MAIN Cause of climate change are RECORDED sun-cycles AS PART OF STELLAR "WINDS", FIGURES 1 TO 4

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Our planet is affected by (1) stellar radiation"winds" shown by Figure 1, including the repeaed cycles of the sun, Figure 2, (2) accumulated action of humanity.

Figure 1 SPACE-3: Interstellar Medium

Bow Shock Term ination Shock Heliopause

Solar System

Voyager I [marked] crossed the termination shock on December 16, 2004 to SPACE-3 providing data on the local interstellar medium.

The Solar System extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, comets, rocks and dust in ‘our’ community. It is located inside non2

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expanding Space 3 that wraps our entire galaxy and is spatially interconnected with Spaces 2 and 1.

SPACE-3 includes the so-called local interstellar medium, which begins where the Solar System ends.

Figures 2, 3, 4 Our atmosphere comprises the following gravity-induced layers: Hemispheres from sea level to 80km (Troposphere up to about 13km; Ozone layer about 13-43km; Stratosphere 13-50km; Mesosphere 50-80km); Thermosphere 80-175 km (dilute Nitrogen 80-15km, Oxygen 105-128km, Helium 128-150km, Hydrogen 150-175km)].

Climate scientists claim that global temperatures will raise a few degrees Fahrenheit in the next hundred years. Samples from ice cores from Greenland show that 11,500 years ago the average temperatures in Greenland increased by about 15 degrees Fahrenheit, over the course of 10 years, a change partially attributed to melting polar ice, which altered ocean circulation and weather patterns. And indeed, as today’s climate warms, ice is again melting near Earth’s poles.

The monotonic increase in (automatically) measured global temperatures does not show the 11-YEARS SOLAR CYCLE [depicted above] during which the sun luminosity changes. The sun’s cycles are the results of complicated suninterior convection currents [image above], magnetic field lines between changing sunspot pairs, huge solar flares, etc.

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Conclusion: Such ‘short-time’ cycles may also correspond to the ‘Little Ice Age” that chilled Northern Europe during the late 17th century, suggesting a causal link between solar total luminosity activity and climate change on earth.

There have been 17 or 19 ‘ice ages’: From about 3,000,000 years ago until the last one, which gradually ended from about 12,000 to 8000 years ago. [Lecture 5].

These ages have strongly affected ecological systems on earth, and each lasted about 50,000 to 100,000 years and each had lowered the surface of the oceans, resulting in climate-induced changes in life and all ecological systems.

No Net Sun’s Energy Remains in Earth or in the planets: This fact is verified in studies of the complicated thermal cycles in our atmosphere and on earth’s surface. The incoming sun energy [“Solar Wind”] is partially reflected [and scattered] from the upper layers of our atmosphere [about 30%] back to non-expanding Space-3, and, eventually, to expanding SPACE-1.

Most incoming short-wave energy [about 64%] is reflected back to Spaces 3, 2 and eventually absorbed in the ever expanding VOIDS/SPACE-1 as long-wave radiation that results from the sun’s energy undergoing complex processes in the earth’s atmosphere and on the earth surface.

Thus, all incoming sun’s energy (plus about 6% of heat from the earth’s interior], is proceeding further into the depths of Spaces 3, 2 and 1.

RECAP: On its way to SPACE-1, the ‘solar wind’ engulfs earth and the other solar planets. No equivalent amount of this incoming radiation energy remains with earth and the other planets, as many wrongly assume.

Part of it is reflected immediately by our upper atmosphere to outer, cold-dark spaces 3, 2 and, eventually, to Space-1. The rest of the ‘solar wind’ enters our atmosphere, and following complicated thermal-ecological-hydrological cycles it dissipates irreversibly in outer cold-dark Space 1.

The outgoing energy includes additional, small amount of energy from the earth’s interior. Together with similar ‘solar winds’ generated by billions of stars 4

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in our galaxy, this radiation reaches SPACE 1 -- the unsaturable, limitless, universal sink of all radiation energies pouring into it from all stellar and galactic sources [12-18].

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Worldwide acclaims and recent readers’ comments “A Master Piece. The well-known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of present-day scientific theories.“ Indian Journal of Physics “Evokes a person heart !!

Has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-Orians”. Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power. “ Chinese Academy of Sciences “An extraordinary book, linking separate parts of cosmology and physics with modern results to provide the basis for a contemporary version of natural philosophy.”

Mathematical Association of America “Gal-Or launches a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject.”

Thomas Gold, Cornell University, in explaining the Gold Medal Award from the N.Y. Academy of Sciences and the Arts “The works of scientists like Gal-Or, Bohm, and (Noble PrizeWinner) Prigogine provide important resources.

Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-Or is superior).”

The Crisis of the Sciences

“Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work!

Gal-Or’s net is widely cast – it reaches as far as science policy and political philosophy.”

Sir Alan Cottrell, Vice-Chancellor, Cambridge University

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“This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening.

Sir Karl Popper

I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-Or’s book.”

Haaretz Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, "Nature, Philosophy of" “We are all Gal-Orians!”

The Editor, Foundations of Physics “This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read.”

Outstanding Books List “A comprehensive explication of a large area of science which the reader may study in many subjects. ” Contemporary Philosophy “Interesting to read, integrating much of scientific material.”

Deutsche Literaturzeitung “This book has a wide-ranging scope.

Professor Gal-Or develops a philosophy of science, which he calls Havayism.”

Space Science Reviews, Smithsonian-NASA Astrophysics Data Systems “Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds.

Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science.”

New Scientist

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“One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe.

It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.”

Robin (forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222

“Gal-Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “A most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.””

Order amidst Chaos, Enlightment Aesthetics “Benjamin Gal-Or points out, [that] thinking or consciousness is co-extensive with matter. Or, in the words of Spinoza, The order and connection of ideas is the same as the order and connection of things.”

Ian Mills, Ecology “Benjamin Gal-Or (1972) had concluded a discussion about the origin of irreversibility with the question "Is (the origin of time, life, asymmetries and irreverisibility) due to the impossibility of completely isolating a system from the rest of the Universe?"

International Society of Biometeorology

Advancement of Physics: “Einstein's time-symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena!

Gal-Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-chemical and biological evolution -- that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics – that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology.

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He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself.

Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.”

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS: “Gal-Or's remarkable book sees and seizes the world whole. He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-delusion. Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.

His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government.

One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry. His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.

The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales.

The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion.

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He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries.

The expansion provides, among other things, an unsaturable sink for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life.

He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries. Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events.

The value of this book lays in the challenging combination of ideas which GalOr presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review.

[This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students.”

John A. Wheeler, Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton: “I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them! Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more!

I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time. What an ingenious phrase is your, “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”! I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least.

One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences.

I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task. That is to give students an

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appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to. I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a package that I personally have found most thoughtprovoking.”

“Your book was / is an inspiration in my life.”

Reader. January 2011 “my eval for 2010-2011 [based on this book] came back "Exceptional" (the highest ranking); a personal first. That was matched by a healthy raise and bonus.”

Reader. September 2011 “This is a beautiful Christmas thought to me.”

Reader, Dec. 24, 2011 “It is an extremely beautiful Christmas thought. One that we can only explain in the words we were given. Thank you Benjamin for sharing.”

Reader, Dec. 24, 2011 "The Judeo-Christian Tradition”, Scientific American; Victor F. Weisskopf, MIT, quotes from Volume I: "Most astrophysicists, cosmologists and astronomers agree that the biblical account of cosmic evolution, in stressing `a beginning´ and the initial roles of `void,´ `light´ and a `structure-less´ state, may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us"

“Lecture one [in Volume I] affirms that the stress placed by Genesis on ‘beginning’ and the initial roles of ‘void’, ‘light’ and a ‘structure-less’ state, “may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us.”

Christian Apologetics, Journal: Benjamin Gal-Or wrote an interesting integration of cosmology and philosophical reflections with a strong emphasis on time, ending with a view which he considers to be close to the views of Spinoza and Einstein.

Willem B. Drees “Beyond the big bang: quantum cosmologies and God”

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T able of Contents Volume I SIR KARL POPPER, Foreword ……………….……………..…… xx SIR ALAN COTTRELL, Foreword ………………….………........ xxi Preface ……………………………………..….……….…..…….... xxii

Introduction 1.1 The Revival of Relativistic Cosmology vs. Modified Concepts in Physics and Philosophy …………………...…… 2 1.1.1 The problem of ordering ……………………...……

3 1.1.2 How did it all start? ………………………………… 5 12

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1.1.3 The first seven stages …………………………....... 7 1.1.4 The present matter-dominated era …………………....

11 2.1 The Einsteinian Methodology: A Preliminary Remark ….......... 11

1.

1.1

1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

From Terrestrial Gravitational Structures to Black Holes and Neutrinos in Astrophysics Gravitation, Asymmetry and Structure ……………….……. 80 A fallacy associated with current theories …………….......... 80 1.1.2 Gravity-induced sedimentary structures …………... 81 Stars and the Hertzsprung-Russel Central Diagram ……….. 88 Supernova, Gravitational Collapse, Neutron Stars, Pulsars ……………………………………… 92 X-Ray Astronomy, Binary X-Ray Systems, and Gravitational Clocks ……………………………………..... 100 Black Holes …………………………………………….…… 106 13

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1.6

Gas, Dust and the Formation of Stars in Our Galaxy ….…...

113 1.7 How Are Cosmic Distances Measured? …………………… 116 1.8 Neutrino Astronomy and Astrophysics ………………….. . 130 1.9 The Emergence of Gamma-Ray Astronomy ……………….. 132 1.10 Exploration of Extra-Solar Space

by Unmanned Spacecraft …………………………………… 134

2.

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13

3.

From “Conservation” in Classical Physics to Solitons in Particle Physics Aim and Scope ……………………………………………. 138 Limitations of Theory ………………………………….… 140 The General Macroscopic Equation ……………………... 142 Continuity Equation (Total Mass Conservation) ………... 146 Conservation of Linear Momentum and Gravity.………… 147 The Navier-Stokes Equations and Gravity ………………. 149 Kinetic-Energy Equation and Dissipation Function in Gravitational Fields …………….. 152 First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy Conservation Equation …………………………………… 154 First Law and Enthalpy ………………………………….. 156 First Law In Terms of Temperature Field ………………. 157 Entropy Balance Equation …………………………………….. 159 Beyond Classical Physics: Solitons, Antisolitons and Conservation ………………………. 160 Neutrinos and the Powerful Role Conservation Equations Play in Subatomic Processes (Addendum) …...…… 163 From General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology to Gauge Theories

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………....... 167 3.1.1 Einstein’s field equations in general relativity ……….…….… 169 14

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3.1.2 Confirmation of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation …………...

3.2 Principles and Formulations of General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology ………………...……….………………

3.3 Observations, The “Age” of the Universe And “Equivalent Local Cells” …………………….……….…....

3.4 Timekeeping, Accelerated Observers and the Principle of Equivalence ………………………….……………

3.5 From General Relativity to Unified Field Theories ……………

172 191 200 204 205

PART II

From Physics to Philosophical Crossroads and Back 4.

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14

The Arrows of Time Time and The Arrow of Time: The Most Distorted of All Ideas? …………………………… 215 Asymmetry-Symmetry-Space-Time and The Unification of the Laws of Physics …………………… 216 Methodology, Aim and Scope ……………………………… 217 Confusing Concepts of Time and Time Asymmetries ……… 219 The Entropic Arrow of Time ………………………………… 222 Causality, Causation and Time Asymmetries ……………….. 226 Causation and Determinism in Relativistic Theories ………………………………………….. 227 Cosmological Arrows of Time and Cosmic Time ……….…… 230 A Few Remarks ……………………………………...……….. 232 Time-Reversal Invariance and Irreversibility …………….…… 236 Microscopic Time Asymmetries in “Elementary Particles” ………………………….……….. .. 240 The Death of Scale-Based Physics ……………….………...... 242 The “Dual” Quantum-Geometrodynamical School and “Superspace” ………………………………….. .. 243 Tachyons and Causal Violations …………………….………. 246 Macrocausality and Microcausality in Quantum Mechanics … 247 15

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4.15 Fading Memory in Classical Physics …………………………. 247 4.16 Doubts as to the Universality of Entropy …………………… 249 4.17 Entropy-Free Thermodynamic Arrows of Time ………….…. . 250 5.

The Crisis in Quantum Physics

5.1 Preliminary Review …………………………………….…… 255 The effect of gravitation and the outside world on quantum physics: 5.1.1 The three main schools of thought …………………… 261 5.2 Einstein’s Objections to the Uncertainty Principle ……….... 262 5.3 The Heresy of a Few Skeptics ………………………….….. 265 5.4 Mythologized Concepts of Quantum Physics …………...…. 265 5.5 The Failure of Classical and Quantal Statistical Mechanics to Deduce Irreversibility and Time Asymmetries ……………………………………………..…. 267 5.6 The Emergence of Quantum Chromodynamics and Super-Symmetry …………………………………….... 272 5.6.1 Spatio-Temporal Approach to Quantum Physics ………. 272 5.6.2 From Weinberg-Salam Theory to Quantum Chromodynamics ………………………....

273 5.6.2.1 Conservation laws as symmetry principles; and vice versa ………………………………….. 273 5.6.2.2 Global, exact, approximate, isotopic and SU(3) symmetries ……………………...…

274 5.6.2.3 From SU(3) to renormalizable gauge theories ……………………………………........ 276 5.6.2.4 Quark confinement asymptotic freedom in gauge theories …………………………........ 276-1 5.6.2.5 QCD and the search for higher symmetry principles ………………………………..……. 276-1 5.6.3 From Quantum Field Theories to Super-Symmetry & Super-Gravity ……………………………………....... 276-3 5.6.3.1 On the limits of quantum gravity and ‘Unified Field Theories’ ……………………...... 276-4 16

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PART III

From Physics to Cosmological Crossroads and Back 6.

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy 6.1 Reduction of Thermodynamics to Gravitation ……...…

277 6.1.1 Methodology …………………………………….. 277 Dialectical Gravitism: Definition of the first problems ……………………………………... 278 6.1.3 Gravitation as super-asymmetry ………………… 279 6.2 The Earliest and Most Universal Asymmetry: Observational Evidence …………………..………......... 279 6.2.1 Which space expands and which does not? …...…. 282 6.3 Gravitation-Asymmetry Principle of Equivalence ……. . 284 6.4 Can Intercluster Space Be Saturated With Radiation? … 287 6.5 Derivation of the Master Asymmetry from Gravitation Theories ………………………...…

290 6.6 Irreversibility in the New Gravitational Cosmological Thermodynamics ………………...…….

293 6.7 Origin of Dissipation in Newtonian Fluids ……..……

297 6.8 Terrestrial Thermodynamics ……………………..……… 299 6.9 Connections with Classical and Continuum Thermodynamics …………………………………..….. 301 6.10 Electromagnetic Irreversibility and the Master Asymmetry …………………….....….... 303

7.

Cosmological Origin of Time 7.1 Time: The All-Embracing Concept …………………..

7.2 Cosmological Origin of Time ………………………...

309 310 17

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7.3 Cosmological Interpretations of Newton’s Laws of Motion …………………………………..…....

7.4 Gravitational Origin of Structure and Evolution .…….

7.5 Gravitation and the Outflow of Energy Into Un-Saturable Space …………………………………..

7.6 Stellar Evolution ……………………………………....

7.7 Terrestrial Evolution ………………………………......

7.8 Some Open Questions ……………………………..…

Microscopic T-Violation and the Master Asymmetry: A possible Connection? ………….

8.

314 316 322 324 325 326 327

Black Holes and the Unification of Asymmetries 8.1 Introduction …………………………………………

8.2 Observational Evidence ………………………….…

8.3 Schwarzschild Solution and Black Holes ………….

8.4 Black Holes Mechanics and Entropy ………………

8.5 Can Black Holes “Evaporate”? …………………….

8.6 Primordial Black Holes? …………………………....

8.7 Back to the Melting Pot of Unification? …………....

330 331 332 340 341 341 341

PART IV: Beyond Present Knowledge 8.

Havayism – The Science of The Whole 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

The Futile Quest for Final Answers …………………..

An Example in Havayism ……………………..…....…

From Cosmology to Irreversible Structures and Memory ……………………………………..….…

The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………..……

349 350 365 415

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VOLUME II Introduction ……………………………………………...................

420

A Few Historical Remarks on Time, Mind and Symmetry ………..

437

The Philosophy of Time & Change: Some Historical Notions …………………….…………………...

455

Structuralism and the Divided American Thought: A Short Glossary of Terms ………………………………..………

467

Policy and Publicity: A Critique …………………………………..

483

Thought-Provoking and Thought-Depressing Quotations ………..

495

Critique of Western Methodology ………………………………. ...

530

Volume III Published Reviews and Readers Comments …………………………………... 2 Table of Contents Volume I …………………………………………….......... 8 Table of Contents Volume II ………………………………………….............. 13 Table of Contents Volume III …………………………………………….......... 13 Introduction …………………………………………………………………… 16

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Lecture #

1. Physics at Large Scales ……………………………………………………... 30 2. The Origin and Nature of Time …………………………………………… 65 3. Physics: What Next? Part I ……………………………………………….. 67 4. Physics: What Next, Part II ……………………………………………… 86 5. World and Human History Parts I & II ……………………….………...

92

6. The Destruction of the Temple of Knowledge in Egypt ..………………... 125 7. Gravity-Controlled History and Philosophy …………………………… 131 8. How the World would End? ……………………………………………..

150

9. The Rise of Specialism; the Decline of Philosophy ………………..…… 160 10. Gravitism vs. Havayism ………………………………………………. 176 (1) Appendix I:

On Einstein’s Personal Philosophy ………………….............

22

Appendix II:

Gravity-Induced Aspirations, Concepts and Facts …..……… 25

Appendix III: World History. Part III …………………………………….

37

Appendix IV: Chains one Can Break vs. Honest Elections ……………..…

61

Appendix V: A 1970-1980 Focus on Iran ……..........................................

82

Appendix VI: Thought Provoking Quotations ……...................................

91

Epilogue ……………………………………………….…………………...

99

References ………………………………………………………................

101

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I ntroduction We begin with the ‘beginning’:

Image 00.001: This image shows the earliest direct record of our universe; the Cosmic Microwave Blackbody Radiation. It shows the beginning of our gravitydominated cosmos, which controls all macro-structures and time asymmetries; from the far-away space-time shown, ‘down’ to ‘Here-Now’.

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But unlike most studies we focus on the “Little Blue Voids” recorded here, and on gravity-induced processes affected by them. These voids would expand during the next 13 billion years to become the “Big Dark Voids” shown in the next image.

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Image 00.1: One must first note the 100 million light years ruler depicted at the top of this image-record. We are less than a visible dot somewhere here .

What do we know about the process that has transformed the early “Little Blue Voids” to the “Big Dark Voids” shown here?

The detailed answers below, and in Lecture 1, are not easy to follow, even by professional astronomers and astrophysicists.

First we claim that in three-dimensional space the “Big Dark Voids” wrap around all visible filaments of superclusters of galaxies shown in this large ‘portrait of the universe’. It is not the non-expanding matter in the galaxies that wraps around the dark-cold voids, but vice versa. Namely, all these cosmic voids are interconnected in what we term EXPANDING SPACE-1.

The dynamics and thermodynamics involved in this expansion during the last 13 billion years, and the resulting effects on us ‘here-now’, are detailed in Lecture 1 and summarized in Lectures 1 and 7 herein. To comprehend these dynamics, or ‘World History’ [Lecture 5], one must use the results of General Relativity [Gravity Physics] and our New Astrophysical School of Thermodynamics.

[Refs. 13, Volume I and Lectures 2 to 4 herein].

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New philosophical conclusions are presented in the three volumes and in a standalone publication: PHILOSOPHY: Modern Physics vs. Monotheism published online by Scribd on December 24, 2011.

Image 00.2(above): Gravity-induced Evolving Order and Structures of the Universe.

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Fig. 1.2: Dynamics and thermodynamics of expanding VOIDS-SPACE-1.

[Images 00.001, 00.1 and 00.2]. The relativistic thermodynamics involved is presented in Volume I and, in simple terms, below and in Lecture 1. It is grounded on Einsteinian gravitation and on the dynamics of radiation pressure.

Contrary to accepted “Cold Death” of the Cosmos We Predict, on the basis of neglected evidence, eventual contraction to “Hot Death”.

On the basis of verified accelerated expansion of the universe, the current conclusion in science is ‘cold death’ of the cosmos. The current idea is too simplistic: The accelerated expansion means no future contraction to a ‘hot end’, if one accepts the now popular assertion that dark matter and dark energy are the cause of the accelerated expansion..

BUT if radiation-pressure-gradients are the cause of the verified accelerated expansion, as we claim, the ‘end’ would be different.

Radiation

pressure

gradients

inside

expanding,

cold

voids

between

superclusters of galaxies are not negligible. The cause of these gradients is the radiation pouring out of all stars and galaxies. The outpouring radiation acts like a gas-wind whose pressure impacts back on the non-expanding, gravitycondensed, cosmic entities.

The Thermodynamic Mechanism: Radiation gas-winds arriving to each void from all opposite superclusters-filaments clash inside each void, forming what we call ‘adiabatic surfaces’ that wrap around all the filaments. These surfaces are characterized-defined by zero radiation-energy-density/pressure gradients.

The clashes generate a back reaction that expands each void’s space by 25

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pushing the filaments away from each other, in what is called the ‘acceleratingexpanding universe’.

ANALYSIS: On scales larger than 100 million light-years, the opposing gradients inside all intergalactic voids impact on and push away all superclusters of galaxies, propelling them away from each other, opposing the faint gravity forces inside the large voids. The opposing gradients in all voids thereby slightly accelerate the “expansion of the universe”, on top of [in addition to] the left-over expansion inertia from the ‘Big Bang’.

There is no need to speculate on a mysterious DARK ENERGY and DARK MATTER to explain the observed, ‘anti-gravity’ acceleration.

The results that we claim are:

1. Neither stellar evolution, nor any irreversible macro-process in the universe is feasible without the presence of cold, expanding voids-gradients around all superclusters of galaxies.

2. These voids act as unsaturable sink for all radiation energy generated in the universe.

3. The voids-expansion emerges as the prime cause of all time asymmetries and

irreversible

processes

in

nature,

including

the

2nd

law

of

thermodynamics.

PREDICTION: As the age of the universe increases, more and more stars and galaxies extinguish their ‘fuel’. That would gradually cause the voids-gradients to become ‘flat’, whereby ‘pushing’ the superclusters away from each other would gradually vanish, allowing gravity to win over the world and reverse the currently observed expansion into a future contraction, resulting in a ‘hot end’, and perhaps even a rebound into a ‘new cycle’.

Expected proof or rejection of this prediction may come from 26

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(1) precise calculations that are based on improved astronomical data on the dynamics and thermodynamics inside the intergalactic voids, (2) a predicted, non-accelerating expansion era that can be detected in probing the universe until most shining entities ignite and radiate, plus the time for that radiation to dissipate in the depth of the voids and form the gradients.

RECAP: In these volumes we claim: (1) EXPANDING VOIDS-SPACE-1 wraps around all non-expanding superclusters of galaxies that pour radiation energy into it, irreversibly, making it the largest, unsaturable sink of the universe, or its MASTER ARROW OF TIME and ORDER. (2) Each ‘adiabatic surface’ in SPACE-1 [Fig. 1.2 and Footnote 1.7 in Lecture 1] is marked by zero gradient surfaces of radiation energy densitypressure.

(3) The net force generated by the pressure gradients in opposite direction [arrows], push the (non-expanding) superclusters of galaxies away from each other in a thermodynamic process that we claim is in addition to the inertia left from the explosion-expansion of the ‘Radiation Era’, thereby slightly accelerating verified SPACE-1 expansion and causing all radiation energy pouring out of all emitters to be dissipated irreversibly in the depth of expanding SPACE-1.

(4) There is no need to speculate about dark matter and dark energy to explain the verified acceleration of the expanding universe. [Refs. 74 to 114].

(5) This process results in what scientists dub the 2nd law of thermodynamics and ‘time asymmetries’, subjects on which we had elaborated on in Volume I and would expand on in Lecture 1.

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The verified, expanding, radiation-unsaturable voids, termed here “SPACE-1”, cause the so-called 2nd Law of Thermodynamics, which rules over all irreversible processes in Nature, including life. [Lecture 7]. It is also a major issue in general philosophy and the philosophy of science and comparative religions. [Lecture 10] The gradual build up of radiation pressure gradients inside these expanding voids supports our claim that their expansion is the cause of all biochemical systems, biological clocks and more. [Lectures 7 to 9].

Stellar Radiation is a central Issue of Verified Science Stellar radiation affects our Solar System, Figure 1. Variation in the intensity of the Sun radiation, Figure 2, affects the solar plants including ours. Recorded periods of ice vis-à-vis warm climate are stressed below.

Gravity Physics Sun radiation and earth rotation and orbit around the Sun are the ruler of all physical and biological life, including human key humanity concepts, seconds, hours, day-night-temperature variations in addition to temperature variation from hot summer, to cooler autumn-winter and back via spring. it comprises the deepest foundation of all knowledge, including world history, science, philosophy and religions. [Lectures VII in Volume I, Chapter 1 in Volume II, Lectures 5 and 9 in Volume III.]. But contrary to most writers we claim that it is the most complicated of all human concepts, and we prove it in these three volumes.

OUR STANDARD TIME MODEL IN SECONDS is misleading; it is grounded on a day-night rotation of earth around the sun; both of which 28

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had not existed during more than half the ‘age’ of the universe. [Lecture 5, Volume III.].

The seed of human time is the visible universe itself. The expanding universe is not a theory. It is a well verified and established fact. [Lecture 1]. And it is the only clock! -- the sole measurable ‘time’, or, more precisely, the measurable expansion-acceleration of its Kingdom of Darkness – the expansion-acceleration of the well-recorded, dark-cold voids around all stars and galaxies. [VOIDS/SPACE-1, Image 00.001, Fig. 1.1.].

This scientific time is the non-stop increase in the ‘size’ of cosmic voids that keep expanding even when you are asleep. But if you are awake, just go outside and watch the dark night sky and ask yourself, whereto all the star radiation energy has gone? Why the dark night sky is not as bright as the sun?

Physical Time is the decrease in temperature in the Radiation Era [Fig. 5.1, Lecture 5], or the increase in voids size or the decrease the voids energy density. But as explained above, ‘hot death’ is the end of physical time.

We term Voids/SPACE-1 expansion The Master Arrow of Time; the origin of all observed irreversibilities in Nature.

It is also the most

universal and durable clock known.

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ymmetry underlines the most important concepts and facts in our life

and in Nature. It takes center stage in our aspirations, aesthetics, facts, science, theology and the arts. It is often interlocked with “anti-symmetry” [asymmetry], creation, recording, music, irreversibility, linguistic symbolscodes, history, and cosmology. Moreover, symmetry and asymmetry are usually integrated, like in the human body, face and written languages [Lectures 7 and 8].

S

ymmetry-asymmetry concepts and facts range from space, time,

space-time, curved space-time-attraction, gravitational configurations [galaxies, stars, earth, moons] to cosmological structuring of superclusters of galaxies, geological strata and electromagnetic and linguistic arrows of time, “symmetry breaking”, the 2nd law of thermodynamics, prediction [as opposed to retrodiction], initial boundary conditions [as opposed to final conditions) in integro-differential equations and in countless unresolved problems treated within a theory presented, in part, in these nine online lectures.

Lectures 2 to 4 illustrate some current conflicts in science that are fundamentally rooted in the correct understanding, or misunderstanding, of concepts and facts associated with symmetry-asymmetry concepts.

