were mixed results in South America, with production in Argentina up by 1% to 1.5 billion litres and Chilean production down by 18% to 1 billion litres.

Australia is the fifth largest exporter of wine in the world behind Spain, Italy, France and Chile (Figure 2). Spain, after coming off a large 2013 crop, recorded significant volume growth in the last 12 months but the growth was mainly in low-priced bulk shipments. Australia, Italy and Portugal were the only other countries among the top 10 to record an increase in volume.

GROWTH IN HIGHER PRICE POINTS Growth was achieved at above A$7.50 per litre for the third consecutive financial year. Volumes grew by 10% to

Source: Global Trade Atlas 34 million litres, value by 19% to A$529 million and the average value by 8% to a record A$15.40 per litre. While the segment accounts for 5% of total export volume, the value share is much higher at 28%.

More than half the exports above A$7.50 per litre were destined for Asia, a quarter to North America and 16% to Europe. Growth was strongest to Asia, up 18%, compared with 7% to Europe while a 6% decline was recorded to North America. The average value per litre for the price segment was also much higher for Asia at A$18.49 compared with A$12.29 for Europe and A$11.54 for North America.

Exports of Australia’s highestpriced wines (>A$50 per litre) grew for the fifth successive year and while relatively small in volume this segment is obviously a significant contributor to value. Exports in this segment grew 70% to a record 1.6 million litres and valued at A$123 million. The segment accounted for only 0.2% of the total volume but 7% of the value of Australian exports. There were 299 companies exporting in this price segment with 221 recording growth.

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W I N E O N TA P

BUSINESS& &MARKETING MARKETING BUSINESS

Wine on tap – an innovation for younger generations?

By Michaela Nuebling and Dr. Carl Behnke Purdue University, Indiana, United States

Wine on tap is a growing trend in US restaurants and bars and is increasingly becoming available in Australia and New Zealand. But the communication of its benefits may need improvement for it to become a viable and long-lasting packaging and dispensing option accepted by all generations.

W

ine on tap represents an innovation in that wine is dispensed from a keg that is pressurised by a mixture of inert gases such as nitrogen, argon, and carbon dioxide. It has recently been observed as a trend in restaurants and bars in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand (Salins 2014; Burzynska 2012; Krause 2012; Doherty 2011; Asimov 2009).

Issues related to oxidation, quality control, cost, and limited availability of natural cork inspired inventions, such as screwcap closures, vacuum pumps and wine on tap. In the early 2000s the Australian and New Zealand wine industries led the way re-introducing screwcaps (also called Stelvin, by its brand name). Research and trials pertaining to this alternative closure date back to the 1960s and 1970s, however, their initial diffusion into the market failed. Research suggested that this failure occurred due to inadequate marketing efforts, producers’ lack of innovativeness and retailers’ hesitation, as well as consumers’ misunderstanding of screwcap closures’ benefits which, in turn, led to negative attitudes and quality misperceptions (Atkin et al. 2006; Mortensen and Marks 2002).

In 2004, about the same time the Australian and New Zealand wine industry was diffusing screwcaps into the wine marketplace, a restaurant in Atlanta (US) opened, offering 42 wines on tap (Lindenmuth 2010). It was an innovative move at the time, yet the idea of wine on tap was not as new as it seemed. Back in the 1970s, Anheuser Busch first

attempted kegging wine. Neal and Gunn (2011) explained that there were other attempts at packaging wine in smallsized kegs in the late 1980s and early 1990s, however, none were successful. The failure of wine on tap was attributed to technological challenges, such as the kegs types, filling and cleaning techniques and dispensing technology, as well as distribution challenges (Neal and Gunn 2011). Additionally, and most likely the major shortcoming, was the quality of wine used for kegging. Low quality ‘jug’ wine, also known as bulk wine, was typically used (Franson 2011; Neal and Gunn 2011).

Today, innovators of wine on tap use various kegs. A kegging specialist in the US, Free Flow Wines, advocates the use of 19.5 litre stainless steel kegs (Free Flow Wines 2014). At Allan Scott Winery, in New Zealand, the KeyKeg technology is preferred (Burzynska 2012). Assuming the kegs are cleaned and sanitised properly, storing wine in re-usable and airtight containers that never expose their contents to light is beneficial to ensuring freshness and quality, eliminating packaging waste (no cardboard wine boxes, no bottle, no label, no closure), and reducing packaging weight (Neal and Gunn 2011; Free Flow Wines 2014). Additionally, from an environmental and waste management standpoint, holding the volume of 26 wine bottles in one keg saves 1061kg of rubbish from landfills across a keg’s lifespan (Wine Business 2013). Lindenmuth (2010) called wine on tap a possible “game changer” in regard to how wine is sold and ▶ transported, but how do consumers react to the innovation?

Wine on tap. Photo courtesy Free Flow Wines V3 0N 4

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W I N E O N TA P

Today, wine on tap is among the top trends in US restaurants and bars (PR Newswire 2014) , however, it is not only popular in the US. The New Zealand Herald, the Australian Herald Sun and other newspapers recently reported about the increased availability of wine on tap in the Southern Hemisphere (Salins 2014; Burzynska 2012; Krause 2012; Doherty 2011). Across countries, supporters of wine on tap agree that this packaging and service innovation helps to reduce the snobbishness associated with wine by making it more accessible and, in some cases, more affordable. On the flip side, restaurateurs reported the need to convince consumers to give it a try, re-assuring them it’s not sub-par house or jug wine (Salins 2014, Asimov 2009).

Wine consumer behaviour research suggested that packaging has a vast impact on wine consumption behaviour (Barber et al. 2009, Barber and Almanza 2006). Furthermore, in psychology and consumer science research, attitude has been known to influence consumer’s purchase choices.

Ajzen and Fishbein (2000) defined attitude as an individual’s evaluation of an object, concept or behaviour on a continuum from positive to negative which, in turn, was found to affect behavioural intentions. When restaurateurs talk about convincing consumers to try wine on tap, they refer to persuading consumers who are hesitant and skeptical toward the idea of wine not being served from its traditional vessel, the bottle. It was determined that a survey of wine consumers with regards to their attitudes towards wine on tap was warranted.

Data was collected in cooperation with a New Zealandbased winery. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed along with the winery’s online marketing newsletter. Participants were offered a chance to enter a

BUYERS’ GUIDE For experienced wine & grape industry suppliers

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Across countries, supporters of wine on tap agree that this packaging and service innovation helps to reduce the snobbishness associated with wine by making it more accessible and, in some cases, more affordable. On the flip side, restaurateurs reported the need to convince consumers to give it a try, re-assuring them it’s not sub-par house or jug wine. draw for a winery gift basket as an incentive for participation.

