Physics & Philosophy Today -- Student Lectures, Vol. III

Cosmology, Physics & Philosophy

PHYSICS

LECTURES as Gal-Or Vol. III All RightsSTUDENTS Reserved to Prof.

Dr. Benjamin

2015

&

PHILOSOPHY Published Reviews

January 1, 2012

TODAY Benjamin Gal-Or Gold Award from The NY Academy of Sciences

2015

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Benjamin Gal-Or

All Rights Reserved to Prof. Dr. Benjamin Gal-Or

2015

Worldwide Acclaims about Volumes I & II “Gal-Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “A most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.” Order Amidst Chaos, Enlightenment Aesthetics “A Master Piece.

The well-known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of presentday scientific theories.“ Indian Journal of Physics “Evokes a person heart !!

Has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-Orians”. Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power.“ Chinese Academy of Sciences “We are all Gal-Or ians!” The Editor, Foundations of Physics “one of the most beautiful books that I have read.” Outstanding Books List “a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening.

Sir Karl Popper, The Greatest Philosopher of Modern Science

“Gal-Or launches a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject.”

Explaining the Gold Medal Award from the N.Y. Academy of Sciences

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS REVIEW: “Gal-Or's remarkable book sees and seizes the world whole. He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-delusion. Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.

His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government.

One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry.

His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future.

Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.

The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales.

The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion.

He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries.

The expansion provides, among other things, an un-saturable sink for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life.

He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries.

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Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events.

The value of this book lays in the challenging combination of ideas which Gal-Or presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review.

[This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students.”

By John Wheeler, Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton: “I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them!

Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more!

I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time. What an ingenious phrase is your, “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”! I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least.

One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences.

I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task. That is to give students an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to. I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a package that I personally have found most thought-provoking.”

Published Acclaims continue on page 12 4

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Table of Content Volume I SIR KARL POPPER, Foreword ……………….……………..…… xx SIR ALAN COTTRELL, Foreword ………………….………........ xxi Preface ……………………………………..….……….…..…….... xxii

Introduction 1.1 The Revival of Relativistic Cosmology vs. Modified Concepts in Physics and Philosophy …………………...…… 2 1.1.1 The problem of ordering ……………………...…… 3 1.1.2 How did it all start? ………………………………… 5 1.1.3 The first seven stages …………………………....... 7 1.1.4 The present matter-dominated Era………………...... 11 2.1 The Einsteinian Methodology: A Preliminary Remark …........ 11

2.2 T 5

All Rights Reserved to Prof. Dr. Benjamin Gal-Or he Withdrawal of Philosophy From Physics (and of Physics From Philosophy) ……………………………...………

2.3 The Greatest Ambition of Physics …………………..….......

2.3.1 Unification of initial-boundary conditions first?

Unification of fields second? ………………..…............................

2.3.2 Should unification begin with differential equations? …………………..……………….....

2.4The Great Physico-Philosophical Gains from the Discovery of the Cosmic Background Radiation …………..

2.5 The Expanding Universe ………………………….….........

2.6 The 1977 “Aether Drift” Discovery ……………..……….......

2.7 Verification of Physical Laws by Astronomy and Astrophysics …………………………………….……….……….

3.1 Some Tentative Assertions …...…………………..…......…..

3.2 The Skeptic’s Outlook .…………………...………....….…

2015 13 16 16 17 19 22 23 24 26 69

PART I: Preliminary Concepts 1.

From Terrestrial Gravitational Structures to Black Holes & Neutrinos in Astrophysics

1.1 Gravitation, Asymmetry and Structure ……………….……... 80 A fallacy associated with current theories …………….......... 80 1.1.2 Gravity-induced sedimentary structures …………... 81 1.2 Stars and the Hertzsprung-Russel Central Diagram ……….. 88 1.3 Supernova, Gravitational Collapse, Neutron Stars, Pulsars ……………………………………… 92 1.4 X-Ray Astronomy, Binary X-Ray Systems, and Gravitational Clocks ……………………………………..... 100 1.5 Black Holes …………………………………………….…… 106 1.6 Gas, Dust and the Formation of Stars in Our Galaxy .…….. 113 1.7 How Are Cosmic Distances Measured? …………………… 116 1.8 Neutrino Astronomy and Astrophysics ………………….. . 130 1.9 The Emergence of Gamma-Ray Astronomy ……………….. 132 1.10 Exploration of Extra-Solar Space 6

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by Unmanned Spacecraft …………………………………… 134

2.

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13

From “Conservation” in Classical Physics to Solitons in Particle Physics Aim and Scope ………………………………………………..

Limitations of Theory ………………………………….……..

The General Macroscopic Equation …………………….........

Continuity Equation (Total Mass Conservation) ………........

Conservation of Linear Momentum and Gravity.…………….

The Navier-Stokes Equations and Gravity …………………..

Kinetic-Energy Equation and Dissipation Function in Gravitational Fields …………………

First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy Conservation Equation …………………………………………

First Law and Enthalpy ………………………………………..

First Law In Terms of Temperature Field …………………….

Entropy Balance Equation ……………………………………..

Beyond Classical Physics: Solitons, Antisolitons and Conservation ……………………….

Neutrinos and the Powerful Role Conservation Equations Play in Subatomic Processes (Addendum) …...……

3.

138 140 142 146 147 149 152 154 156 157 159 160 163

From General Relativity & Relativistic Cosmology to Gauge Theories

3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………….......

3.1.1 Einstein’s field equations in general relativity ……….…….…

3.1.2 Confirmation of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation …………...

3.2 Principles and Formulations of General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology ………………...……….………………

3.3 Observations, The “Age” of the Universe And “Equivalent Local Cells” …………………….……….…....

3.4 Timekeeping, Accelerated Observers and the

167 169 172 191 200 7

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Principle of Equivalence ………………………….……………

3.5 From General Relativity to Unified Field Theories ……………

204 205

PART II

From Physics to Philosophical Crossroads and Back 4.

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17

The Arrows of Time Time and The Arrow of Time: The Most Distorted of All Ideas? …………………………… 215 Asymmetry-Symmetry-Space-Time and The Unification of the Laws of Physics …………………… 216 Methodology, Aim and Scope ……………………………… 217 Confusing Concepts of Time and Time Asymmetries ……… 219 The Entropic Arrow of Time ………………………………… 222 Causality, Causation and Time Asymmetries ……………….. 226 Causation and Determinism in Relativistic Theories ………………………………………….. 227 Cosmological Arrows of Time and Cosmic Time ……….…… 230 A Few Remarks ……………………………………...……….. 232 Time-Reversal Invariance and Irreversibility …………….…… 236 Microscopic Time Asymmetries in “Elementary Particles” ………………………….………… 240 The Death of Scale-Based Physics……………….………...... 242 The “Dual” Quantum-Geometrodynamical School and “Superspace” ………………………………….. .. 243 Tachyons and Causal Violations …………………….………. 246 Macrocausality and Microcausality in Quantum Mechanics … 247 Fading Memory in Classical Physics …………………………. 247 Doubts as to the Universality of Entropy …………………… 249 Entropy-Free Thermodynamic Arrows of Time ………….…… 250

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The Crisis in Quantum Physics

5.1 Preliminary Review …………………………………….…… 255 The effect of gravitation and the outside world on quantum physics: 5.1.1 The three main schools of thought …………………… 261 5.2 Einstein’s Objections to the Uncertainty Principle ……….... 262 5.3 The Heresy of a Few Skeptics ………………………….….. 265 5.4 Mythologized Concepts of Quantum Physics …………….. 265 5.5 The Failure of Classical and Quantal Statistical Mechanics to Deduce Irreversibility and Time Asymmetries ………………………………………………. 267 5.6 The Emergence of Quantum Chromodynamics and Super-Symmetry …………………………………..... 272 5.6.1 Spatio-Temporal Approach to Quantum Physics …….. 272 5.6.2 From Weinberg-Salam Theory to Quantum Chromodynamics ……………………….... 273 5.6.2.1 Conservation laws as symmetry principles; and vice versa …………………………………. 273 5.6.2.2 Global, exact, approximate, isotopic and SU(3) symmetries ……………………...… 274 5.6.2.3 From SU(3) to renormalizable gauge theories ……………………………………........ 276 5.6.2.4 Quark confinement asymptotic freedom in gauge theories …………………………........ 276-1 5.6.2.5 QCD and the search for higher symmetry principles ………………………………..…….. 276-1 5.6.3 From Quantum Field Theories to Super-Symmetry & Super-Gravity ……………………………………....... 276-3 5.6.3.1 On the limits of quantum gravity and ‘Unified Field Theories’ ……………………...... 276-4

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PART III

From Physics to Cosmological Crossroads and Back 6.