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These issues lead us to reassess disputes in physics between Einsteinian philosophy of science and that of quantum mechanics. his well-advertized formalism in converting space-time symmetric equations of physics to anti-asymmetric Thermodynamics [13], he has failed to prove how asymmetry [irreversibility] emerges from the symmetric [reversible] mathematical equations of all physics.

To by-pass this problem, Prigogine smuggled asymmetry in without declaring the contraband, simply by resorting to two misleading words: “Symmetry breaking”, and got the Nobel.

In contrasting Prigogine during the historic Pittsburgh Conference on Classical and Relativistic Thermodynamics [13], we maintained that our Relativistic THERMODYNAMICS has not only been mathematicallyderived [Volume I, Lecture VI], from Einstein Field Equations, but has predicted new results concerning fluid dynamics, bulk viscosity and cosmological models.

In a nutshell, what are the fundamental issues involved?

E

instein’s Field Equations accept no static large-scale solutions.

This conclusion is widely accepted and well proven. And it means that EFE provide scale-free, verified, and most reliable framework to prove the single origin of “symmetry breaking”, the asymmetric nature of time and anti-symmetry curved space-time in the actual world. Hence, our claim is deeply rooted in General Relativity [Footnote 1.1, Lectures 3 and 4].

Why?

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Starting from symmetric EFE energy-momentum tensor and symmetric conservation equations, we introduce the standard symmetric cosmological metric of curved space-time and have ended up with a mathematical proof of how fundamental dynamics and thermodynamics are deduced from EFE [Vol. I, Lecture VI]. The new thermodynamics is thus entropy-free. While entropy can remain a useful model-variable in steam maps and air conditioning, it is not required in theoretical physics and in the philosophy of science.

Accordingly, science does not fundamentally require the popular use of the anthropomorphic concept “entropy”, partly because it is neither physically-sound mass-energy-momentum, nor an integral component of gravity physics.

To start with we connect the dots. The failures of probabilistic quantum physics and Prigogine-type macro-dynamics and thermodynamics are linked.

Secondly, we claim that all asymmetries observed in Nature have been caused by a single observed cosmological fact detailed in Ref. 13 and revisited herein. We therefore maintain that all asymmetries must be united under a single MASTER ASYMMETRY of Nature, before one attempts to unify symmetric equations of proposed Grand Unified Theories [GUT], string theories and the so-called “Theory of Everything” [TOE]. [Lectures 1 to 4].

Assessing this situation during the last decades, we have also maintained that some enthusiastic proponents of GUT and TOE have been fooling themselves for decades with various circular games of smuggling asymmetry, mysticism and wishful aspirations into physics without declaring the contraband; partly in line with the Feynman’s Fooling Assertion [Lecture 9].

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Lecture 1

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Fig. 1.1: The “100 million ly” scale depicted at the top provides an idea of the size of the visible universe. Here “ly” [“light Year”] is the distance light, travels at 300,000 km/sec during one year. We are less than a visible dot somewhere here. In our studies we focus on the expanding dark voids that wrap around the superclusters of galaxies. [A few are marked in purple]. These dark-cold voids expand at accelerated rate, thereby giving rise to the term the ‘expandingaccelerating universe’.

The expansion of these voids makes them not only the largest, unsaturable sink of all radiation energy pouring out of the superclusters shown, but the primary cause of the second law of thermodynamics and the cosmological arrow of time. [Fig. 1.2].

Due to the limited speed of light, which causes the Event Horizon, humans can never see the entire universe. In fact, part of what we see now in Fig. 1.1 will be lost later forever to humanity due to red-shifted radiation beyond the visibility horizon caused by said expansion and the receding away of the superclusters.

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Fig. 1.2:

Preliminary Glossary of Terms

Without resorting to the popular-mystical dark matter and dark energy, the facts are that low radiation energy-density/pressure gradients gradually, over the large space-time impacts involved, push the non-expanding, gravitybounded, clusters/superclusters away from each other, thereby, on top of leftover inertia expansion from the Big Bang, slightly accelerating VOIDS-SPACE1 expansion and causing it to act as the unsaturable sink for all the radiation pouring out of the clusters, causing what is called the 2nd law of thermodynamics [13]. There is no need to speculate on mysterious dark matter and dark energy.

[74-114].

NOTES: Radiation pressure in the large void structures of the universe is not negligible. Its value on a test-surface facing the lowest radiation-energy density value depicted in Fig. 1.1 is less than on the other side. Variations of this pressure are added on the uniform remnant glow left from the 1st Genesis. Like a gas, it acts on all superclusters of galaxies, pushing them apart against gravity and slightly accelerating the expansion of the universe. [The radiation pressure is 35

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zero on adiabatic envelopes in mid cold Voids (SPACE-1). This is the familiar phenomenon behind “SOLAR SAILS” in space research.].

The result is the universal driving force for energy transport from all hot radiation sources to cold cosmic voids [‘SPACE-1”], whereby the energydensity/pressure gradients inside adiabatic envelopes constitute the driving force of all irreversible processes in the universe, as had been claimed in Ref. 13.

The resulting VOIDS-SPACE-1 expansion emerges as the prime cause of all time asymmetries and irreversible processes in nature, the 2nd law of thermodynamics. [13]. The theoretical crisis involved is debated in Lecture 3.

Note: With or without localized black holes, speculated dark energy and matter, only the expanding, cold, SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink] provides us, with the universal, UNSATURABLE SINK, the cause of the 2nd Law of thermodynamics. Spaces 3 and 2 may also slightly expand.

SPACE-1 includes the expanding-accelerating cold-dark voids recorded in Fig. 1.1. The “hills-vs.-valleys” radiation density-pressure gradients are zero on the surfaces of adiabatic envelops [Footnote 7], which are virtual surfaces with the lowest values of radiation density, as depicted. These surfaces are located between any neighboring pair of superclusters of galaxies, represented here by two clusters of galaxies.

The radiation is pouring out of all galactic and stellar active emitters and is irreversibly absorbed forever in the depths of expanding SPACE-1. SPACE-1 contains the isotropic and homogeneous faint ‘glow’, called the Cosmic Microwave Black-Body Radiation. It is the left over radiation from the end of the 1st genesis, the radiation dominated era. [Lecture 5].

The gigantic amount of radiation energy pouring out from all shining galaxies is isotropically proceeding in all space directions. It first proceeds from Space-3 to Space-2 and then irreversibly dissipated forever deep inside VOIDS-SPACE-1.

Once in expanding dark SPACE-1 it is not reflected back. It proceeds there to the lowest radiation energy density/pressure levels [zero gradients] located on 36

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adiabatic surfaced midway between the filaments, where radiation pressure difference vanishes.

SPACE-1 is therefore the sole, largest, coldest, UNSATURABLE SINK in the entire universe, simply because it is fast expanding forever1.2 at a slightly accelerated pace that would lead to cold death of the universe. And the radiation pressure gradients push the filaments away from each other.

Fig. 1.3: “Our little neighborhood” is home to thousands of galaxies, each wrapped around by SPACE-3. [Defined by Fig. 1.2]. But even in this zoomed-in image the solar system is less than a visible dot somewhere here .

From SPACE-3 [black background,‘dark night sky’] the radiation emerging from these galaxies travels to SPACE 2, which wraps around all clusters of galaxies. [Figs. 1.2 and 1.3] and is an extension of SPACE-3.

Only a small portion of the stellar-galactic radiation is irreversibly dissipated in galactic centers that harbor massive black holes, while most of it escapes the limited frame-space of Fig. 1.3 to be irreversibly dissipated in the depth of expanding SPACE-1, which wraps around all superclusters of galaxies.

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We are located in the “Local Group” of about 30 galaxies [center of Fig. 1.3], inside the VIRGO SUPERCLUSTER recorded in the center of Figs. 1.1. Our Solar System and our entire galaxy are less than a visible point in Fig. 1.1.

The cosmic voids that are the furthest from us absorb energy from parts of the universe that we cannot see. We return to this issue later and in Footnote 7.

Most shining galaxies contain a super massive black hole at their center 1.1, 1.6.

Each center acts like a gigantic galactic sink of matter-energy in the ‘immediate neighborhood’ of such a black hole.

In comparison with radiation-unsaturable, expanding, VOIDS-SPACE-1, black holes are neither universal nor the largest thermodynamic “sinks”.

Most important, without the observed Voids/Space-1 expansion – the so called HUBBLE EXPANSION -- the density of radiation energy (Fig. 1.2) in all space would increase with time, eventually reaching the highest temperatures that are maintained by nuclear fusion1.4 in the cores of all active stellar cores, causing not only our roasting on earth and disintegrations of all structures in the entire universe, but an eventual equilibrium throughout all space, namely gradually approaching the same temperatures in all Spaces 3, 2 and 1. This would result in the gradually vanishing of the ’hills-Valleys’ gradients depicted in Fig. 1.2.

Conclusion: Voids-Space-1 expansion is not only the cause of the 2nd law of thermodynamics; its expansion is the Master Arrow of Time and the origin of asymmetries in Nature [13]. Unlike most scientists, who claim that the entropy and disorder of the universe increases with time, we claim the opposite: Gravity everlasting transformation of chaos into structures in the entire universe.

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Fig. 1.4: The Earliest Visible World; Earliest separation of “light” from “night sky”. The ever-expanding, dark-blue spots measured, are the earliest Voids-SPACE-1 ever formed. Their visible differentiation from the material energy emitters --- the yellow-green-red hot sources --- is the earliest recorded by science [Lecture 5]. The small size of these voids is to be increased during the next 17 billion years of the world expansion to end up with the gigantic voids recorded in Fig. 1.1.

The earliest expanding voids (SPACE-1) recorded in Fig. 1.4 wrap around the yellow-green-red hot sources. These voids irreversibly absorb all the radiation poured into them from the gravitationally-condensing, and, therefore, heated material emitters. (Fig. 1.2). Most important, this differentiation-aggregation is isotropic and homogeneous. The recorded early dark cosmological voids are not only the first-ever macro-differentiation in the world, they constitute the central tools of Cosmological Gravitism.

The shapes of superclusters vary considerably; from that of Virgo, Coma and Hercules to long ‘filaments’. [Figs. 1.1 and 1.3]. 1.9; 1.11

S keptic Notes How such remote dynamics can affect us “here-now” ?

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o start with, we resort to additional, verified evidence that relates to this

legitimate question.

There is undisputed evidence about the Cosmic Blackbody Microwave Background Radiation [CMBR] of the early expanding universe [Fig. 1.4]. It was discovered in 1941-1964 and is the remnant of radiation in early SPACE-1, which has since expanded and cooled by the expansion of the voids during about 13.72 (less about 350,000) billion years, until these early voids reach the forms depicted in Fig. 1.1.

This radiation has been cooled down from about 4,000-3,000 K at the end of the radiation dominated era [Lecture 5], and it always engulfs us ‘here-now”. It thus constitutes a direct link to the “external world” and one of the many proofs that SPACE-1 has been expanding and is isotropic [the same in all directions] and homogeneous.

It is undisputed today that the cosmic dark voids not only expand, but their expansion is accelerated. There is however, a debate on the cause of that acceleration. [1-5, 7, 9, 10, 20-52, 55, 74-115]. This expansion, we assert and discuss below, not only causes the 2nd Law of thermodynamics, but according to Gravitism, has generated all chemistry, and irreversible processes that eventually lead to life. [Lecture 5 and Ref. 13].

The pillar of modern astronomy, astrophysics and cosmology is the empirical HUBBLE LAW. It is based on verified observations since first discovered by Hubble in the 1920’s. [1-4, 7, 9, 52, 53, 55, 74-115]1.2.

Hubble Cosmic Expansion Law is marked in Fig. 1.2 as Uo=Hor, where “r” is the distance from earth to “CLUSTER I”. Here “r” represents superclusters or a cluster of galaxies recorded in Fig. 1.1, Ho the Hubble Constant and Uo the recession velocity, namely, SPACE-1 expansion.

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Employing next Figures 1 to 5, we assert: SPACE -1 wraps all superclusters of galaxies.1.3 It thus contains all expanding dark voids recorded in both Figs. 1.1 and 1.4. But it does not include the non expanding superclusters.

SPACE 2 wraps around, but does not include the non-expanding clusters of galaxies. [Fig. 1.3].

SPACE-3 wraps around but does not include the non-expanding galaxies, stars, planets, moons, etc. [Figs. 1.3 and 1.5].

Preliminary Conclusion: All superclusters are receding away ‘from us’ -- and from each other [Footnote 1, Thought Experiments] -- at great speeds -- the further away they are, the greater is the observed receding speed.

Our Milky-Way Galaxy [images and Footnote 8] contains billions of gravitycompacted stars, planets and other entities.

Side view of our galaxy

Most “young” stars are formed in the dilute regions of the rotating inter-stellar medium within SPACE-3.

Our galaxy is almost 100,000 light-years in diameter at its disk-like longest spiral arms. It is in the form of an almost flat spiral disk [image below] with an average thickness of about 1,000 light-years.

Assertion 1: Non-expanding SPACES 3, 2 and expanding forever voids [SPACE-1] contain, inter alia, the cosmic microwave black-body radiation, photons, neutrinos, antineutrinos, gas, dust, etc., much of which first recorded with the Hubble Telescope. [Images on the right and below] Intra-galactic gas may also emit X-rays and other types of radiation. [The undetected, speculative, dark matter and dark energy are neither necessary ingredients of Gravitism, nor unacceptable. These are discussed by references 74 to 115.].

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To deny today the central role these verified facts play in science, philosophy and theology, is to deny the very methodology of science, and to a priori reject a large portion of its empirical evidence, on the basis of false personal, fixed, presuppositions.

Assertion 2: We are linked here-now to what is going on far out there by resorting to a thought experiment: SPACE-1 stops expanding ‘now’, thereby the stellar radiation energy density marked in Fig. 1.2 gradually rises all over spaces 3, 2 and 1, eventually causing the entire universe to reach equilibrium [uniform temperature/energy-density], whereby all processes in the universe stop, including life on earth.

Assertion 3: Since we do not see, and cannot study the entire universe (explanation below), the dynamics of a single adiabatic envelope that wraps around a typical emitter - as defined and analyzed in Footnote 1.7 -- is strictly equivalent to the study and analysis of the entire universe. Why? The well-verified isotropic and homogeneous distribution of the observed cosmic dark voids vis-à-vis the shining emitters -- as illustrated by both Figs. 1.1 and 1.4, when combined with the physico-chemical dynamics of nuclear fusion (Footnote 1.4) and supernova (Footnote 1.5), unequivocally mean that about the same max temperature characterizes all superclusters recorded in Fig. 1.1.

It should be noted that these qualities have been approximately preserved as the universe has expanded from what is recorded in Fig. 1.4 to what is recorded in Fig. 1.1. Therefore, the dynamics and thermodynamics inside each such a randomly chosen single virtual “cell”, do represent those of the entire universe.

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This conclusion is important because less and less of the observed universe [Fig. 1.1] will be seen with the progress of the accelerated expansion. In short, we harbor no option but to use “cells” for we cannot see and study the entire universe.

Assertion 4: The maximum speed of light is not violated by Hubble expansion. When sectors of the universe expand away from us at speeds higher than the speed of light, that law is not violated.

The expansion of the universe generates a large-scale event horizon – an observational and theoretical limit for us to see the entire universe; namely, the light from such far away receding emitters is gradually being redshifted until the most remote sources totally disappear from our sights, forever.

Consequently, there is no option but to study adiabatic cosmological cells of the universe, like the one defined in Fig. 1.2 vis-à-vis Figs. 1.1, 1.3 and 1.4.

RECAP: The portion of the universe recorded in Fig. 1.1 is shrinking in time, but a ‘nearby’ selected at random adiabatic cell remains in sight. Thus, much of what we observe in Fig. 1.1 would be unobservable in the future; it would, forever, be a lost case for science.

Relevance of Einstein’s General Relativity in Gravitism Einstein’s General Relativity (“EGR”) [Footnote 1 and Lecture 3] is expressed by his field equations [13 and Lecture 3 herein]. Without the so-called cosmological constant [74-115] EGR accepts no plausible static cosmological solutions.

Thus, according to Einstein, the 1916 EGR had predicted the expansion of the universe before Hubble detected it in the mid 1920’s.

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From this point of view our new astrophysical school of systems dynamics and thermodynamics it is the agreement with EGR and said Einsteinian outlook, that our outlook is deeply rooted in EGR.

Dark Matter? Dark Energy?

If one retains the cosmological constant in EGR, which Einstein had rejected due to the Hubble discovery in the mid 1920’s, it may explain the role of the currently speculated dark energy and dark matter that are claimed by many theorists without any strict observational evidence, to fill the universe and support their claims for causing the observed accelerated expansion [74-115].

From Large to Small-Scale Systems-Dynamics, and Back

C

lustering differences begin on the largest and earliest scales of the

visible universe, as demonstrated by Figs. 1.1 and 1.4. We next focus on group dynamics of shining emitters vis-à-vis the dark-cold cosmological Voids, as defined by Fig. 1.2.

Up-scaling 1: Since Space-1 is expanding -- and its expansion rate has been observationally proved as being accelerated -- the universe is unidirectionally cooling down forever.

The corollary is that, eventually, all energy density gradients depicted in Fig, 1.2 – and in the solar system1.8 -- would vanish, and all processes here and there would stop in what is called the final cold death.

Downscaling 1: Said expansion generates the observed large-scale energydensity gradients [Fig. 1.2], which, in turn, generate small-scale stellar and 44

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planetary temperature gradients – the ones that allow life to emerge and be sustained. [13].

Downscaling 2: Einsteinian gravity is well-approximated by Newtonian Physics as one goes down the scales of size-masses. Accordingly, above a certain size-mass, all is structured by specific gravity, the heaviest components down in the core; the lightest up, at the ‘top’. We term this phenomenon gravitationally-induced survival of the “fittest”. [Lecture 7.].

Downscaling 3: Adiabatic envelopes7 in the observed homogeneous and isotropic universe are always located between any pair of superclusters or clusters of galaxies. [Fig. 1.2].

Collecting all said spots forms Space-1 “cells” (adiabatic surfaces-envelopes around superclusters or clusters7), each of which evolves as representative of the entire universe that we cannot observe due to the event horizon/Space-1expansion.

See Fig. 1.7 in Footnote 2 below.

FOOTNOTES AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS for Lecture 1 While some of the footnotes in these lectures are long, they do not constitute “Introductions” to the subjects. If one is interested in physico-mathematics, the derivations are available in Volume I.

1.

“Expansion of the Universe”, General Relativistic Cosmology, Thought Experiments, Redshifts, Einstein’s Lens Thought Experiment I: Imagine that your home bath-tub is transformed today into an elastic rubber one that is being continuously inflated when you pour water into it, in analogy to the fact that SPACE-1 is expanding faster than 45

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it is filled up with radiation energy flowing into it from the shining sources around it. [Fig. 1.2].

In case you select to start inflating the bath-tub from, say, a midway water-level mark, that level would only go down with fast enough inflation rate of the bathtub, thereby you cannot fill it up, again, in analogy to the observed SPACE-1expansion. So your ‘expanding bath-tub’ represents the cause of the dark-cold night sky that you observe by stepping out of your home on a non-cloudy night.

Since SPACE-1-expansion causes the cosmos to be UNSATURABLE with respect to the radiation energy emitted from all galaxies and active stars, the radiation energy flowing into it from the shining sources cannot fill-it-up -- as far as it keeps expanding “fast enough”.

The measured 2.7 absolute degree Kelvin temperature of the cosmic background blackbody radiation and the dark-cold night sky play a key role in Gravitism.

SPACE-1-expansion causes electromagnetic radiation irreversibility [retarded waves] that we term the electromagnetic arrow of time. [Volume I] In contrast, if you stop the inflation of your home bath-tub, the water level would start rising and the bath-tub will now be filled up gradually. (In analogy, the night sky would become hotter and hotter until, eventually, it reaches the maximum fusion temperature1.4 in the interiors of stellar objects like the sun, or galactic centers.1.6).

2.

Thought Experiment II: One may next bake a raisin cake, and, in analogy to superclusters of galaxies in our observed expanding universe, each raisin there represents a supercluster as the cake expands.

If the raisins are spread about evenly throughout the cake dough, they represent the receding away superclusters as they run away from each other due to the expansion.

You may next imagine a tiny “educated observer” located on each nonexpanding raisin. Inquiring what he sees, he tells you that all other raisins are 46

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moving away from him, and that the density of cake-matter between him and nearby raisins decreases. Next, if you move him to another raisin, he observes the same.

‘After’ the ‘Big Bang’ there is no clock other than the increasing “size” of the universe, or the decrease in energy-matter density or temperature. Our sun-earth time-scale is irrelevant prior to the formation of the solar system. Thus, an alternative clock was introduced in Volume I.

Thought Experiment III: On the surface of an inflating balloon you may next paint small images of superclusters of galaxies, as in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2.

Next imagine a tiny “two-dimensional educated observer” located on each image, but this time one who is only capable of perception of a surface, namely, only the two-dimensional, curved surface of his inflating-expanding balloon.

The conclusion of this wise creature is similar to the one in Experiment II: All superclusters of galaxies are receding away “from me”, no matter where I stand on the balloon surface. Note also, that according to EGR, the balloonuniverse harbors no ‘edge’. It is finite in surface area, but boundless. And, for this two-dimensional creature, it is not expanding "into" any extant space outside the balloon. For this creature just the surface of the whole balloon is ‘the whole universe’; namely, there is no ‘outside’ three-dimensional space.

Similarly, within our familiar three-dimensional universe, there is no ‘outside’ into which the actual universe is expanding.

Conclusions drawn from these thought experiments remain about the same even if one introduces local black holes, galactic motions, rotations, star explosions, or implosions, dust, gas and local thermo-geometrical changes.

Gravitational lens were predicted by Einstein in 1936. [Image]. The orange arrows show the magnified source, while the white arrows show the actual path of light from the hidden source.

Einstein calculated such cosmic effect for future astronomy. These “lens” become useful when the gravity of a massive cosmic object curves space-time 47

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between the observer and a hidden, far-away object.

Fig. 1.6:

Einstein’s Gravity Lens helps reveal hidden early cosmic objects

It is a well-verified phenomenon, which causes bending of the path of radiation, say, light, from an otherwise hidden source. The key point is that this effect magnifies early sources and is especially interesting and important in recent studies of the early “Dark Age” [Image 00.1], which started about 200,000 to 350,000 years after the “Big Bang”.

“Expansion of the universe” or “expansion of space” is actually expansion of the voids recorded in Figs. 1.1 and 1.4. This fact has confused many theorists.

[For a review see 120-123]. Some claim that the expansion-cooling of homogeneous hot gas in the standard cosmological model means violation of energy conservation. Other claim continuous creation of vacuum, which leads them to conceptual problems associated with quantum-physics presupposions.

[Lectures 2 and 4].

Most important is the solid evidence that has been accumulated recently by many astronomers. Part of the many pioneering works and discoveries are due to the NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, Voyager probes [Footnote 1.8] and the ground-based LIGO and VIRGO observatories.

The use of Einstein lens and new infrared, radio, infrared, X-ray and other techniques has substantially increased the reliability of information about phenomena and processes in the most remote regions of curved space-time.

Einstein’s General Relativity (EGR or Gravity Physics) is reviewed in Volume I with the mathematics and tests involved. Lecture 3 herein is restricted to footnotes on EGR and to Quantum Physics Standard Model. The physicomathematical derivation of EGR is provided in Volume 1 in terms of Einstein’s Field Equations (EFE).

EFE are formulated in the same form for all observers – accelerating, linearly moving, rotating, standing on a minor astronomical body, like earth, or on a 48

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massive star. This provides the basis for using ‘translators’ from one observer coordinate system to another. These ‘translators’ are energy-momentum metric tensors [Vol. 1 and Lecture 9]. They include first and second mathematical derivatives in three space coordinates and in one time coordinate of the physical properties mass, energy and momentum.

Changes in the gravitational field are accounted for by changes in the curvature of space-time, on one hand, and by changes in local mass-energy and momentum on the other side of EFE [13]. EGR includes Einstein’s Special Relativity [ESR] and the conservation equations of mass, energy and momentum Distances in cosmological models based on EGR are determined locally between two infinitesimally close points in curved space-time. It is, therefore, an issue to determine them within the framework of each model.

Said issue should not be confused with the fact that the size of SPACE-1 increases with time. Yet, in debating the validity of each proposed model, one must specify its space-time-curvature -- the curve-path-of-light that connects two such cosmic-apart points.

2. The Expanding Universe The universe is not expanding "into" anything outside itself. [Thought Experiment III in Footnote 1.1 above].

Metric expansion is a key feature of theoretical relativistic cosmology. It is modeled mathematically with the FLRW metric [Volume I], which is valid at the scale of superclusters of the galaxies shown in Fig. 1.1.

At smaller scales, galaxies, stars, planets, etc. do not individually expand.

The expansion of the VOIDS-SPACE-1 [Figs. 1.1 to 1.4] is partly due to inertia, going back to the Big-Bang explosion, and partly to gradually accumulated repulsive force of the radiation pressure in SPACE-1 [Introduction].

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Hubble’s astronomical observations prove that superclusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.1] are moving away from each other with speeds that are proportional to their distance from each other [Fig. 1.2]. Hence the universe had a beginning.

This expansion-based beginning is independently supported by observations: First and foremost, the 1941-1964 discovered cosmic microwave blackbody radiation. Fig. 1.4 proves that it is not the expansion E. Hubble of galaxies and stars, but of the VOIDS-SPACE-1, and is the same in all directions (isotropic and almost homogeneous). Isotropic distribution across the sky of distant gamma-ray bursts and of supernova explosions [see below] also support this conclusion.

Our net motion in Space. The direction of the earth’s net motion lies in the same plane as its orbit around the sun and at angle of 61 degrees tilted upward [northward] from the plane of the disk-like Milky Way. We rotate and travel around the sun, while the sun travels around the galactic center.

These speeds should not be confused with the recession speed of clusters and super-clusters of galaxies away from each other. [R(t) Fig. 1.2]. This is the Hubble expansion. Our galaxy is deviating from this uniform expansion motion by about 600 km/sec.

Cosmological models may be open or closed, bounded but unlimited in curved space-time, as explained in Ref. 13. Unlike quantum physics, EGR is scale-free and deterministic. We return to these important issues in Lectures 2, 3 and 4.

Note: Commoving Distance Cosmological Model cannot fix distances. In practice, the distance of distant objects are best measured by their luminosity -which is reduced by the square power of the distance to the radiation source [13], and by redshifts of their incoming electromagnetic radiation.

Redshifts: Wavelengths of photons propagating through expanding VOIDSSPACE-1 are stretched. We term it VOIDS-SPACE-1 Redshift [VSR].

There is a distinction between VSR and that caused when nearby objects exhibit a local Doppler-effect redshift (upper right). Rather than VSR resulting from relative velocities vis-à-vis earth, the photons undergoing VSR increase in 50

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wavelength because of the expansion of the medium through which they are traveling.

The color spectrum on the right of the image on the right illustrates a redshift. It is compared in the image with that of a ‘local’, ‘static’ one [left spectrum, no shift.], like that of radiation arriving from the sun.

Using Hubble law redshifts of incoming radiation are used to calculate distances of objects far away from earth.

According to general relativity, special relativity is locally valid in small regions of space-time that are approximately ‘flat’ [low gravity values, like in our Solar System].

Light [photons, Lecture 3] traveling in VOIDS-SPACE-1 do not pass through conventional ‘space-distances’, because of the expansion of the VOIDSSPACE-1.