The sample (n=151) was comprised of 52.6% male (n=80) and 46.7% female (n=71) participants with an average age of 57 years and an average wine consumption experience of 32 years. Individuals born between the years of 1946 and 1964 are considered part of the Baby Boomer generation (Lancaster and Stillman 2002; Martin and Tulgan 2003); respondents to this study included only 37 participants younger than 50. Research suggests that age influences attitude and behaviour because different generations have different values and consider different aspects of life meaningful (Arsenault 2004; Schewe and Noble 2000). In regard to the food service industry, Zan and Fan (2010) found that younger generations go out to enjoy food and drinks away from home more often than older generations.

Furthermore, they allocate more of their disposable income to eating and drinking out.

With regard to selecting wine in a restaurant, on a scale from 1=’not at all important’ to 7=’extremely important’ (seven-point-Likert) the participants rated the importance of various attributes contributing to their wine selection in a restaurant (see Figure 1). Those attributes in sequence of reported importance were (1) matching wine and food (µ=5.43), (2) grape variety (µ=5.43), (3) reputation of the winery (µ=5.31), (4) region of origin (µ=5.30), (5) availability by the glass (µ=5.18), (6) price (µ=5.04), (7) trying something new (µ=4.82), (8) having consumed a wine prior (µ=4.72), (9) wait staff recommendation (µ=4.63), (10) well-known brand (µ=4.31), (11) availability in the store (µ=3.43), and (12) alcohol content (µ=3.29).

As previously mentioned, screwcap closures and wine on tap seem to share the connotation of lower quality wine in the eyes of the consumer, but does the consumer consider aspects of quality preservation when it comes to wines by the glass service in restaurants and bar? A highlighted benefit of wine on tap is its freshness due to inert gas coverage.

This stands out in comparison with wines poured from a bottle, especially in restaurants with a large selection of wines by the glass. At this point, it is unclear whether the consumer is able to understand and positively perceive such advantages of kegged wine. On a scale from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ (seven-point-Likert), participants were asked to compare wines sealed with screwcaps, the current standard for wines poured by the glass in New Zealand and Australia, and wine dispensed from a keg. The focus was the participants’ perception of wine quality and freshness. There was a statistically significant difference at the specified .05 level, in the perception of value between screwcap bottles and wine dispensed from kegs, t(147) = -20.39, p<001, 95% CI [-3.19, -2.62], as well as perceived freshness t(147) =

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7=Extremely Important 4=Neither Important nor Unimportant

7=Strongly Agree 6 5 4= Neither Agree 4 nor Disagree 3

6 5 4

3

1=Strongly Agree 2

2

1

1=Not Important 1 at all 0

0

Figure 1. Importance of factors influencing wine selection in a restaurant.

4.95, p<001, 95% CI [.46, 1.07]. This confirms that wines sealed with screwcap closures are widely accepted as quality wines in the Southern Hemisphere today. Furthermore, these findings highlight that the consumer might not fully understand the quality preservation benefits of wine on tap (see Figure 2).

Regarding Baby Boomer’s attitudes toward wine on tap, findings were interesting. Four semantic differential items were utilised to measure wine consumer’s attitude toward drinking wine on tap. Almost half of the participants chose the mid-point in evaluating the following attributes of drinking wine on tap: • good or bad; 48% of participants (69 of 143) • unpleasant or pleasant; 47% of participants (66 of 139) • harmful or beneficial; 78% of participants (108 of 138) • interesting or boring; 49% participants (71 of 146).

Choosing the mid-point makes interpretation thoughtprovoking. It may mean that participants are indifferent, uncertain, unknowledgeable, or uninterested. They might feel like they are lacking sufficient information about the innovation to make a clear decision. Those who did not select the mid-point were more or less evenly distributed across each spectrum.

Considering that innovations, in all fields and industries, are what drive society forward, these findings suggest the need for further investigation and research pertaining to wine industry innovations in general and wine on tap in particular. Historically speaking, the wine consumer has never been confronted with as many innovations as within the past 50 years. Especially with regard to wine packaging, new options are constantly being introduced. Some consumers might feel overwhelmed finding themselves in a conundrum between tradition and innovation. At the same time some, particularly younger generations, might be excited about new and ‘fun’ options. Market orientation and understanding consumers’ perspectives will become increasingly important.

For example, advertising this innovation as a price innovation as seen in Krause (2012) might be counter-productive in reaching this consumer population, as they associate lower price with lower quality. Promoting the ability to offer more wines by the glass, however, will cater directly to a Baby Boomer’s desire to match food and wine. Further research is needed to understand perceptional differences across consumer segments. Then, cohesive marketing strategies and educational efforts will be needed to ensure that consumers understand wine on tap and its place in the wine and food service marketplace.

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Figure 2. Comparing bottles with screwcap closure and wine dispensed from kegs in regard to value and freshness.

REFERENCES Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (2000) Attitudes and the attitude-behaviour relation: reasoned and automatic processes. European Review of Social Psychology 11(1):1-33.

Arsenault, P. M. (2004) Validating generational differences. Leadership & Organisation Development Journal 25(2):124–141.

Atkin, T.; Garcia, R. and Lockshin, L. (2006) A multinational study of the diffusion of a discontinuous innovation. Australasian Marketing Journal 14(2):17-33.

Barber, N.A. and Almanza, B. (2006) Influence of wine packaging on consumers’ decision to purchase. Journal of Foodservice Business Research 9(4):83-98.

Barber, N.A.; Taylor, D.C. and Dodd, T.H. (2009) Twisting tradition: consumers’ behaviour toward alternative closures. Journal of Food Products Marketing 15:80103.

Burzynska, J. (2012) Join the keg party with wine from the tap, The New Zealand Herald. Online edition, viewed on 15 October 2014 http://www.nzherald.co.nz/ lifestyle/news/ article.cfm?c_id=6&objectid=10823537 Doherty, E. (2011) Roll out the barrel as wine on tap takes off, Herald Sun. Online edition, viewed on 14 October 2014 http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/rollout-the-barrel-as-wine on tap-takes-off/story-e6frf7kx-1226015571748?nk=4b1405 44f00c57e05b099074dd92505f Franson, P. (2011) Rolling out the kegs, Wines & Vines. Online edition, viewed on 15 October 2014 http://www.winesandvines.com/template.cfm?section=features&c ontent=84589 &ftitle=Rolling%20Out%20the%20Kegs Free Flow Wines (2014) Premium wine on tap. Online, viewed on 15 October 2014 http://freeflowwines.com/wp-content/uploads/FreeFlow_WOT-Presentation_FFW. pdf Krause, N. (2012) Keg wine making a comeback, Stuff Magazine. Online edition, viewed on 14 October 2014 http://www.stuff.co.nz/business/industries/6615488/Kegwine-making-a-comeback Lancaster, L.C. and Stillman, D. (2002) When generations collide: who they are, why they clash, how to solve the generational puzzle at work. New York, NY: Collins Business.