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy 6.1 Reduction of Thermodynamics to Gravitation ……...…

277 6.1.1 Methodology …………………………………….. 277 Dialectical Gravitism: Definition of the first problems ……………………………………... 278 6.1.3 Gravitation as super-asymmetry ………………… 279 6.2 The Earliest and Most Universal Asymmetry: Observational Evidence …………………..………......... 279 6.2.1 Which space expands and which does not? …...…. 282 6.3 Gravitation-Asymmetry Principle of Equivalence ……. . 284 6.4 Can Intercluster Space Be Saturated With Radiation? … 287 6.5 Derivation of the Master Asymmetry from Gravitation Theories ………………………...…

290 6.6 Irreversibility in the New Gravitational Cosmological Thermodynamics ………………...…….

293 6.7 Origin of Dissipation in Newtonian Fluids ……..……

297 6.8 Terrestrial Thermodynamics ……………………..……… 299 6.9 Connections with Classical and Continuum Thermodynamics …………………………………..….. 301 6.10 Electromagnetic Irreversibility and the Master Asymmetry …………………….....….... 303

7.

Cosmological Origin of Time 7.1 Time: The All-Embracing Concept …………………..

7.2 Cosmological Origin of Time ………………………...

7.3 Cosmological Interpretations of Newton’s Laws of Motion …………………………………..…....

7.4 Gravitational Origin of Structure and Evolution .…….

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7.5 Gravitation and the Outflow of Energy Into Un-Saturable Space ………………………………….. 322 7.6 Stellar Evolution …………………………………….... 324 7.7 Terrestrial Evolution ………………………………...... 325 7.8 Some Open Questions ……………………………..…

326 Microscopic T-Violation and the Master Asymmetry: A possible Connection? …………. 327 8.

Black Holes and the Unification of Asymmetries 8.1 Introduction …………………………………………

8.2 Observational Evidence ………………………….…

8.3 Schwarzschild Solution and Black Holes ………….

8.4 Black Holes Mechanics and Entropy ………………

8.5 Can Black Holes “Evaporate”? …………………….

8.6 Primordial Black Holes? …………………………....

8.7 Back to the Melting Pot of Unification? …………....

330 331 332 340 341 341 341

PART IV

Beyond Present Knowledge 9.

Havayism – The Science of The Whole 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

The Futile Quest for Final Answers …………………..

An Example in Havayism ……………………..…....…

From Cosmology to Irreversible Structures and Memory ……………………………………..….…

The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………..……

349 350 365 415

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VOLUME II 10

Introduction ……………………………………………...................

420

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A Few Historical Remarks on Time, Mind and Symmetry ………..

437

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The Philosophy of Time & Change: Some Historical Notions …………………….…………………...

455

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Structuralism and the Divided American Thought: A Short Glossary of Terms ………………………………..………

467

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Policy and Publicity: A Critique …………………………………..

483

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Thought-Provoking and Thought-Depressing Quotations ………..

495

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Critique of Western Methodology ………………………………....

530

Published Acclaims continue from page 4 “The works of scientists like Gal-Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-Winner) Prigogine provide important resources.

Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-Or is superior).”

The Crisis of the Sciences I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-Or’s book.”

Haaretz Daily News Paper 12

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“Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work!

Gal-Or’s net is widely cast – it reaches as far as science policy and political philosophy.”

Sir Alan Cottrell, Chancellor, Cambridge University

Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, "Nature, Philosophy of"

“A comprehensive explication of a large area of science which the reader may study in many subjects. ” Contemporary Philosophy “Interesting to read, integrating much of scientific material.”

Deutsche Literaturzeitung “This book has a wide-ranging scope.

Professor Gal-Or develops a philosophy of science, which he calls Havayism.” Space Science Reviews, Smithsonian-NASA Astrophysics “Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds. Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science.”

New Scientist

“Einstein's time-symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena!

Gal-Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-chemical and biological evolution -- that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics – that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology.

He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself.

Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-cluster expanding space, may 13

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then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.” Advancement of Physics “An extraordinary book, linking separate parts of cosmology and physics with modern results to provide the basis for a contemporary version of natural philosophy.”

Mathematical Association of America

“One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe.

It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper.

It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding.

It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.”

Robin (forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222

"The Judeo-Christian Tradition” in Scientific American;

By MIT Victor F. Weisskopf, who quotes from Volume I: "Most astrophysicists, cosmologists and astronomers agree that the biblical account of evolution, in stressing `a beginning´ and the roles of `void,´ `light´ and a `structure-less´ state, uncannily close to the verified evidence with modern science has already supplied us"

cosmic initial may be which

“Lecture one [in Volume I] affirms that the stress placed by Genesis on ‘beginning’ and the initial roles of ‘void’, ‘light’ and a ‘structure-less’ state, “may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us.” Christian Apologetics, Journal

Preface to Volume III 14

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Volume I ends with an objection to Eddington’s conclusion: “We have found a strange footprint on the shores of the unknown. We have devised profound theories, one after another, to account for its origin.

At last, we have succeeded in reconstructing the creature that made the footprint, and lo! It is our own”

While I take pleasure from Eddington’s flowery prose, I cannot agree with his implied conclusion. It is not only our “footprint” that counts. There are other “footprints”. One may find them anywhere in nature; “on the shores of the “unknown”, on the beaches of Haifa, or in the fields of physics and astronomy. And they do not exclusively belong to man! Man is not the center of science, nor is he the sole “footprint maker” in the universe.

Anthropomorphism and subjectivism would not advance us far away. They can only prevent us from opening gates to new horizons, or block the doors to the advancement of science and philosophy. It is perhaps better to conclude on the dual note of “skepticism” and “optimism” as exemplified by Einstein’s dictum: “The hypotheses with which (a development in modern science) starts, become steadily more abstract and remote from (direct) experience. On the other hand it gets nearer to the grand aim of all science, which is to cover the greatest possible number of empirical facts by logical deduction from the smallest possible number of hypotheses or axioms. Meanwhile the train of thought leading from the axioms to the empirical facts of verifiable consequences gets steadily longer and more subtle.”

While reading this Volume III is much lighter than studying in Volume I the complex

mathematical-physical field equations of Einstein’s General Relativity (EGR) and our Relativistic Gravity Thermodynamics (RGT), the cosmological, physical and philosophical conclusion deduced in Volume I are the sole foundations of what is updated and simplified in This Volume III, starting from Lecture I. 15

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Volume II, in turn, was dedicated to “CRITQUE of WESTER THOUGHT, the intelligentsia and some extant obsolete philosophies.

In this volume we update Volume I, without resorting to mathematics, and we stress that all theories are limited, as well as the education in our universities.

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Lecture I Voids Fig. 1.1: We begin by noting the discovered, expanding, dark-cold VOIDS (some marked purple), the 100 million light years scale of this advancedtelescopesrecord. We, on earth, in the Solar System, in “our” galaxy, the Milky Way, are less than a visible dot in this largest portrait of “our” universe.

(Figs. 1.2.1 & Lecture 2).

We first ask:

What role these Voids play in Physics and philosophy?

Detailed answers, provided in Vol. I, and summarized in Lectures I & II herein, are not easy to follow, even by professional astronomers, astrophysicists, life scientists and philosophers. Why? We begin with Fig.-1.2-Definitions.

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Fig. 1.2: We live

inside SPACE “3”, inside “our” System (Fig. 1.2.1), inside “our” Milky Way Galaxy, inside “our” Cluster/Super-Cluster II of galaxies marked in the Diagram and recorded in Figs. 2.3-2.4, in Lecture 2.

We next proceed pursuant to (1) Hubble Expansion (Ur = H0r; Lecture 2, (2) Figs. 2.1 to 2.4 & 3 TOUGHT EXPERIMENTS], (3) Einsteinian Gravity (EG) [Mathematical derivations of Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity are provided by Vol. I, We assert that energy-density values inside expanding, cold-dark voids/SPACE-1 (Figs. 1.1/1.2), can only fall DUE TO ITS VERY EXPANSION, or UNSATURABILITY (Lecture 2). SPACE “1” includes all voids-spaces between all clusters and super clusters of galaxies located in SPACES “3” & “2”. (Fig. 1.2.1).

ASSERTION 1 All radiation energies pouring out of all active stars and galaxies (Fig. 1.2.1), eventually reach the Space-1, and stay-dissipated there.

ASSERTION 2 All interstellar and intergalactic “winds” (Fig. 1.2.1) that flow into expanding, dark, cold 18

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SPACE-1, generate there gradients of energy densities, as marked.

SPACE

-2

SPACE-3 Is ‘Medium’ of Interstellar Winds that proceed to SPACE-2 & FINALLY Dissipate in Cold Space-1 Fig. 1.2.1 “Inter-Stellar Winds” eventually flow from SPACES 2 & 3 to irreversibly stay-dissipate in Cold Space-1. Vol. I proves that the origin of what engineers, biologists and scientists call THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS is that irreversible dissipation, which controls all evolution and everyday life.

Voyager I [marked] left our solar system on December 16, 2004. It is now proceeding against Space-3 stellar winds, providing, with Voyager II, data on Space-3 interstellar medium and winds inside our Milky Way Galaxy, whose location in Space-2 is defined by Figs. 1.3 & 1.4.