“DARK AGES”: The cosmic background light reaching us from the epoch after the “Radiation Era” (Introduction) had ended has been arguably referred to as arriving from the “Dark Ages”. This is demonstrated in the two images below.

2. Our “Local Group” of Galaxies

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Fig. 1.7: Even at this zoomed-in scale our Solar System (Footnote 1.8) is less than a visible dot somewhere here. Andromeda (M31 ) is a respectable member of our Local Group of galaxies. [Fig. 1.3 and the image above show “our Local Group” when zoomed in.]. Andromeda is characterized by a spiral structure similar to our galaxy,, and is “nearby”, just about 2,200,000 light-years away.

Both are the largest in our Local Group, which is about 10,000,000 light-years in its largest spatial ‘diameter’, namely, the ‘size’ of our local group is about 100 times the size of our galaxy. [Image]. Our local group includes M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87, M89 and M31 (Andromeda).

Andromeda’s system consists of Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32, M110, NGC 147, NGC195, AND I-V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd largest galaxy in ‘our’ local group, also includes the Pisces Dwarf as a satellite.

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‘Our’ satellite galaxies consist of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Darco Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Canis Major Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, Carina Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Tucana Dwarf, Leo I, Leo II, Leo A, Sag DEG, etc.

4.

Nuclear Fusion

is the most important “chemical” process in the universe. It is caused by extremely high forces-pressures of gravity in/on the inner cores of active stars [picture]. It generates most chemical elements by transforming (fusing) hydrogen plasma, [H], into heavier elements like Helium [He], carbon [C], oxygen [O], nitrogen, phosphor, and iron [Fe] at star center.

A Typical Sun-Like Star is shown on the right. Note the energy flows: Convection currents from the very hot, thermo-nuclear reacting core to the colder surface and the various types of radiation and particles pouring out into non-expanding, colder SPACE-3.

All active stars generate in their interiors all the basic chemical elements beyond hydrogen and helium; namely, all the heavier basic elements of matter that we observe on earth and in our body and brain.

According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics, the bigger the mass of a star, the higher are its core pressures and temperatures and faster are the nuclear fusion processes in its interior [13].

How do we know that?

On both fusion and fission scientists know much [Footnote 1.4]. Fusion is also the driver of hydrogen-bomb explosions, (not fission as in atomic reactors and in ‘regular’ atomic weapons).

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When a certain amount of iron is formed in the interiors of active stars, endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic one. (The exothermic reaction generates energy, while the endothermic consumes it.)

All active stars produce energy through such nuclear fusion.

5. Supernova, Maximum Temperatures, Redshifts & Measuring Astronomical Distances Supernovas are gravity-induced phenomena that astronomers observe in galaxies when a massive star ends its life by internal collapse-implosion. The collapse begins when the fusion process1.4 that produces energy, ends.

Why this relatively massive star had ended its life in a gigantic explosion?

Is this common cosmic phenomenon important?

The explosion throws out into SPACE-3 hot debris and gases. Such remnants of at least one supernova in our galaxy were captured into orbit around the sun.

Gravity then guided and compressed some to form the observed spherical planets and moons in the Solar system. Life followed.

Why supernovas explode?

The sole sin of such innocent stars is being too fat and big, thereby converting their huge mass, (initially only hydrogen and helium), by nuclear the wellknown fusion metabolism, to heavier chemical elements [oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphor, etc.], more quickly than do smaller stars, like our sun.1.8 All active (shining) stars generate the heavier chemical elements at the high temperatures-pressures that gravity induces in their interiors. But the massive stars arrive to that ‘End-of-life Stage’ earlier than smaller stars do. That ‘End-oflife Stage’ may, however, be the ‘Beginning-of-life-Process’ in case the supernova debris (‘ashes’) gradually form orbiting planets around stars, as is the case that we assert was the beginning of our solar system.

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It is always gravitation that plays the central role in the "selection" of the structures to be produced: First in controlling the structures galaxies and clusters in SPACE-1, then in forcing chemical evolution through a succession of specific reactions in which evolution means the development of complex elements from simple ones. [Hydrogen and helium make up about 99% of all observable matter in the universe.

Hence, we and the planets in the solar system constitute just little ‘impure grains’ in the vast ‘clean’ universe.]

In short, gravity is the only 'suitable’ or ‘fittest' force -- in human concepts, that can build all the elements in the chemical periodic table by successively adding, in the hot interiors of all active stars, small increments of mass and electric charge in selected combinations that are completely controlled by the value of the attractive gravity force-pressure-temperature.

Supernova unusual bright glow has been studied since 1054, starting from the Crab Nebula. [Image]. At its center there is a neutron star spewing energy and ‘elementary particles’ into SPACE-3. Said radiation net flow then proceed to SPACE-2 and, eventually, to SPACE-1. [Fig. 1.2] Supernovas are not only the originators of all chemistry beyond hydrogen and helium [by nuclear fusion.], but serve in astronomy as reliable ‘distance yardsticks’ [“candles”] on which much of astronomy rests. The reason for this selection is explained below.

Certain types of supernovas serve in astronomy as the max-cosmic temperature standard for calibrating distances to far-away galaxies via the absolute luminosity (brightness) method discussed in Volume I. That end [see below] is reached when a threshold amount of iron is formed in the interior of a massive star [Volume I]. At this stage all net energy generation inside the star stops and the process reverses into an endothermic one during which energy is consumed.

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STELLAR COLLAPSE: At this final stage the core pressure falls and the doomed star cannot support the gravity-induced ‘weight’ of its upper layers.

This leads to a gigantic collapse-implosion of the entire star structure.

A few general-relativistic ‘deterministic options’ then emerge, depending on the mass and details of the doomed massive star: 1. If the mass of the star is about 1.4 times that of the sun, the star slowly decays into a white dwarf.

2. If its mass is larger, the formation of an extremely packed neutron star [image] or a black hole [Footnote 1.6] is the end result, in which case no atomic nuclei structure survives.

3. A gigantic supernova explosion follows the collapse-implosion by bouncing back from a central dense body [neutron star].

Type Ia supernovas harbor consistent brightness (absolute luminosity) because their progenitor is accreting mass from a nearby star, always imploding into the central neutron star at exactly the same mass -- the Chandrasekhar Mass Limit.

[Volume I].

The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey Supernova Program is designed to measure several hundred high-redshifted supernovas.

Massive stars: Due to their high, gravity-induced, inner-core pressurestemperatures, massive stars are much faster than smaller stars, like the sun, to exhaust their ‘hydrogen-helium fuel’ by nuclear fusion.1.4 The resulting higher pressures-temperatures in massive stars cause faster releases of fusion energy in the interiors of these stars. From there the energy reaches the outer layers of the star and eventually leaves the star and spreads out in non-expanding Spaces 3, 2 and, eventually, being dissipated forever inside expanding VOIDS-SPACE-1.

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6. Black holes

are astronomical local objects that are spread throughout galaxies and superclusters of galaxies that are wrapped around by nonexpanding SPACE-3, or may exist within Spaces 2 and 1.

Black holes come into being by gravity and the expansion of unsaturable SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink]. They act as additional unsaturable sinks to that caused by the expansion of SPACE-1. Like stars and galaxies, black holes cannot be formed without SPACE-1-expansion. Astrophysicists indirectly detect the presence of black holes, which may range from roughly the mass of a few suns to ten billion times greater. Such super-massive ones are, by indirect gravitational evidence, postulated to be in the center of some extremely bright galaxies, including the ‘Milky Way’ and quasars.

Black holes are general relativistic cosmological sinks for all matter-energy arriving and falling into them from nearby stars and any radiation. They are postulated to be highly concentrated, local gravity-sinks where the gravity field is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from them. [There is an unconfirmed speculation that black holes ‘evaporate’. Whether or not this is verified by future science, the outcome would not change the foundations of Gravitism.].

General relativistic cosmology predicts that black holes are one-way sinks in space-time. Some are assumed to be in the center of some galaxies. They may be associated with what is observed and termed quasars. Within a black hole all atomic and sub-atomic structures had already been crushed to become only geometrically-curved space-time. This is due to the extremely strong gravitational field within the black hole. The cause of that total ‘break down’ of all structures is only gravity.

Quasars are assumed to be super massive forms of black holes. Hundreds have been detected by NASA's Spitzer space telescope, which measures infrared light, and by Chandra, which measures X-ray emissions. These quasars are in young (far-away) galaxies that are surrounded by relatively high-density gas that emits X-rays as it is being sucked into and accelerated towards a one-way sink of a massive black hole.

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Dust-gas cloud being destroyed by black hole near our galactic center: The magazine Nature, on December 14, 2011, reported that by using the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope in Chile, a team from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, has been following a cloud of dust-gas that is accelerating in the direction of the black hole in our galactic center: In 2004 the cloud was moving closer to the black hole at 1200 kilometers per second, and by 2011 at 2350 km/sec. Thus, during the next 10 years, the cloud will be gradually falling into our galactic black hole. The black hole would start destroying the cloud in 2013, heating it first by viscosity friction and gravity to millions of degrees C resulting in visible energy outputs. (Our galactic black hole is about 4 million times more massive than the sun and is 27,000 light-years away.). [See footnote 9].

7. Adiabatic Envelopes An adiabatic “wall”, or “surface”, is a physical wall or an imaginary surface through which no NET energy flow takes place. In Fig. 1.2 we mark only three points on such imaginary surfaces, namely, where there is ‘No net energy flow’ across them.

These surfaces wrap around superclusters of galaxies in 3 dimensions. No net energy flow means that radiation [and matter particles] somewhat similar to the ones detected within our solar wind – do not cross such adiabatic surfaces.

The maximum temperature attainable in each galaxy is about the same. It is roughly the same as that generated initially by a supernova and is attributed to: (1) the maximum temperature in stellar cores during fusion in all active stars, (2) The maximum temperature during supernovas explosions. (3) The maximum detectable temperatures attainable by at the external surfaces of quasars or galactic centers that harbor gigantic black holes.

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8. The Solar System

is composed of our sun [picture], the orbiting planets, moons, asteroids, comets, rocks, gases and dust, all bounded together by the COMBINED attractive gravitational field of the sun, ‘our’ galaxy, ‘our’ local group of galaxies, ‘our’ superclusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.3] and the gravitational field of all the masses in the rest of the universe.

The sun, like all active stars, is a self-gravitating massive sphere of sub-atomic particles in a state of hot plasma that is pressed-heated by the attractive force of gravity. It accounts for about 99% of the solar system total mass. Its diameter is about 1.392 million km and is slightly larger than of an average star in ‘our’ Milky Way galaxy.

About 74% of the sun’s mass is hydrogen, with about 25% helium.

Gravity-captured debris [asteroids] from previous generations of earlier gas or stars/supernovas, had started to condense and fall into or orbit the sun, gradually structuring the currently observed solar planets. During more than half of its present age, the universe did not harbor our solar system.

9.

Galactic Centers and Black Holes

The center of our galaxy is called Sagittarius A. It is a source of radio waves that originate from matter heated by viscosity friction and gravity to millions of degrees K as it accelerates and “falls” into a super-massive black hole at our galactic center. [Footnote 6].

Other galactic centers harbor super massive black holes in the range of hundreds of thousands to tens of billions of the mass of the sun. [Footnote 8].

Nearby Systems, somewhat similar to our solar system, are created by supernovas. They are located inside a “Local Bubble” [image] -- a cosmic region within the arm of our galaxy called “Orion-Cygnus”.

Nearest stars include Alpha Centauri, Sirius and Procyon.

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There are about 50 solar-system-likes there.

10.

Symmetry-Asymmetry & Super symmetries

These subjects are treated in Lecture 9. They are further treated in Volume I. At this point we only refer to a claim favored by the main media [Cf. Feynman’s Fooling Assertion in Lecture 9]. It states: If the universe is eternal into the future ‘it must be’ eternal into the past’, or ‘prior to creation’ [the “big-bang”], there must have been a ‘symmetric’ contraction into an ‘all-containing’ black hole.. As the density “had” increased during that ‘pre-creation’ contraction, gigantic black holes are claimed to be formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they had switched to expansion, and only one of them has turned into “our expanding universe”.

Upcoming tests at CERN [Lecture 3], the Planck Satellite and the ground-based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, may reveal slight variations in gravitational radiation that is claimed to be associated with such postulated effects, say, on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation.

11. Merging-Colliding Galaxies Billions of sun-like stars collide when two galaxies ‘merge’. The rate of galactic collisions was much higher in the past, mainly because the galaxies were closer to each other. Our galaxy is predicted by some models to collide with the Andromeda galaxy in about 5 billion years;

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NASA's Kepler Space Craft found more than 1,000 new planet candidates for harboring life. [Announced on Dec. 5, 2011]. One candidate orbits a star like the sun.

13. Star-Forming Regions in Our Galaxy The record on the right was made in 2011 by NASA/ESA/Hubble Heritage Team. It shows a dark ring of dust and gas circling a star (dark bands, center) in a star-forming region in our galaxy, about 2000 light-years away from us.

L ecture 2 The ORIGIN and NATURE of TIME 61

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ime is the most subtle of all concepts; but for the uninformed it is the

most trivial.

WORLD TIME and HUMAN TIME OUR HISTORICAL TIME MODEL, IN SECONDS, Minutes, Hours and Years, is misleading in the philosophy of time and science; it is grounded on a day-night rotation of earth around the sun; both of which had not existed during more than half the ‘age’ of the universe. [Lectures 1 and 5].

The seeds of human time and world history are one: The universe itself, from its beginning. The universe is expanding [Lecture 1] and as such it generates only one clock, the sole universal history that is totally objective and scientific.

Study on the Origin and Nature of Time

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tudying time is not only the most fundamental and interconnecting

subject in physics and philosophy of science, but it covers subjects like spacetime, curved space-time, cosmology, symmetry asymmetry, thermodynamics, entropy, arrows of time, biological clocks, evolution, history, gravity-induced geological time, social dynamics and religious aspirations. Studying time is therefore considered the most essential knowledge in both science and religion.

Since the subject is discussed in Volumes I, II and in this Volume III, we terminate this lecture here except the Footnote below.

Footnote to Lecture 2 Greek Philosophers dealing with the concept time include Sophocles, Thales, Zeno, Anaximander, Archytas and Plato. [Volume I at 441].

Aristotle, for instance, assumed that time had no beginning. He wrongly claimed that we can always imagine an earlier time.

Biblical time is discussed in Volume I at 440.

Plotinus, Crescas, Saadia, Maimonides and Albo are discussed in Volume I at 442.

Aquinas, for instance, stated that past time is finite and that our imagination can’t always be relied on.

Spinoza stated that there was no time before genesis.

Kant argued that this is not an empirical matter.

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Additional philosophers dealing with the subject are discussed in Volume I at pp. 441 to 454 Lecture 5 below demonstrates the empirical fact that the past is finite: Physical time began 13.7 billion years ago.

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L ecture 3 Physics: What next?

PART I The right to search for truth implies also a duty. One must not conceal any part of what one has recognized to be true.

Albert Einstein

From Wikipedia: Peter Woit [right] is critical of string theory on the grounds that it lacks testable predictions and is promoted with public money despite its failures. He claims that excessive media attention and funding of this one particular speculative mainstream endeavor risks undermining public faith in the freedom of scientific research. His moderated weblog on string theory and other topics is titled "Not Even Wrong," Wolfgang Pauli's term for scientifically useless speculative theories.

"For the last eighteen years particle theory has been dominated by a single approach to the unification of the Standard Model interactions and quantum gravity. This line of thought has hardened into a new orthodoxy that postulates an unknown fundamental supersymmetric theory involving strings and other degrees of freedom with characteristic scale around the Planck length. [...] It is a striking fact that there is absolutely no evidence whatsoever for this complex and unattractive conjectural theory. There is not even a serious proposal for what the dynamics of the fundamental

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‘M-theory’ is supposed to be or any reason at all to believe that its dynamics would produce a vacuum state with the desired properties.

Lee Smoilin’s 2006 book The Trouble With Physics deals with the problems with string theory. SubtitledThe Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next, the book strongly criticizes string theory and its prominence in contemporarytheoretical physics, on the grounds that string theory has yet to come up with a single prediction that can be verified using any technology that is likely to be feasible within our lifetimes. Smolin also focuses on the difficulties faced by research in quantum gravity, and by current efforts to come up with a theory explaining all four fundamental interactions. More generally, the book is broadly concerned with the role of controversy and diversity of approaches in scientific processes and ethics.

Smolin suggests both that there appear to be serious deficiencies in string theory and that string theory has an unhealthy near-monopoly on fundamental physics in the United States, and that a diversity of approaches is needed. He argues that more attention should instead be paid to background-independent theories of quantum gravity.

In the book, Smolin controversially claims that string theory makes no new testable predictions;[1] that it has no coherent mathematical formulation; and that it has not been mathematically proved finite.[2] Some experts in the theoretical physics community disagree with these statements.[3][4] Smolin states that to propose a string theory landscape having up to 10500 string vacuum solutions is tantamount to abandoning accepted science: The scenario of many unobserved universes plays the same logical role as the scenario of an intelligent designer.”

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Assertion 3.1

ithin

a

2010

Conference in N.Y., NoblePrize winner David Gross, called multi-universes assertions in physics speculative and added that such talk of other universes "does bear some resemblance to talking about angels."

(Reported in 2010 by Scientific American.)

HONEST RELOOK: No theory is too sacrosanct to prevent periodic re-assessments of its soundness on any scale of observation.

A serious attitude in science premises willingness to submit any theory to unequivocal, verifiable test. And if that is impossible, the so-called theory may be a mathematical music , faith or a dogma subject to Feynman Fooling Assertion [Lecture 9]; This honest relook is the first and foremost duty of a theorist to himself, to his fellow scientists, and to the media and the next generation.

Hawking’s festival with the media and the masses intimidates many shy-awayfrom-the-media scientists, mainly by his relentless pushing the image of science far into mysticism and a misleading populism that exploit the layperson ignorance of what is verifiable science.

But the root problem in theoretical physics today is not Hawking but the many opportunistic scientists that support and exploit such abuses of verifiable science.

Without their support the media would have failed to make an icon out of this false prophet; would at least resort to the audacity of truth: The entire Hawking festival does not even rise to the level of being wrong in the domain of verifiable science.

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An unknown personal fact is added next: The journal Nature was among the first to publish a review on Volume I, which, inter alia, contains strong criticism of Stephen Hawking’s theories as lacking any possible future verification and some are not his but of J. D. Beckenstein.

That review was written by Hawking, who hinted there that instead of my noteasy-to-understand book [incorporating, inter alia, hundreds of general relativity and classical physics mathematical equations], he would write one for the masses, which he did next while adopting much of the book’s general approach and omitting all mathematical equations, but adding mysticism.

[NOTES: As far as I know some key Hawking's claims were first ridiculed by Yuval Neeman [right]. These preliminary notes were first published on Nov. 12, 2010 by the “NOT EVEN WRONG” website maintained by P. Woit, following his famous book “Not Even Wrong: The failure of string theory”.

New York: Basic Books (2006).].

Y

oichiro Nambu won the

Nobel Prize for introducing spontaneous broken symmetry, while Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa shared it for dealing with CP symmetry breaking.

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I

n 1979 Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg won the Nobel

Prize in physics for developing the electroweak theory that unifies the electromagnetic and week interactions. [See Footnotes]. According to their theory both interactions have about the same strength at very high energies.

The combination of the electroweak interaction via Quantum Chromodynamics [Volume I] and the strong interactions, is termed THE STANDARD MODEL, which, however, does not include the gravitational field-force3.3 and it has not explained, say, why the point-like photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons do.

The origin of the masses of W and Z has been treated by postulating the existence of the hypothetical Higgs Boson, which, however, has not yet been verified experimentally, despite an optimistic announcement by CERN on Dec. 13, 2011.

Theorists may therefore face the option that the Higgs boson will not be verified.

While alternatives have been proposed (“Higgsless Models”). the no-Higgsoption breaks the “spontaneous symmetry breaking” -- a central pillar of quantum physics [70] – whose failures signal fundamental consequences and challenges.

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Without the concept “spontaneous symmetry breaking”, the STANDARD MODEL [70], contrary to fact, predicts that the W and Z bosons would harbor no mass -- a major failure of theoretical quantum physics and, possibly, some related string theories and cosmological models. [Lecture 4].

Fig. 3.1: Efforts at CERN to detect the Higgs have reached 96% confidence level on Dec. 13, 2011; yet there is no unequivocal verification.

The origin of the masses of W and Z has been treated by postulating the existence of a hypothetical Higgs Boson, which, however, has not yet been verified experimentally. However, such efforts continue at CERN. But if the Higgs boson is not verified, “spontaneous symmetry breaking” fails.

Results from July 2011 have extended the excluded region to the range 156 GeV/c2 - 177 GeV/c2 at a 90% confidence level. Data collection and analysis in search of Higgs are now intensifying. Preliminary results from the ATLAS and CMS detectors at the LHC at CERN, as of July 2011, exclude a Standard Model Higgs boson in the mass range 155 GeV/c2 - 190 GeV/c2[ and 149 GeV/c2 - 206 GeV/c2, respectively, at a the origin of all asymmetries in Nature 95% confidence level.

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Quantum physics super-symmetry potential failure regarding the origin of anti-symmetry is not dissociated from another “symmetry breaking” in the domains of dynamics and thermodynamics, as had been advocated mainly by Nobel Laureate I. Prigogine.

W

hile Prigogine won the Noble in chemistry for his well-advertized

formalism in converting space-time symmetric equations of physics to antiasymmetric Thermodynamics [13], he has failed to prove how asymmetry [irreversibility] emerges from the symmetric [reversible] mathematical equations of all physics.

To by-pass this problem, Prigogine smuggled asymmetry in without declaring the contraband, simply by resorting to two misleading words: “Symmetry breaking”, and got the Nobel.

In contrasting Prigogine during the historic Pittsburgh Conference on Classical and Relativistic Thermodynamics [13], we maintained that our Relativistic THERMODYNAMICS has not only been mathematically-derived [Volume I, Lecture VI], from Einstein Field Equations, but has predicted new results concerning fluid dynamics, bulk viscosity and cosmological models.

In a nutshell, what are the fundamental issues involved?

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instein’s Field Equations accept no static large-scale solutions. This

conclusion is widely accepted and well proven. And it means that EFE provide scale-free, verified, and most reliable framework to prove the single origin of “symmetry breaking”, the asymmetric nature of time and anti-symmetry curved space-time in the actual world. Hence, our claim is deeply rooted in General Relativity [Footnote 1.1, Lectures 3 and 4]. Why? Starting from symmetric EFE energy-momentum tensor, with symmetric conservation equations we introduce the standard symmetric cosmological metric of curved space-time we provide the mathematical proof of how fundamental dynamics and thermodynamics are deduced from EFE [Vol. I, Lecture VI]. The new Thermo is thus entropy-free. While entropy can remain a useful model-variable in steam maps and air conditioning, it is not required in theoretical physics and the philosophy of science.

Accordingly, science does not fundamentally require the popular use of the anthropomorphic concept “entropy” partly because it is neither physicallysound mass-energy-momentum, nor an integral component of deterministic gravity physics.

To proceed we connect the dots. The failures of probabilistic quantum physics and Prigogine-type macro-dynamics and thermodynamics are linked.

Secondly, we claim that all asymmetries observed in Nature have been caused by a single observed cosmological fact detailed in Ref. 13 and revisited herein.

We therefore maintain that all asymmetries must be united under a single MASTER ASYMMETRY of Nature, before one attempts to unify symmetric

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equations f proposed Grand Unified Theories [GUT], string theories and the socalled “Theory of Everything”. [Lecture 4].

A

ssessing this situation, we maintain that some enthusiastic physicists of

GUT and TOE have been fooling themselves for decades with various circular games of smuggling asymmetry; partly in line with the Feynman’s Fooling Assertion [Lecture 9].

For some reasons, and despite initial acclaims [Reviews], the new theory and outlook did not catch up with main stream physics. But with the crisis in the domains of string theories, GUT, TOE, the standard model, dark matter and dark energy, the probability of reassessment has increased.

A Glossary of the main terms, records, maps and diagrams used in that theory and philosophy of physics and mathematics has been introduced in the Introduction and Lectures 1 and 2. This Lecture is essentially composed of footnotes and a few notes blow.

Our Empirical Base is well measured astronomical entities ranging from superclusters of galaxies to the solar system, their locations, dynamics and chemical composition, especially those involving large-scale energy-dissipation in expanding voids between superclusters of galaxies [Figs. 1.1 to 1.5, Lecture 1], represent what we claim is the cause of the 2nd Law of thermodynamics.

[13].

Despite many claims for success, none has yet succeeded to derive and prove the origin of irreversibility in nature – or the Master Time Asymmetry from 73

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symmetric mathematical equations of statistics and probabilities, where retrodiction is precisely symmetric to prediction – or by starting from symmetric partial differential equations, say of electromagnetism3.1 (Cf. the Einstein-Ritz controversy [1]) and integro-differential equations-solutions that are ‘man-forced’ to evolve only in the positive time direction.

Without paying much thought we often use “INITIAL CONDITIONS” in theoretical physics, engineering and computer modeling. The error so introduced is that we a priori reject the symmetric FINAL CONDITIONS, thereby we end ‘up’ with, say, retarded solutions in electromagnetism, because we with the results to agree with observations of emitter vs. absorber while rejecting, or intentionally ignoring the ADVANCED SOLUTIONS -- which do not agree with observations. That is fooling ourselves if we do not declare that this act is NOT a proof.

Assertion: To smuggle irreversibility into symmetric-reversible equations of physics, without declaring the contraband, is not even wrong.

But there are other important aspect to that debate: Prigogine’s Lectures and publications on socio-dynamics should be re-assessed. We return to this critical issue in Lecture 7.

A

n unknown source that may be referred to as ‘logical’, ‘aesthetic’,

‘inner wish’, or ‘religious’, is driving human will to unify all fundamental forces of nature and fuse them into a single verifiable outlook, or ‘unified field equations’ that are based on the minimal possible number of axioms while explaining the maximum number of verified facts.

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The rest of this lecture contains only references to footnotes, which are designed to help comprehending the key foundations of Gravitism. There is nothing new in the footnotes, except, perhaps, some within footnotes 3.4 and 3.5. A few words of introduction are nevertheless used next.

Gravitation reigns superb and controls all macro systems in nature. It is best explained by General Relativity and Einstein’s Field Equations. (Footnotes 1.1 and 3.3). Gravitation is manifested by a relatively small force value on earth, in comparison with the other three fundamental interactions of nature. But it may be contended to increase with decreasing distances in subatomic scales of nature, namely, as one gets closer to the Planck distance, which is about 15 orders of magnitude below all current and expected abilities of science to test it.

Evidence is gradually mounting that at hyper high energies and very small subatomic distances, the fundamental forces-interactions are unified. Said forces are referred to as field interactions and are four in number and three with the unification of the electromagnetic-weak interaction, viz. the: The Electromagnetic-Weak force-field-interaction is at the base of all chemistry, electronics, astronomy, radioactive decay, etc. It binds atoms together to form molecules3.1. At low energies the electromagnetic force-field-interaction ‘separates’ from the weak, thereby physics end-up with four fundamental forces-interactions of nature.

The Strong Force is at the base of subatomic, quantum physics. [Lecture 3].3.2

FOOTNOTES AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS for Lecture 3

3.1 Electromagnetic-Weak Force-Field-Interaction.

Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject.