Lindenmuth, J. (2010) The tapping point, Food Arts Magazine. Online edition, viewed on 15 October 2014 http://foodarts.com/drinks/bar-cellar/839/the-tappingpoint Martin, C.A. and Tulgan, B. (2003) Managing the generation mix from collision to collaboration. Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 12:975–983.

Mortensen, W. and Marks, B. (2002) An innovation in the wine closure industry: screwcaps threaten the dominance of cork. Working paper series, No. 18, Victoria University School of Management. Online, viewed on 15 October 2014 http://storage. globalcitizen.net/data/ topic/knowledge/uploads/2009091411205705.pdf Neal, J. and Gunn, J. (2011) Sankey brings back wine on tap, Wine Industry Insight. Online, viewed on 14 October 2014 http://www.micromatic.com/ Templates/static/images/10127/01032-D0511%20Wine%20On%20Tap%20-%20 Internet%20Article%20Reprint.pdf PR Newswire (2014). Technomic’s take: 10 trends for 2014. Online, viewed on 4 February 2015 http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/technomics-take-10trends-for-2014-231751601.html Salins, C. (2014) Tapping into kegged wine, Hospitality Magazine. Online edition, viewed on 15 October 2014 http://www.hospitalitymagazine.com.au/beverage/ tapping-into-kegged-wine Schewe, C.D. and Noble, S.M. (2000) Market segmentation by cohorts: the value and validity of cohorts in America and abroad. Journal of Marketing Management 16(1):129–142.

Wine Business (2013) Free Flow Wines innovates with the first automated wine kegging line in North American and recycles 99% of its water with a state-of-theart water reclamation system, Wine Business. Online edition, viewed on 14 October 2014 http://www.winebusiness.com/suppliernews/?go=getSupplierNewsArticle&da taid=125254 Zan, H.U.A. and Fan, J.X. (2010) Cohort effects of household expenditures on WVJ food away from home. Journal of Consumer Affairs 44(1):213–233.

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WINE AVOIDERS

Reasons why people avoid wine: comparisons between consumers and non-consumers across five countries

By Linda Ovington1, Anthony Saliba1*, Erica McIntyre1 and Johan Bruwer2 1 School of Psychology and NWGIC, Charles Sturt University, Australia 2 School of Marketing, University of South Australia, Australia * Corresponding author: asaliba@csu.adu.au

A survey of people of legal drinking age in Australia, the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and India reveals the main reasons for avoiding wine.

BACKGROUND

STUDY METHOD

Product non-users have become a recent focus for companies looking to generate new customers. For wine, an avoider must already consume alcoholic beverages (just not wine to any great extent). Those who choose to avoid alcohol altogether are not studied. Part of the Australian Grape and Wine Authority-funded project was about establishing the amount of wine that a consumer could consume and remain a wine ‘avoider’, given that some consumers reported some small level of wine consumption but still ‘avoided’ wine where possible.

Participants of legal drinking age (N = 4432) were recruited to complete an online questionnaire in Australia, the US, Canada and the UK as established markets, and India as an emerging market. For demographic and alcohol consumption data, see the article titled, ‘Wine avoiders in five countries: Potential for adopting wine as an alcoholic beverage of choice’ in the May/June 2015 issue of the Wine and Viticulture Journal.

The two most popular reasons why non-wine consumers avoid wine were not liking the taste, and difficulties with selecting a wine. Photo: Luca Bertolli/123rf.com

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THE RESULTS For research purposes, wine avoiders (non-consumers) were defined as those who consume wine at 0-5% of their total alcoholic beverage consumption. The 5% ‘rule’ takes into consideration any wine avoiders who may drink a glass on a special occasion, such as sparkling wine at a wedding or if offered a glass of wine and not wishing to decline the offer.

This definition was also informed by focus groups that were conducted in all the countries studied. Wine consumers were defined as consuming wine at 6-100% of their total alcoholic beverage consumption. To validate the 5% ‘rule’ we measured the average number of standard wine drinks on a single occasion, comparing wine avoiders with wine consumers.

A list of 26 reasons of why people avoid wine was generated based on focus groups conducted across Australia, Canada, US, UK, and India. For the results of the focus groups see Ovington, McIntyre, Saliba, and Bruwer (2014); and Saliba, Ovington, and Gunaratne (2013). The items were included as part of a larger survey on why alcohol consumers avoid wine. Using regression analysis, the most important reasons for avoiding wine were identified within each country, using significance levels (see Table 2).

The two most popular reasons why non-wine consumers avoid wine were not liking the taste, and difficulties with selecting a wine. Another significant reason include the experience of suffering from wine hangovers; in the focus groups this was compared to other alcohol types. Non-wine consumers had the perceptions that wine consumers have a pretentious image, and that their friends do not drink wine.

Respondents also reported that wine is not a refreshing drink, and they could not find the wine product they wanted.

A somewhat unexpected finding was that the results showed significant reasons for avoiding wine not only among non-wine consumers, but also wine consumers.

For wine consumers, significant reasons for avoiding wine were only found for Australia, Canada, US, and the UK; the Indian results did not show any predictors of wine avoidance.

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Table 1. Reasons why non-wine consumers avoid wine - in order of importance.

Australia

Canada

US

UK

India

1

I don’t like the taste

I don’t like the taste

I find it hard to select a wine

I don’t like the taste

I find it hard to select a wine

2

I find it hard to select a wine

It gives me a bad hangover

I don’t like the taste

I find it hard to select a wine

3

My friends don’t drink wine

It looks pretentious to drink it

It gives me a bad hangover

It looks pretentious to drink

4

It gives me a bad hangover

My friends don’t drink wine

My friends don’t drink wine

It gives me a bad hangover

5

It isn’t refreshing

I hardly ever get what I want when choosing a wine

6

I hardly ever get what I want when choosing a wine

It isn’t refreshing

It isn’t refreshing

Table 2. Reasons why wine consumers avoid wine - in order of importance Australia

Canada

US

UK

1

It has too many calories

It makes me sleepy

It has too many calories

It has too many calories

2

It makes me drowsy

It looks feminine to drink

It looks feminine to drink

3

I see others abusing it

I feel drunk too quickly

It makes me do silly things

4

It looks feminine to drink

It might be fake

5

I can’t drink it quickly

6

I see others abusing it

The top reasons for avoiding wine across countries these countries were: it has too many calories (except Canada), it makes them feel drowsy (except the US and UK), and it looks feminine to drink (except the US). In Australia and Canada, seeing others abusing wine was a motivation for avoidance.

Not being able to drink wine quickly, and wine making them feel intoxicated more easily was also found among the Canadians. This suggests that under certain situations wine consumers may choose to drink beer or cider for the lower alcohol content and greater volume of product in a drink. Fake wine was also a concern in Canada, something that we think is due to the media focus on authentic ice-wine and the country’s history with wine’s actual origin, given that wine is sometimes made in Canada from grapes or must ‘imported’ from the US. In the UK people reported avoiding wine because, “It makes me do silly things”.

just that wine did not meet their needs or they were unable to access the wine they liked. An unexpected finding was that we also characterised avoidance in wine drinkers, although upon reflection perhaps this was not too surprising as there are many factors at play that could impede the consumption of almost any product. Many regular wine consumers found that other alcoholic beverages better suited their needs in some consumption contexts, for instance, beer is considered more refreshing and therefore more appropriate than wine when the major driver of consumption is ‘thirst’. However, when choosing a beverage to accompany food, wine is the better option (Bruwer and Johnson 2005).