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Fig. 1.3: Distances between galaxies in Virgo super clusters of galaxies do not share the expansion of voids/Space-1. This is our “SPACE-2 Neighborhood” - a community often called “Local Group”, which is home to a few thousands galaxies. Here the cosmic scale is 10 million light years. But even in this zoomed-in astronomical record our entireb solar system is less than a visible dot. (See also the larger-scale Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.4).

Fig .

1.4: Even at this zoomed-in scale, our Solar System (Fig. 1.2.1) is less than a visible dot.

Andromeda (marked in yellow), like our galaxy, is a large member of our Local Group of galaxies. [Fig. 1.3]. It is characterized by a spiral structure similar to our galaxy, and is “nearby”, a mere 2,200,000 light-years away. That means that we see it today as it was when hominids left east Africa to arrive at the Lake of Galil. Both galaxies are the largest in the Local Group, which is about 10,000,000 light-years in its largest ‘diameter’.

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NOTES: The distance scale “1 million ly” shown here, is a zoom-in from “10 million ly” in Fig. 1.3, a zoom-in from “100 million ly” of Fig. 1.1 [“one ly” is the distance light travels in Spaces 1, 2, 3 during one year: 300,000 km/sec times 3600 sec/hr, times 24 hrs/day, times 365 days/year.].

While we know that the voids recorded in Fig. 1.1 expand via the empirical Hubble cosmic expansion (Footnotes), we do not know to what extent the intergalactic Space-2 shown here, shares, partially or uniformly, that cosmic spatial expansion. We thus assert that it is immaterial in drawing the conclusions of this gravito-philosophy. Moreover, this figure suggests that the distances between all galaxies do not increase as Space-1 increases.

The local group includes M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87, M89 and M31 (Andromeda). Andromeda consists of Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32, M110, NGC 147, NGC195, AND I-V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd largest galaxy in the local group, which also includes the Pisces Dwarf as a satellite.

‘Our’ satellite galaxies consist of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Darco Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Canis Major Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, Carina Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Tucana Dwarf, Leo I, Leo II, Leo A, Sag DEG, etc.

Fig. 1.5: The “Fog” visible is composed of billions of stars, each like our sun – a reminder of these cosmic scales.

Our galaxy is about 100,000 light-years in diameter at its disk-like longest spiral arms. is in the form of an almost flat spiral disk, with an average thickness of about 1,000 light-years.

It

The Solar System (Fig. 1.2.1) extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, comets, rocks and dust. It is located inside Space 2 that wraps our entire galaxy and is spatially interconnected with expanding VOIDS/Space 1.

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Most “young” stars are formed in the dilute regions of the rotating inter-stellar medium within SPACE-3.

Gravitational structures of clusters and superclusters vary considerably -- from that of Virgo, Leo, Ursa, Coma and Hercules to long ‘filaments’. [Figs. 1.1; 1.3].

Five key Simultaneous Motions: Planet earth rotates around its axis, once a “day”, orbits the sun, once a “year”, participates in the solar system (Fig. 1.2.1) rotation within our entire galaxy rotation, about 250 km/sec (Fig. 1.2), our galaxy participates in the cosmic expansion of the voids (Figs. 1.2; 1.6), which increases distances between super-clusters (Hubble Law, Fig. 1.2; Thought Experiments I, II, III). There are also various individual relative motions of galaxies within clusters and super-clusters. (Vol. I).

Fig. 1.6: The Earliest Recorded Expanding cosmic voids recorded 13.2 Billion years later as in Fig. 1.1.

The gravitationally structured yellow-green-red matter emitters are flying away from each other by the BIG-BANG leftover expansion-inertia. Generated between them is new space recorded here as small blue spots. These are the earliest Voids/SPACE-1 whose size, shapes and dynamicsthermodynamics are illustrated by Figs. 1.2 to 1.6.

RECAP: The yellow-green-red radiation sources are the earliest, gravitationallycondensed, and thus hotter emitters of radiation absorbed irreversibly in expanding BLUE-COLD VOIDS recorded here. [World History, Lecture 5, Vol. IV]. These “blue-baby voids” are to be increased in size by their big-bang-inertia-expansion to reach the huge sizes and shapes of voids recorded in Fig. 1.1. However, due to the limited speed of light and the expansion of these voids, we see less of them in Fig. 1.1. (See also Footnotes on the loss of information.).

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The visible universe contains billions of galaxies, structured as clusters (Figs. 1.3 & 1.4) and super-cluster “filaments”. (Fig. 1.1). Each galaxy contains billions of stars. (Fig. 1.5).

The galaxies are “gravity grouped” in non-expanding clusters & super-clusters. (i) CLUSTERS I & II marked here represent non-expanding clusters & super-clusters of galaxies. (ii) Expanding-Cooling VOIDS/SPACE “1” (Footnote 1, Figs. 1.1 & 1.6; Ref. 2), (iii) Space-1-expansion causes Stellar Winds (Fig. 1.2.1) to proceed from Space-3 to Space-2 and finally to stop and clash with opposing stellar winds in all voids in Space-1. (Fig. 1.2), (iv) Gravity & Space-1-expansion cause chemistry evolution via stellar evolution & supernovae explosions to form solar-system planets, atmospheres, water, life, thinking atoms, arrows of time, 2nd Law of Thermodynamics, linguistic-asymmetric-structuralism, Gravitism & Havayism. (Vol. I).

THE KINGDOM OF DARKNESS Expanding Space-1 is very cold. Some parts are about 270 degrees C below zero.

But is not empty. It is filled up with various concentrations of light and other types of radiations. These include: (i)

Radiation arriving as Stellar Winds.

(ii) Remnant glow radiation from the creation moment of the universe (the “Big Bang”).

Type 1 dissipates irreversibly in the depths of expanding cold voids surround and wraps around all super-clusters of galaxies.

Exceptions to this unified cosmic migration are those local winds, dusts and 24

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clouds that are swallowed up by black holes, like into the ones in the centers of some galaxies. On that issue we shall say a few words later.

The Home-Tub Thought Experiment Imagine that your home bath-tub is transformed today into an elastic rubber bath-tub that is being continuously inflated when you pour hot water into it.

This is an analogy to SPACE-1/VOIDS being expanded faster than it is filled up with radiation energy flowing into it from the shining sources around it. [Figs. 1.2 & 1.6].

In case you select to start inflating the bath-tub from, say, a midway water-level mark, that level would only go down with fast enough inflation rate of the bath-tub, thereby you cannot fill it up, in analogy to the observed SPACE-1-expansion. .(Fig. 1.6 vs. Fig. 1.1).

CONCLUSIONS: Your ‘fast expanding bath-tub’ represents the cause of the dark-cold night sky that you observe by stepping out of your home on a non-cloudy night.

Since SPACE-1-expansion causes the cosmos to be UNSATURABLE with respect to the radiation energy emitted from all galaxies and active stars, the radiation energy flowing into it from the shining sources cannot fill-it-up -- as far as it keeps expanding “fast enough”.

This is THE KINGDOM OF DARKNESS that rules all evolution, all life, all macro physics, all bona fide philosophy of science.

T

he measured 2.7 absolute degree Kelvin temperature of the cosmic background

blackbody radiation and the dark-cold night sky play a key role in this philosophy of science that we call Gravitism.

SPACE-1-expansion causes electromagnetic radiation irreversibility [retarded waves] that we term the electromagnetic arrow of time. [Volume I].

Recap: If you stop the inflation of your home bath-tub, the water level would start rising and the bath-tub will now be filled up gradually. (In analogy, the night sky would become 25

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hotter and hotter until, eventually, it reaches the maximum fusion temperature in the interiors of all stellar objects.).

(Footnotes 3, 4, 5)

In short,

because (i) Equilibrium stops all without VOIDS/SPACE-1-expansion, (ii) OPPOSING STELLAR WINDS (Figs. 1.2, 1.2.1) CLASH in each void TO STAGNANT STOP, causing build-up of stagnant radiation pressures, whose gradients slightly add to accelerate filaments inertia recession away from each other. (Figs. 1.6 vs. 1.1.).

RAISIN CAKE Thought Experiment One may next bake a raisin cake where each raisin represents a supercluster as the entire cake expands.

If the raisins are spread about evenly throughout the cake dough, they may represent the receding away superclusters as they run away from each other due to the expansion of the universe (expansion of voids/Space-1).

One may next imagine a tiny “educated observer” located on each non-expanding raisin.

Inquiring what he sees, he tells you that all other raisins are moving away from him, and that the density of cake-matter between him and nearby raisins decreases. Next, if you move him to another raisin, he observes the same.

COROLLARY: Most of the “time” ‘After’ the ‘Big Bang’ there has been no clock other than the increasing “size” of the universe, or the decrease in energy-matter density, or temperature.