Beyond it one may consult Footnotes 3.2 to 3.5 and Volume I. 75

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The electromagnetic force binds atoms together to form molecules. It is about hundred times weaker than the strong force.3.2 Field-Force-Interactions are postulated to emit and absorb massless, point-like, field particles like the photons of light and some other field particles3.2 Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for developing the electroweak theory that unifies the electromagnetic and week interactions. Inter alia it predicted the existence of the W and Z BOSONS at very high energies: About 82 Gev/c2 for W [verified later at 80.4 Gev/c2 ] and about 93 Gev/c2 for Z [verified later at 91.2 Gev/c2 ].

According to their theory both interactions have about the same strength at very high energies. The combination of the electroweak theory with Quantum Chromodynamics [QCD] for the strong interactions is termed THE STANDARD MODEL, which, however, does not include the gravitational field-force3.3 and it has not explained, say, why the point-like photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons do.

RECAP: Without “spontaneous symmetry breaking”, the STANDARD MODEL, contrary to fact, predicts that the W and Z bosons would harbor no mass -- a major failure of the theory. Yet, various alternatives have been proposed, but without experimental supporting evidence.

This general subject also involves (at high energies) the long-range electromagnetic field-force-interactions with the Weak Force, as a short-range force-field-interaction that harbors some radioactive decay processes. At low energies it constitutes the fourth fundamental force-field in modern physics.

Gluons3.2 are postulated to mediate the strong force3.2, while specific bosons ‘mediate’ the weak force. [Gravitons have also been proposed by theorists to ‘mediate’ the gravitational force-field3.3.]

3.2 The Strong Force-Field-Interaction.

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Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it one may consult Footnotes 3.1 and 3.3 to 3.5 and Volume I, especially for some hot debates and specific disputations in physics.

The strong force is an attractive force between sub-atomic nucleons. It is a very short-range force-field-interaction. Its magnitude is negligible in ranges greater than about 10-15 meter. (About the size of the atomic nucleus). It increases in sub-atomic separation distances and is ‘mediated’ by massless field-particles called Gluons.

Gluons ‘mediate’ the strong force that binds/confines quarks (see below) inside protons and neutrons. I.e., each quark in a proton or neutron is continuously emitting and absorbing gluons. The energy of a gluon can generate quark-antiquark pairs, like the creation of electron-positron pairs. When a quark emits or absorbs a gluon, the quark’s color charge (see below) may change.

Hadrons are sub-atomic entities that are not massless field particles, like the photon and the gluon. These sub-atomic particles interact through the strong force. A hadron is a complex particle that has size and structure, namely, it is a composite system of sub-atomic particles. Hadrons are, therefore, ‘nonelementary-particles’. They are composed of Fermions (quarks) [see below] and antiquarks.

Hadrons are of two types: Baryons [Fermions], that have masses equal to or larger than that of the proton, and Mesons [Bosons] [having 0 or 1 spin]. They interact via all forces. Hadrons have quantum numbers: Spin, parity and mass. In addition they carry “flavor” quantum numbers such as isospin (or G-parity) and a ‘property’ called strangeness. Hadrons are single excitations in QCD, which predicts that quarks and gluons interact weakly. This ‘property’, which is called ‘asymptotic freedom’, has been experimentally confirmed at large energy levels.

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Leptons have no inner structure, or size; namely, they are point-like fieldparticles of quantum physics -- a lacuna that some hope to be resolved by string theories4.6-4.11 All leptons have spin ½ and do not interact through the strong force. The following types are considered in quantum physics: Electrons, muons, taus and three types of neutrinos.

Messons are: Kaon, Pion, Eta; Baryons are: Proton, Neutron, Omega, Lambda, Sigma, and Delta Xi. The Kaon, lambda and sigma particles exhibit unusual ‘properties’, e.g. they are produced in pairs when created or decayed slowly, hence are called ‘strange particles’.

The Quark Model. Strong interaction that binds subatomic particles together is described by QCD. Quark gluons are gauge bosons in QCD. According to it quarks have a ‘property’ called color charge and the force between quarks is the strong force or the color charge, which may be due to gluon exchanges between hadrons.

Quarks are dividable into six flavors: up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top, and their antiquarks. Quarks harbor fractional electric charge and are NOT found free in nature. The up, charmed, and top quarks have electric charges of +2/3 that of the proton. The down, strange and bottom quarks have charges of – 1/3 that of the proton. Protons consist of 2 up and 1 down quarks, whereas neutrons consist of 2 down and 1up quarks.

Quarks are also identified by three ‘colors’: red, green, and blue. The masses of the heavy charm and bottom quarks are obtained from the masses of hadrons containing a single heavy quark and 1 light antiquark, or 2 light quarks.

Particles with the same color charge repel, while the ones with opposite color charge attract. A collection of, say, red, blue and green quarks attract each other to form baryons. Every baryon contains three quarks. A residual force between them is the force that binds protons and neutrons to form the atomic nuclei. Quarks and gluons are assumed to be combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons, when the universe was dominated by photons (with a minor contribution from neutrinos).

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3.3 The Gravitational Field-Force-Interaction Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it, one may consult Footnotes 1.1, 3.1 to 3.5, and Volume I.

Einstein’s General Relativity [EGR] is based on the principle of equivalence between gravity and acceleration, and on the axiom that all laws of nature are exactly the same for any observer. The fundamental laws may therefore be expressed as metric tensors [see below] and remain invariant [symmetric3.4] for, say, observers at rest, rotating, accelerating and standing on a small or a massive star.

It is indisputable today that Einstein’s Field Equations [EFE] constitute the scale-free EGR. EFE are based on the stress tensor and the Riemannian geometry of curved space-time. [Volume I] and consists of a set of 10 non-linear differential equations. Mathematical solutions of EFE are the components of the metric tensor that describes geometry of curved space-time at any point.

Gravitation is a force-field-interaction that penetrates all and controls macro phenomena in the entire cosmos, at any time, location and scale.

Gravity and SPACE-1-expansion generate thermodynamics [Lecture 1] and control all galaxies, stars, supernova explosions, planets, moons, black holes, and quasars. [Lecture 1, Footnotes]. It is expressed by the deterministic, Einsteinian, tensorial, field equations, known also as Gravity Physics.

Gravity is a long-range force that penetrates everything. It is produced by any mass-energy aggregation that curves space-time. Gravity thus bends the path of light near massive astronomical entities -- the greater the mass-energy, the greater is the degree of light [space-time] bending. This bending is the manifestation of curved space-time.

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The greater the mass of a star, the greater is the local curvature of space-time.

Therefore, magnifying gravitational lens [Footnote 1.1] is used in astronomy when the incoming radiation to the telescope has, on its way to earth, passed ‘near’ a collection [cluster] of massive galaxies and/or massive stars. Such gravitational lens is used to observe the “dark age” in astronomy, namely, when the age of the universe was about 300,000 to 500,000 sun-earth years. This is an important cosmic age during which the universe had become transparent for the first time and gravity-induced structures had first been generated.

Gravity keeps earth and planets in orbit around the sun; causing tides; generating fluid flow under a temperature gradient and is heating the interiors of stars and planets under its compressive attractive force, until, at sufficiently high temperature, it ignites thermo-nuclear fusion [Lecture 1].

Time, as treated by general relativistic cosmology, is slowed down ‘near’ and by large galaxies and massive stars. This effect is in addition to time effects treated by special relativity [1].

Once EGR-outlook is adopted, the gate is opened to many interconnections: First, the whole world, or any part of it, at very high energies and very small distances, may be treated as a unified system composed of nothing but dynamically curved space-time. [Vol. I at p. 41] Secondly, the order and connection of fundamental ideas often follows the order of and connection to things; from large cosmological structures to small, macro-ones, like humans.

Thirdly, all reality, unlike what is sensed by the human mind, is nothing but EGR-induced, deterministic, symmetry-asymmetry space-time at four or higher dimensions. [Lecture 4].

Special relativity rules superb not only in any (non-accelerating) system, but also in probabilistic, quantum micro-physics. The theory is limited to non80

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gravitating systems [Ref. 1]. Unlike quantum microphysics, both special and general relativity are strictly deterministic.

When first applied to cosmology, around 1919, EGR predicted the expansion [or contraction] of the universe, a phenomenon that was later confirmed by observation in the 20s by the American astronomer E. Hubble. What Hubble measured is an increase in all distances between clusters and superclusters of galaxies (Fig. 1.2; Figs. 1.1 and 1.2).

The further the observed cluster, or super-clusters of galaxies, the greater is its speed of recession from us, or from any location in the cosmos. [Cf. the three thought experiments in Lecture 1.].

Newtonian gravity is included in EGR as an approximation for relatively weak gravitational fields, like that on earth. It rules superb in controlling tides, geological strata, generation of mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes, ponds, oceans, city and village structures, transportation systems, the solar system, and many human concepts. [Lecture 7.]. It also explains how gravity controls the solar system1.1 and the structures of planets, moons and smaller objects.

Isaac Newton Mathematical derivations of both special and general relativity are provided in Volume I, which also describes the key measurement methods of astronomical distances.

3.4

Asymmetry-Symmetry Revisited

There is a great confusion in physics concerning fundamental vs. primitive symmetries, gauge symmetry, supersymmetry and the master time asymmetry.

[Lecture 1].

We first note the importance of symmetry in the formulations of verified fundamental forces-fields-interactions3.1; 3.2; 3.3, where one can find theories 81

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expressed by Lagrangians that remain invariant under certain symmetry operations.

When such physico-mathematical operations are invariant under a transformation that is performed at any point in space, they are referred to as harboring a global symmetry, which becomes a local symmetry when fixed in space-time as a generalization of the equivalence principle of EGR3.3; 3.5.

Supersymmetry in Supersymmetry theories is that for every particle a SuperPartner exists; i.e., quark v. squark. [Lecture 4].

The importance of gauge symmetries may be illustrated by relativistic quantum mechanics of the electrons. In quantum physics3.2, symmetry is often referred to as a transformation between states that preserve the expectation values of all observables.

String theories [Lecture 4], and some attempts to re-formulate EGR [References], may be expressed as gauge theories [Volume I].

Gauge theories involve renormalizable operations3.5 in which symmetry transformations can be conducted locally as well as globally.

A key notion of Gravitism states that all fundamental laws of physics, except the 2nd law of thermodynamics, are space and time symmetric. Namely, there is no distinction between any direction in space and in time.

Gravitism means that the 2nd law of thermodynamics [Lecture 1] rules the observed asymmetric time coordinate, allowing it to be extended only from past to future, and never in reverse.

This Rule is thus termed ‘Time Asymmetry’. Indeed, false past claims of the 2nd law of thermodynamics proclaim, inter alia: ‘Entropy of the universe only increases’, a fallacy proved in Volume I and by endless observations of gravityinduced structuring and ‘order’ in the universe. [Lectures 6 and 8].

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All ‘exact’ sciences can be reduced to Physics, and all physics to the fundamental fields-forces-interactions [at high energies/short distances] electroweak3.1, strong3.2 and gravitational3.3.

In turn, these are expressed in terms of the mathematics of curved space-time in which there is no distinction between any direction (a plus or a minus coordinate) in space and in time, namely, all basic equations of physics (except the 2nd law of thermodynamics), are strictly symmetric in time and space or in curved space-time coordinates.

In the observed (macro) world, there is a clash between the aforementioned theoretical symmetry and the actual time asymmetries found in nature. This result is based on the fact that all processes in nature are irreversible and pointing from past to future, and never in reverse.

That ‘arrow of time’ is an optional fundamental expression of the 2nd law of thermodynamics. In turn, any solution of the three symmetric fundamental forces, say, as integro-differential equations that can and ARE to be compared with verifiable observations, is subject to the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics (in the macro world).

Finally, to conclude this footnote, and proceed to footnote 3.5, we stress again that there are different time asymmetries, e.g.: • • • • •

The cosmological, thermodynamic, electromagnetic, linguistic Other gravity-induced asymmetries (or arrows of time).

The central issue raised by Gravitism is therefore: Which one generates and controls the others?

What is the origin of the aforementioned confusion in physics?

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3.2

Unification Failures

Beyond the unifying the weak and electromagnetic fields-forces-interactions3.1, other attempts to unify the fundamental forces-fields-interactions in physics3.1, .3.2, 3.3 have failed. [Lecture 4].

We assert that the key reasons for said failures are attempts to unify fieldsforces-interactions first by inconsistently mixing mathematically symmetric with asymmetric equations, instead of first consistently unifying time asymmetries based on verified facts. [Volume I].

It may be noted that Einstein was isolated in his attempts to develop unified physics via relativistic unified field theories that are based on deterministic gravitation. Part of that was due to his consistent claim that quantum theories are incomplete and would, in due time, be replaced by an ultimate, deterministic, unified theory of physics.

It is indisputable today that Einstein’s Field Equations constitute the single, best, scale-free, universal and verified theory of gravitation that physics has ever provided.

Following Einstein’s publication (1915) and later verifications of EFA by astronomical observations, Einstein had focused first on unification of the gravitational and electromagnetic fields-forces-interactions3.1; 3.3. However, it has turned out that ordinary Riemannian theory cannot exhibit the electromagnetic field-force-interaction as a purely geometric phenomenon [Ref 1].

During Einstein’s life time the strong field-force-interaction3.2 was not yet formulated as it currently stands. Many theorists focus today on a reversed effort: Develop a quantum theory of gravitation, or quantum gravity, etc. But so far these efforts have failed. [Lecture 4].Some reputed past theorists, including Erwin Schrödinger, Arthur Eddington, Theodor Kaluza and Herman Weyl, have tried, in vain, during Einstein’s life time, to unify the fundamental forces.

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For instance, Erwin Schrödinger investigated pure-affine formulations of generalized gravitational theory, assuming, initially, a symmetric affine connection. But he later changed his efforts to a nonsymmetrical mathematics.

Nonetheless, skepticism from Einstein discouraged him, and his work has been largely ignored.

Einstein continued to work, in vain, until his death, on unified field theories of gravity and electromagnetism. However, he became isolated for his efforts ignored the quantum theories of his time.

Nonetheless, many contemporary theorists have changed their mind about Einstein’s reserved attitude towards quantum theories, at least by admitting that quantum theories are not complete for they do not incorporate the field of gravitation and also harbor serious fundamental problems. This change of mind has led, since Einstein’s death, to numerous efforts to verify a single, reliable, verifiable string theory, all in vain. [Lecture4].

In the past, to incorporate electromagnetism in general relativity, Weyl generalized the Riemannian geometry by adding degrees of freedom between two points in locally sized measures along a path, in terms of a gauge and vector fields, thereby unifying electromagnetic and gravitational fields. Weyl corresponded with Einstein about his theory, which, eventually, has turned out to be non-physical. Nevertheless, his gauge invariance was later applied in quantum filed theory. [Volume I]. Kaluza's approach to unification was to resort to a single time and four space dimensions. Riemannian geometry was maintained and the extra dimension allowed incorporating the electromagnetic field vector into modified EFE. But, again, his theory did not meet verifiable science criteria. Nevertheless, it influenced Einstein's later work [Ref. 1] and was further developed later by Klein in an attempt to unify relativity with quantum theory, again in vain. Another approach that has not succeeded is termed the Lancelot Law Whyte's unitary field theory. Affine connection is the basis of Eddington’s approach that resorts to parallel transport of vectors from one space-time point to another; assuming it to be symmetric in its covariant form. Since the simplest cosmological model emerging from Eddington’s equations is symmetric, Eddington’s theory has failed in the face of evolving cosmological-astronomical evidence.

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These attempts have eventually centered on treating both the metric tensor and the affine connection as fundamental fields. In general relativity, these are symmetric, but since actual electromagnetism harbors asymmetry, the mixing issue arises again. In such field theories sub-atomic particles -- the domain of quantum theories -- appear as regions in curved space-time in which energy density is very high. Einstein and coworker Leopold Infeld had demonstrated that, in the unified field, singularities may harbor ‘point particles’3.2. However, singularities are points where the equations may not be valid.

The Standard Model [70]3.2 unifies the description of electromagnetism, weak interactions and strong interactions in the language of gauge theory.

Quantum Chromo Dynamics [Volume I] is a gauge theory with action of SU(3) on the color triplet of quarks3.2. Non-abelian gauge theories involve asymptotic freedom in strong interactions3.2. The importance of gauge theories is in allowing unification of quantum filed theories of electromagnetism3.1 with the weak and the strong forces in the Standard Model, which accurately predicts experimental observations regarding three of the four fundamental forces of nature. For more information see Refs. 53 and 60.

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L ecture 4 Physics; What next?

PART II

W

hat it means for physics, science, philosophy of science and

education – The BIG FOUR -- if the Higgs sub-atomic particle is confirmed or not?

The answer is grounded on at least 11 arrows of scale vs. returned meaning, as described below: 1.

Superclusters of galaxies [Lecture 1]

2.

Galaxies [Lecture 1 and Volume I] 87

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3.

Stars [Lecture 1 and Volume I]

4.

Solar system [Lecture 1 and Volume I]

5.

Earth [Lecture 1 and Volume I]

6.

Molecules, biological cells and crystals [Volume I]

7.

Atoms [Lecture 3 and Volume I]

8.

Sub-atomic layer #1 [Lecture 3 and Volume I]

9.

Subatomic layer # 2 [Lecture 3 and Volume I]

10.

Subatomic layer # 3 [Lectures 3 and 4]

11.

Subatomic layer at the Planck Scale [Lecture 4].

The December 13, 2011 CERN Announcement about the Higgs sub-atomic particle raises ‘scale vs. meaning’ issues regarding scale-levels 9 to 11.

But since sub-atomic layer 11 is 15 orders of magnitude below the detecting ability of CERN [Lecture 4], it may be sub-scaled into 14 additional subatomic scale layers, down to the speculated strings and membranes of the various string theories and “Theories of Everything”. And perhaps there would be no end to downscaling with ever-diminishing returns for the BIG FOUR. It is a noble hope of unification of all interactions, but of no symmetrical weight in comparison with larger scales 1 to 9. But there is more to it.

No theory is too sacrosanct to prevent testing and periodic re-assessments of its soundness on any scale. A serious attitude in science premises willingness to submit any theory to unequivocal, verifiable test. And if that is impossible, as at one point it would for smaller-scale, sub-atomic layers, the so-called theory may be a mathematical music, faith or dogma subject to Feynman Fooling Assertion [Lecture 9 and Assertion 3.1]; This honest relook is the first and foremost duty of a theorist to himself, to his fellow scientists, and to the media and the next generation.

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espite decades of intensive attempts to provide experimental proof of

the variously proposed string theories, as conducted by many able theorists around the world, there is not a single verification test that the proposed string theories can be unequivocally confirmed by test or observation, or by predicting new entities and thus unifying physics, as claimed by its proponents.

In fact, no string theory version has yet made a prediction that differs from those made by other theories.

While different formulations of string theories have survived mathematical challenges, each solution represents an entire set of unverifiable predictions [53].

Accordingly, the proclaimed “Theory of Everything” is misleading and is not considered scientific, as claimed by Ref. 53.

In addition, the proponents of string theories often smuggle into their formulations what they wish to prove.3.4 We therefore conclude that whatever the future holds for string theories, they have become interesting mathematical exercises within a very active branch of theoretical physics [59], a branch that, in part, had originated from Einstein’s quest for a unified field theory of gravity3.5 and quantum physics.3.2 The first to add a fifth dimension to Einstein's Field equations [EFE] were Theodor Kaluza (in 1919) and Oskar Klein (in 1926)3.5. These attempts attracted Einstein’s attention in his work to develop a unified field theory. But Einstein died prior to being successful in this domain.

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“Hidden Variables” play key roles in extra 6, 7 or higher dimensions that are postulated by various string theories [Lecture 3], namely, beyond the familiar four space-time dimensions of relativity3.3.

Postulated by Einstein [Ref 1] and David Bohm, the general idea of ‘hidden variables’ is still driving string theorists in their noble attempts to by-pass the highly disputed point-like feathers of ‘particles’ in current, yet still evolving, quantum physics3.2. Such attempts may allow theorists to get closer to Einstein’s famous hope: “It is only in the quantum theory that Newton’s differential method becomes inadequate, and indeed strict causality fails us. But the last word has not yet been said.

May the spirit of Newton’s method give the power to restore unison between physical reality and the profoundest characteristics of Newton’s teaching-strict causality.”

Albert Einstein Indeed, up to the end of his life, Einstein consistently explained that probabilistic quantum theories are incomplete, a fact indirectly acknowledged by stringtheories proponents who seek to remedy that dispute in physics3.2, 3.5. For more disciplinary information one may consult References 11, 26, 48, 51, 53, 58-110.

Recap: Any reasonably expected experimental technique of science cannot provide verification of anything at about 15 orders of magnitude below its current capability – as the needed small scale to verify string theories, and perhaps with no ending down the scale of small-size physics.

This fact confronts the proponents of string theories, who claim, inter alia, that, at extremely small, sub-sub-sub-atomic scales, 15 orders of magnitude below direct testability, all fundamental field-forces-interactions3.1, 3.2, 3..3 consist of vibrating strings, closed or open, or membranes.

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Indeed, the spectrum, or ‘zoo’, of such ‘entities’ may (mathematically) be represented by tiny vibrating strings that, by altering their mode of vibration, transform, say, an electron into a neutrino, a quark, or other particles3.2, while causing space-time to curve around these entities so as to give rise to Einsteinian relativistic gravity 3.3.

Some string-theories proponents also claim that prior to verified physical Genesis [the so-called Big Bang], a Pre-Genesis-World had turned into a very massive black hole, that, at the very instant of the Big bang, became a white hole that has since generated endless other ‘universes’, while ours is just one of them – indeed, a beautiful mathematical-configurational music.

M-Theory [Lecture 3] harbors an almost infinite number of versions, which "predict" an almost infinite number of possible universes. Critics call this the "Alice's restaurant problem" a reference to the folk song: "You can get anything you want at Alice's restaurant." And conclude that a theory that predicts everything, like the ‘Theory of Everything’ that S. Hawking is advocating, does in fact predicts nothing, and is therefore not a theory at all.

M-Theory postulates ‘Landscapes-Inside-landscapes’ in 10, 11 or 26 dimensions that harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes.

Investigating how a string theory may include fermions3.2 has led to the concept of supersymmetry, a collection of postulates relating bosons and fermions3.2 (every particle has superpartner that is not observable). Such superpartners may be called squarks, selectrons and gluinos.

The theoretical limit of the M-theory infers that protons, electrons, neutrons and their antimatter counterparts, may be converted to photons and then converted to other particles, i.e., to particles such as protons that may be changed to other particles, such as electrons. For more information one may consult References 11, 26, 48, 51, 53 and 58-69.

D-Branes in String Theories are membranes (in short ‘branes’) of different dimensionalities. These unobservable membranes are postulated as optional 91

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gravitational sources so that one may end-up with a modified gravitational theory within the framework of quantum gravity3.5. The concept supersymmetry [Volume I] may then apply between forces and matter for closed or open strings.

These postulated strings emit and absorb closed strings and are further postulated to emit gravitons3.3 and charge3.2, since they emit closed strings, which are gauge bosons.3.2 The imaginary strings are also postulated to contract to minimize their potential energy. But conservation of energy prevents them from disappearing. Instead they are further postulated to oscillate-vibrate.

By pre-assuming vibrating strings, one may next speculate about different vibrational modes that are even further postulated to represent different subatomic particles.

Such strings are claimed to split and combine, which may resemble particles emitting and absorbing other particles, as in quantum interactions between subatomic particles.3.2 Such quantum strings are also postulated to harbor tension, like the familiar strings of a violin; a tension that is related to their size and shape.

Open strings have two distinct end-points, while closed strings are joined to make a complete loop. The two types may allow wild speculations about two different spectra of ‘elementary-particles’.

For instance, one of the closed string modes is speculated to be the graviton, and in the open string mode it is may be a photon.3.1 Brane Cosmology includes speculative models in which Genesis is claimed to be periodical collisions between branes. See also Hinduism. Other proposals include ‘multiverses’ and dark matter and dark energy. [Refs. 51, 53, 58-115].

‘Landscapes-Inside-Landscapes’ are speculated in some string theories as hidden worlds-inside-worlds in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions. They may 92

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harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes. Such theories are also being postulated to be the theoretical limit of the M-theory.

Symmetry-Asymmetry & Supersymmetries Many types and branches of ‘supersymmetries’, are postulated in string theories. For instance, some theorists claim that as the density “had” increased during said ‘pre-creation’ contraction, gigantic black holes are formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they had all switched to expansion, namely, reverting to a White Hole and only one of them has turned into “our universe”.

At best such claims are not acceptable in verifiable science.

Indeed, such claims have encountered hot exchanges that may hardly be qualified as debates. But the proponents hope that upcoming observations at CERN, or those expected from the Planck Satellite and the ground-based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, etc., may reveal slight variations ingravitational radiation that might be associated with such postulated phenomena, say, on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation. [Lecture 1].

L ecture 5 World and Human HISTORY 93

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WORLD TIME and HUMAN TIME: OUR HISTORICAL TIME MODEL, IN SECONDS, is misleading in the philosophy of time and science; it is grounded on a day-night rotation of earth around the sun; both of which had not existed during more than half the ‘age’ of the universe.

The seeds of human time and world history are one: The universe itself, from its beginning. The universe is expanding and as such it generates only one clock, the sole universal history that is totally objective and scientific.

Studying this world history is the most essential knowledge to all, anyplace, any culture. This objective history would survive the tsunami of subjectivistic interpretations of our roots in the cosmos. I therefore proceed to review chapters of human history only after reviewing the objective world history.

A preliminary word of caution: I am a scientist. Therefore much of the terminology used in this Volume III would not be familiar to readers and students with different backgrounds.

Hence when some readers encounter complicated terms, they can skip them, and keep reading until the more familiar terms are reached again. And, perhaps in another time, study the free online Lectures I to IV on physics, astrophysics, astronomy, cosmology and philosophy. [E.g. Astrophysics Today, a free online book, Scribd, 2012. However, part of the needed philosophy of science is presented in this Volume III.].

Unlike particle physics [Lectures 3 and 4], which dominates PART I below, gravity physics [Einsteinian General Relativity (EGR)], treated (with mathematics) in Volume I, dominates PART II of the world history.

EGR describes gravitation (gravity) as the scale-free field that ‘penetrates’ all and is the strongest force in the large structures of the cosmos. It is also the most forceful, but neglected integrator of all studies [Lecture 7], the generator of order, thermododynamics, time, time arrows, all building elements of life, as 94

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well as the most effective natural selector in vegetation, animal and human history. [Lectures 1-4, 7].

PART I Our sun-based time-clock-calendar is neither universal nor relevant during the first 9 billion years of the world history [see table below]. Our familiar time is irrelevant prior to the formation of our solar system. This fact favors the use of other, more scientific time scales, as marked in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1: On the left side of this diagram we mark the early world history in seconds, as derived from earth-sun-based years. On the right we mark the same history by temperature, in degrees Kelvin. On the inside we mark our Astrophysical Stages-Days.

‘Stage - Day’

Temp. in

‘Genesis’, or ‘Radiation Era’ Events via Updated Science

Deg. K

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About 13 billion years ago the totality of our universe was structureless and extremely dense and hot. This marks the beginning of the biblical Genesis or the common term ‘Big Bang’.

>>1011K

From this hot-dense beginning, the universe has been expanding and cooling, as recorded by astronomy.

Neither any macro structure has yet evolved [Lecture1], nor any micro-structure [Lectures 3 and 4].

Everything was at complete equilibrium’. [Lecture1].

spatial

‘thermal

Einstein’s General Relativity [Gravity Physics] combined with what we know today about the frozen-until-now neutron-proton ratio [‘Day 5’], the hydrogen bomb, thermonuclear fusion [footnote 1.4] and the remnant, cosmic black-body radiation [Image 00.001, Introduction], provide us with reasonable ASSUMPTIONS about pre-atomic processes that had been undergoing during the first six ‘StagesDays’.