We did not characterise wine avoidance in India, which may occur for several reasons. Further work is planned to understand consumption characteristics, particularly around wine avoidance, in that country.

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

We have successfully characterised wine avoidance in all the Western countries included in this study. These findings can be used to develop new products and ways of interacting with alcoholic beverage consumers that meet their requirements around wine. Somewhat surprising was that most wine avoiders did want to consume ‘some’ wine; it was

Bruwer, J. and Johnson, T. (2005) The drivers of on-premise beverage selection in Australia. Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation (AWBC).

Ovington, L.; McIntyre, E.; Saliba, A. and Bruwer, J. (2014) Why do people avoid wine? Wine & Viticulture Journal 29(4):63-65.

Saliba, A.; Ovington, L. and Gunaratne, C. (2013). Why do people avoid consuming wine? Wine & Viticulture Journal 28(5):79.

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BUSINESS & & MARKETING MARKETING BUSINESS

APPS & OPS

ADVERTORIAL

We present the second of our new Apps & Ops column in which we profile applications and operating systems designed to make running wine businesses easier, create better efficiencies and improve their bottom line. We caught up with the general manager of Hanna Instruments, Deirdre Gallivan to have her explain the company’s new pH probe with Bluetooth® Smart technology

Turning an iPad into a pH meter

By Deirdre Gallivan, General Manager - Hanna Instruments In a nutshell, what is Halo?

HaloTM is the world’s first professional pH probe with Bluetooth® Smart (Bluetooth® 4.0) technology. It can be used virtually anywhere: in the field, laboratory or in production in fermentation tanks. Using Bluetooth Smart technology, Halo transmits measurement data directly to an iPad (3rd generation or newer) running the Hanna Lab App. This combination frees the Halo from cumbersome wires and the need for expensive meters, taking advantage of the widespread usage and versatility of the Apple iPad. What was the reason behind its development?

Part of the Hanna philosophy is to make scientific technology simple and affordable so that one does not have to be a scientist to use the product. The Halo does exactly that. It makes it easier and more affordable than ever to do pH measurements. Virtually anyone can perform accurate pH measurements with an iPad, the Hanna Lab App, and Halo.

Hanna Instruments’ research and development dedicates itself to change with current technologies, and this Bluetooth technology is a game changer for wine industry professionals.

What does Halo bring to the market that differs from other similar products?

The Hanna Lab App is a free application that turns the iPad into a full-featured pH meter when used with the Hanna Halo pH electrode. Functions include calibration, measurement, continuous data logging, graphing and data sharing which allows information to be shared quickly and changes made to the wine instantaneously if necessary.

Explain its suitability to wine companies?

The pH of wine is important to determine because it will affect the quality in terms of taste, colour, oxidation and chemical stability. All winemakers should measure pH and Halo makes this measurement easy and affordable and accurate for winemakers. q Visible from a distance, the LED halo light indicates the probe is active and transmitting.

The first app that turns an iPad® into a full-featured pH meter.

How does Halo integrate with similar equipment a wine company might already be operating?

The Hanna Lab App is a free application that turns the iPad into a full-featured pH meter when used with the Hanna Halo pH electrode. The customer no longer needs a pH meter if they already have an iPad. How easy is Halo to operate?

First, turn on Halo so a Bluetooth signal can be detected by the Hanna Lab App. Using the Hanna Lab App, the device is then paired to Halo if it’s within a range of 10 metres. A blue indicating light lets you know that the Bluetooth signal is transmitting. Then calibrate Halo to pH 3.00 and 4.00 to ensure your calibration is within the expected range of your wine. Halo is now ready to measure pH in various samples.

How long has Halo been available to the wine industry in Australia or overseas?

Halo has been available in the US since October 2014 and was introduced to the Australian market and the Australian Apple App Store in July 2015.

Can you give a rough guide on how much it would cost to purchase Halo and what it is included in the price? $299 for the Halo electrode, Hanna Lab App is free and available through the Apple App Store.

p The range of pH probes with Bluetooth® Smart technology

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For further information call 03) 9769 0666 or email sales@hannainst.com.au

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Bringing Lagrein to life Originating from the northeastern Italian region of Trentino-Alto Adige, in the foothills of the alps, Lagrein is being embraced by a growing number of Australian producers. Of the local examples submitted to our recent tasting of the varietal, the following three were regarded as the best by our tasting panel and we asked their producers to provide us with some background on their making.

Sam Scott Winemaker Scott Wines Adelaide Hills, South Australia Wine: Scott Wines 2012 La Prova Lagrein (RRP$23.00/bottle) VITICULTURE

fermenter where it was inoculated with yeast D254. It spent just over two weeks on skins with the first half of the ferment being punched down and the remainder gently pumped over.

The day after pressing it was racked to old French oak for malolactic fermentation (MLF) and then post-MLF, racked, sulfured and returned to the same oak until bottling in

Made from 100% Lagrein, we source our fruit from Robin Day’s Mt Crawford vineyard in the cooler, elevated, southern Barossa Valley. The vineyard is situated 450m above sea level and features predominantly sandy loam soils over weathered schist. The annual rainfall at the site is 750mm and there is a negligible frost risk. The mean January temperature is 19.2°C and the mean temperature in the ripening month (April) is 13.8°C. The Lagrein was planted in 1999 on its own roots using a VSP trellis system with a south-east/north-west row orientation. Vine spacing is 1.5 metres and row spacing 2.5m.

The site of the plantings has a northerly aspect towards the top of the slope of a hill.

Lagrein is a vigorous variety and at pruning (spur) up to two sacrificial canes are left per vine. There is a permanent sward of deep-rooted grasses.

A bore is used to irrigate the vines as per individual growing season requirements, utilising partial rootzone drying post set. The irrigation system consists of sub-surface, mid-row drippers.

Lagrein shows great colour and blue fruit flavours very early and the picking decision is made once the greener herbal notes dissipate, generally around 12.5-13 Baume.

WINEMAKING The fruit for our 2012 Lagrein was machine harvested on 11 April 2012. It was destemmed into a three-tonne open

Scott Wines winemaker Sam Scott.

Robin Day’s Mt Crawford vineyard in the southern Barossa Valley, which is the source of fruit for Scott Wines Lagrein.

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November 2013. A light egg white fining and coarse filtration was made to the wine pre-bottling.

Subsequent vintages have seen longer maceration time on skins, between four to eight weeks, to soften the tannins and remove the need for fining and filtration.