In short, (i) Our sun-earth time-scale is irrelevant prior to the formation of the solar system and the recent arrival of thinking atoms. Thus, an alternative clock was introduced in Volume I, (ii) Equilibrium stops all without VOIDS/SPACE-1-expansion, (iii) OPPOSING STELLAR WINDS (Figs. 1.2, 1.2.1) CLASH in each void TO STAGNANT STOP, causing build-up of stagnant radiation pressures, whose gradients slightly add to accelerate filaments inertia recession away from each other. (Figs. 1.1, 1.6; One may also consult Footnote 12 about mystic dark matter & dark nergy speculations and theories.).

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The Inflating Balloon Thought Experiment On the surface of an inflating balloon one may paint small images of superclusters of galaxies, as in Figs. 1.1 and/or 1.2.

Next imagine a tiny “two-dimensional educated observer” located on each image.

HOWEVER this time he is only capable of perception of a surface, namely, only the twodimensional, curved space-time surface of his inflating-expanding balloon.

The conclusion of this wise creature is similar to the one in Experiment II: All superclusters of galaxies are receding away “from me”, no matter where I stand on the balloon surface.

Note also, that according to EGR, the balloon-universe harbors no ‘edge’.

It is finite in surface area, but boundless.

And, for this two-dimensional creature, it is not expanding "into" any extant space outside the balloon. For this creature just the surface of the whole balloon is ‘the whole universe’; namely, there is no ‘outside’ three-dimensional space.

Similarly, within our familiar three-dimensional universe, there is no ‘outside’ into

which the actual universe is expanding.

Assertion 3 EXPANDING cold-dark voids/SPACE “1” is more important in evolution, world history, science and philosophy than all galaxies, stars and planets combined.

RECAP 1. Opposing radiation flows inside Space-1 eventually “clash” in what is termed “Adiabatic envelope”. This flow is termed the 3rd Cosmological Arrow.

2. The net direction of radiation flows inside intergalactic SPACE 2 are termed the 2nd Cosmological Arrow.

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3. Space-1 expansion includes all dark voids between all filaments of super-clusters of galaxies. (Fig. 1.2). Earth, solar system, galaxies and super-clusters of galaxies do NOT share this cosmic Hubble Expansion.

Assertion 4 Space-1-Expansion as the MASTER-origin of all time-space asymmetries, life, sociobiology-structuralism, linguistic arrow of time, dynamics & thermodynamics of all processes, but not including micro-physics models of quantum mechanics. (Vol. I).

Assertion 5 These facts and assertions constitute the first key pillars of Gravitism, GravitoPhilosophy and Havayism. (Vol. 1).

Footnotes to Lecture I Notes to educators and students It is recommended to use these footnotes as starting points for homework assignments

Einstein’s General Relativity Role in Gravitism A socio-religious pressure had first forced Einstein to make the worse blunder of his life, by forcing on his EG an artificial number aimed to stop the unacceptable social dictum at that time unstable, of unstable, expanding or contracting universe. [Vol, I & Ref. 1].

In short, (i) Total, high-temperature, cosmic thermodynamic equilibrium stops all processes without VOIDS/SPACE-1-expansion, (ii) but with said expansion OPPOSING 28

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STELLAR WINDS (Figs. 1.2, 1.2.1) CLASH in each expanding void TO STAGNANT STOP, causing build-up of stagnant radiation pressures, whose gradients slightly add to accelerate filaments inertia recession away from each other. (Figs. 1.1, 1.6; One may also consult Footnote 12 about mystic “dark-matter” & “dark-energy” speculations and theories.).

Mystic theories

resort to Einstein’s rejected “cosmological constant” as the worse blunder of his life, artificially adding it due to social pressure. Hence we call it “MYSTIC SOCIAL CONSTANT”, while noting that without it EGR accepts no plausible static cosmological solutions, which means that the universe must expand or contract, as evidenced since Hubble Expansion. (Cf. Figs. 1.1 and 1.2 and the terminology associated with expanding universe, expanding voids/Space-1.).

Without said VOIDS/SPACE-1-expansion, a universal, thermodynamic Equilibrium stops all, (ii) OPPOSING STELLAR WINDS CLASH in each void TO STAGNANT STOP, causing build-up of stagnant radiation pressures, whose gradients slightly add to accelerate filaments inertia recession away from each other.).

Einsteinian gravitational dynamics

(Vol. I & Ref. 1) has

caused these early emitters to eventually assume the observed ”filament-structures” (Fig. 1.1), inside one of them we live, and make the following conclusions: 1. ALL earliest expanding voids (early SPACE-1) recorded in Fig. 1.6 are interconnected in 3-dimensional space and, thus, wrap around the yellow-green-red hot sources.

2. At this stage in World History all expanding cold voids have already started to irreversibly absorb radiation poured into them from the early gravitationally-condensing, and, therefore, heated material emitters. (Fig. 1.2).

3. This differentiation-aggregation of matter vs. voids is isotropic and homogeneous.

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The Cosmic Blackbody Microwave Background Radiation [CMBR] was discovered in 1941-1964 and is the remnant of radiation in early SPACE-1, which has since exp.nded and cooled by

S

PACE-1/VOIDS-expansion, AND COOLING, has been going on during about 13.72

billion years. But because Space-1 is defined between gravitational objects, the figure is about 13.2 billion years. Why? From the first half a billion years age of the universe, the radiation-dominated era (Lecture 5) has left no direct evidence.

Only indirectly we know that it had been cooled down from extremely high temperatures until gravitational objects had started to be formed about 13.2 billion years ago, starting the matter-dominated era. (Fig. 1.6, LECTURE 5, Vol. III, WORLD HISTORY).

Eventually, after the gravitational objects had BEEN GRADUALLY STRUCTURED BY GRAVITATION OUT OF THE COOLING RADIATION CHAOS, THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE HAD BEEN cooled down BY THE EXPANSION to about 4,000-3,000 degrees KELVIN. Next, during 13.2 billion years, the contents of Space-1 have been cooled down by the expansion to ABOUT 2.3 K AT SOME VOIDS REGIONS. [Lecture 5].

NOTE: Via the observed cold-dark night sky, SPACES 3, 2, and 1 constitute our unaided eyes direct links to the 2.3 K “inter-galactic cold external world”, which, as we shall see later, has influenced the observed evolution of supernovas, planets, life and our life “herenow”.

LOST Forever in Deep SPACE-1 ? Due to the limited speed of light and the expansion of Space-1,far-away portions of it fast run away every day beyond our ability to observe them, ever. Thus the VISIBLE universe recorded in Fig. 1.1 is shrinking in time. Portions of it would not be available anyomore to our future telescopes. A pity. So better back-up Fig. 1.1 today ?

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RECAP 1.

ALL Super-Clusters “move away” from each other, thereby generating new SPACE “1”, which is the only one that EXPANDS and functions as the largest thermodynamic “SINK”, without which all evolution is impossible.

2. GRAVITY PHYSICS and the observed COSMIC VOIDS EXPANSION ARE the ROOT-CAUSE of All Stellar Evolution, All Heavy Chemical Elements Generation, Supernova Explosions, Generation of Planets, life evolution, World History, Science and Philosophy.

3. Only a small portion of the stellar-galactic radiation is irreversibly dissipated in galactic centers that harbor massive black holes, while most of it escapes the limited domains of Spaces 3 and 2 to be irreversibly dissipated in the depth of expanding SPACE-1, which wraps around all superclusters of galaxies.

4. SPACE-1/EXPANDING-VOIDS contain the remnant faint glow left over from the big bang, the cosmic microwave black-body radiation, AND DENSITY-GRADIENTS of photons, neutrinos, antineutrinos, gas, dust, etc. Their total energy density is marked at the Diagram left in electro-volts/cm3.

5. TOTAL ENERGY Density-Pressure VARIATIONS (gradients) are marked lowest at voids’ centers, highest at galactic centers. (Fig. 1.2).

6. Non-Expanding SPACE 2 wraps around all galactic-systems WITHIN each supercluster of galaxies. It harbors lower density gradients of said radiation and is linked to both SPACE-1/Expanding Voids and Space-3.

7. Non-expanding SPACE 3 harbors highest energy-density gradients of said radiation and it wraps around all stars-systems WITHIN each galaxy. It is also defined as interstellar medium (Fig. 1.2.1) and is linked to Space 2, which, in turn, is linked to SPACE-1/Expanding Voids.

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Spaces 1, 2 and 3, Absent Borders in between them. The 3 Spaces form a single, integrated continuum without sharp demarcation borders between them.

Space-1 has been expanding since the “Big Bang” event about 13.72 billion years ago.

Spaces 3 and 2 were formed later, as the early stars and protogalaxies where formed by gravitation out of the uniform chaos described in Leacture 5, Vol. IV. Cluster II includes our Milky Way Galaxy. Our solar system is marked “Sun” in Fig. 1.2, and is detailed in Fig. 1.2.1. Cluster II represents the “Local Group” of galaxies defined by Figs. 1.3 & 1.4.