Direct verification of the first six ‘Days’ of the world history is, nevertheless, banned by the fact that during this earliest epoch, the entire universe had been totally opaque, while any curved space-time point in it has been in a state of uniform thermal equilibrium (in space).

All fundamental forces-fields of nature are unified during this very hot-dense beginning.

Out of this high-energy, structure-less, field-forceinteraction, the electroweak and the strong forcefield-interactions would split in the next key stage of the world history, namely, when the universe had cooled below about 1028K [10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 degrees 96

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Celsius or Kelvin], thereby terminating the original, ‘unified’, single force-field-interaction of nature.

Above a certain value, the gravitational-energy density at the ‘beginning’ is somewhat comparable to the assumed density inside a black hole1.6 – namely, where all sub-atomic structures had been completely destroyed by the extremely high, inner ‘force’ of gravity.

When the extremely small and hot-dense early universe had expanded and cooled, the first-ever subatomic structures start to be formed out of the original, ‘unified’ field: Quarks, leptons and their antiparticles, etc. [Lecture 3].

Their ‘creation’ marks the emergence of the firstever ‘particles’ to be ruled by the three [later four] fundamental forces of nature: The gravitational, electroweak and the strong.

During the next ‘stage-day’ the newly emerging Quarks combine with strong field-interactions and, ‘later’ fuse to form, for the first time in world history, the nuclei of the light chemical elements that we know today: Hydrogen, helium and lithium.

As the temperature drops below about 1015K, (but was still above 1011K), the strong and electroweak fields part from each other, thereby resulting in the four fundamental fields-forces-interactions of nature as we know them today at relatively low energies.

The Seed of Time: The only clock; the sole measurable time coordinate in general relativistic cosmology, is marked in Fig. 5.1 by said irreversible processes. So the seed of time is the universe itself!

In other words: The seed of all time is the increased ‘size’ of the universe, or the decrease in its spatially 97

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uniform-isotropic temperature, or its decrease in the spatially-uniform energy density. [Fig.1.2] Neither other clocks, nor any other measurable time yardstick has existed during the first six ‘stages-days’ of the expanding, structure-less, opaque universe.

This clock releases anyone from the prison of the common anthropomorphic seconds and years.

The more scientific definition of the seed of time and of the arrow of time is provided in Lecture VI, Volume I. [Table of Contents at book end].

‘Elementary particles’ emerge out of the ‘unified’ field as cosmic temperatures are further lowered, yet are still above 1011K.

2

This ‘2nd Stage’ in world history may be termed ‘PARTICLE-CREATION DAY’. rd

3

4

The ‘3 Stage’ may be termed ‘THE DAY OF ISOTROPISATION’. It is characterized by the roles played by strongly interacting ‘elementary particles’, such as photons, neutrinos, leptons, mesons, nucleons, and their antiparticles.

During this ‘4th Stage-Day’ the cosmic temperature drops to about 100,000,000,000 degrees Kelvin.

The cosmos now contains photons, neutrinos, antineutrinos, muons, anti-muons, electrons and positrons.

5

As the temperature drops further, the neutrinos and antineutrinos ‘decouple’ from other ‘elementary particles’ -- a duration that may be termed ‘NEUTRINO DECOUPLING’.

Electron-positron pairs begin to annihilate each other and the cooling of the neutrinos and anti-neutrinos freezes the neutron-proton ratio at the value that has since been preserved and is verified by all

>1011 K

>1011 K

1011 K

1011K to 109K 98

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observations.

This epoch may FORMATION DAY’.

6

be

termed

‘HELIUM

At lower temperatures photons stop the disintegration of the newly formed atomic ‘plasma’; mainly that of hydrogen and helium.

Neutrons start to fuse with protons to form their relative abundances as we observe them today.

This duration may be termed ‘DEUTERIUM FORMATION DAY’.

109 K to 3000 K

On this ‘Friday Night’, the world temperature has already dropped down by the expansion of the universe as a whole to 4,000-3,000 K, and the 7th ‘Day’ enters world history.

Photons are now released to travel into the interconnected, newly-formed cosmic voids [Image 00.001, Introduction and Lecture 1). Some photons [light, x-rays, etc.] may travel 13 billion years to arrive at our scientific instruments and provide us with the earliest record of the universe from the end of this ‘Radiation Era’. (Image 00.2, Introduction and below).

PART II

YRS AGO

13.2 to 12.2 billion years ago

Gravity-Controlled World-Human History until present Gravity-induced ‘structures’ begin to form only about 300,000-500,000 sun-earth years after the so-called ‘Big Bang’.

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Terminology: This era may be termed The Grand Separation World History. It lasts until the present and it spans 13 billion years, as reviewed below.

We next briefly repeat World History from Lecture 1, namely, how matter [including galaxies, stars, planets, moons] and the gigantic cosmic voids [represented by the dark ‘night sky’] are formed-separated and are still continuing to separate [expand] from each other. [Hubble Expanding Universe, Lecture 1].

Alternative terminologies are: • ‘matter-dominated era’, • ‘the 2nd genesis’ • ‘Gravity-Induced Era’.

Two interwoven worlds are caused by gravity: 150 to 1,000 years post the first genesis

(1) Creation of billions of non-expanding stars, galaxies, etc. [Lecture 1] (2) Creation of expanding VOIDS-SPACE-1. (Figs. 1.1 to 1.4). SPACES ‘2’ and ‘3’ are simultaneously created. (Figs.

1.1 to 1.4).

The separation era had come into being when the Radiation Energy Density [Fig. 1.2] drops below the (rest-mass) density of matter (mainly hydrogen and helium) and the cosmic temperatures drop below about 3000-4000 degrees Kelvin.

What had been first measured in 1941 by Andrew McKellar, explained-predicted in 1948 by George Gammow [right] and re-discovered in 1964, is dubbed “Cosmic Microwave, black-body Radiation”. [image]. Unlike most studies we focus on the little cold voids [blue] and in Lecture 1 present the dynamics and thermodynamics that have caused them to expand during the next 13 billion years.

This radiation is the detected remnant radiation from the end 100

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of the 1st Genesis. [Fig. 1.4].

The first stars were mainly born out of hydrogen “fog” and condensed-heated by gravity until they start to ‘shine’ due to the most important chemical process in the universe: Thermo-nuclear fusion [Lecture 1].

This fusion has since generated all the building blocks of life: Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphor. [Cf. Supernova in Lecture 1] It is mainly by intense radiation that atoms split into protons and electrons, thereby clearing the hydrogen “fog” and producing plasma that is still detectable between closely neighboring stars.

This specific era has lasted from around 150 million to about 1000 million years after the so-called ‘Big Bang’, namely, from about 13.5 to 12.7 billion light years away About 13.2 billion light years away the earliest star forming galaxies have been detected, while about 13.0 billion light years away a number of small galaxies have been detected during merging to form larger ones.

About 8.8 billion light years away our galaxy was formed.

About 4.6 billion years ago the Solar System had started to evolve.

About 4.578 billion years ago the earth has started to evolve.

[See below].

“Let the water under the sky be gathered to one place, and let the dry ground appear.” “Let the Land produce vegetation:” Gen. 1; 9

Notes from Lecture 1: TThe faster a galaxy is moving away from an observer, the more its light is skewed towards longer, redder wavelengths by the intervening expansion of the universe – namely the expansion of the voids between superclusters of galaxies as shown in Figs. 1.1 to 1.3. This phenomenon is known as 101

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cosmic redshifts: The greater the redshift detected the more distant the source of radiation is.

2. Cosmic entity from the 2nd Genesis: UDFy-38135539 [Fig. 00.1], is the most distant and oldest object detected so far. It records our cosmic history when the earliest stars were just beginning to emerge from the cosmic “fog”. The image recorded reveals about a billion stars. This remote shining entity is one tenth of the diameter of our own galaxy, but is harboring about 1% of its mass, while forming about the same number of stars per year as are in our galaxy.

The radiation emerging from this galaxy has a redshift 8.55 [Lecture 1]. Light from this galaxy was emitted 13 billion years ago, namely, about 600 million years after the First Genesis, when the universe was only 4% of its current age.

The radiation that we now observe from this galaxy was emitted during a time when the universe was filled with hydrogen plasma fog and not yet fully transparent.

Computer simulations suggest the first galaxies could have formed as early as 200 million years after the “Big Bang”.

During this epoch clusters and superclusters of galaxies form thereby generating the voids/SPACE-1 that we observe in Fig. 1.1 Only “SPACE-1” keeps expanding, while the materials structures [stars] contract and are heated until fusion starts.1.4 Without SPACE-1 expansion any galactic-star evolution, planet and life is impossible.

SPACE-1 expansion is also the basis of our Second Law of Entropy-Free Thermodynamics [The Astrophysical Thermodynamic Schoolecture 1]. It is also the sole recorded clock of the universe, the master arrow of time. The Master World History Maker 150 to 800 years post

Unlike most scientists, who claim that the ‘entropy’ and ‘disorder’ of the universe increases with time, we claim the opposite: Gravity everlasting transformation of chaos into 102

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structures in the entire universe.

RECAP: The early opaque universe was chaotic and structureless. It became clear for the passage of radiation only during this Second Genesis, due to gravity-induced aggregations of matter.

Therefore, the Second Genesis is the beginning of all structuring-building processes in the universe; -irreversible physical processes that lead to life starting from about 8.8 billion years later.

4.567 billion

Our Sun and its planets are gravity-constructed out of supernovas ashes [Lecture 1]. These are debris that have been floating in SPACE-3 prior to the creation of the solar system. These were formed from earlier explosions of very massive star in our arm of our galaxy, the Milky Way. [Lecture 1].

Eventually, this ashes-debris has condensed by their own gravitational field to form the sun and the planets. The remaining ashes, dusts and debris are still not condensed.

See the Asteroid and Kuiper Belts in Lecture 1, Footnote 8.

Such debris are composed of rocks, meteorites, clouds of dust and gas, that are orbiting the sun, or had fallen into it, or on earth, moons and the other planets of the solar system.

The fate of the sun is fixed by gravity-induced FUSION. [Footnote 4 in Lecture 1]. The fate of a star depends on its mass and nearby objects.

4.55 to 4.40 billion

Age and Fate of Earth: Isotopes exist on earth since 4.54 billion years ago. Crystals of zircon from Australia provide 4.55 billion years as earth age. A compromise between astronomers and paleontologists, which includes the “radiometric age dating� of meteorite material and lunar samples. With additional evidence the age of earth is fixed at 4.578 billion years.

Gravity has caused heavy elements, like iron, to sink deeper into the earth core and gases to emerge at the surface.

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Gradually, with added contribution of volcanic activity, the primordial atmosphere was formed. Almost no oxygen was presemt initially in that intial athmosphere. A large meteor is next asserted to hit earth, tilt it whilr forming the moon.

The moon’s contents resemble the Earth's crust, without the Earth's core. This has led to the assertion that the Moon was formed during a giant impact of the proto-Earth with another protoplanet of the size of Mars. The material blown off the mantles of earth and the impactor has condensed to form the moon.

The impact changed earth’s axis to cause the earth’s seasons.

The source of Water on earth is also asserted to be an impact with a large, water-containing comet or comets.

During that early period the radiation from the sun was only 70% of the current intensity.

The solar wind [radiation pressure] has pushed away much of the debris thereby clearing interplanetry space.

[Lecture 1]. This ‘wind’ hits all planets and moons. On earth it is partially reflected back to cold Spaces 3, 2 and 1.

This reflection is from the upper atmosphere. The rest of it is undergoing complex energy transformations/cycles in the air, clouds and upper ground surface, being eventually reflected back, at longer wavelengths, to Space-3, and, eventually, further and deeper into colder Spaces 2 and 1.

A huge shock wave is formed at the solar system edge [Lecture 1, Footnote 8], where the solar wind clashes with other stellar winds that spread out from nearby stars.

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Earth Precambrian Era is fragmented into: Hadean [4.578 to 3.8 million YRS AGO]; Achaean [3.8 to 0.543 million YRS AGO]; further fragmented into Paleoproterozoic [2.5 to 1.6 billion YRS AGO]; Proterozoic [2.5 to 0.543 million YRS AGO]; Mesoproterozoic [1.6 to 0.9 billion YRS AGO]; Neoproterozoic [0.900 to 0.543 million YRS AGO], Vendian [0.650 to

4.5 to 0.543 billion

0.543 billion YRS AGO.

The origin of life on earth begins with natural amino acids being ‘organized’ into proteins and nucleic acids (e.g., guanine & ribose depicted the right -- the building molecules of Ribonucleic Acid [RNA], which can reproduce on its own and had predated Deoxyribonucleic Acid [DNA].

on

The exact early chemical mechanism is not known. Current evidence indicates that energy from lightning, ultraviolet radiation and volcanoes had enhanced formation of complex molecules, like amino acids, from simple ones, such as methan and Ammonia.

Two key facts emerge: (1) about 3.8 billion years ago fossil bio-objects existed as simple cells. Life on Earth has remained in microscopic forms for at least 900 million years.

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(2) multicellular life emerges about 1 billion yrs ago.

Early ‘Snow Ball Earth: Ice ages dominated early earth history.

Beginning from about 600 million years ago, the evolution of life on earth has accelerated.

650 to 543 mills.

The first animal-like organisms were not motile. The earliest fossils that may represent animals appear towards the end of the Pre-Cambrian around 610 million yrs ago.

Ancestors of insects emerge 570 million yrs ago. Fish emerge 500 million yrs ago. Reptiles emerge 300 million yrs ago. These are known as venedian biota. They did not have any type of digestive system and lived on deep-sea grounds, just increasing their surface area to maximize energy intake. They were replaced during the Cambrian Era by motile animals that have gradually developed digestive systems in which energy intake is enhanced by millions of inner residing bacteria.

Reproduction was originated by irreversible processes1.1.

First these processes had involved only single-cell organisms, but later two different organisms exchanging DNA heredity code for reproduction of a newly-born organism have emerged.

Some of the newly-born organisms lacked the capability to reproduce and vanish from the history of life. [Vol. I].

Female and male entities have gradually evolved to reproduce by combining DNA of the two parents.

Different types, locations

and orientations of legs, wings, 106

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eyes, hair, digestive systems, mouth and reproductive organs evolve under the influence of and in response to gravity1.1.

Biological clocks associated with fertility are gravitationally linked to the annual changing sun-earth gravity cycles and the moon-gravity-induced tides. The head-legs superstructure-orientation of the embryo is formed by gravityinduced orientation. [Lecture 7].

Nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction. They have a few specialized reproductive cells needed to re-produce.

Many animals are also capable of non-sexual reproduction in which fertile eggs are produced without mating, or via fragmentation.

Fish become the first creatures on land, moving with sideextended legs, backbones and eyes on the top of their heads rather than on the side. Unlike other fish, such land types could move their head independently of its shoulders, like current land animals.

Overlapping ribs that could support the body against gravity evolve. Motility was increased by evolving legs directly under the body, like most current land animals (instead of on the sides).

543 to 248 million

Paleozioc Era [543 to 248 million YRS AGO], fragmented into: Cambrian [543 to 490 million YRS AGO]; Ordovician [490 to 443 million YRS AGO]; Silurian [443 to 417 million YRS AGO]; Devonian [417 to 354 million YRS AGO]; Carboniferous [354 to 290 million YRS AGO]; Permian [290 to 248 million YRS AGO]. Most

known animal appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the so-called Cambrian Explosion era.

248 to 55 million

Mesozoic Era is fragmented into: Triassic [248 to 206 million YRS AGO]; Jurassic [206 to 144 million YRS AGO]; Cretaceous [144 to 65 million YRS AGO]. Extinction events have caused the

“survival of the fittest�.

Flowers emerge about 130 million yrs ago.

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50 to 45 million

Gravitationally-pushed glaciers advancing South, forced mammoths to what is now the state of South Dakota.

50 to 45 million

Mounted skeletons of Tyrannosaurus (left) and Apatosaurus (right) at the American Museum of Natural History;

Various types of dinosaurs live around the globe. They vanished around 65 million yrs ago.

Together with most species they became extinct by gravityinduced climatic phenomena --- a large meteor impact and/or huge volcanic eruptions resulting in climate change.

The resulting dust/ash blocked sunlight causing lack of sufficient water, grass, etc. Smaller species and some ‘Dino-Birds’ had survived and have further evolved into various familiar birds and other species.

TECTONICS and MOUNTAINS The images below show the maps of gravity-induced tectonic phenomena that have given rise to mountains, valleys, continental drifts and global climate changes, which, together with gravity-induced volcanism and meteoric impacts on earth have eventually resulted in the landscapes and life as we know them today.

Himalayan tectonics and mountains are 50 to 45 million years old. Similar landscapes have been generated around the globe by uplift of plates. [Pictures & arrows in the two diagrams below]. NOTE: Like the footnotes, the text and images below are not “introduction” to the subject. They aim at starting a study in case one is interested in gaining more information.

Mount Everest in the Himalaya. What happened to the land that is India is shown in the map below.

Current view in the Himalaya (above).

65 to

Mammoths, mastodons, and elephants emerge. The first 108

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mammoths emerged in Africa. They later reached Europe and Siberia. One branch reached North America about 1,700,000 YRS AGO. Experience with gravity-induced factors, grew in hominids into primitive but intelligent thinking. [Cf. “Lucy”, “Ardi” & “Ubeidiya” below] Several hominids may be our ancestors: Sahelanthropous techadensis, Orrorin tugenesis and Ardipithecus kadabba.

Australopithecus afarensis is shown on the left. It is closely related to the human genus Homo, and may be ancestral to it. Its family is Hominidae. [Cf. “Lucy”, “Ardi” & “Ubeidiya” below] Gravity-induced changes in the environment, e.g., when a volcano erupts, cause changes in feeding behavior of hominids, and thus changes in teeth, jaws, legs, backbone, etc.

Skeleton structure adapts to enhance motility. Loss of estrus by the female hominid. This sexual rhythm differentiated them from all other animals. New modes of mating improve the selection of a partner lead to prolonged infant dependency, stable and more enduring family units. Both human (Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and Homo) and Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes and Pan paniscus) lineages further diverged from a common ancestor about 5 to 6 million years ago

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Hominids “Lucy” and “Ardi” [Refs. 6062] lived in Afar, Ethiopia, about 4.4 [“Ardi”] or 3.2 [“Lucy”] million years ago.

The structure of both “Ardi” and “Lucy” knee, pelvis and hip indicates that they could walk upright on two legs. [Lecture 7].

However, chimpanzees also occasionally walk upright for short periods of time.

Genetic studies show that both shared a common ancestor about 8,000,000 YRS AGO. Other sites date from 2,000,000 to 1,400,000 YRS AGO and include Turkana, Kanapoi, Olduvaland and Ubeidiya.

Some 17 or 19 gravity-induced ice ages’ since 3,000,000 YRS AGO have strongly affected ecological systems on earth. Each lasted about 50,000 to 100,000 years and each had lowered the surface of the oceans, resulting in climateinduced changes in life and ecological systems, e.g., Ushaped valleys in North America and Canada. Ice melting lead to destruction of creatures which had adapted to colder climates.

3 million

The Jordan Valley formed a low-level, hot, bio-geographic, gravity-induced tectonic corridor connecting hominid habitats in East Africa with the Gravity-induced Jordan River Valley.

Between 2 million and 3 million years ago Afro hominids and animals migrated to the Jordan Valley under the same climatic conditions as in their source. The earliest evidence for a human presence in the Jordan valley comes from the site of ‘Ubeidiya, just south of Lake of Galilee, Israel. There, stone tools and the fossils of large mammals occur together in remnants of a muddy shoreline about 1.6 to 1.4 million years ago.

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UBEIDIA, Israel, is the site where hominids evolved, improved and then spread to all corners of the world.

Human-like ‘settlement’ of hominids in Ubeidiya, Israel, 3km South of present lake of Galilee. [Arrow on map]. It is where the Jordan River, meets a small (mostly dry) river flowing down from the Porria Valley.

This world unique site is still not open to tourists.

It consists of 'living floors' that include hand axes, picks, bifaces, and pebble-core tools. Bones found at the site include extinct species of hippopotamus, deer, and mollusks.

The Ubeidiya site contains distinct layers composed of alternating ‘living’ floors which contain animal-bones vs. lake-fish-bones, in mud, not on ‘living’ floors.

The layers with floors are composed of ‘ordered’ riverrounded-stones that include the tools mentioned above. The alternating layers correspond to repeated expansions and contractions of the ancient Lake of Galilee.

1.4mill ion to 12k Yrs ago

When the lake was contracting, the animals and hominids that had migrated from East Africa via the gravity-induced Red and Dead Seas found here a unique feeding site that has allowed them to gradually surpass the ‘technology’ of the Neanderthals in Europe/ It is in Ubeidiya where hominids improved their physical and mental capabilities, living and hunting technologies and organization of settlements; it is from Ubeidiya that our early ancestors have gradually spread to all corners of the world. [Ref. 62].

Ubeidiya is therefore the earliest Academy of mankind.

Their earliest migration waves to cold lands have not survived (Cf. Neanderthals below), but later migrations -of more advanced hominids -- did.

Recent mtDNA studies of ‘Graduated’ hominids from 111

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Ubeidiya, Israel, prove migrations to: South Asia, about 50,000 Years Ago; to Europe about 40,000 Years Ago; to East Asia about 30,000 Years Ago; to North America about 30,000 or about 14-11,000 Years Ago; to Australia about 30,000 or 40,000 Years Ago; Ubeidiya is not younger than 2 Million Years. It may be older than any record of Early Acheulian artifacts or Homo Erectus in Africa [Refs. 60, 61, 62].

780k to 80k yrs ago

Stone hand axes, fashioned accding to African techniques and found at a site just north of Lake of Galilee, indicate additional emigration waves out of Africa about 780,000 years ago.

Remains discovered west of Lake of Galilee at Skhul Cave and Qafzeh Cave in Israel indicate that early modern humans-probably either descendants or near relatives of the recently discovered, 160,000-year-old H. sapiens fossils from Herto, Ethiopia--were present in the gravity-induced Jordan River tectonic Valley between 130,000 and 80,000 yrs ago.

0.8 million to 25k yrs ago

Various mtDNA analyses show that Neanderthals shared a common ancestor with Homo sapiens, probably living in North-East Africa, Ubeidiya or the Carmel Caves. mtDNA based dating of that split ranges from 800,000, 516,000 or 500,000 yrs ago while fossil records indicate 400,000 yrs ago.

Neanderthal fossil finds spread from Israel to Germany and from Spain, Portugal, Italy and England to Uzbekistan.

Neanderthals made their last stand in Gibraltar about 25,000 yrs ago. Like apes, they lacked a bony chin. Yet, they had a larger and broader face than ours. Their skull has a receding forehead and low braincase, but their brain is larger than those of our ancestors. Moreover, they used fire and introduced burial sites, as did our ancestors.

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Carmel Caves are occupied by migrants from Ubeidiya.

The Tabun Cave has the longest sequence of occupation, almost half a million years. The dwellers used improved hand axes of flint or limestone for killing animals (gazelle, hippopotamus, rhinoceros and wild cattle) and for digging out plant roots.

Hand axes became smaller and better shaped and scrapers, made of thick flakes chipped off flint cores, were used for scraping meat off bones and for processing animal skins.

Upper levels in the Tabun Cave consist mainly of clay and silt, indicating that a colder, more humid climate prevailed when glaciers formed once more; this caused the Mediterranean Sea level to drop about 100m to its present level. It also produced a wider coastal strip, covered by dense forests and swamps.

Trash is gold to the archaeologist. Its gravity-induced layers reveal at least the diet of the dwellers. It consisted of fruit, seeds, roots and leaves with meat supplements.

1,800 k to prst 120k

100k to 13k

The Quaternary Era is fragmented into the Pleistocene [1.8 million to 10k YRS AGO] and Holocene [10k to present]

Burial tradition spreads. Skeleton of a female buried inside a stone niche just outside a Carmel Cave is one of the most ancient human skeletal remains.

Migration from Ubeidiya to the Indian subcontinent.

Carmel graves show a cult and rituals related to death and spiritual realm. [Migrations from Ubeidiya to the rest of the world are proved by studies of complete Mitochondrial DNA sequence.] In Ubeidiya, during 1.4 million yrs, hominids have ‘self-educated’ themselves to graduate as ‘modern humans’. They have later survived with relatively advanced technology in other climates.

At least 14 skeletons uncovered portray Homo sapiens, who are closely related to modern humans in physical appearance with delicate facial features, a protruding chin and a straight forehead. These appearances have been developed in the Carmel Caves and the Jordan River Valley.

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Early migrations from Ubeidiya to China. Improved inventions in fishing and in fire making emerge.

40k YRS AGO, further migrations from Ubeidiya to Europe.

35k YRS AGO, the earliest clothed body discovered in Russia.

30k YRS AGO: Beginning of the last North-American ice age.

Mitochondrial-DNA [mtDNA] studies provide evidence for migration from the Baikal Lake area in Southern Siberia, across the Bering land bridge, to Alaska, North America and further South along the coast.

27k YRS AGO, caves in Africa abound with paintings and carvings.

20k YRS AGO, further migration to North America via the Bering land bridge.

15k YRS AGO, domestication of dogs from a few ancestor wolfs starts in China.

13k YRS AGO, further migration from North to South America.

Plant-gathering and animal-hunting is transformed to plant-growing and animal-domestication.

The level of the Mediterranean Sea rose again, as the last glacial period came to an end, and the coastline stabilized to roughly its present contours.

Carmel settlements become permanent, consisting of a few families living together in a kind of a village that serves as a base for hunting expeditions and food gathering.

Improved Natufian flint tools are used primarily as scrapers of animal skins.

Decorative beads, blades for cutting meat and sawing bone and sickle blades (secured in wooden or bone scythes) 114

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12k to 8k Yrs ago

10k Yrs ago

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emerge for harvesting grain (which left a characteristic gloss on the edge of the blades).

Microliths of a lunatic shape are used as arrowheads, harpoons and fish hooks.

Grinding tools, mortars and pestles made of stone are used for food processing.

The last Ice Age ends about 12,000 to 8000 yrs ago.

The earliest levels of excavation in Jericho show the inhabitants had gathered the seeds of cereal grasses from the rocky hills flanking the Jordan River Valley and planted them in fertile soil. “The result: Domesticated plants followed centuries later by domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep, and the expansion of human settlements.” [J. J. Shea, Ref. 62] Further migrations from Asia across the Bering land bridge to the Americas. Migrants’ artifacts in Clovis, N.M., North America. This finding is the oldest indisputable evidence of human presence in the Americas since about 11,000 years ago.

Main racial groups are frozen in territories that they dominate.

Cultivation of primitive forms of rice in South-East Asia emerges.

Pottery is produced in Japan 9,819 YRS AGO. Human remains in’ On Your Knees’ cave in Alaska.

9,500 YRS AGO, evidence of harvesting of wild grasses in Asia Minor.

9,400 YRS AGO, human remains in Kennewick, on the Western Coast of North America.

8,640 YRS AGO, human remains in Palli Aike, at the Southern end of Chile.

Village and perhaps a shrine in Jericho, the Jordan Valley.

Jericho is considered by some as the birthplace of civilization. [But see Appendix III].

UR is recognizable as the first stage of civilization: It was established on the fertile soil formed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in an area close to where they flow into what is today Iraq, near the Persian or Arabic Gulf. It is also called Shummer.

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Yet, other call it the ‘the land between the two rivers’, ‘the Ur Civilization’, or ‘Ki-engir’, ‘Acadi’ as the Bible refers to it. (Also via other names, including Ur). Its first settlers are called Ubaidians. Their name is derived from Tel al'Ubaid, near the city of Ur. [App. III].