WINEMAKING

Rebecca Willson and Matt Schmidt Winemakers Bremertom Wines, Langhorne Creek, South Australia Wine: 2013 Bremerton Special Release Lagrein (RRP$24.00/bottle)

The Lagrein was machine harvested in the cool of the morning over two separate picking dates a week apart at the end of March and early April. The Baume was 14.2 and 14.3, respectively. This allowed slightly varying fruit profiles to be captured.

The fruit was crushed and destemmed to small batch stainless steel open-top fermenters. The ferments were inoculated with yeast (L2226 and RP15) and once they were active were gently pumped over twice a day, with some pulsing (O2) during the middle of ferment. The ferments were left on skins for 11 days, pressed and put in a combination of French and American oak barriques (20-25% new oak with the balance third-fill oak and older) to finish malolactic fermentation. The two ferment parcels were kept separate and matured in oak for eight months before the new oak was swapped to old oak for a final eight months maturation (giving a total of 16 months in barrel). Careful barrel selection provided the final blend and the only filtration was screen filtration at bottling. No fining agents were used.

In recent times, we’ve made use of older oak to retain pure varietal character and fruit freshness.

VITICULTURE

MARKETING

Our Lagrein was produced using 100% single vineyard fruit from our vineyard in Langhorne Creek, on the western outskirts of the township. Planted in 2000, the clone is H9V9 which is on own roots.

The soil in the vineyard is red sandy loam over dark red clay.

The frost risk in the vineyard is low with no frost recorded in 2013.

Vines are trained onto a single cordon with vertical shoot positioning. The vine spacing is 1.8 metres while rows are 2.85m apart. The vines are mechanically pre-pruned and finished by hand with spur pruning to 16 buds per metre.

The 2013 vintage provided great winter rains and a slow ripening period. That year the Lagrein vintage cropped at 6-8 tonnes per hectare and, on average, crops at about 8-10t/ha.

The bunches can be very heavy and dense and because of size and architecture may need thinning to avoid bunch-onbunch for disease control.

The wine is marketed under Bremerton’s Special Release range which was developed to allow us to showcase single alternative varietals that we have been experimenting with viticulturally and in the winery.

It is primarily sold direct from the winery cellar door with some limited volume releases made available to special onpremise customers domestically.

The production numbers are small - 200 cases - and our loyal customers are always keen to experiment and try new things that the Bremerton winemaking team has been creating. This release has also been awarded the trophy for Best Wine from an Alternative Variety at the 2015 Langhorne Creek regional wine show which will add to its popularity when it’s released in September this year.

MARKETING Lagrein is part of our La Prova range of Italian varietal wines, where we actively seek out great vineyards planted to (or develop in conjunction with the grower) the best suited Italian variety for the site. It is sold domestically, predominantly on-premise and with several key independent retailers, and through our cellar door.

Sharon Nitschke Office Manager Cirami Estate, Riverland, South Australia Wine: 2013 Cirami Estate Lagrein (RRP$18/botte) BACKGROUND Cirami Estate is owned by the Riverland Vine Improvement Committee (RVIC), located at Monash in the heart of the Riverland. RVIC is a not-for-profit organisation, supplying quality vine material to the Australian wine industry. With more than 60 varieties, RVIC is in a unique position to select the very best varieties with distinct characteristics each vintage for its Cirami Estate winemaking project.

VITICULTURE

Matt Schmidt and Rebecca Wilson, winemakers for Bremerton, based in South Australia's Langhorne Creek.

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Our Lagrein is made from 100% Lagrein from clone H9V9.

Only Cirami Estate-grown fruit was used for the wine.

RVIC’s 50ha of vineyards are grown on old cereal growing country with gently undulating slopes typical of a highland Mallee landscape, approximately 45 metres above sea level.

The annual mean maximum temperature is 23.4ºC, while the annual average rainfall is 261mm.

While the topsoil type varies considerably, the majority of the plantings are in moderately shallow topsoil between 30 centimetres and 60cm deep.

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Riverland Vine Improvement Committee’s most recent winemaker, Alex Russell, with wine writer Jane Faulkner.

From the 2015 vintage, RVIC’s Cirami Estate range is being processed by Eric and Jenny Semmler at 919 Wines.

Riverland Vine Improvement Committee’s office manager Sharon Nitschke, nursery manager Mick Sewell and general manager David Nitschke.

The vines were planted in 2001 on their own roots where the rows are three metres apart and the vines have a 1.5 metre spacing. Vines are trained onto a low cordon wire (80cm) and a vertical shoot positioning (VSP) trellis system is used.

The vines are hand pruned to two-bud spurs which assist in reducing average yield to approximately 15 tonnes per hectare.

Vines are drip irrigated at a rate of up to six megalitres per hectare subject to seasonal conditions. However, irrigation is reduced on the selection of rows intended for small lot winemaking purposes to intensify fruit flavours.

On occasion, if crop levels appear to be too high, then crop thinning may be performed to improve fruit quality.

An analysis from the 2013 harvest, which was picked on 12 March: Baumé pH TA

Lagrein fruit in the RVIC vineyard, where it was planted in 2001.

13.5 3.87 4.73

MARKETING

WINEMAKING The majority of the property is machine harvested for sale to local commercial wineries, but the grapes for our small lot winemaking are handpicked.

Timing of the pick is critical and this is possibly the biggest challenge, to achieve maximum potential from, not only Lagrein, but each of the new varieties. The fruit is tasted regularly nearing maturity and the seeds chewed to ascertain physiological ripeness and flavour. Once the fruit is picked it is crushed immediately.

The juice is then put into 1000-litre open fermentation tanks situated in a cool room where the temperature is maintained between 18ºC and 20ºC. Ferments are hand plunged two to three times daily and typically take six to nine days.

After pressing softly, there are usually very little adjustments necessary.

Standard racking processes are followed with the wine remaining in French and American oak for up to six months.

Bottling is carried out in October or November each vintage.

Typically, only three of four barrels of Lagrein are produced.

From the 2015 vintage, the Cirami Estate range is being processed by Eric and Jenny Semmler at 919 Wines in the Riverland.

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Originally the wine was produced under the name of RVIC. Feedback from wine professionals and consumers suggested a label change. Hence, Cirami Estate was born in March 2012.

As a very young wine producer, the marketing has been a challenge. However, distribution now includes interstate and is slowly growing.

Cirami Estate wines are sold online, at our cellar door and in selected outlets throughout the Riverland. Several interstate outlets now stock the Cirami Estate range.

Lagrein has been one of the most successful wines of the range. It has won gold medals at the Australian Alternative Varieties Wine Show in 2010, 2012 and 2013. The 2012 Lagrein was also awarded the trophy for best Italian red James Halliday said of the 2013 Lagrein: “This gives the bird to the idea that Lagrein needs a cool climate, for it not only has fruit, but also tannins. Score 90”.