WIND-TYPE RADIATION, Dissipation in SPACE-1: The gigantic amount of radiation energy pouring out from all shining galaxies and stars is isotropically proceeding in all space directions. It first proceeds from Space-3 to Space-2 and then irreversibly dissipated forever deep inside VOIDS-SPACE-1.

Once entering SPACE-1, the stellar winds are not reflected back. Inside the coldexpanding voids the winds proceed to the lowest radiation energy density/pressure levels located about midway between the super-cluster filaments. See Adiabatic virtual surfaces in Footnotes. Since 1966 we have termed that cosmic, one-way travel “THE SECOND COSMOLOGICAL ARROW OF TIME” ROOT-CAUSE of the SECOND LAW of THERMODYNAMICS. If the voids stop expanding, the dissipation of radiation energy pouring out from all active stars and galaxies would gradually stop too, evolution of stars next stops too, the entire universe would gradually reach equilibrium and all life is extinguished.

RECAP: Without the observed Voids/Space-1-expansion – the so called HUBBLE EXPANSION -- the density of radiation energy winds (Fig. 1.2) in all space would increase with time, eventually reaching the highest temperatures that are maintained by nuclear fusionFootnotes in the cores of all active stellar cores, causing not only our roasting on earth and disintegrations of all structures in the entire universe, but an eventual equilibrium throughout all space, namely, gradually approaching the same temperatures 32

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in all Spaces 3, 2 and 1. This would result in the gradually vanishing of the ’hillsValleys’ gradients depicted in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.7: Terminology 7: Gravity Transforms Chaos to Structures, Disobeying the Entropy-People’s-Theory Called CLASSICAL THERMODYNAMICS; a Pure Fundamental Nonsense that, however, serves as a useful practical model to treat 33

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steam engines, air conditioning, etc. (Vol. I). Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is shown in the image center and in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8: Our galaxy, the Milky Way, as seen from its interior, with unaided eyes. It rotates, with us, about 250 km/hr and deviates from the universal expansion by about 600 km/hr. We, with it, are located inside Space 2, the

Kingdom of

Darkness

that WE call the “Night sky� that, in turn, is linked to the expanding VOIDS/SPACE-1, which we INVESTIGATE IN GRAVITISM. We are located about 27,000 light years from its hot center. Our galaxy contains about a billion stars and it is one of about billion galaxies detected in our visible universe. (Figs. 1.1 to 1.7).

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From Large to Small-Scale Systems-Dynamics

C

lustering differences are detected on largest and earliest scales of the visible

universe, as demonstrated by Figs. 1.1 vs. 1.6.

Up-scaling 1: Since Space-1 is expanding -- and its expansion rate has been observationally proved as being slightly accelerated -- the universe is unidirectionally cooling down forever.

Corollary: Eventually, all energy density gradients depicted in Fig, 1.2 would vanish, and all processes would stop in what is called the final cold death.

Downscaling 1: Said expansion generates the observed large-scale energy-density gradients [Fig. 1.2], which, in turn, generate small-scale stellar and planetary temperature gradients – the ones that allow life to emerge and be sustained. [Vol. I].

Downscaling 2: Einsteinian gravity is well-approximated by Newtonian Physics in weak gravitational fields, like on planet earth.

Accordingly, on Earth, all macro-systems are structured by specific gravity -- the heaviest components down-below inside the Earth interior-core; the lightest up, at the ‘atmosphere’. We term this phenomenon

gravitationally-induced survival

of the “fittest”. [Vol. V].

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Red Shifts & Expanding Cosmic VOIDS

Red

Shifts

in astronomy resorted to

this astrophysical school, are measured stretched (upper image), or compressed wavelengths photons propagating through the many expanding VOIDS/SPACE-1 recorded in Fig.

within of 1.1.

We

term this phenomenon Expanding VOIDS/SPACE-1 Redshifts. [EVSR].

T

here

is

a

VERY

IMPORTANT

distinction between EVSR and red shifts caused when nearby objects exhibit a simple

local

Doppler-effect redshift. (Image above).

Rather than EVSR resulting from relative velocities

vis-à-vis

earth,

the

photons

undergoing EVSR increase in wavelength because

of

the

expansion

of

the

VOIDS/Space-1 medium through which

they

are traveling.

EDUCATIONAL EXAMPLE: The color spectrum on the right of the 2 nd image illustrates a redshift – the light waves marked as horizontal black lines have been shifted “up” (white arrows) in the direction of the red region at the top of the image.

The measured red shift is next compared with that of a ‘static’ source [left spectrum, no 36

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shift.], like that of the radiation arriving to earth from the sun.

Hubble Cosmic Expansion Law is marked in Fig. 1.2 as Uo=Hor, where “r” is the distance from earth to “CLUSTER I”. Here “r” represents superclusters or a cluster of galaxies recorded in Fig. 1.1 or Figs. 1.3 & 1.4. Here Ho is the Hubble Constant and Uo the recession velocity, namely, the recession velocity Clusters or super-clusters VOIDS/SPACE-1 move-away from observers on earth.

A

ccording to general relativity (Vol. I & Lectures 3, 4 herein): (1) Special

relativity effects are locally valid in small regions of space-time that are approximately ‘flat’ [low gravity values, like on Earth.], (2) The universe is not expanding "into" anything outside itself. [Cf. Thought Experiments 1 to III above].

Galaxies move or rotate individually in SPACE-2, but do not individually expand.

ONLY VOIDS/SPACE-1 expand [Figs. 1.6 vs. 1.1]. Said expansion is due largely to inertia left over from the Big-Bang explosion. HOWEVER, a slight acceleration had bee detected, and, as a side remark, we claim that it is caused by clashes of all stellar winds (Fig. 1.2.1) in the core of each void, as they arrive from opposite directions, namely, from the surrounding filaments of super-clusters. That clashes stop the fast stellar winds, and, like in fluid dynamics, drastically rase the pressure to stagnant values, which gradually accumulate to cause back “repulsive” force on the filaments around them, thereby adding to the left-over inertia expansion of the filaments away from each other. [2011 published draft of Vol. III by Scribd.].

Hubble’s astronomical observations prove that superclusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.1] are moving away from each other with speeds proportional to their distance from each other [Fig. 1.2 and Hubble Law stated above ]. Hence, combined with the results shown by Fig. 1.6, the universe had a beginning. (More in Footnote 12).

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E. HUBBLE >> VOIDS/SPACE-1expansion is independently confirmedverified by the cosmic microwave blackbody radiation.

Fig. 1.6 also proves that it is not the expansion of galaxies and stars, but of VOIDS/SPACE-1, and, with Fig. 1.1, and other 3-Dimentional, models of Fig. 1.1, the visible universe is “the same” in all directions (isotropic and almost homogeneous). Measured isotropic distribution across the sky of distant gamma-ray bursts, and of supernova explosions [see below], also supports this conclusion.

Our net motion in Space. Five key simultaneous motions were noted earlier. More specifically, the direction of the earth’s net motion lies in the same plane as its orbit around the sun and at angle of 61 degrees tilted upward [northward] from the plane of the disk-like Milky Way. (Fig. 1.2.1).

Recap: Earth rotates and travels around the sun, while the sun travels around the galactic center, and the entire galaxy rotates about 250 km/hr in our Orio arm. (Figs 1.2.1 & 1.6). These motions should not be confused with the recession speed of clusters and super-clusters of galaxies away from each other.

[R(t) in Fig. 1.2], which is also called ”the Hubble Expansion”. Our galaxy is deviating from this uniform expansion motion by about 600 km/sec.

Einstein’s General Relativity & Lens

E

instein’s General Relativity (EGR, or Gravity Physics) is formulated and

reviewed in Volume I with key mathematics and the verifying tests involved. Lectures 3 and 4 in Vol. IV briefly key issues, but without the mathamatics. In this footnote we 38

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introduce the preliminary terminolgy of curved space-time by gravitations, as needed to understand how Einstein’s Lens help reveal some hidden, far-awy (earliest) stars and other gravitational objects.

Generally speaking EGR is formulated in the same form for all observers – accelerating, linearly moving, rotating, standing on a minor astronomical body, like earth, or on a massive star.

For that aim one needs ‘translators’ from one observer coordinate system to another.

These ‘translators’ are energy-momentum metric tensors [Vol. 1]. They include first and second mathematical derivatives in three space coordinates and in one time coordinate of local physical properties: mass, energy and momentum.

Changes in the gravitational force are accounted for by changes in the curvature of space-time, on one hand, and by changes in local mass-energy and momentum on the other side of Einstein’s Field Equations, EFE. [13]. EGR includes Einstein’s Special Relativity [ESR] and the conservation equations of mass, energy and momentum.

G

ravitational

lens

were

predicted by Einstein in 1936.

[Image]. They help reveal early away) gravitating objects.

HOW? The brown-orange arrows show magnified source, while the gray-white arrows show the actual path of light from the hidden source.