6600 YRS AGO. Ubaidians living in villages develop systems to drain marshes and irrigate crops by digging ditches to river waters. They learn to keep farm animals and develop weaving, leather work and copper and bronze metallurgy. They are involved in trade with nearby societies. [App. III].

6100 YRS AGO. Ubaidians develop large ovens for baking bread. In Tell Hamoukar, a protective city wall is erected. Dry clay marks and primitive hieroglyphics are emerging for record keeping of trade transactions or taxes involving livestock or crops. [App. III]. Stamp seals are used at various Ubaidculture sites as precursors to writing.

The first written language in the history of humanity emerges.

Villagers construct early religious centers, each with its particular god. One of these, Eridu, is traced back to about 7000 YRS AGO. It later had a temple with monumental architecture that goes back to around 6500 YRS AGO. [Appendix III]. Semites work their way from the Carmel Caves into the fertile Ur area. An U’baid site at Yarim Tepe yields several hundred grindstones and grinders in a single room.

Wheels for donkey carts and for simple machines are devised to make pottery easier to manufacture and paint.

Pottery emerges as Ubaid Style of Art, with its monochrome black painting.

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The earliest historical division of labor evolves.

Earlier flint sickles are replaced by clay sickles. A religious temple dedicated to Nin-Khursag (Ninhursag) was uncovered at al'Ubaid, with a dedication inscription from Aanni-padda, king of Ur and son of Mes-anni-padda, king of Ur. Uncovered “Shummerian King List” shows that they are from the First Dynasty of Ur. Ubaidians are invaded by Shummerians and a new era starts to evolve. As with the Ubaidians, the origin of the Shummerians is not clear. Their language, which has survived through writing, bears some resemblance to the Ural-Altaic languages. Earlier than 9,000 YRS AGO Ali Kosh becomes a village with wide lanes and rectangular houses. Sheep and goats are well domesticated.

5.9k

Fishing in nearby marshes and irrigation gradually evolve to help grow cereal crops by at least 8000 YRS AGO. [Appendix III] Shummerians construct improved canals for irrigating crops and for transporting crops by boat to village centers.

They also improve the roads over which their donkeys trod, some of their donkeys pulling wheeled carts.

As the UR/Shummerian population increases, key elements in creating a civilization - a word derived from an ancient word for city – evolve.

At least fifteen cities emerge: Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagash, Eridu, Sipper, Nippur, Adab, Umma, Larsa, Eshnunna, Shaduppum, Isin, and Shurupak.

Sufficient food is gradually produced to support city population that had developed professions: Priesthood, pottery making, weaving, carpentry, early metallurgy and trading, including trade by sea for which they constructed seaworthy boats and even ships.

They imported commodities made from wood, stone, tin 117

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and copper. Ur, for example, has increased to a city of about 24,000 people and Uruk to around 45,000. Around each city were fields of grain, orchards of date palms and land for herding. [App. III].

The “ICE MAN� -- discovered on September 19, 1991 almost intact under an Alpine melting glacier near the border between Austria and Germany -- had a tattoo-like marks on his preserved skin, a deerskin quiver that contained 14 arrows, unfinished bow, an ax of nearly pure copper and a tool to sharpen flint blades. Other findings reveal that these people grew wheat and barley and made linen cloths from flax. They have already domesticated dogs, sheep, goats, cattle and pigs.

L ecture 6 History of Science: The Destroyed Temple of Knowledge in Egypt 118

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uring a lecture delivered at a university in South-East Asia, I delivered

Lecture 1.

At lecture end, a distinguished professor of the Graduate School of Education, resorted to the microphone and facing her graduate students and faculty members, declared: “We have only one sun in the world. In contradiction with this established fact, you claim that it is expanding during the last billion years.

But it is not. It is a mistake!�

While trying to reply, she interrupted to add: Astronomy is star-working practice that borders with paganism. We can neither change our curriculum, nor help you find a mutual accommodation for star-working in this state university.

Amazed, I asked: Have you heard about the most notable woman in early astronomy and science?

About Hypatia? About the greatest clash between science and organized religion 1600 years ago?

No! Never!

And she adjourned the lecture.

*

*

*

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he daughter of Theon [335-405], Hypatia, is a noted astronomer,

mathematician, educator and philosopher.

She became the head of the world’s-greatest academy of science in her time, in Alexandria, Egypt.

D

uring this historical period, Alexandria was the most important center

of commerce, culture, science and philosophy in the entire world.

R

ome had already been sacked earlier by the barbarians, and its rich

libraries and records of science, medicine and philosophy destroyed and lost for ever. Only the Academy-Library in Alexandria has remained. It is now the world’s top educational center of science, medicine, astronomy and philosophy.

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D

uring Hypatia's lifetime, the Roman Empire was split into two, while

Roman Law and political power have been challenged by the rising Christian organized power.

A

t the very center of this conflict, Hypatia is freely leading top-world

studies, while practicing an unprecedented lifestyle of feminine freedom, equality, and independence.

In addition, her unmatched intellectual gifts attracted a large number of students from all over the two divided Roman Empires.

S

he had many suitors but rejected all offers of marriage, preferring to live

independently of any man, in men's world in which women were considered 121

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their property, harboring almost no civil rights and being denied higher education.

S

ome reliable ancient documents [12] have survived concerning the tragic

events that took place there between 412 to 415: In 412 Cyril became the Christian Patriarch of Alexandria.

The Roman governor of Alexandria at that time was Orestes.

Cyril and Orestes became bitter enemies.

• Hypatia was a friend of Orestes. This fact, together with prejudice against her philosophical, astronomical, mathematical and free-spirited lifestyle, led to Hypatia becoming the focal point of envy on Cyril’s part.

• She dared to defy both church and state interference in science and philosophy; to preserve the rights of academic freedom and the conviction that all individuals have the right to defend their beliefs and share science and its fact-finding activities with all.

• In great personal danger, she continued to teach and publish, until, in the year 415, she was set upon by a fanatical mob of Cyril's parishioners.

• They dragged her from her chariot, tore off her dress, and armed with sharp seashells, flayed her flesh from her bones, dragged her through the streets to the newly Christianized Caesareum church.

• Then she was burned and her work banned and destroyed.

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• In great panic the faculty run away for their life.

T

he Educational Outcome: The world’s sole top Academy-Library was

destroyed; its exclusive and unique world’s knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy has been lost forever to humanity, while Cyril was crowned a Saint

W

ith Hypatia and the unique world center gone, the ‘Dark Ages’

have lingered in, blocking the progress of science, medicine and philosophy.

• It lasted a thousand years as the church policy and practice.

• Eventually, it was only the tragic outcomes of brave-wise persons like Bruno, Copernicus and Galileo that have gradually marked the end of this darkest period in science.

• But this educational lesson remains valid and highly instructive beyond the end of the ‘dark ages’:

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C

an one imagine where we would be today without these 1000 years of

delay in science, medicine, philosophy and the freedom of thought and practice?

W

ould knowledge today be at much higher levels if that brutal

murder of a most talented scientist-philosopher [12] and the 1000-years of forced retardation of science that followed, would have been avoided?

Would, say, cancer, stroke, heart attack and other diseases be well-cured by now? There is no answer.

The Library of Alexandria in a Modern Design. Alexandria, Egypt

I

n bringing this sad chapter of humanity to a close, we mention that Hypatia

had followed Plotinus, who maintains that there is an ultimate reality that is beyond the reach of thought, or language, like shadows of ‘real’ mountains and trees, as seen by one staying in a cave. These ideas go back to Plato, to 124

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Socrates and to earlier Greek philosophers, who, inter alia, have maintained that the object of life is to try to live and act as close as possible to reality-initself, to ‘things-in-themselves’, which, however, may never be precisely described, formulated and comprehended.

V

arious documents [12] have been uncovered about Hypatia. They

describe verifiable historical facts, not popular stories and anecdotes as many wrongly assume or, in vain, intend to distort, or discredit the issue in public and in private circles. Her own work was lost after her defamation by the Church.

Only a few titles and references to her contributions survived, some of them, ironically, in the Vatican.

In Mathematics: Hypatia and her father Theon had produced a new version of Euclid's Mathematical Elements; - elements which have become the basis for later editions of Euclidian mathematics. The Greek-Theon-Hypatia methods of operating with sexadecimal fractions and the extraction of the square root of a non-number should also be noted. Hypatia’s contributions to mathematics are currently undergoing academic investigations and evaluations, for instance, those conducted by the Departments of Mathematics in Monash University in Australia and in St. Andrews University in Scotland [12].

In Astronomy: Hypatia and her father, professor Theon, expanded the works of the great astronomer Ptolemy; Almagest and Handy Tables. [E.g., a 9th century Vatican manuscript exists, which is based on Theon-Hypatia's text used in the year 463 in Apamea in Syria.]

Hypatia had contributed to the early knowledge of Arithmetica and to Apollonius's Conics vis-à-vis Ptolemy's astronomical works.

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In Medicine: Among Hypatia’s admirers was Synesius of Cyrene, later to become the Bishop of Ptolemaist. Some of the letters that Synesius wrote to Hypatia have survived. They testify that he was filled with great respect to Hypatia's knowledge when he asked her advice for the construction of an astrolabe and a hydroscope.

In Education: Hypatia taught updated philosophical ideas with a greater scientific emphasis than earlier followers of Neo-Platonism.

She was also described as a charismatic teacher. Her eloquence and authority had reached global influence, so much so that some Christians had considered themselves being threatened by her very existence, teaching and influence.

She was murdered by Church members who felt threatened by her scholarship, learning, and depth of scientific knowledge. Nitrian monks; a sect of Christians who were supporters of Cyril, were instrumental in her murder.

Her scientific research and teaching was banned from all countries ruled by Christianity.

In Philosophy: Hypatia’s philosophical ideas discouraged mysticism while encouraging logical and mathematical studies.

In Today’s University Campus Style: The influence of the Academy-Library of Alexandria model is seen today in the conceptual layout of many university campuses.

According to the earliest sources of information [12], the library was initially organized by a student of Aristotle under the reign of Ptolemy Soter (367-283).

Built in the style of Aristotle's Lyceum, adjacent to and in service of the Musaeum (a Greek Temple or "House of Muses", hence the term "museum"), the academy-library comprised gardens, a room for shared dining, a reading room, lecture halls and meeting rooms.

Where we would have been in medicine without 1000-years of forced retardation of science?

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Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesars’; and unto God the things that are God’s.

Matt. 22:21

L ecture 7 Gravity-Controlled History and Society The reason why men enter into society is the preservation of their property.

John Locke

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Gravity is the most forceful, but neglected integrator of all studies.

Lectures 1 to 4 demonstrate this fact the studies of physics, astrophysics, astronomy, cosmology and philosophy, while Lecture 5 extends it to the origin of the sun, earth, life, hominids, writing and civilization.

We next extend it to gravity-induced sociology and the philosophy of natural selection: The fight for property-domains-resources, the socio-rules of timegrammar, gravity-induced territorial wars, city and village structures, transportation systems, aspirations, religions, theology and the arts.

7.1

‘Gravity-Induced ‘Natural Selection’

Gravity-induced changes develop territoriality in a given spatial region or in a given assembly of individuals, especially when key resources are not sufficiently abundant and stable through long periods of historical times. We observe this phenomenon in both the animal and human domains of sociobiology.

Assertion 7.1 When a limited terrestrial space is divided into lots in a community, it carries economic and social “standing”, or "lebensraums", involving "well-defined territories" and "Gravity-induced Natural Selection"; from animals' mating systems to animals' monopolies on water resources; from natural food administration to the control of key strategic ridges; from controlling fossil fuel resources to disputes over territories.

One species, or one sex, or one race, may control a larger quantity of resources, say, scarce water ponds, than the other, until a small percentage of the population monopolizes key resources.

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Gravity-induced hills and mountains control castle and village strucurues and especially tall structures may become worship temples of the super-natural.

[Cf., image vs. the American Indians].

Inequality in human society begins with land demarcation of propertydomains; -- private and tribal, king or state owned or landlord or company run.

RECAP: Domain-Properrty Envy drives competition, company ads, venture capital, TV and academic rating, political candidates, religious rivalry and key human traits, sometimes stronger than death.

As history testifies, gravity-induced territoriality is often developed into nationality, imperialism and territorial conquest wars.

Assertion 7.2 Many aspects of animals’ social organization and evolution can be predicted on the basis of gravity-induced environmental variables. Since biogeochemical evolution causes key natural resources to be distributed non-uniformly in the spatial and temporal coordinates of the biosphere, resource monopolization develops in all levels of socio-biological systems.

RECAP 1 from previous Lectures: The first local "aggregates" of matter in the solar system have already contained gas, supernovae debris, dust, rocks. It was gravity that stratified these compounds in ‘horizontal’ layers according to their “specific gravity”, a term to used below in modified “natural selection”.

The atmosphere and geological strata are ordered-selected by specific gravity of their chemical components. It was gravity that put the early components of living systems at one and the same strata for life to begin.

Gravity Selection is therefore a key component of “Natural selection”.

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Gravity is also the universal builder of structures, including all chemistry in the cores of gravitationally pressed-heated stars [See fusion in Lecture 1], geological strata, earth morphology the entire evolution of life, village/city structures, transportation systems, linguistic hierarchy, recorded symbols, letters, grammar vs. time, structure of sentences, pages, books. [see below].

Assertion 7.3 The origin of temporal behavior in animals can be traced out to gravityinduced forces. Even “innate patterns" are wrongly dissociated from simple movements in the field of gravitation, i.e., as "up-ward-downward" balancing of the biological body vis-à-vis the gravity pointers in each biological cell.

Gravity periodicities around the sun emerge as prime sources of order via time and the arrow of time [Lecture 1].

7.2 Gravity-Induced Orientation and Order Using gravity pointers we say ‘up’, ‘down’, ‘left’, ‘right’ and generate symbols, codes, signs, numbers and letters for a later use and for other to read. [see below].

Animals are also 'conscious' of the commonly-shared "up-down" surroundings, and about "weight" and acceleration.

Plants also harbor innate sensors that guide them in which direction to grow even on a mountain slope. [see below].

Additional examples range from gyroscope inertial changes, balancing machines, heading indicators and gravity-induced changes involving the fluid in the vertebrate inner ear to a crystallizing suspension of organic spheres in water.

7.3 Gravity-Chained Plant Growth and Animal Behavior 130

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The sensing devices which Assertion 7.4 plants and animals use for "gravity perception" Plants ‘know’ to grow vertically upward when, ("gravity receptors", "g- undisturbed, they start growing in total perception", "bio- darkness as seeds inserted deep into the accelerometers", "gravity- ground; -- even when they grow on a steep induced biological clocks", mountain slope. etc.) are not yet well As most high-growing trees they align their understood, even though a growth under the control of the gravity vector. voluminous literature has been published on this subject. But what we already know justifies the central role we claim gravity plays in living systems and society.

If a growing higher plant is displaced with respect to the "upright" position, some tens of minutes later it will adapt its growth in such a way as to restore its original orientation in coincidence with the gravity vector. (If it is displaced only briefly and then restored to its original orientation well before the growth response can set in, it still responds to that displacement.)

Gravity-induced orientation-adaptation of an organism may occur when an organism orients itself by a gravity-induced gradient of density differences or hydrostatic pressure.

Small organisms (including all bacteria) may have no means for sensing gravity, but they are affected by it. Animals low on the evolutionary scale characteristically exhibit innate patterns that depend little on learning, and have a lesser adaptability to changes in the environment.

Consequently, their dependence on heredity-geophysical-gravitational origins is ‘high’ in proportion to animals that are ‘high’ on the evolutionary scale. While the latter show some signs of innate patterns, they harbor a greater capacity to produce a much more flexible mechanism to respond to a variety of other external changes that stimulate them. The evolutionary origin of the so-called "innate ideas" may, therefore, be external rather than internal.

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Assertion 7.5

7.4 GravityChained Law, Seconds, Minutes, Days, Years

Even the computer page is ordered by up, bottom, left, right margins and footnotes.

And it takes time to read them and to comprehend them; the time that always advances from past to future; the time that we term Linguistic Arrow of Time. Similarly, gravity-induced ordering of shelves, files, documents and books in a library introduces order into our life.

Whole cultures, civilizations and religions have been constructed on gravity-induced orientability, concepts, spirituality, art, music, home structure, wells, canals, trade roads, agriculture, and even law enforcement by hanging. Such gravity-induced cultural phenomena may proceed beyond grammar and social order into the spiritual and hierarchical domains: High priest, low deck, high commissioner, and highness, heaven, lofty, go to the bottom of the subject, etc. [see below].

7.5 Biological Clocks The origin of temporal behavior in animals can be traced back in time and out to external physical influences. Gravity and geophysical periodicities thus emerge as prime sources of order and information in all non-living and living systems.

Animals low on the evolutionary scale depend little on learning, and have a lesser adaptability to changes in the environment. Consequently, their dependence on heredity-geophysical-gravitational origins is high in proportion to animals high on the evolutionary scale.

7.6 Vertigo, Loss of Coordination-Balancing & Gravity Chains

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Vertigo is a loss of coordination, balancing and orientation vis-à-vis space and the gravity-induced horizon.

Biological structures in the inner ear include semicircular canals and a fluid that moves by gravity force, and activates a system that transmits linear and rotational motions vis-à-vis the gravity vector to the vestibular nerve, which carries these signals through the brainstem to our brain cerebellum, which, in turn, uses them to control our balancing, orientation, coordination and movement.

The vestibular system in our ears comprises two semi-circular ‘canals’, which are used to indicate our rotational movements, and otoliths, which indicate linear translations.

The vestibular system sends signals primarily to the neural structures that control our eye movements, and to the Cerebellum-muscles system that keeps us upright and helps maintain clear vision-orientation vs. the gravity vector.

7.7 Biological Cells, Reproduction, Immunity System & Gravity Gravity causes changes in cell division, metabolism and the immunity system.

Reproduction is also impaired and the immune cells cannot differentiate into mature cells in low or zero gravity conditions attainable in space craft.

The size of a biological cell depends on the local gravity vector – its size increases in larger local gravitational field-force values. Bone cells must attach themselves to something and will die if they cannot. Without the gravity forcefield they float around and perish. When animals evolve on land, outside the oceans, they develop stronger skeletons to cope with larger gravity forces vis-àvis the reduced one due to buoyancy in the waters. Earlier life forms in the oceans were smaller and had a jellyfish-like configuration. Thus, without strong skeletons, land animals cannot evolve.

7.8

Animals and Gravity-Induced Effects 133

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Gravimorphism, gravitropism and tropism are directional movements of a plant with respect to a directional stimulus. One such tropism is gravimorphism -- the growth or movement of a plant with respect to gravity. Plant roots grow in the direction of gravity while shoots and stems grow against it.

RECAP: Gravity generates structures and controls all geological layers and global phenomena ranging from mountain crests, gravity-induced tectonic folds, valleys, beaches, oceans and lagoons, to springs, wells, swamps, glaciers and rivers, and the bio-systems connected with them.

Without gravity-induced orientation-order and grammar we are lost in any given written language. Gravity-induced grammar prevents us from vertical reversals.

Similarly, horizontal reversals prevent us, say, from reversals of W to M. There are more complicated gravity-induced grammar rules. They range from preventing reversal of past into future, and vice versa, to use gravity-induced structures as reference: A mountain crest, valley, beach line, river bed, sky, earth, ocean, etc. [Appendices].

Gravity-sensing cells function as detectors of the direction of gravity. The fluid-particles systems inside cells initiate inner convective currents that cease under zero gravity. Thus, the absence of gravity affects the contacts of cells via their membrane potential and their cytoskeletons.

7.9 Gravity-Induced Village and City Structures

G

ravity generates structures and controls all geological layers and global

phenomena ranging from mountain crests, tectonic folds, geological uplifts, valleys, village and city structures, transportation systems, oceans and lagoons, to springs, wells, swamps, glaciers and rivers, as well as the ecological-systems connected with them.

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7.10

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Gravity and Global Warming

G ravity affects global warming and all ecological systems. [Cf. Solar System].

7.11 Gravity and Health

T he evolution and everyday functioning of our bones, legs, hips, joints, cartilages, ligaments, femurs, tibia, pelvis and muscles, has been "in response" to the force and direction of gravity.

Gravity plays a key factor in hygiene and in heart failure associated with swollen legs, in flooded lungs, walking, sleeping needs, etc.

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Nevertheless, the cardinal role gravity plays in the treatment of gravity-induced disorders in biological systems, human perception, health and longevity, has been largely overlooked by health providers and researchers, partly because the key role of gravity as the universal generator of all socio-gravity-dynamics, has not yet been well understood and investigated.

Gravity

and

Linguistics

Let us next examine the word ‘gninaem’ and ask: Can I associate it with anything I know? Now reverse the order of the letters in ‘gninaem’. Your mind now recognizes ‘meaning’. This test of mind remains invariant for any language, including symbols, codes, words and sentences that people use. [box].

GRAVITY VERTICAL Space Symmetry: X, θ, +, Ф, O, I, Σ, E, B, Z, Н, §; 3, 8, 0, I, etc.

GRAVITY HORIZONTAL Space Symmetry: M,U,V,W,Y,X,+,Ф,O,I,П,Ť,A; 8, 0, I, V, etc.

Horizontal (Gravity) Axis Irreversibility includes: $, ¥, F, P, G, L, R, S, T, a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i, n, q, l, v, u, y, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, µ, ¶, @, &, Ψ, ά, δ, γ, η, ‫ מ‬,‫ ל‬,‫ ך‬,‫ ט‬,‫ ח‬,‫ ז‬,‫ ה‬,‫ ד‬,‫ ג‬,‫ ב‬,‫אַ‬, .etc ,‫ ڡۉ‬,‫ ڗ‬,‫ ڑ‬,‫ ځ‬,‫ فك‬,‫ ج‬,‫ ب‬,‫ ئ‬,‫ תּ‬,‫ ש‬,‫ ר‬,‫ ק‬,‫ ץ‬,‫ פ‬,‫ ף‬,‫ע‬ CONCLUSIONS: 1. Linguistic space-time reversals destroy meaning.

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2. Space and Space-Time Linguistic Asymmetries in GT [gravitism] generate loss of meaning in human minds by violating gravity-induced rules of space-oriented symbols, and of space-time gravity-induced order of symbols in words, words in

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Double Spatial Symmetry: X, +, Ф, O ,I; 8, 0 and I. Vertical (Gravity) Axis Irreversibility includes: $, ¢, €, B, C, D, E, F, G, L, K, N, S, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, k, n, r, s, t, z, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, µ, ¶, @, Ί, σ, ‫ فك‬,‫ ج‬,‫ ئ‬,‫ ר‬,‫ ק‬,‫ ץ‬,‫ פ‬,‫ ף‬,‫ ע‬,‫ מ‬,‫ ל‬,‫ ה‬,‫ ד‬,‫ ג‬,‫ב‬, ,δ ,& ,‫ ڡۉ‬,‫ ڗ‬,‫ ڑ‬,‫ ځ‬η, etc.

Consequently, we are left with no other option but to conclude that this adaptation of our brain-mind goes back in history to our cultural ancestors as far back in historical time until one reaches the roots of the first written language.

[Appendix III].

Gravity-Induced Standards and “Meaning” We train our brain-mind to appreciate gravity-induced, configuration-orderorientation and reject chaos and disorder. In short, we reject what does not well align with gravity-induced posture, standing, sitting modes and writing.

Our brain-mind searches for what is 'right' via gravity-induced symmetriesasymmetry ‘standards’.

Each picture we observe, and each letter-symbol, word and sentence that we read, or hear, forms in our brain-mind a specific aggregated, configurationboundary, -- a gravity-oriented asymmetry that is compared with said standard. Each letter-symbol, each word and each sentence generates such an aggregated, configuration-boundary-asymmetry in our brain-mind, where it had been irreversibly recorded and compared with what had been forced on our 137

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brain-mind by previous forces of our education; -- the STANDARDS at home, school, social group, tribe, nation, religion or a specific branch of civilization.

Time reversal of musical notes destroys our pleasure. One cannot enjoy it if it is played in reverse. The structure and modulation of voice and the sentences a human mind seeks to identify with are similarly affected.

E

ven a minor deviation from one's pre-trained language, intonation,

accent, symmetry and asymmetry -- in face, body and walking way -- destroys our gravity-induced concepts about what is 'right', young, healthy, and what is not.

RECAP: In observing a person, animal or a tree, our mind generates a gravity-induced structural asymmetry that is compared with our own stored standard Any image is gravitationally oriented in our brain-mind: ‘up/down’ or ‘horizontal/left/right’. Thus, inversion of a picture, or reversing the direction of symbols, words and a meaningful text, destroys the meaning.

We maintain that this process generates gravity-induced form-orientationconfiguration of 'heading', ‘beginning’ and 'end'.

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L ecture 8 ‘How the World Would End’ according to Astrophysical Thermodynamics 139

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C

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ontrary to the well-accepted “COLD DEATH’ of our Accelerating-

Expanding Universe [Lecture 1], we maintain ‘HOT end’. Prediction vs.

Proof is via our study of the intergalactic voids and radiation pressure [113].

The current conclusion in science is ‘cold death’ of the accelerating expanding universe. The idea is simple: The well-verified accelerated expansion of the universe means no contraction back to a ‘hot end’, namely, if the unverified, dark matter and dark energy are finally proved causing the observed acceleration, as claimed by many [33-68].

But if radiation-pressure-gradients are the cause of the accelerated expansion, as this study shows, the ‘end’ would be different.

Radiation pressure gradients inside expanding, cold voids between superclusters of galaxies are not negligible. The cause of these gradients is the radiation pouring out of all stars and galaxies. The outpouring radiation acts like a gas-wind whose pressure impacts back on the nonexpanding, gravity-condensed, cosmic entities.

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The Thermodynamic Mechanism: Radiation gas-winds arriving to each void from all opposite superclusters-filaments clash inside each void, forming what we call ‘adiabatic surfaces’ that wrap around all the filaments. These surfaces are characterized-defined by zero radiationenergy-density/pressure gradients. The clashes generate a back reaction that expands each void’s space by pushing the filaments away from each other, in what is called the ‘accelerating-expanding universe’.

ANALYSIS: On scales larger than 100 million light-years, the opposing gradients inside all intergalactic voids impact on and push away all superclusters of galaxies, propelling them away from each other, opposing the faint gravity forces inside the large voids. The opposing gradients in all voids thereby slightly accelerate the “expansion of the universe”, on top of [in addition to] the left-over expansion inertia from the ‘Big Bang’.

There is no need to speculate on a mysterious DARK ENERGY and DARK MATTER to explain the observed, ‘anti-gravity’ acceleration.

The results that we claim are: 4.

Neither stellar evolution, nor any irreversible macro-process in the universe is feasible without the presence of cold, expanding voidsgradients around all superclusters of galaxies.

5. These voids act as unsaturable sink for all radiation energy generated in the universe.

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6. The voids-expansion emerges as the prime cause of all time asymmetries and irreversible processes in nature, including the 2nd law of thermodynamics.

7. PREDICTION: As the age of the universe increases, more and more stars and galaxies extinguish their ‘fuel’. That would gradually cause the voids-gradients to become ‘flat’, whereby ‘pushing’ the superclusters away from each other would gradually vanish, allowing gravity to win over the world and reverse the currently observed expansion into a future contraction, resulting in a ‘hot end’, and perhaps even a rebound into a ‘new cycle’.

8.

Expected proof or rejection of this prediction may come from (i) precise calculations that are based on improved astronomical data on the dynamics and thermodynamics inside the intergalactic voids, (ii) a predicted, non-accelerating expansion era that can be detected in probing the universe until most shining entities ignite and radiate, plus the time for that radiation to dissipate in the depth of the voids and form the gradients.