Of the 2012 he said: “This cool climate Italian variety should be a square peg in a round hole in the hot Riverland climate, but it’s not. Score 93”.

With awareness of alternative varieties growing within the marketplace, Cirami Estate is optimistic that consumers will embrace the experience of enjoying these wines more WVJ frequently.

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Lagrein gives Shiraz drinkers something else to think about This issue’s tasting threw the spotlight on Australian-made Lagrein, with the more recent vintages particularly impressing our tasting panel and showing an evolution in winemakers’ understanding of this north-eastern Italian variety.

O

ur recent tasting of Australian-made Lagrein comprised 19 wines spanning vintages 2013 to 2005, included a couple of Lagrein blends as well as a sparkling and fortified varietal, and an entry from its native northern Italy.

Assessing the wines were Shane Harris, winemaker for Wines by Geoff Hardy; Richard Gawel and Alex Schulkin, from the Australia Wine Research Institute; Simon Young, from cooperage Chêne Australia; and Olaf Schelezki, winemaker and PhD student from the University of Adelaide.

The panel agreed the wines from the 2013 and 2012 vintages showed an understanding of the variety by their makers.

“There’s a maturity in the approach to the making of those wines,” Shane Harris said. “There was nothing under a bronze medal in those wines for me.

“A couple of the older ones are ageing gracefully, but some are lacking vibrancy. We have to remember those older wines were from younger vines and aren’t necessarily an indication of how the younger wines in the line-up will age; they might look quite graceful in five to six years times because the vines have matured and there has been an evolution in how we’re approaching the wine to be made.

“I think it’s important to bottle Lagrein early because you can see in some of the older wines that they have been bottled too late. Yes, the more recent wines are tasting young now, but they look good and will benefit from having those fresh, vibrant fruit characters locked up now and aged.”

Richard Gawel said he was “amazed at the colour and density of colour” in the wines.

“Based on the colour and tannin in these wines, if you were a Shiraz drinker and were bored with it these wines would certainly be worthy of a look,” Gawel said.

Harris agreed with the appeal of Lagrein to Shiraz drinkers as well as those who drink Shiraz Cabernet blends.

SCOTT WINES 2012 LA PROVA LAGREIN Barossa Valley, South Australia 14.0% v/v - screwcap RRP$23.00/bottle Best of tasting: Crackingly good, complex, varietal nose which is clean and fresh and well-framed, featuring mint, boot polish, black cherries, blackberries, olives and pepper, supported by seasoned oak. A well thought out and structured palate showing the huge potential of this variety; plush and rich with cherries, plums, black olives, blackberries, chocolate, mint, and coffee grounds; great balance and excellent length; firm and incredibly drying tannins with stylish acid. “A complex and complete wine,” said one taster, “will cellar well.”

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The panellists for our Lagrein tasting were (from left) Alex Schulkin, scientist, Australian Wine Research Institute (AWRI); Olaf Schelezki, winemaker and PhD student, University of Adelaide; Richard Gawel, research scientist, AWRI; Shane Harris, winemaker for Wines by Geoff Hardy; and Simon Young, regional sales manager for Chêne Australasia.

“When I’m talking to punters and end consumers about our Lagrein I explain it’s very much like a typical Australian Shiraz Cabernet – you get that upfront pop of fruit like Shiraz which fills out the palate quite nicely, but it also has the Cabernet type tannins in the back palate that gives persistence of flavour, rather than finishing abruptly or savoury like a lot of Italian varieties made in Australia.”

The top wines of the tasting were deemed by our panel to be the Scott Wines 2012 La Prova Lagrein, the Bremerton 2013 Special Release Lagrein and the Cirami Estate 2013 Lagrein.

The panellists also gave honourable mentions to the Cobaw Ridge 2013 Lagrein and the Scott Wines 2013 Lo Zingaro, the latter ranking highly despite only containing 13% Lagrein.

BREMERTON 2013 SPECIAL RELEASE LAGREIN Langhorne Creek, South Australia 14.0% v/v – screwcap RRP$24.00/bottle Best of tasting: Deep and opaque red in colour with purple hues. Ripe, spicy nose with cherry, plum, mulberry and mint aromas; oak provides a lift but allows the fruit to come through. Great tannin extraction on the palate which has great length of flavour and persistence; good fruit depth comprising cherries, plums and raspberry jubes. “Lots of the right elements in this wine but they need more time to come together which they promise to do in lots of lovely ways,” said one taster.

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CIRAMI ESTATE 2013 LAGREIN Riverland, South Australia 14.0% v/v – screwcap RRP$20.00/bottle Best of tasting: Opaque purple red in colour.

Characters of blackberry, cherry, plum, soda pop, vanilla and spice on the nose. Full, plush and rich palate featuring high acid, firm tannin and a vibrancy of fruit; not obstructed by excessive oak. “Good solid wine but needs time,” said one taster. “Vibrant and racy with a look-at-me quality; one of most balanced wines in the line-up,” another noted.

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TA S T I N G N O T E S

BASSHAM 2013 LAGREIN

COBAW RIDGE 2013 LAGREIN

Riverland, South Australia 14.0% v/v - screwcap RRP$24.00/bottle

Macedon Ranges, Victoria 13.5% v/v - cork RRP$60.00/bottle

Dense and opaque red and purple in colour.

Prominent oak, cherry cola, boot polish, earth and spice characters on the nose which is a little porty.

Chocolate and raisin characters in the mouth.

Tannins are firm and assertive but within the context of the variety. Excellent weight, persistence and balance. “Slightly over-ripe and oaky,” noted one taster. “Many punters would lap this wine up,” said another.

Deep red in colour. Lifted nose featuring red fruits, cherry cola, plums, liquorice, spices, earthy notes, sweet spicy oak and a hint of Brett. Lovely weight on the palate where Brett has started to impact the tannins. Slightly bitter finish. “Most smashable wine in the line-up,” said one taster.

CIRAMI ESTATE 2012 LAGREIN

HAND CRAFTED BY GEOFF HARDY 2012 LAGREIN

JOHN GEHRIG WINES 2011 JOHN OX LAGREIN

Adelaide Hills, South Australia 14.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$30.00/bottle

King Valley, Victoria 13.0% v/v – screwcap RRP$40.00/bottle

Deep red crimson in colour. Nose is a little shy with lifted raspberry aromas, crushed bugs, cherries, leather spice with some savoury oak; slightly dusty.

Palate and is very refined and precise, despite being rich and juicy; solid tannins; fresh vibrant fruit with lots of acid and tannins typical of the style. “A bit simple but made without fault,” said one taster. “A drinkable little number,” said another.

Dull mid red in colour. Dull nose that is Brett-affected with hints of red fruits, spice, coffee, barnyard and smoke characters. Excellent mid-palate despite the Brett; lots of fruit shines through; drying tannins. “A bit Brett-dry, but otherwise quite a solid wine,” noted one taster.