(Far-

the

Einstein calculated such effect for future astronomy. These “lens” become useful when the gravity of a massive cosmic object curves space-time between the observer and a hidden, far-away object.

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It is a well-verified phenomenon, which causes bending of the path of radiation, say, light, from an otherwise hidden source. The key point is that this effect magnifies early sources and is especially interesting in studies of the early “Age of the universe”, which had started about 200,000 to 350,000 years after the “Big Bang”.

“Expansion of the universe” or “expansion of space” is defined herein as the expansion of the cold-dark voids recorded in Figs. 1.1 & 1.6. This fact has confused many theorists.

Most important is the solid evidence that has been accumulated by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, Voyager probes [Fig. 1.2.1], the ground-based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, and others.

The use of Einstein lens and new infrared, radio, infrared, X-ray and other techniques has substantially increased the reliability of information about phenomena and processes in the most remote regions of curved space-time.

Evolution of Chemistry by Nuclear Fusion The most important “chemical” process in the universe is caused by GRAVITY. Gravity causes extremely high pressures in the inner cores of active stars [picture]. In said hot cores the chemical elements beyond hydrogen, are created by transforming (fusing) hydrogen plasma, [H], into heavier elements like Helium [He], carbon [C], oxygen [O], nitrogen, phosphor, and iron [Fe] at all active star centers.

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Typical

Sun-Like

2015

Star

is a “factory” for generation of chemical elements like the ones marked on the right, the heavy one, IRON, at its hottest core.

Note the energy flows in the image above and the convection currents the very hot, thermo-nuclear reacting to the colder surface and the various types of radiations and particles pouring out into non-expanding, colder SPACE-3. (Fig. 1.2.1).

from core,

According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics, the bigger the mass of a star, the higher are its core pressures and temperatures and faster are the nuclear fusion processes in its interior. [Vol. I].

Conclusion: All active stars (billions in each galaxy, active in billions of galaxies depicted in Fig. 1.1) generate in their interiors the basic chemical elements beyond hydrogen and helium; namely, all the basic elements of matter that we observe on earth, and in our body and brain, were born in the belly of our dead mother that had died in a violent explosion. (details Below).

How do we know that?

O

n both

fusion and fission scientists know much.

Fusion is the reaction in hydrogen-bomb explosions, while fission is the reaction in atomic reactors and in ‘regular’ atomic weapons.

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When a certain amount of iron is formed in the interiors of active stars, endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic one. (The exothermic reaction generates energy, while the endothermic consumes it.)

All active stars produce energy through such nuclear fusion.

Supernova, “Natural Selection�, Neutron Stars

S

upernovas

are

gravity-induced

phenomena that astronomers observe in galaxies when a massive star ends its life by internal collapse-implosion. The collapse begins when the fusion process1.4 that produces energy, ends.

Why this relatively massive star had ended its life in a gigantic explosion?

Is this common cosmic phenomenon important?

The explosion throws out into SPACE-3 hot debris and gases.

Such remnants of at least one supernova in our galaxy were captured into orbit around the sun. Gravity then guided and compressed some debris to form the observed spherical planets and moons in the Solar system. Life followed as detailed in Lecture 5, Vol. IV.

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Why supernovas explode?

T

he sole sin of such innocent stars is being too fat and big, thereby converting

their huge mass, (initially only hydrogen and helium), by nuclear the well-known fusion metabolism, to heavier chemical elements [oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphor, etc.], more quickly than do smaller stars, like our sun.1.8 Recap: All active (shining) stars generate the heavier chemical elements at the high temperatures-pressures that gravity induces in their interiors. But the massive stars arrive to that ‘End-of-life Stage’ earlier than smaller stars do.

That ‘End-of-life Stage’ may, however, be the ‘Beginning-of-life-Process’ in case the supernova debris (‘ashes’) gradually form orbiting planets around stars, as is the case that we must assert was the beginning of our solar system.

GRAVITY Causes “NATURAL SELECTION”

I

t is always gravitation that plays the central role in the "selection" of the structures

to be produced: First in controlling the structures galaxies and clusters in SPACE-1, then in forcing chemical evolution through a succession of specific reactions in which evolution means the development of complex elements from simple ones. [Hydrogen and helium make up about 99% of all observable matter in the universe.

Hence, we and the planets in the solar system constitute just little ‘impure grains’ in the vast ‘clean’ universe.

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In short,

2015

gravity is the only 'suitable’ or ‘fittest' force -- in human concepts,

that builds chemical elements by successively adding, in the hot interiors of all active stars, small increments of mass and electric charge in selected combinations that are completely controlled by the value of the attractive gravity force-pressure-temperature.

S

upernova unusual bright glow has been studied since 1054, starting from the Crab

Nebula. [Image]. At its center there is a neutron star spewing energy and ‘elementary particles’ into SPACE-3. Said radiation net flow then proceed to SPACE-2 and, eventually, to SPACE-1. [Fig. 1.2] Supernovas are not only the originators of all chemistry beyond hydrogen and helium [by nuclear fusion .], but serve in astronomy as reliable ‘distance yardsticks’ [“candles”] on which much of astronomy rests. The reason for this selection is explained below.

Certain types of supernovas serve in astronomy as the max-cosmic temperature standard for calibrating distances to far-away galaxies via the absolute luminosity (brightness) method discussed in Volume I. That end [see below] is reached when a threshold amount of iron is formed in the interior of a massive star [Volume I]. At this stage all net energy generation inside the star stops and the process reverses into an endothermic one during which energy is consumed.

RED GIANTS: The future of our Sun— and the reasons why supernovas (see below) and some previous generations of stars had spread the elements needed for life across the Universe, have been treated in Vol. I An example of a red giant is Mira A, part of binary system that is about about 400 lightyears away from Earth.

In this image ALMA reveals Mira’s secret life. Mira A is an old star, already starting to throw out the products of its life’s work into space for recycling. Mira A’s companion, known as Mira B, orbits it at twice the distance from the Sun to Neptune. Mira A is known to have a slow wind which gently moulds the surrounding material. ALMA has 44

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2015

now confirmed that Mira’s companion is a very different kind of star, with a very different wind. Mira B is a hot, dense white dwarf with a fierce and fast stellar wind.

New observations show how the winds from the two stars have created a fascinating, beautiful and complex nebula. The remarkable heart-shaped bubble at the centre is created by Mira B’s energetic wind inside Mira A’s more relaxed outflow. The heart, which formed some time in the last 400 years or so, and the rest of the gas surrounding the pair show that they have long been building this strange and beautiful environment together. By looking at stars like Mira A and Mira B scientists hope to discover how our galaxy’s double stars differ from single stars in how they give back what they have created to the Milky Way’s stellar ecosystem. Despite their distance from one another, Mira A and its companion have had a strongeffect on one another and demonstrate how double stars can influence their environments and leave clues for scientists to decipher. Other old and dying stars also have bizarre surroundings, as astronomers have seen using both ALMA and other telescopes. But it’s not always clear whether the stars are single, like the Sun, or double, like Mira. Mira A, its mysterious partner and their heart-shaped bubble are all part of this story. The new observations of Mira A and its partner are presented in this paper.

STELLAR COLLAPSE At this final stage the core pressure falls and the doomed star cannot support the gravity-induced ‘weight’ of its upper layers. This leads to a gigantic collapse-implosion of the entire star structure.

A few general-relativistic ‘deterministic options’ then emerge, depending on the mass and details of the doomed massive star: 1. If the mass of the star is about 1.4 times that of the sun, the star slowly decays into a white dwarf.

2. If its mass is larger, the formation of an extremely packed neutron star [image] or a black hole [Footnote 1.7] is the end result, in which case no atomic nuclei structure survives.

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3. A gigantic supernova explosion MAY follow the collapse-implosion by bouncing back from a central dense body [neutron star].

Type Ia supernovas harbor consistent brightness (absolute luminosity) because their progenitor is accreting mass from a nearby star, always imploding into the central neutron star at exactly the same mass -- the Chandrasekhar Mass Limit. [Volume I].

The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey Supernova Program is designed to measure several hundred high-redshifted supernovas.

RECAP: Due to their gravity-induced, HIGHEST inner-core pressures-temperatures, massive stars are much faster to evolve than smaller stars, like the sun.

Black Holes and Quasars

T

hese are Secondary, Unsaturable, Local, Thermodynamic Sinks to

primary, expanding, unstaurable, single thermodynamic VOIDS/SPACE-1 universal Sink. (Figs. 1.1 & 1.2).

Stellar and galactic black holes can only come into being by the combination of (i) strong gravity pressures and temperatures inside massive stars and galactic centers objects and (ii) the expansion of unsaturable SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink].

Most black holes are wrapped around by non-expanding SPACE-3, or exist within Space-2. (Fig. 1.2).

Einsteinian gravity formulations of black holes are available in Lecture 8, Vol. I [See Table of Contens herein]).