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Footnotes to Lecture 8 Unlike most studies we focus on the “the cosmic Voids”. The initial voids formed at the end of the Radiation Era would expand during the next 13 billion years to become the “Big Dark Voids” shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: What do we know about the process that has transformed the early “Little Voids” to the “Big Dark Voids” recorded here?

Detailed answers are not easy to follow, even by professional astronomers and astrophysicists.

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First we claim that the “Big Dark Voids� wrap around the filaments of superclusters of galaxies shown in Fig. 1. It is not the non-expanding matter in the galaxies that wraps around the dark-cold voids, but vice versa. Namely, all these cosmic voids are interconnected in what we term EXPANDING SPACE-1 [Fig. 2].

Fig. 2: Dynamics and thermodynamics of expanding VOIDS-SPACE-1. The relativistic thermodynamics involved is presented in [1-12]. It is grounded on Einsteinian gravitation and on the dynamics of radiation pressure.

References to Lecture 8 1.

B. Gal-Or, Astrophysics Today, http://www.scribd.com/doc/74099035/Astrophysics-Today

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Entropy, Fallacy, and the Origin of Irreversibility: An Essay on the New Astrophysical Revolutionary School of Thermodynamics. Annal. N.Y. Acad. Acad. Sci., 196 (A6) 305 (1972) (Awarded the Academy Gold Medal); 144

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B. Gal-Or, A Critical Review of the Foundations of Relativistic and Classical Thermodynamics, Pittsburgh, Pa. April 7-8, (1969), Mono Book, (1970); B. Gal-Or, The Crisis on the Origin of Irreversibility, Science, 176, 11 (1972); 178, 119 (1972); B. Gal-Or, Cosmological Origin of Thermodynamics, Nature 230, 1971); 234, 217 (1971); B. Gal-Or, Cosmological Origin of Irreversibility, Time and TimeAnisotropies, Found. Phys. 6, 407 (1976); 6, 623 (1976); 7, 50 (1977); B. Gal-Or, Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy (CPP), Volumes I and II, Springer Verlag, New York, 1981, 1983, 1987 Eds. B. Gal-Or, Early Drafts of Vol. III published online by Scribd, (2007); (2008), (2009), (2011).

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505-507, “A Critical Review of the Foundations of Relativistic and Classical Thermodynamics”, Proceedings, International Symposium, A Critical Review of the Foundations of Relativistic and Classical Thermodynamics, Pittsburgh, Pa. April 7-8, 1969, Mono Book, (1970); B. Gal-Or, Vectored Propulsion, Supermaneuverability and Robot Aircraft, book published by Springer Verlag , ISBN 1990, ISBN 0-38797161-0, 3-540-97161-0; (1990) ; B. Gal-Or, "Future Jet Technologies -- air, land and sea applications of Thrust Vectoring”, International J. of Turbo and Jet Engines, 2011 (2011) http://www.reference-global.com/doi/pdfplusdirect/10.1515/TJJ.2011.006; U.S. AIR FORCE and NATO Report on thrust vectoring, RTO-TR-015 AC/323/(HFM-015)/TP-1 (2001). includes a review of the contributions of B. Gal-Or and W. Herbst to stealth-tailless vectored aircraft B. Gal-Or, V. Sherbaum and M. Lichtsinder, “Thrust Vectoring/Reversing Systems”, U.S. Patent … 431, 1998 for enhancing flight safety of passenger and cargo jets by adding new designs of thrust-vectoring kits to their engine nacelles.

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2009

L ecture 9 150

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The Rise of Specialism; The Decline of Philosophy and Freedom The Rise of People Power vs. the Decline in Central Powers

U

ntil around the mid-Thirties of the previous century, core teaching (in

Europe) were made as ‘scientific’ as possible, and science propped up its foundations by turning to philosophy. This attitude was in part motivated by the desire to appropriate the sciences with the great ‘prestige’ of philosophers, and for the philosopher the fast-growing ‘status’ of science.

Hence, European professors vied with one another in presenting science based on high philosophical grounds, and philosophy as a ‘science among sciences’, or even as the ‘sum of the other sciences’.

A ‘PhD’ was then a bona fide Philosophy Doctor, a person of advanced core knowledge and eloquence outside his specialism. Western academia has since withdrawn from the game.

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mpty specialism has since gained the highest prestige; no longer do

professors need borrow it from philosophy, nor to study and personally teach a bona fide CCCC -- today’s code name for “philosophical-scientific-cultural core course” for all students, standing for Core Curriculum Cultural Course, or its many variants and codes.

Indeed, contemporary professors today vie with one another in presenting fragmented lectures devoid of interconnected content, for they can no longer hope to achieve popularity by injecting updated core knowledge into what has gradually become an ever narrower, disciplinary professionalism.

This turn of events has resulted in overvaluation of technical professionalism, empty academicism, absolutation of ever-narrower disciplines, and the common inclination to reject bona fide core knowledge from the class. A pity. For these trends only push the young into cynicism, nihilism and feelings of emptiness in education and society at large.

The Current Crisis in Education is not subsiding. More than ever before it demands answers, re-assessments, a revised philosophy and acts: How to administer mutual interactions instead of linear causality; structured complexity instead of summation of events; structured historical buildup of facts, instead of summation of isolated events and narrow academic Departments.

Assertion 9.1 With hope of finding the grand outlook of a spacecraft, students enter our universities. Entering the temples of knowledge they settle for that of an eagle, but what they find is that of a specialist gopher.

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Assertion 9.2

A lthough most academic teaching and research must be distributed amongst various Schools and Departments of a university, there is an objective need to regenerate an old tradition that cannot be associated with any specialism, because the ideas with which it deals are common to all studies, or not involved in any.

Note: CCCC is included in these volumes. It is aimed at all students and can be effective if a university president would not act only as a CEO aimed at maximizing profits and top senior faculty would teach it, or any other bona fide CCCC.

Assertion 9.3 Without a guiding-structuring-unifying methodology aimed at gaining an allembracing, interconnected knowledge that crosses frozen disciplines, any CCCC is nothing but a pity encyclopedia displayed by a specialist nominated by “Organizers” as a “CCCC-Coordinator” who remains helpless in teaching the alluring beauty of mathematics, physics, astronomy, history, the life sciences and comparative religions, but fails to perceive their profound educational implications as a whole.

Modern skepticism is usually the negation of a core, interconnected, educational methodology. Not so with Einsteinian skepticism.

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Einstein advocated the removal of imposed borders between traditional disciplines and university departments and faculty; stating that knowledge is one; its division is human weakness.

Assertion 9.4 Assertion 9.5

Structuring an all-embracing CCCC-Outlook is a matter entailing far more ambiguity than the technicalities of the application of any disciplinary Scientists whocourse claimand thatits they operate without reliance on philosophical “Academic Credit Regulations”. presuppostions are self deluded. Scientific theories and academic institutions always advance, stagnate or decline under the domination of a philosophy; stated or hidden, low or high quality.

T

he Western crisis, apparent

today more than ever before, may be mitigated or repaired by resorting to the Einsteinian vision, starting from a 2012 updated and widely accredited CCCC that is provided to highschools and constantly upgraded and updated for undergraduate and graduate schools.

Literary intellectuals at one pole – at the other scientists, and as the most representative, the physical scientists.

Between the two a gulf of mutual incomprehension – sometimes (particularly among the young) hostility and dislike, but most of all lack of understanding.

C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures Cambridge University Press

Such a methodology leads to interconnected fertilization between the most promising kernels of fundamental knowledge, and, thus, to the potential to rejuvenate the “system”.

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9.1 The Decline of Our Temples of Knowledge Literary intellectuals, the Assertion 9.6 people of the arts, and most educators, are currently Students are often discouraged by their ignorant of modern advances professors and mentors from asking in the ‘exact sciences’, of fundamental, interdisciplinary questions in their mathematical class, as a result of which inconsistent, or formulations, experimental, outright incorrect premises, are given a better observational and chance of perpetuating themselves. verification methods. They are likely to resort to a priori or superficial answers to complex problems whose detailed implications are beyond them. Similarly, faculty, ‘experts’ and professionals in the “exact sciences”, via their past, ever-narrowing, disciplinary education, are currently ignorant of the wide-span knowledge, literature, arts and history that are needed to share their thinking and aspirations with other thinking persons.

The resulting gap can hardly be bridged despite the fact that our globe is currently an interconnected village, internationally linked by what might be expected to bridge old gaps between traditional cultures, languages, religions, political systems and a unified educational philosophy of humanity. Yet, the facts are that deep divisions keep deepening and deserts of narrow specialism keep spreading more than ever before.

9.2 The Rise of People Power vs. Decline in Central Power Can media and Central-Power attacks on internet freedom be compared with past attack on the Free Alexandria Library, and the 1,000 years of 'Black Ages' that have followed? [Lecture 6]. Can Copyright issues be used to ban certain universities and libraries? domestic and abroad? Why such attacks only make the internet the flag of freedom and unite the people against the media and the Central Powers? See also Appendix IV.

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The rise of the internet endangers the future of the media and the entire Central Power systems in all countries. The competition today is tantalizing to a struggle between two cultures: The virtual, censored-edited, filtered-out and artificial reality on TV vs. the real world of people and collectively-recorded pan-knowledge accessed by all and stored via the free internet providers and publishers.

Limitations of Theories & Definitions T

here is something provisional about all scientific theories. They must be

re-confirmed by fresh verified information from any sub-field of science, hence, are subject to constant revision and even replacement; -- in this, each succeeding generation takes a measurable step beyond the position of its predecessors.

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Closely related to the unrestricted content of modern science is its unrestricted questioning of all earlier convictions in light of verifiable evidence that refutes extant axioms, definitions, assertions, outlooks and theories.

Thus, every item of carefully recorded experimental or observational information is a proper object for analysis. A drive towards novelty and discovery impels inquiry to explore all corners of the universe. These tenets are the central pillars of Gravitism. But there is more to it. The outlook includes constant re-assessments of the theory -- of any theory -- and analysis of the errors involved as one updates and improves it.

9.4 Errors Caused by Precise Definitions ASSERTION 9.6 Without paying much attention to fundamental consequences, we often resort to definitions found in dictionaries, textbooks, historical and research reports.

But definitions and axioms [see below], contrary to intent, introduce error. Since all is connected to all, not just in ecology, a definion or an axiom erects an isolating wall; all outside is lost forever, unless the largest visible scale of the cosmos is included.

This is not entirely new: According to Plato, everything is connected with everything else and according to Popper [see below] all science is cosmology.

We therefore assert that a reliable definition must include 'the whole universe', its contents, dynamics and history.

9.5 Tarski's Indefinability Theorem According to this theorem no sufficiently powerful language is stronglysemantically-self-representational. For instance, any arithmetical truth cannot be defined by arithmetics. According to Smullyan [42], Tarski's Indefinability Theorem is somewhat superior to the famous Gรถdel's Incompleteness Theorems [Refrs. 34-43], which are more related to mathematics and less to philosophical, 157

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scientific, and linguistic issues. Tarski's theorem is not directly about mathematics but about the inherent limitation of any formal language that is strongly-semantically-self-representational when it contains predicates and function symbols defining the semantic concepts specific to that language.

9.6 Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem Gödel [34-43] has demonstrated that conventional mathematics, which we tend to consider as our supremely logical and consistent system, involves paradoxical, self-referential statements about itself, i.e., a conventional mathematical system, say, the mathematics of flat space in the Euclidian geometry -- an ‘absolute stage’ upon which Newtonian gravity and physics stands, can be incomplete because one has not discovered all its necessary axioms. In other words, no matter how many physico-mathematical issues theoretical physicists solve, there always will be other issues that cannot be solved by any known laws of physics; and since these laws constitute a finite set of rules for each generation, Gödel's theorem a priori restricts them.

Even in computer science one cannot create a complete and consistent finite list of axioms, or an infinite list. Each time one adds a statement as an axiom; there are other correct statements that cannot be proved, even with the new axiom.

Moreover, if the system can prove that it is consistent, it is not. As might have been expected, this idea has been much debated by mathematical philosophers: How can a theory be both correct and unprovable?

Is mathematics a loop of our mind?

Is the mind a self referential loop?

Gödel's first incompleteness theorem shows that any system that allows one to define the natural numbers is necessarily incomplete: it contains statements that are neither provable correct, nor provably false. Some scholars therefore argue that this refutes the logicism of Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell, who had aimed to reduce/define the natural numbers in terms of logic.

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Not all axiom systems satisfy these hypotheses, even when these systems have models that include natural numbers as a subset. For example, there are axiomatizations of ‘flat’ space that do not meet the hypotheses of Gödel's theorems.

Another limitation applies only to systems that are used as their own proof systems.

Gödel's theorem has another interpretation in the language of computer science.

Theorems are computably enumerable: one can write a computer program that will eventually generate any valid proof. One can then ask if it has the stronger property of being recursive: Can one write a computer program to definitively determine if a statement is true or false?

Gödel's theorem says that you cannot. His theorems, however, are confined to sufficiently strong axiomatic systems, i.e., that a theory contains enough arithmetic to carry out the proof of the incompleteness theorem. Some scholars, however, claim that Gödel's incompleteness theorems have provided a deadly blow to David Hilbert’s program towards a universal mathematical formalism. Nevertheless, the essence of these issues is much more complicated, as indicated below.

Undecidable Statements: A statement is neither provable nor refutable.

Hence, some scholars resort to the concept "independent". However, that concept is also ambiguous.

Meta-Language: A sufficiently developed language cannot represent its own semantics. Any meta-language includes primitive notions, axioms, and rules absent from an object language. Theorems provable in a meta-language are not provable in the object language.

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“Truth”: Some of the aforementioned theorems may presuppose that mathematical "truth" and "falsehood" are well-defined in an absolute sense, rather than relative. If an axiomatic system can be proven to be consistent and complete from within itself, then it is inconsistent.

Minds and Machines: Gödel's incompleteness theorems may also reflect on human intelligence. While Gödel's theorems cannot be applied to humans, since they make mistakes and are, therefore, inconsistent, it may be applied to the domain of science.

Sets of expressions are considered as coded as sets of numbers. For various syntactic properties (such as a formula, a sentence, etc.), these sets are computable. And any computable set of numbers can be defined by some arithmetic formula.

There are various additional theorems and sub-theorems 34-49. I do not intend to expand on them in these pages, for these pages are mainly written for the general reader, without resorting to any mathematics. We therefore move next to elaborate on some more practical domains in the mined fields of verifiable scientific theories and proofs.

“Pure Mathematics” is human attempt to stay aloof and beyond emotions, traditions and ambitions. It may protect one from making mistakes, prior to and aft writing down any mathematical equation.

How mathematics -- combined with verifiable observations -- help protect the human mind from falling into unverifiable traditional dictums or ‘intuitively’ generating mistakes is demonstrated by the following dramatic event in the history of science; when Einstein had concluded that his [tensorial based 2.1-2.3] field equations of general relativity3.3, our most universally verified theory of acceleration and gravity, harbors a mistake. To correct that ‘mistake’, he forced on these equations a ‘correction number’, called the cosmological constant.

Luckily his tensorial field equations were flawless, despite the fact that a cult of believers in its unverifiable interpretations has evolved during the last 90 years or so, hinting about their needs to leave that artificial constant in Einstein’s field 160

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Equations. [See ‘cosmological constant’, ‘dark matter’, ‘dark energy’ [74-114] and Lecture 4.].

9.7 The Popperian Falsification Principle Sir Karl Popper, has introduced the Falsification Principle about the ability of mankind to establish what is science and what is non-science, in addition to what might be ‘true’ within the domain of a given theory, or a set of ‘facts’, axioms or definitions. [Lecture 4] Applied mathematics is often used as unverifiable covers to advance subjectivistic claims, ‘proofs’ and ‘theories’.

Lectures 3 and 4, and this one, illustrate how -- by a priori selecting only the time-asymmetric mathematics, or time-asymmetric mathematical solution that fits with their desired ‘proof’ – scientists easily fool themselves, and others.

9.8 The Fooling Assertion by Nobel Laureate Feynman “The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you are the easiest person to fool. So you have to be very careful about that. After you’ve not fooled yourself, it’s easy not to fool other scientists. You just have to be honest in a conventional way.”

“You should not fool the layman when you’re talking as a scientist. I am not trying to tell you what to do about cheating on your wife, or fooling your girlfriend, or something like that, when you’re not trying to be a scientist, but just trying to be an ordinary human being. … I’m talking about a specific, extra type of integrity that is not lying, but bending over backwards to show how you are maybe wrong, that you ought to have when acting as a scientist.

And this is our responsibility as scientists, certainly to other scientists, and I think to laymen.”

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9.9 Mathemaics, Observations, Einstein It is in what is claimed to be the “domain” of mathematics that time-symmetry, reversibility and the symmetrical laws of physics serve us as key tools to understand nature, despite the limitations mentioned above. And it is only by combining (conceptual, reversible, analytic) time-symmetry with (factual, aggregated, observational) time-asymmetry, or by combining reversible equations with a priori known, factual, initial and boundary conditions, that one may, mathematically, arrive at a reliable world outlook in agreement with observations/experimentations. For more information see Volume I. [Table of Contents at book end] While symbols and analytical concepts may be symmetric, words and sentences (in order, syntax, phoneme, form, sound modulation or other modes), or ‘useful’ physico-mathematical equations, are basically asymmetric.

Mathematics, gravitation, symmetry-asymmetry, aggregation, time and meaningful sentences are coupled. While some minor reservations are justifiable, there is an overwhelming "word of evidence", derived from physics, the languages and the studies of linguistics, cybernetics, information and mathematics that fortifies this contention.

A theory may be a “set of statements”, some of which are taken as valid without proof (axioms), and others, the theorems, are taken as valid because they are implied by the axioms.

A complete and consistent set of axioms for all mathematics is impossible.

"Provable by a theory" means "derivable from the axioms and primitive notions of the theory, using logic.”

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Applied mathematics is the key tool of the ‘exact sciences’. It constitutes a special kind of 'intelligent thinking’ that is integrated with its ‘universal grammar' -- a sort of critical thinking which has been partially developed to safeguard our minds from prejudices and inconsistencies. Yet, consistency, by itself, is a two-sided issue.

‘Pure mathematics’ is often developed for its own sake, without a priori harboring intentional applications, although they may be ‘un-covered’ According to Einstein, when we predict the behavior of a specific or confined set of natural phenomena, we usually mean that we have found a ‘constructive theory’ covering this set.

When we find that other sets of phenomena are incompatible with that theory, we tend to either generalize or modify it, or failing that, seek an alternative one.

To this ‘constructive’ category Einstein opposes the so-called “theories of principles” (exemplified, according to Einstein, by thermodynamics and the general theory of relativity), whose point of departure and foundation are not hypothetical constituent, but empirically observed general properties from which mathematical formulae are deduced so as to apply to every case of observation which presents itself.

Thus, according to Einstein, the merit of “constructive theories” lies in their comprehensiveness, adaptability, and clarity for a given set of phenomena, while that of the “theories of principles” -- in their logical ‘perfection’ and universality and in the vast observational spectrum of their formulation at any scale and time.

Yet, Einstein did not trust some semi-hidden aspects of his own general theory of relativity2.5. Two such events are described next: The failure of statistical mechanics (both classical and quantum) to deduce and explain the origin of irreversibility, time-asymmetries, cosmic and local structuring, generation of order and what is called “entropy growth” -- as well 163

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as its philosophical and applicative limitations and lack of large-scale universality -- has been explained in footnotes 2.5, 3.4 and 3.5 as well as in Volume I. (See Table of Contents,).

Einstein had not suspected that his general theory of relativity already incorporates another ‘theory of principle’: Thermodynamics, especially the socalled Second Law of Thermodynamic. Namely, the foundations of thermodynamics should NOT be a separate, stand-alone, theory of science; it should NOT be fragmented from the rest of physics. It constitutes an integral part of gravity-induced, interconnected, unified physico-philosophical knowledge.

In ancient mythology [Appendix III] chaos was the nothingness out of which the first objects of existence appeared. The Biblical Genesis refers to earliest existence as “without form, and void”; modern science dubs it the structureless hot-dense “Radiation Era”, and produces evidence from its close. [Image 00.001].

Footnotes to Lecture 9 Most students and professors trust popular poll numbers as prime indicators of quality. And for this kind of outlook we cite Wikipedia: ‘Higher Education in the United States”. (References are provided there; emphasize added):

“Political views Research since the 1970s have consistently found that professors are more liberal and Democratic than the general population.

Surveys conducted in the last 10 years show that between 44%-62% faculty selfidentify as liberal, while only 9%-18% self-identify as conservative.

Conservative self-identification is substantially higher in two-year colleges than other categories of higher education and has been declining overall.

Those in natural sciences, engineering, and business were less liberal than those in the social sciences and humanities.

A 2005 study found that liberal views had increased compared to the older studies. Only 15% in the survey described themselves as right of center.

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While the humanities and the social sciences are still the most left leaning, 67% of those in other fields combined described themselves as left of center.

Even in business and engineering, liberals outnumber conservatives by a 2:1 ratio.

The study also found that women, practicing Christians, and Republicans taught `at lower quality schools than would be expected from objectively measured professional accomplishments. Groupthink has been suggested as explaining why liberals are overrepresented.

A 2007 study criticized some recent surveys, such as the above 2005 study, on methodological grounds as well as being motivated by conservative concerns. It also pointed to the influence of conservative think tanks outside academia.

In its own survey it found that while conservatives were rare, there was a large centrist group between those self-identifying as liberals or conservatives.

More moderate views were more common in younger professors, although also in this age group liberals were several times more common than conservatives.

The age group with most liberal professors were the professors who were teenagers or young adults in the radical 1960s.

Of all surveyed, 3% identified themselves as Marxists with the highest numbers being in social sciences (17%) and humanities (5%) A 2011 study disagreed with younger professors being more moderate and instead argued that the average view may shift further left in the future.

The study also found that the years of college education had little effect on the political view of undergraduates. There was little evidence that right leaning professors were treated poorly. However, they may have difficulty publishing with a cited study finding that out of 494 books published by Harvard University Press only eight were conservative or classical liberal in orientation.

Regarding the cause of the liberal overrepresentation, it found that conservative students preferred to major in fields leading to immediate employment, such as hotel management or accounting, rather than further studies. Self-selection has also been suggested by others as the main explanation.

In one study the researchers sent out e-mails to graduate studies directors at top ranked departments. They claimed to be an undergraduate asking for guidance regarding if this was a suitable department. The e-mails differed regarding which presidential campaign the undergraduate had worked for. There was no statistical difference in the replies. On the other hand, a survey of sociology professors found that one quarter stated that they would be more 165

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likely to vote for hiring a declared Democrat and less likely to vote for hiring a declared Republican. Around 40% stated that they would be less likely to vote for hiring an Evangelical or a member of the National Rifle Association.

Another survey found a similar situation for humanities and other social sciences professors. There are both older and more recent (such as The Professors: The 101 Most Dangerous Academics in America) right-wing criticisms regarding the political views of the academia and the effects of these as well as counter-criticisms against these views. A 2007 poll found that 58% of Americans thought that college professors' political bias was a "serious problem".”.

“For-profit schools There has been rapid growth in recent years of for-profit schools, of which the University of Phoenix is the largest with an enrollment over 400,000 nationwide.

Other large institutions, with numerous branch campuses and online programs include Devry and Kaplan University. Altogether, they enroll 9% of the students.

They have aggressively recruited among military veterans, and in 2010 received 36% percent of all the tuition aid paid by the federal government. The University of Phoenix received 88% of its income from federal aid to students; the maximum allowed is 90%.

In 2001 the University of Phoenix opened a two-year online program oriented toward lower-income students who receive federal financial aid; in 2010 it had over 200,000 students seeking two-year degrees. Critics have pointed to the heavy dependence on federal loans and grants to students, the low student completion rate, and the inability of the majority of graduates to pay their student loans because they failed to secure high-paying jobs.

The University of Phoenix reports that in 2009, 23% of its students completed an associate degree within three years of enrolling, and for bachelor’s degree students, its six-year completion rate was 34%. The amount of debt that students have after graduation has become an issue of concern, especially given the weak job market after 2008. Some loans are financed by the federal government, but students sometimes obtain private loans (which generally have higher interest rates and start accumulating interest immediately). In 2010, the U.S. Department of Education announced stricter eligibility rules for federal financing of loans to student at for-profit schools, which were experiencing higher default rates”.

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Are academicians holding the money box today closer to their heart than ..?

Assertion 10.1

Scientists who claim that they operate without reliance on pre-supposed philosophical principles are self deluded. Scientific theories always advance,

stagnate or decline under the domination of a philosophy, whether declared or 167

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undeclared. Therefore, philosophy of science is the base of science that should not be left only to the care of the philosophers.

Assertion 10.2

No slice of verified facts should be ‘fenced’, isolated and divided from the rest of verifiable knowledge.

Assertion 10.3

All facts are interconnected by the current Laws of Physics.

Assertion 10.4

Verified evidence: The current Laws of Physics are not “final”. They will be replaced.

Assertion 10.5

A higher set of LAW had been introduced to this world simultaneously with the so-called Big Bang at maximally curved space-time at physical time zero.

Assertion 10.6

Scientists do split over the issue of the origin of and ‘missing’ One Unified Law: The ones who assume that One Law was introduced by what is commonly termed the creator; the ones who assume that a creator is not required in science, the ones who refuse to think.

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A ppendixI Chains One Can Break Creativity and Honest Elections Chains of Freedom We were born free, but immediately chained by a given name, citizenship, nationality, religion, health-care and future regulations-duties; all of which we had not selected; chains we may change, reform or break, unless we “need” them [see below].

We were next chained by a specific language, school, dress, looks, manners and ‘life standards’; all of which we had not selected; chains we may later amend and lead a more meaningful life, or even lead to new quality horizons in the cultural growing desert of our immediate society.

At age 18 or 21 we may be chained again, by the Establishment.

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•

T

here is nothing new in the realization of higher levels of Western

Freedom of the individual. What is new is the sudden sense of hands-on-power that ordinary people have acquired almost overnight, much of it via the exploding use of social networkings, together with a sort of a new confusion: Is it real?

Is it permanent?

Does it redefine my state-nation-culture? My next Government? Our collective and individual lives? The future of our children?

• • •

Examples? Egyptian violence & election; U.S. verbal violent elections

I

n trying to connect the dots one is first struck by a few first-time-in-history

evolving facts: (A)

A New Dynamic power, not just political, is rapidly redefined by increased self-awareness of uncategorized global users of the internet.

(B)

In Western-culture the new anti-Establishment rebellion is peaceful.

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(C)

The new shift affects all aspects of our life; free-time activities, education, innovation, politics, courting, family, entertainment, courts and economics. But new problems rapidly evolve:

• •

What people will do with their new freedom-power?

Would it lead to a New-Age Kulthure, a Tower-of-Babel Chaos, or a more reasonable New-Age-Culture?

New Issues: Can one define People Power vs. Central Power?

• • • •

Is People Power irreversibly winning the Central Power?

Are the new socio-dynamics deterministic?

Is there a danger of Tower-of-Babel Chaos?

Are there any drawer-plans to safe-guard an optimal progress?

“The world is a dangerous place, not because of those who do evil, but because of those who look on and do nothing."

Albert Einstein

A

ll people are educated to become ‘conformists’ who submit to

regimes of life, rewards of needs and justice at home and in the local society.

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Therefore, the bona fide answer to the question posted above may uncover the innate-dormant-remnant degree of freedom needed to recover from our chains.