OAK WORKS 2011 LAGREIN

COBAW RIDGE 2010 LAGREIN

MURIS GREIS 2010 RISERVA LAGREIN

Riverland, South Australia 14.0% v/v - cork RRP$22.00/bottle

Macedon Ranges, Victoria 13.5% v/v - cork RRP$60.00/bottle

Alto Adige – Sudtirol, Italy 13.0% v/v – cork RRP$80-85.00/bottle

Deep brick-red in colour. Wood, tobacco, leather, green fruit and pepper characters on the nose with some vegetal notes in the background which makes it quite interesting. Palate tastes like it is prematurely oxidised; sour note to acid profile; sweet tannins.

Mid deep red in colour. Shy nose with a savoury/ spicy Brett character. Acid and tannin power through the fruit on the palate; some Brett flavours evident throughout; massive tannin finish. “The palate almost makes the grade – it is savoury but finishes hard and bitter,” noted one taster.

Purple to brick red in colour. Red fruits, vegetal, black olive, liquorice and oak characters on the nose which has some sweetness and vanilla notes.

Savoury flavours on the palate but a touch hollow in fruit; chalky tannins; a bit dusty/musty. “This wine has some good components but they aren’t talking to each other,” said one taster. “A food wine; savoury and tannic,” noted another.

Riverland, South Australia 14.5% v/v – screwcap RRP$20.00/bottle Deep red crimson in colour with purple hues. Nose not as lifted as other wines in this tasting; tropical fruits evident along with some meaty, leafy, cedary characters. A little over-extracted and bitter on the palate which misses a plush fruit pop in the midpalate that the variety usually displays; rich in tannin.

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HAND CRAFTED BY GEOFF HARDY 2013 LAGREIN Adelaide Hills, South Australia 15.0% v/v - screwcap RRP$30.00/bottle Deep and opaque crimson in colour with purple hues.

A little subdued on the nose which has notes of cherry cola, vanilla, jammy ripe fruit, crushed bugs and charred beetroot with a slight vegetal/savoury edge.

Boysenberry, mulberry and briary fruit in the mouth with plenty of mint; round, full mouthfeel; tannins a little hard. “Wine lacks a little style and finesse but is nonetheless very drinkable,” said one taster.

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COBAW RIDGE 2007 LAGREIN

HARTZ BARN 2006 LAGREIN

HARTZ BARN 2005 LAGREIN

Macedon Ranges, Victoria 13.0% v/v – cork RRP$60.00/bottle

Barossa Valley, South Australia 13.5% v/v – screwcap RRP$30.00/bottle

Barossa Valley, South Australia 13.5% v/v – screwcap RRP$50.00/bottle

Mid to deep red in colour. Cabernet-like nose which is complex and layered featuring leather and spice, earth, mint, turmeric and fleshy plum flavours on the nose; some Brett evident. Hints of Brett in the mouth but doesn’t mute the fruit or augment the tannins; boot polish, Christmas cake, cloves, cherry and cola characters present; hard drying tannins.

Deep red brick in colour. Nose has a savoury edge and good complexity but lacks lift; cedar and spice characters apparent along with almonds, prunes, leather, vanilla and some minty notes. Palate is full with good, sweet roundness comprising notes of red currants, herbs and prunes. The dusty tannins are very soft and approachable. “Lots of developed characters but lacks fruit vibrancy,” said one taster.

“Would have been better in its youth,” said another

Deep red-brick to brown in colour. Complex, subtle, elegant and dusty nose of old leather, varnish, beeswax, herbs, and tobacco with some great fruit in the background. Palate is pleasant, interesting and quite complex but is a little tired; characters of leather, wood bark, tobacco and mint; a touch hot; good length; firm, drying finish.

HEARTLAND 2013 DOLCETTO LAGREIN

SCOTT WINES 2013 LO ZINGARO

(50% Dolcetto, 50% Lagrein) Langhorne Creek, South Australia 14.5% v/v – screwcap RRP$20.00/bottle

(68% Shiraz, 19% Sangiovese, 13% Lagrein) Adelaide Hills, South Australia 12.0% v/v – screwcap RRP$26.00/bottle

HARTZ BARN 2006 BLACK BEAD SPARKLING RED RESERVE (LAGREIN)

Purple to red in colour. Nose is simple and features red apples, coconut, cheese, mixed berry fruits, strawberries, cranberries, mint, caramel and burnt sugar. Creamy and very soft mouthfeel. Palate is unashamedly fruity, bright and vibrant; lots of oak and tannin; clumsy acid; harsh finish. “A crowd pleaser,” one taster noted.

Mid to deep red in colour. Charred beetroot, savoury, earthy, spicy, blackberry and malt characters on the nose with loads of red fruit. Lovely balance in the mouth which is soft, plush, smooth, approachable and ripe with lots of fruit, a little oak, cola and firm drying tannins. Excellent depth and really wellstructured.

HARTZ BARN 2008 FORTIFIED LAGREIN – BARREL SAMPLE

Barossa Valley, South Australia 13.0% v/v – cork RRP$55.00/bottle Deep purple in colour. Yeasty, musty and syrupy on the nose which is otherwise quite lean; some tobacco, leather, and dark berries evident. Palate is sweet and hard and lacks balance and persistence of flavour; bitter and dry finish. “Not too big for a red bubbly,” noted one taster.

Lagrein

Barossa Valley, South Australia 18.2% v/v – screwcap RRP$30.00/bottle Medium brick red to brown in colour; starting to tawny. Simple fruits, dark cherries, rhubarb and caramel notes on the nose with some raisins. Palate is viscous and rich with some raisins and caramel.

“Spirit is a little ‘tailsy’ for what appears to be a tawny-like wine,” noted one taster. “Might need more time in barrel,” said another.

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PRODUCTS & SERVICES

Premium oak through Bouchard Cooperages

B

ouchard Cooperages Australia exclusively represents independent cooperages from around the world.

Since 2004, Bouchard Cooperages has provided Australian winemakers with access to the finest quality, customfabricated French oak barrels at an affordable price. Today, the company also offers Hungarian and American oak barrels, as well as a complete line of the highest quality French oak alternatives: Tonnelleries Damy, Billon and Richelieu – Traditional Burgundian coopers showcasing distinctive styles, which have firmly established these coopers in many wineries around the world.

Tonnellerie Bel Air – An innovative cooperage with a unique wood selection process to ensure the highest quality and consistency. Barrels from this boutique cooperage are often selected for the most premium wines.

Master Coopers – Vincent Bouchard’s own label, with a unique toasting and cooper practices that he has developed over the last 30 years. Featuring Made in Burgundy and Made in America.

European Coopers – One of the principal cooperages of Hungary, this cooperage combines the knowledge of the forests with traditional practices to create barrels that best represent Hungarian oak.

Canadell – French oak alternatives 100% cooperage grade, sourced directly from the forest; this third generation family company is one of the largest staves producers in France.