Recap I: Stellar-based black holes cannot evolve without SPACE-1-expansion that allows stellar evolution.

Astrophysicists indirectly detect the presence of black holes, which may range from 46

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roughly the mass of a few suns to ten billion times greater. Such super-massive ones are, postulated to be in the center of some extremely bright galaxies, including the ‘Milky Way’ and quasars.

Black holes are general relativistic cosmological sinks for all matter-energy arriving and falling into them from nearby stars and inter-stellar medium. They are postulated to be highly concentrated, local gravity-sinks where the gravity field is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from them.

The massive black hole in the center of our Miliky Way galaxy is about 4 million times more massive than the sun, and is located about 27,000 light-years away.

Recap: General relativistic cosmology predicts that black holes are one-way sinks in space-time. Some are assumed to be in the center of some galaxies. They may be associated with what is observed and termed quasars.

Within a black hole all atomic and sub-atomic structures had already been crushed to become only geometrically-curved space-time. This is due to the extremely strong gravitational field within a black hole. The cause of that total ‘break down’ of all structures is only Einsteinian relativistic gravity.

September 2014: A team from Amherst College astronomy recorded the largestknown flare in X-rays from an assumed supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way. It was detected by NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory. Nevertheless, the greatest energy sink in the entire universe remains expanding SPACE-1 .(Figs. 1.1 to 1.6 & Vol. I.).

Q

uasars are assumed to be super massive forms of black holes . Hundreds have been

detected by NASA's Spitzer space telescope, which measures infrared light, and by Chandra, which measures X-ray emissions. These quasars are in young (far-away) galaxies that are surrounded by relatively high-density gas that emits X-rays as it is being sucked into and accelerated towards a one-way sink of a massive black hole.

Dust-gas cloud being destroyed by black hole near our galactic center: On December 14, 2011, Nature reported that by using the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope in Chile, a team from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, has been following a cloud of dust-gas that is accelerating in the 47

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direction of the massive black hole in our galactic center: In 2004 the cloud was moving closer to the black hole at 1200 kilometers per second, and by 2011 at 2350 km/sec. Thus, during the next 10 years, the cloud will be gradually falling into our galactic black hole.

The black hole destroys the cloud by first heating it via viscosity friction and gravity (to millions of degrees C) resulting in visible energy outputs.

Adiabatic Envelope in Mid Expanding Voids

A

n adiabatic “wall”, or “surface”, is a physical wall or an imaginary surface through

which no NET energy flow takes place. In Fig. 1.2 we mark only three points on such imaginary surfaces, namely, where there is ‘No net energy flow’ across them.

These surfaces wrap around super-clusters of galaxies in 3 dimensions. No net energy flow means that radiation [and matter particles] somewhat similar to the ones detected within our solar wind – do not cross such adiabatic surfaces.

The maximum temperature attainable in each galaxy is about the same. It is roughly the same as that generated initially by a supernova and is attributed to: (1) the maximum temperature in stellar cores during fusion in all active stars, (2) The maximum temperature during supernovas explosions. (3) The maximum detectable temperatures attainable by at the external surfaces of quasars or galactic centers that harbor gigantic black holes.

Since we cannot observe the entire universe (due to the limited speed of light and said voids expansion), the study of the dynamics of a single adiabatic envelope that wraps around a typical emitter is equivalent to the study and analysis of the entire universe.

Why? The well-verified isotropic and homogeneous distribution of the observed cosmic dark voids vis-à-vis the shining emitters -- as illustrated by Fig. 1.1, when combined with the physico-chemical dynamics of nuclear fusion (Footnote above) and supernova (Footnote above), mean that about the same max temperature characterizes all super-clusters 48

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recorded in Fig. 1.1.

These qualities have been preserved as the universe has expanded from what is recorded in Fig. 1.6 to what is recorded in Fig. 1.1.

Therefore, the dynamics and thermodynamics inside each such a randomly chosen single virtual “cell” represent those of the entire universe.

This conclusion is important because less and less of the observed universe [Fig. 1.1] will be seen with the progress of the accelerated expansion. In short, we harbor no option but to use “cells” for we cannot see and study the entire universe.

The Solar System

is composed of our sun [picture], the orbiting planets, moons, asteroids, comets, rocks, gases and dust, all bounded together by the COMBINED attractive gravitational field of the sun, ‘our’ galaxy, ‘our’ local group of galaxies, ‘our’ superclusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.1] and the gravitational field of all the masses in the rest of the universe.

The sun, like all active stars, is a selfgravitating massive sphere of sub-atomic particles in a state of hot plasma that is pressed-heated by the attractive force of gravity. It accounts for about 99% of the solar system total mass. Its diameter is about 1.392 million km and is slightly larger than of an average star in ‘our’ Milky Way galaxy.

About 74% of the sun’s mass is hydrogen, with about 25% helium.

Gravity-captured debris [asteroids] from previous generations of earlier gas or stars/supernovas, had started to condense and fall into or orbit the sun, gradually structuring the currently observed solar planets. During more than half of its present age, the universe did not harbor our solar system.

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No Net Sun’s Energy Remains in Earth Or in the Planets. It All Proceeds to Spaces 3, 2 and 1 This fact is verified in studies of the complicated thermal cycles in our atmosphere and on earth’s surface.

The incoming sun energy [“Solar Wind”, Fig. 1.2.1] is partially reflected [and scattered] from the upper layers of our atmosphere [about 30%] back to non-expanding Space-3, and, eventually, to reaching expanding SPACE-1.

Most incoming short-wave energies [about 64%] are reflected back to Spaces 3, 2 and eventually absorbed in the ever expanding Space-1 as long-wave radiation.

Thus, all incoming sun’s energy (plus about 6% of heat from the earth’s interior], is proceeding further into the depths of Spaces 3, 2 and 1.

RECAP: On its way to SPACE-1, the ‘solar wind’ (Fig. 1.2.1) partly engulfs the solar system, earth and the other solar planets. No equivalent amount of this incoming radiation energy remains with earth and the other planets.

Egyptian vs. Pre-Monotheistic Cosmology

E

gyptian COSMOLOGICAL ORDER & LAW focused on Ma’at -- "Truth," "Justice" under

universal "Order-Law" that had been introduced to the world at the very moment of its creation.

“Order-Law” rules the entire universe, all parts of it, life, society and all religion practices.

Without it the world is ruled by entropic disorder. Thus, society is required to maintain it. Namely, all members of society should cooperate and coexist and continue to function in balance.

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Merging-Colliding Galaxies

B

illions

sun-like

stars

collide when two galaxies ‘merge’.

The rate of galactic collisions was much higher in the past, mainly because the galaxies were closer to each other. Our galaxy is predicted by some models to collide with the Andromeda galaxy in about 5 billion years;

Dark Matter? Dark Energy? Or Mystic Science?

If

one retains that Social (“cosmological”) Constant in EGR, which Einstein had

totally rejected due to the Hubble discovery in the mid 1920’s, it may be one of the various unverified explanations to speculated dark energy and dark matter that are claimed by many theorists to fill the universe and support their claims for causing the observed accelerated expansion.

Non-scientific, socio-religious pressures in 1919 forced Einstein to make the worse blunder of his life, by forcing on EGR an artificial number aimed to stop the unacceptable at that time unstable, expanding or contracting universe. [1]. But in the 1920’s Hubble proved that, indeed, the universe is expanding, as originally 51

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predicted by cosmological solutions of EGR. Today, we know the following background facts put together against endless attempts to smuggle mystic matter-energy without declaring the contraband: (i) The universe is expanding only because voids/Space-1 do. (Fig. 1.6 vs. 1.1, and the three Thought Experiments provided above.). (ii) Total, high-temperature, cosmic thermodynamic equilibrium stops all processes without well-recorded-verified VOIDS/SPACE-1-expansion, (iii) Said expansion causes OPPOSING STELLAR WINDS (Figs. 1.2, 1.2.1) to CLASH in each expanding void INTO TOTAL STAGNANT STOP, causing build-up of stagnant radiation pressures, whose gradients slightly add to accelerate filaments inertia recession away from each other. (Figs. 1.1, 1.6). (iv) Said mystic theories not only neglects said factual background but neglect the fundamental reason why Einstein had totally rejected the so-called “cosmological constant” that they smuggle into their theories, often without a due declaration. (v) Said constant had been artificially added by Einstein to the formulations (Vol. I) due to social pressure, and by nothing else. Hence we call it “SOCIAL CONSTANT”, unless proved otherwise.

C

onclusions drawn from this Lecture I thus remain invariant even if one introduces

dark matter and/or energy, local black holes, additional galactic motions, rotations, star explosions, or implosions, dust, gas and local thermo-geometrical changes by speculative Theory of Everything, String theories, etc. (Vol. IV).

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Void expansion generates Information Loss

T

he limited speed of light is not violated by Space-1-expansion. When sectors of

the universe expand “away from us� at speeds higher than the speed of light, that law is NOT violated.