S

o be yourself; creative, individualistic. Make your own path. Avoid

the herd, the polls, the noise and the meaningless. Rejuvenate. Be Born-Again in attitudes and high-level needs. Get a more meaningful life. And if you select to make your own trail, this quotation applies: Do not go where the path may lead, go instead where there is no path and leave your own trail.

Emerson.

Breaking the Unbreakable Chains?

Gravity controls all macro structures, chains time and generates beauty and order in the world at large, and in our life. But at the same time, it “tears down” almost everything that we build; that ultimate “downfall”, “decline”, and “defeat” of every motile creature is the fate of individual life -- a life that must terminate in “de-aggregation” and gravitational “precipitation”. Yet, we “stand-up”. Perhaps not all is “on the downgrade”?. Even though we know that in the end we cannot “get up” again; that a day will come when staying “upright” becomes impossible, we do not “break-down”.

By the same knowledge that foresees our own “collapse” in the journey “from dust to dust”, we “withstand” that which will “bring us down”. In the face 172

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of “gravitational collapse”, we hope to preserve some “lasting structure”, or “spiritually”, get “up-and-away” from that “gravitating earth”.

Do these “uprisings” lead people to adopt “spiritual” or “heavenly” ideologies?

To construct towers and sky-high cathedrals? To launch programs for the exploration of “outer” space? Or to preserve some “lasting” structure in the composition of music, the writing of books and the construction of new theories? I do not know.

As I bring these notes to a close, there is one particular objection which I believe is essential. My Objection may best be directed against Eddington’s famous subjectivistic conclusion: “We have found a strange footprint on the shores of the unknown.

We have devised profound theories, one after another, to account for its origin.

At last, we have succeeded in reconstructing the creature that made the footprint.

And lo! It is our own.”

While I take pleasure from Eddington’s flowery prose, I cannot agree with his implied conclusion. It is not only our “footprint” that counts. There are other “footprints”.

One may find them anywhere in nature; “on the shores of the unknown”, on the beaches of the Philippines, or in the fields of physics and astronomy. And they do not exclusively belong to man! Man is not the center of nature.

It is perhaps better to conclude on a dual note of “skepticism” and “optimism’ as exemplified by Einstein’s dictum 173

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“The hypotheses with which (a development in modern science) starts, become steadily more abstract and remote from experience. On the other hand it gets nearer to the grand aim of all science, which is to cover the greatest possible number of empirical facts by logical deduction from the smallest possible number of hypotheses or axioms.

Meanwhile the train of thought leading from the axioms to the empirical facts of verifiable consequences gets steadily longer and more subtle.”

Additional conclusions, or assertions, would, perhaps, be peripheral. Thus, as I bring these notes to a close, we are left with an updated practice and its potentials. But whatever the outcome of this practice, it is only a slice through my philosophy of science ‘Gravitism’ [part of it is re-published here] and general philosophy ‘Havayism”, republished free online in the Scribd book: http://www.scribd.com/doc/73346126/Philosophy-Modern-Physics-vsMonotheism

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A ppendix VI Thought Provoking Quotations The world is a dangerous place, not because of those who do evil, but because of those who look on and do nothing. The right to search for truth implies also a duty.

One must not conceal any part of what one has recognized to be true.

---- Albert Einstein Do not go where the path may lead, go instead where there is no path and leave your own trail. ----- Emerson Any fool can criticize, condemn and complain, and most fools do. --- Dale Carnegie

Do what you feel to be right, for you'll be criticized anyway. ---- Eleanor Roosevelt

Every worthwhile accomplishment, big or little, has its stages of drudgery and triumph; a beginning, a struggle and a victory. ----- Mahatma Gandhi Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds.

----- Albert Einstein Those who think learnt by themselves and not from Sages. -- Huan Yin Tze Confusion of goals and perfection of means seems, in my opinion, to characterize

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Strategy without tactics is the slowest route to victory, tactics without strategy is the noise before defeat. ---- Sun Tzu Pride goes before a fall. ---- a famous proverb No style of thinking will survive which cannot produce a usable product when survival is at stake. ----- Thomas Favill Gladwin

People are born ignorant, not stupid; it is (local) education that makes them stupid. --- Old adage advanced by B. Russell Errors? Who can pretend to comprehend their source? And for the unknown ones, please forgive me. ------ Psalm 19:12 Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried anything new.----Albert Einstein Our whole problem is to make the mistakes as fast as possible. ---John Archibald Wheeler All our knowledge grows only through the correcting of our mistakes. ----Sir Karl R. Popper All science is cosmology ----- Sir Karl R. Popper All truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; the point is to discover them. --- Galileo Galilei Most people do not really want freedom, because freedom involves responsibility, and most people are frightened of responsibility. --- Sigmund Freud All the rivers run into the sea. Yet the sea is not full. --- King Solomon Music is a moral law. It gives soul to the universe, wings to the mind, flight to the imagination, and charm and gaiety to life and to everything.

------ Plato

The telescope at one end of his beat, And at the other end the microscope, Two instruments of equal hope ---- Robert Frost

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If you can look into the seeds of time, And say which grain will grow and which will not, Speak then to me ---- Shakespeare If you have knowledge, let others light their candles with it. --- Winston Churchill Imagination is more important than knowledge.--- Albert Einstein

Everything is connected with everything else --- Plato Some subjects are so serious that one can only joke about them. ------ Niels Bohr The parking entree police guard to Schrodinger: "Do you know that you got a live cat in your car trunk?". Schrodinger: "Now I know."

We haven’t the money, so we’ve got to think. -- Lord Ernest Rutherford You sadist. You make people think. --- Ezra Pound God may have created Man in his own image, but Man has more than returned the favor. ---- Voltaire Scripture harbors no need of human fabrications. --- Baruch Spinoza No science is immune to the corruption of politics. --- Jacob Brunowski Everybody can be great... because anybody can serve. You don't have to have a college degree to serve. You don't have to make your subject and verb agree to serve.

You only need a heart full of grace. A soul generated by love. --- Martin Luther King Only the dead have seen the end of war. --- SANTAYANA If people are good only because they fear punishment, and hope for reward, then we are a sorry lot indeed. --- Albert Einstein It is important when scientists are called upon to play their part in the world of affairs, as is happening to an increasing extent.----- Sir William Lawrence Bragg It is man’s social being that determines his thinking. ---- Mao Tse-tung The man who trims himself to suit everybody will soon whittle himself away. ----Charles Schwab

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Everything is foreseeable but permission is given.

--- Rabbi Akiva Ben Yossef (Killed by Romans)

The most incomprehensible about the world is that it is comprehensible.-- Albert Einstein. Gravitation is not responsible for people falling in love.

Are not the mountains, waves and skies a great part of me and I of them?

--- Lord Byron as quoted by Schopenhauer It is essential for the men of science to take an interest in the administration of their own affairs or else the professional civil servant will step in – and then the Lord helps you. ---- Lord Ernest Rutherford We must become the change we want to see. --- Mahatma Gandhi Do not let your fire go out, Do not let the hero in your soul perish. The world you desire can be won. It exists.. it is real.. it is possible , it's yours.

--- Ayn Rand A man said to the universe: ‘Sir, I exist,’ ‘However,’ replied the universe ‘The fact has not created in me a sense of obligation.’ -- Stephen Crane We ought to regard the present state of the universe as the effect of its anterior state and the cause of the one to follow. -- Pierre Simon Laplace It is only in the quantum theory that Newton’s differential method becomes inadequate, and indeed strict causality fails us.

But the last word has not yet been said. May the spirit of Newton’s method give the power to restore unison between physical reality and the profoundest characteristics of Newton’s teaching-strict causality. ------- Albert Einstein The best engineers are those who, in addition to technical expertise, have had good training in the liberal arts and understand the world around them. --- Admiral Rikover Quantum physics formulates laws governing crowds of particles, not individuals. --Albert Einstein Space and bodies are not really different. --- Baruch Spinoza Even the categories in which facts are collected and ordered vary according to the social position of the observer. --- Karl Mannheim

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It is better to light a single candle than to curse the darkness. --- Chinese Proverb Not even wrong ! --- Wolfgang Pauli about a physics manuscript submitted for publication.

Men go abroad to wonder at the heights of mountains, at the huge waves of the sea, at the long courses of the rivers, at the vast compass of the ocean, at the circular motion of the stars; and they pass by themselves without wondering. â&#x20AC;Ś. ST. AUGUSTIN Compassion without knowledge is ineffective; knowledge without compassion is inhuman. --- Victor Weisskopf Every great and deep difficulty bears in itself its own solution. --- Victor Weisskopf Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has. --- Margaret Mead As the soil, however rich it may be, cannot be productive without cultivation, so the mind without culture can never produce good fruit. --- Seneca Be more concerned with your character than your reputation, because your character is what you really are, while your reputation is merely what others think you are.

------ John Wooden 1910-2010 Don't walk in front of me, I may not follow. Don't walk behind me, I may not lead. Just walk beside me and be my friend. --- Albert Camus Obstacles are those frightful things you see when you take your eyes off your goal. --Henry Ford The pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, an almost fanatical love of justice, and the desire for personal independence--these are the features of Jewish tradition which make me thank my stars that I belong to it. ---- Albert Einstein Be on your guard against all kinds of greed: A man's life does not consist in the abundance of his possessions. ---- Luke 12:15 He gave man speech, and speech created thought, which is the measure of the universe; and science struck the thrones of earth and heaven.

--- Percy B. Shelley, Prometheus Unbound And I gave my heart to seek and search out by wisdom concerning all things that are done under Heavenâ&#x20AC;Ś For in much wisdom is much grief; and he who increaseth knowledge increases sorrow.

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ALL RIGHTS RESERVED TO BENJAMIN GAL-OR, --- King Solomon Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. --- Rousseau

If you see the poor oppressed in a district, and justice and rights denied, do not be surprised at such things; for one official is eyed by a higher one, and over them both are others, higher still. --- King Solomon; Ecclesiastes 5; 8,9

The right to search for truth implies also a duty. One must not conceal any part of what one has recognized to be true. --- Albert Einstein

It is impossible to demonstrate the non-contradictoriness of a logical mathematics system using only the means offered by the system itsel --- Kurt Gรถdel He who can properly define and divide is to be considered a god. ----- Plato

Man is stranger to his own research; He knows not whence he comes, nor whither goes; Tormented atoms in a bed of mud; Devoured by death, a mockery of fate; But thinking atoms, whose far-seeing eyes, Guided by thoughts, have measured the faint stars; Our being mingles with infinite; Ourselves we never see, or come to know. ----Voltaire Timid men prefer the calm of despotism to the tempestuous sea of liberty. ----Thomas Jefferson It is better to remain silent and be thought a fool than to open one's mouth and remove all doubt. ---- Abraham Lincoln

Every child is an artist. The problem is how to remain an artist once we grow up. -----Pablo Picasso The reward for conformity was that everyone liked you except yourself. ---Rita Mae Brown

FAUST: 'Tis writ: 'in the beginning was the Word!'

I pause, to wonder what is here inferred?

The Word I cannot set supremely high, A new translation I will try.

I read, if by the spirit I am taught,

180

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ALL RIGHTS RESERVED TO BENJAMIN GAL-OR, This sense: 'In the beginning was the Thought'.

This opening I need to weigh again, Or sense may suffer from a hasty pen.

Does Thought create, and work, and rule the hour?

'Twere best: 'In the beginning was the Power!'

Yet, while the pen is urged with willing fingers, A sense of doubt and hesitancy lingers.

The spirit come to guide me in my need, I write, 'In the beginning was the Deed!'

---- Goethe

Great minds discuss ideas, average minds discuss events, inferior minds discuss people. ---- source unknown Be yourself; everyone else is already taken.----- Oscar Wilde Only those who risk going too far can possibly find out how far they can go. ------T.S. Elliot The price of hating other human beings is loving oneself less. ----- Eldridge Cleaver Wherever you go , go with your whole heart. ----- Confucious Happiness comes when your work and words are of benefit to yourself and others. ---- Buddha The harder I work, the luckier I get. ---- Goldwyn If you light a path for someone it will also brighten your path. ---- Chinese proverb I have never killed a man, but I have read many obituaries with great pleasure. -----Samuel Clemens No man can put a chain about the ankle of his fellow man without at last finding the other end fastened about his own neck.---- Tim Cavanaugh If you have integrity, nothing else matters. If you don't have integrity, nothing else matters. ----- Alan Simpson If you don't want to have critics: don't do anything and don't be anybody --- source unknown

You never reach a mature technology, there's no end to the future of improvement.---- Dr. Sam Williams (1921-2009)

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You....cannot strengthen the weak by weakening the strong.

You....cannot help small men by tearing down big men.

You...cannot help the poor by destroying the rich.

You....cannot help the wage earner by pulling down the wage payer.

You....cannot keep out of trouble by spending more than your income.

You ... cannot further the brotherhood of man by inciting class hatred.

You.....cannot establish security on borrowed money.

You.....cannot build character and courage by taking away a man's initiative and independence.

You.....cannot help men permanently by doing for them what they could and should do for themselves. ------- J. Paul Getty Friendship marks a life even more deeply than love. Love risks degenerating into obsession, friendship is never anything but sharing.

--- Elie Wiesel Who is rich? The one who is happy with what he has. --- biblical adage

We are only just embarking on a universal quest for knowledge and are still like children playing with pebbles on the seashore, while the great ocean of truth rolls, unexplored, beyond our reach. --- Isaac Newton Only humans conceive beyond reality, desire beyond adequacy, create beyond need.

--- source unknown You understand something until you try to explain it to your grandmother. ----Albert Einstein Work, Finish, Publish. --- Michael Faraday I hate quotations. Tell me what you know. --- Ralph Waldo Emerson But as for certain truth, No man has known it. Nor will he know it; Neither of the gods.

Nor yet of all the things of which I speak. And even if by chance he were to utter the final truth, He would himself not know it; For all is but a woven web of guesses. --Xenophanes

182

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E pilogue I

t was many years ago, during my affiliation with Johns Hopkins and

Pittsburgh universities, that I started to write about the foundations of this new system [Lecture 1] and ‘Gravitism’ [Volume I] and within the general philosophy ‘Havayism’ [Lecture IX, Volume I, and Lecture 10, this online Volume III]. And it was this work that had gradually led me to become an autodidact of philosophy and of the general theory of relativity, a process which later prompted me to give these lectures as formal university courses.

But following the publication of my works, I came to realize that they contain too many technical concepts, formalism and mathematics that could be clearly understood only by a specialist. Hence I decided, that, this time, I would try to write an entirely different book, that, with a minimal 183

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amount of technical formalism, would follow the guidelines of Volumes I and II but without mathematics and by adding illustrations and homework for students in any field of study, strating from the level of high school.

E

ver since I have been working on this book, which reproduces, if

not the letter, then the spirit of my lectures.

No series of lectures was ever a set-piece; they have remained in a state of flux until now when the final writing and publishing online has “frozen” them.

This “freezing” is very apprehensive to me, but it cannot be helped. My hope is to write additional volumes in this series. Meanwhile I hope that at least some of my readers will “thaw out” the lines and give them greater dynamical force through their own critical attention.

Indeed, it was the work on the present volume that gave me the opportunity to develop more fully than in my earlier works the general and physico-philosophical principles of this new field of study.

184

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Arriving at this end, seemed, at times, like reconstructing a vast jigsaw puzzle from scattered and (apparently) unrelated pieces of information. But the eventual emergence of new regularities, which, at the beginning, I had not even suspected to be a part of the overall picture, was often a rewarding surprise.

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Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and Gauge Particles". International Journal of Modern Physics A 24: 2601– 2627. arXiv:0907.3466. Bibcode2009IJMPA..24.2601G. doi:10.1142/S0217751 X09045431; F. Wilczek (2004). "The Universe Is A Strange Place". arXiv:astro-ph/0401347 [astro-ph]; S.L. Glashow (1961). "Partialsymmetries of weak interactions". Nuclear Physics 22: 579– 588. Bibcode 1961NucPh..22..579G. doi:10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2; S. Weinberg (1967). "A Model of Leptons". Physical Review Letters 19: 1264 1266.Bibcode 1967PhRvL..19.1264W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.19.1264A. Salam (1968). N. Svartholm. ed. Elementary Particle Physics: Relativistic Groups and Analyticity. Eighth Nobel Symposium. Stockholm: Almquvist and Wiksell. pp. 367; F. Englert, R. Brout (1964). "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons". Physical Review Letters 13: 321– 323. Bibcode 1964PhRvL..13321E.doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321; Weinberg, S., Cosmology. Oxford University Press. p. 28.ISBN 0198526822, 2008 R.P. Kirshner, Hubble's Diagram and Cosmic Expansion, Online Article A. Dekel, and J. P. Ostriker, Formation of Structure in the Universe.

Cambridge University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0521586321, 1999.

A. Dekel et al, "Lost and found dark matter in elliptical galaxies".

Nature 437 (7059): 707–710.doi:10.1038/nature03970. arXiv:astroph/0501622. PMID 16193046, 2005.

Freedman, W.L., and B. F. Madore, B. K. Gibson, L. Ferrarese, D. D. Kelson, S. Sakai, J. R. Mould, R. C. Kennicutt, Jr., H. C. Ford, J. A. Graham, J. P. Huchra, S. M. G. Hughes, G. D. Illingworth, L. M. Macri, P. B. Stetson (2001). "Final Results from the Hubble Space Telescope Key Project to Measure the Hubble Constant". The Astrophysical Journal553 (1): 47– 72. doi:10.1086/320638.

Davis, M.; Efstathiou, G., Frenk, C. S., & White, S. D. M., "The evolution of large-scale structure in a universe dominated by cold dark matter" Astrophysical Journal 292: 371–394.doi:10.1086/163168., 1985.

Keel, W.C., The Road to Galaxy Formation (2 ed.). Springer. p. 7.

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78. Harrison, E. "The redshift-distance and velocity-distance laws".Astrophysical Journal, Part 1 403: 28–31. doi:10.1086/172179. 1993.

79. Padmanabhan, T., Structure formation in the universe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521424860. 1993.

80. Sartori, L., Understanding Relativity. University of California Press. Appendix 5B. ISBN 0520200292. 1996.

81. Kroupa, P.; Famaey, B.; de Boer, Klaas S.; Dabringhausen, Joerg; Pawlowski, Marcel; Boily, Christian; Jerjen, Helmut; Forbes, Duncan et al. (2010). "LocalGroup tests of dark-matter Concordance Cosmology: Towards a new paradigm for structure formation".Astronomy and Astrophysics, arXiv:1006.1647.

82. Merritt, D.; Bertone, G. (2005). "Dark Matter Dynamics and Indirect Detection".Modern Physics Letters A 20: 1021– 1036.doi:10.1142/S0217732305017391.

83. Bertone, G; Hooper, D; Silk, J (2005). "Particle dark matter: evidence, candidates and constraints".Physics Reports 405: 279.doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2004.08.031.arXiv:hep-ph/0404175.

84. Freeman, K and G. McNamara, In Search of Dark Matter. Birkhäuser. p. 37. ISBN 0387276165, 2006 85. Salucci, P. and A. Borriello (. J. Trampeti and J. Wess. ed.), The Intriguing Distribution of Dark Matter in Galaxies. Lecture Notes in Physics, Berlin Springer Verlag. 616. pp. 66–77, 2003 86. Koopmans, L. V. E. and T. Treu, "The Structure and Dynamics of Luminous and Dark Matter in the Early-Type Lens Galaxy of 0047-281 at z = 0.485". The Astrophysical Journal583: 606–615. doi:10.1086/345423.arXiv:astroph/0205281,2003 87. Nature 463, 203-206 (14 January 2010) | doi:10.1038/nature08640,Bulgeless dwarf galaxies and dark matter cores from supernova-driven outflows 88. Faber, S.M. and R.E. Jackson, "Velocity dispersions and mass-to-light ratios for elliptical galaxies".Astrophysical Journal 204: 668– 683.doi:10.1086/154215. 1976 89. Rejkuba, M., Dubath, P., Minniti, D. and G. Meylan, (E. Vesperini, M. Giersz, and A. Sills. ed.),"Masses and M/L Ratios of Bright Globular Clusters in NGC 5128".Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. IAU Symposium246: 418–422.doi:10.1017/S1743921308016074, 2008 195

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90. Minchin, R. et al., "A Dark Hydrogen Cloud in the Virgo Cluster".The Astrophysical Journal 622: L21–L24. doi:10.1086/429538, 2005 91. Moore, B., et al, "Dark Matter Substructure within Galactic Halos". Astrophysical Journal Letters, 524: L19–L22.doi:10.1086/312287, 1999 92. "Hot News for Cold Dark Matter". Chandra X-ray Observatorycollaboration.

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93. Massey, R. et al., "Dark matter maps reveal cosmic scaffolding". Nature 445 (7125): 286 290. doi:10.1038/nature05497.PMID 17206154, 2007.

94. Clowe, D., et al, "A direct empirical proof of the existence of dark matter". Astrophysical Journal Letters 648: 109– 113.doi:10.1086/508162. arXiv:astro-ph/0608407, 2006.

95. Chandra, Dark Matter Mystery Deepens in Cosmic "Train Wreck" :: 16 August 07http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2007/a520/ 96. 636. doi:10.1038/nature03597.arXiv:astro-ph/0504097.PMID 15931216.

97. Freese, K.. Death of Stellar Baryonic Dark Matter Candidates.arXiv:astroph/0007444.

98. Freese, K. Death of Stellar Baryonic Dark Matter. arXiv:astro-ph/0002058 99. Cline, D. B., "The Search for Dark Matter". Scientific American. 2003 100. Siddhartha G. et al, (ICN-UNAM) [astro-ph/0003105v2] Quintessence-like Dark Matter in Spiral Galaxies [1]. 2000 101. Vittorio, N.; J. Silk, "Fine-scale anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background in a universe dominated by cold dark matter". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 – Letters to the Editor 285: L39–L43. doi:10.1086/184361.

1984 102. Umemura, M. and S. Ikeuchi, "Formation of Subgalactic Objects within TwoComponent Dark Matter". Astrophysical Journal 299: 583– 592. doi:10.1086/163726. 1985 103. Goddard Space Flight Center, "Dark Matter may be Black Hole Pinpoints". NASA's Imagine the Universe. 2004 104. Bertone, G., "Dark matter dynamics and indirect detection". Modern Physics Letters A 20: 1021–1036.doi:10.1142/S0217732305017391.arXiv:astroph/0504422. 2005 196

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105. Kane, G. and Watson, S., "Dark Matter and LHC: What is the Connection?". Modern Physics Letters A23: 2103– 2123.doi:10.1142/S0217732308028314. 2008 106. Drukier, A., K. Freese, and D. Spergel, "Detecting Cold Dark Matter Candidates". Physical Review D 33: 3495– 3508.doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.33.3495. 1986.

107. Aleksic, A., et al, "MAGIC Gamma-ray Telescope Observation of the Perseus Cluster of Galaxies: Implications for Cosmic Rays, Dark Matter, and NGC 1275".Astrophysical Journal 710: 634–647.doi:10.1088/0004-637X/710/1/634.

2009 108. Freese, K., "Can Scalar Neutrinos or Massive Dirac Neutrinos be the Missing Mass?". Physics Letters B167: 295–300. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(86)90349-7.

1986 109. Mandal, S., M. Buckley, K. Freese, D. Spolyar and H. Murayama, "Cascade Events at IceCube+DeepCore as a Definitive Constraint on the Dark Matter Interpretation of the PAMELA and Fermi Anomalies". Physical Review D 81: 043508.doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.81.043508. 2010 110. Brownstein, J.R. and J. W. Moffat, "The Bullet Cluster 1E0657-558 evidence shows modified gravity in the absence of dark matter". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 382: 29–47.doi:10.1111/j.13652966.2007.12275.x.arXiv:astro-ph/0702146. 2007 111. Peebles, J. E., and R. Bharat,"The cosmological constant and dark energy". Reviews of Modern Physics, 75: 559– 606.doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559. 2003 112. Carroll, S. (2001). "The cosmological constant". Living Reviews in Relativity 4: 1.doi:10.1038/nphys815-<span. Retrieved 2006-09-28. 2001 113. Alexander, S. et al, "Local Void vs Dark Energy: Confrontation with WMAP and Type Ia Supernovae". ArΧiv ePrint.arXiv:astro-ph/0712.0370v2. 2008 114. Timothy C. and P. Ferreira, "Does Dark Energy Really Exist?". Scientific American 300 (4): 48–55. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican040948.PMID 19363920. 2009 115. Exirifard, Q., "Phenomenological covariant approach to gravity". General Relativity and Gravitation. doi:10.1007/s10714-010-1073-6. 2010 197

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116. Hossenfelder, S., "A Bi-Metric Theory with Exchange Symmetry". Physical Review D 78: 044015. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.78.044015. 2008 117. Lineweaver, C. and T. M. Davis, "Misconceptions about the Big Bang".

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2002 119. Booksindex.eu, “If you begin to read “The Origin of Writing and Abrahamic Religions, Benjamin Gal-Or, Msn Scribd, 2008”, you win many good ideas”, www.booksindex.eu/.../the-origin-of-writing-and-abrahamic-religion.

120. Whiting, A. B., "The Expansion of Space: Free Particle Motion and the Cosmological Redshift". ArXiv preprint. arXiv:astroph/0404095. Bibcode2004Obs...124..174W, 2004 121. Bunn, E.F. & DW Hogg, "The kinematic origin of the cosmological redshift". ArXiv preprint. arXiv:0808.1081. Bibcode 2009AmJPh..77..688B. doi:10.1119/1.31291 03, 2008 122. Baryshev, Yu. V., "Expanding Space: The Root of Conceptual Problems of the Cosmological Physics". Practical Cosmology 2: 20– 30. arXiv:0810.0153. Bibcode2008pc2..conf...20B, 2008 123. Peacock, J.A., "A diatribe on expanding space". ArXiv preprint. arXiv:0809.4573.Bibcode 2008arXiv0809.4573P, 2008 124. L. Cosmides, J. Tooby and R. Kurzban. ‘Perceptions of race’. Trends Cogn Sci, 7, 173-179. S1364661303000573, 2003 125. R. Kurzban, J. Tooby and L. Cosmides.). ‘Can race be erased?’ Coalitional computation and social categorization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 98, 15387-92. 10.1073/pnas.251541498, 2001 126. L. Hirschfeld. ‘Race in the Making’, Journal. 1996.

127. F. J. Gil-White. Are ethnic groups biological "species" to the human brain?

Essentialism in our cognition of some social categories. Current Anthropology, 42, 515-554, 2001 128. G. J. Lewis and T. C. Bates. ‘Genetic Evidence for Multiple Biological Mechanisms Underlying Ingroup Favoritism’. Psychological Science, 21, 16231628. 10.1177/0956797610387439, 2010 198

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129. R. Goldenberg. Review of "Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism" by Daniel Boyarin in The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series, Vol. 92, No. 3/4 (Jan. - Apr., 2002), pp. 586-588, 2002 130. J. D. G. Dunn Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways by DurhamTubingen Research Symposium on Earliest Christianity and Judaism (2nd : 1989 : University of Durham), , 1989 131. A. F. Segal, Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.

132. M. Castells, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, Volume II, 2nd Edition, The Power of identity, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

133. Journal of Educational Science of Hunan Normal University, 2003-03 A study of Correlation Between Interaction Anxiety and Internet Addiction Disorder in College Students.

134. BAI Yu FAN Fu-min (Institution of Education Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084), A Study on the Internet Dependence of College Students. 2005.

This study focused on the internet dependence of college students in China, in order to distinguish internet dependence students from other students.

135. A. Chadwick and P.N. Howard, Internet Politics, Routledge Handbook, 2009.

199