“Bouchard Cooperages takes great pride in building long terms relationships with winemakers, as we believe that through this collaboration we can best assist our customers in their passion to create great wines,” a company spokesperson said. “Together with the coopers, our team arranges the shipping, import and delivery of the barrels to ensure they arrive to you on time, as requested. We also strive to provide the utmost customer service when you need us most.”

For further information phone 08 8239 2644 or visit www.Bouchardcooperages. com

Eutypa breakthrough – spraying pruning wounds now possible

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or the first time, winegrape growers can protect vine pruning wounds from Eutypa entry using a standard vineyard sprayer.

After a three-year research project conducted by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI), the University of Adelaide and Wine Australia, registration of the vineyard fungicide Emblem was extended late last year to cover Eutypa dieback in Australian grapevines.

SARDI senior research scientist Mark Sosnowski said that having a registered Eutypa fungicide that can be applied with a sprayer was an important development for the Australian wine industry.

“The prevalence of Eutypa dieback continues to increase in Australia and other wine-producing countries, predominantly in cool-climate winegrowing regions.

“Vines become infected with Eutypa through fresh wounds, usually from pruning and reworking. Disease progress is slow but insidious – with symptoms appearing five to 10 years after infection, and dieback slowly progressing to eventual death of the vine.”

He said there were limited ways to control the disease – only by protecting V3 0N 4

Spraying grapevine pruning wounds with a recycled sprayer. Photo: SARDI wounds to prevent entry and infection by Eutypa spores; and by physically removing infected wood and retraining shoots from below the infection.

Sosnowski said Emblem was one of the most effective fungicides trialled in their three years’ research, and is currently the only fungicide registered for Eutypa dieback that can be efficiently applied to wounds with a sprayer.

Crop Care advises growers to apply W I N E & VITICULTUR E JO UR N A L JULY/A UGUST 2015

Emblem as a dilute application of 100mL/100L as a dormant treatment to grapevines within 24 hours of pruning.

Application should be made with nozzles directed to target pruning wounds, and in sufficient water volume for thorough coverage of the cuts.

Emblem is also registered at the same rate for pre-budburst suppression of phomopsis cane and leaf blight in grapevines. www.winetitles. com . au

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PRODUCTS & SERVICES

Flexcubes offer wineries oxygen breakthrough

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ustralian wine barrel designer and manufacturer Flexcube has demonstrated that its new generation barrels offer wineries a significant benefit by providing uniform rates of oxygen permeability.

Flexcube has created oxygen-breathing polymer membrane cubes that when coupled with the company’s superb true barrel oak staves, BarriQ, sourced in France, Russia and America, provide the same maturation environment as top barrel oaks.

Flexcube managing director Peter Steer said the cubes were oxygen-permeable in exactly the same way as traditional oak barrels.

“But unlike oak barrels, the oxygen permeability levels remain constant for the life of the cubes and uniform across the entire surface. This sort of consistency is simply not possible with oak barrels and it provides wineries with much improved

predictability and quality control,” Steer said.

“Traditional oak barrels have a high oxygen permeability rate in their first year of use, but this declines sharply through the barrel’s operating life, which is normally five years. Compare this with our cubes which have an estimated operating life of 20 years and provide a constant rate of permeability.”

Steer said the uniform oxygenation rate was a key factor in Flexcube’s ready acceptance in Australia and overseas, even in the most traditional markets.

“The cubes and BarriQ oak are being used in more than 500 wineries in Australia and in many of the most prestigious wineries around the world,” he said.

The cubes are manufactured in three capacities: 1000, 1500 and 2000 litres.

For further information contact David Greenwood on 0408107714 or visit www. flexcubegroup.com.

When coupled with Flexcube’s BarriQ oak staves, its new-generation Cubes provide the same maturation environment as top barrel oaks, the company says.

Spagnolo releases new pruner and blades

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pagnolo Engineering is well known in the viticultural industry for its cutting-edge Australian made pruners.

Spagnolo has launched a new machine – the under-cordon pruner - which company manager Fred Spagnolo said would suit many growers.

“You can get a ‘single side’ or ‘over row’ configuration, so it simply prunes underneath the bottom cordon," he said.

“This pruner will definitely suit many growers, and it’s a cheaper alternative. I think the ability for small businesses to get an immediate tax deduction for any individual assets they buy for less than $20,000, as announced in the recent Federal budget, will help out some growers too.”

Spagnolo also spoke of a newly-released improved blade system.

“This season we released our new Elite blades; they are a far superior blade. The feedback has been incredible. Growers and contractors are seeing the benefits of the new registered design.”

Peter Morath, from Kingston Estate in the Riverland, said, “I have been using Fred’s pruning equipment for over 10 years and have found the quality of his engineering to be spot on. The new Elite blades have definitely added to the efficiency of our operations, with clean cuts and less down time changing blades.”

“Our goal is to provide a product that will ensure the grower is completely satisfied,” Spagnolo said. “We keep developing, we improve and we release new products.”

Newly released in 2015 is Spagnolo Engineering’s Elite blade.

For further information and for videos of the pruning machines in operation visit www.spagnolo.com.au

Wine racking for every barrel size

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ith more than 25 years’ experience in supplying fluid control and spraying solutions to the wine and beer processing industries in Australia and New Zealand, Spray Nozzle Engineering recently released its expanded range of automatic, decanting-filling gas spears by Rack-it-Teer.

The Rack-it-Teer is a precision stainless steel spear with patented locating finger and ‘positive-seal’ system that allows filling, decanting and oxygen purging without wasting gas. Delivery of clean fluid is monitored via its sight glass and light adapter.

With its patented extension system, Rack-It-Teer adapts to all barrel sizes, making it extremely versatile.

Recently, Dave Bonighton, of Mountain Goat Brewery, identified advantages of the Rack-It-Teer saying, “We bought a Rack-It-Teer to help us fill and disgorge various beers through our set of whisky barrels. It makes our lives so much easier and treats the beer so gently. We’d recommend it to anyone using barrels.”

82 www.w i n eti tl es .c om.au

Wineries worldwide have successfully racked countless barrels with the Rack-It-Teer. An international winery stated, “We feel we are definitely softer on the wine and can taste the difference immediately after racking - the wine keeps its integrity.”

The Rack-it-Teer is preferred by operators for its good ergonomics and locking mechanism. Operators are able to easily move from barrel to barrel, establishing a good air-tight seal every time and eliminating the need for adjustments.

The Rack-It-Teer facilitates better productivity and smoother cellar operations.

In addition to wine racking, Spray Nozzle Engineering also supplies, repairs and services Gamajet Alfa Laval tank cleaning equipment that is powerful, yet gentle on barrels.

For further information email sales@spraynozzle.com.au or sales@spraynozzle.co.nz

W I N E & V I T I C ULTUR E JO UR NA L JULY/A UGUST 2015

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