But it limits us to see the entire universe; namely, the light from some far-away receding emitters is gradually being redshifted until the most remote sources totally disappear from our telescopic sights, forever.

Humans can thus never see the entire universe. In fact, part of what we see now in Fig. 1.1 will be lost forever to future telescopes.

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The New Astrophysical School of Gravito-Philosophy What Did van Gogh Imagine When He Painted This Picture?

Apparently he did not think that the field of gravitation has generated all.

Yet, his painting conveys the ‘reality’ that all living and nonliving systems are embedded in a 'field of brush strokes’, which, by themselves, in their very shape, direction and rhythm, convey the presence of flux, structure, cosmos and universal field of force, which penetrates all things and is at one with land, life, sky and the stars.

The telescope at one end of his beat, And at the other end the microscope, Two instruments of equal hope …

Robert Frost If you can look into the seeds of time, And say which grain will grow and which will not, Speak then to me …

William Shakespeare

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Lecture II Limitations of Theories, Definitions and Universities Knowledge is one; its division is human weakness Assertion 2.1 Professors who maintain that they operate without reliance on philosophical presuppositions are self-deluded. Scientific theories and academic studies always advance, stagnate or decline under a philosophy, whether declared or undeclared.

Assertion 2.002

1.1 Assessment of U.S. & EU Universities

U

ntil around the mid-Thirties of the previous century, Core Cultural-Curriculum

Courses (in Europe!) were made as ‘scientific’ as possible, and science propped up its foundations by turning to philosophy.

This attitude was in part motivated by the desire to appropriate the sciences with the great ‘prestige’ of philosophers, and for the philosopher the fast-growing ‘status’ of science.

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Hence, European professors vied with one another in presenting science based on high philosophical grounds, and philosophy as a ‘science among sciences’, or even as the ‘sum of the other sciences’.

A ‘PhD’ was then a bona fide Philosophy Doctor, a person of advanced core knowledge and eloquence outside his specialism. withdrawn from the game.

Empty specialism

Western academia has since

has since gained the highest prestige; no longer do professors

need borrow it from philosophy, nor to teach a bona fide CCCC. Indeed, contemporary professors today vie with one another in presenting fragmented lectures devoid of interconnected content, for they can no longer hope to achieve popularity by injecting upda ted core knowledge into what has gradually become an ever narrower, disciplinary professionalism.

This turn of events has resulted in overvaluation of technical professionalism, empty academicism, absolutation of ever-narrower disciplines, and the common inclination to reject bona fide core knowledge from the class. A pity. For these trends only push the young into cynicism, nihilism and feelings of emptiness in education and society at large.

Assertion 2.2 The Current Crisis in Education is not subsiding. More than ever before it demands answers, re-assessments, a revised philosophy and acts: How to administer mutual interactions instead of linear causality; structured complexity instead of summation of events; structured historical buildup of facts, instead of summation of isolated events and narrow academic Departments.

With hope of finding the grand outlook of a spacecraft, students enter our universities.

Entering the temples of knowledge they settle for that of an eagle, but what they find is that of a specialist gopher.

Assertion 2.3 Although most academic teaching and research must be distributed amongst various Schools and Departments of a university, there is an objective need to regenerate an old 56

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tradition that cannot be associated with any specialism, because the ideas with which it deals are common to all studies, or not involved in any.

Assertion 2.3.1: A Core Curriculum Cultural Course (CCCC) is included in these volumes: The selection of interconnected kernels of updated knowledge to be included in CCCC is based on what I consider a much needed CCCC education at all levels, starting from high schools. It must be delivered to all students, each semester, not only by top faculty, but also by university officialdom and cultural leadership. Otherwise a university president, or a provost, is at best acting more like a CEO of a cooperation aimed at maximizing profit and less at best education and research.

Assertion 2.3.2 Without a guiding-structuring-unifying methodology aimed at gaining an all-embracing, interconnected knowledge that crosses frozen disciplines, any Core Curriculum Cultural Course [CCCC] is nothing but a pity encyclopedia displayed by a specialist nominated by “Organizers” as the “CCCC-Coordinator” who remains helpless in teaching the alluring beauty of mathematics, physics, astronomy, history, the life sciences, and comparative religions, but fails to perceive their profound educational implications as a whole.

Modern skepticism is usually the negation of a core, interconnected, educational methodology. Not so with Einsteinian skepticism.

E

instein advocated the removal of imposed borders between traditional disciplines

and university departments and faculty; stating that

knowledge is one; its

division is human weakness.

Assertion 2.4 Structuring an all-embracing CCCC-Outlook is a matter entailing far more ambiguity than the technicalities of the application of any disciplinary course and its “Academic Credit Regulations”.

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The Western crisis, apparent today more than ever before, may be mitigated or repaired by resorting to the Einsteinian vision, starting from a 2012 updated and widely accredited CCCC that is provided to high-schools and constantly upgraded and updated for undergraduate and graduate schools.

Such a methodology leads to interconnected fertilization between the most promising kernels of fundamental knowledge, and, thus, to the potential to rejuvenate the “system”.

Literary intellectuals at one pole – at the other scientists, and as the most representative, the physical scientists.

Between the two a gulf of mutual incomprehension – sometimes (particularly among the young) hostility and dislike, but most of all lack of understanding.

C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures Cambridge University Press

The Temples of Knowledge Today

L

iterary intellectuals, the people of the arts, and most educators, are currently ignorant

of modern advances in the ‘exact sciences’, of their mathematical formulations, experimental, observational and verification methods. They are likely to resort to a priori or superficial answers to complex Assertion 2.5 problems whose detailed implications are beyond them. Similarly, faculty, Students are often discouraged by their ‘experts’ and professionals in the “exact professors and mentors from asking sciences”, via their past, ever-narrowing, fundamental, interdisciplinary questions disciplinary education, are currently in class, as a result of which inconsistent, ignorant of the wide-span knowledge, or outright incorrect premises, are given a

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better chance of perpetuating themselves.

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literature, arts and history that are needed to share their thinking and aspirations with other thinking persons.

The resulting gap can hardly be bridged despite the fact that our globe is currently an interconnected village, internationally linked by what might be expected to bridge old gaps between traditional cultures, languages, religions, political systems and a unified

educational philosophy of humanity. Yet, the facts are that deep divisions keep deepening and deserts of narrow specialism keep spreading more than ever before.

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2.2

T

2015

Billion One-Liner Faculty & Students

sunami of media options confront the

young, making it more exposed to mystical science and false prophets.

The same applies to the universities: What was a two-semester half-life of a textbook is today much less, if studied at all.

Sources of reading nowadays are not scholar books but social posts and online blogs written mostly by uneducated people with little or no reliable references to verifiable facts of science, medicine and history.

A-million-a-day posts confuse the young; generating the one-line thinkers of tomorrow; Indeed, a Tower-of-Babel Kalthural Tsunami engulfs us all, anywhere; It is a new a

kalthure where scholars secure same weight as one-line, posters in social media.

Eulogies are heard over the smoking ruins of the classical temples of knowledge – new layers of ruins on top of the destroyed Academy-Library of Alexandria. [Lecture 6].

We,

the last generation of hard-working-tradition, living under the impact of

internet decentralizing forces, observe the rapid change in personal/family/working life; a ‘modern life’ that promotes meaningless games, instant gratification, laziness and ONE-LINER-THINKING, while we harbor no choice but to struggle for freedom of thought

under these kulthures and cultures.

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2.3 Limitations of Theories and Definitions There is something provisional about all scientific theories.

T

hey must be re-confirmed by fresh verified information from any sub-field of science,

hence, are subject to constant revision and even replacement; -- in this, each succeeding generation takes a measurable step beyond the position of its predecessors.

Closely related to the unrestricted content of modern science is its unrestricted questioning of all earlier convictions in light of verifiable evidence that refutes extant axioms, definitions, assertions, outlooks and theories.

RECAP: Every item of carefully recorded experimental or observational information is a proper object for analysis.

A drive towards novelty and discovery impels inquiry to explore all corners of the universe.

These tenets are the central pillars of Gravitism and of constant re-assessments of the theory.

How Errors Are Introduced 61

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by Precise Definitions According to Plato, everything is connected with everything else.

Therefore, any definition must include 'the whole universe', its contents, dynamics and history.

This means that the very act of defining a word, a symbol or an axiom erects a ‘fence’ around it. Anything outside that fence is, a priori, rejected and lost forever.

Indeed, without paying much attention to fundamental consequences, we often resort to such definitions as we find them in dictionaries, textbooks and everyday life. A pity.

Assertion 2.3.1 The use of precise definitions, contrary to intent, introduces error.

Tarski's Indefinability Theorem According to this theorem no sufficiently powerful language is strongly-semantically-selfrepresentational. For instance, any arithmetical truth cannot be defined by arithmetics.

According to Smullyan [Ref. 10], Tarski's Indefinability Theorem is somewhat superior to the famous Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems [Refrs. 10-], which are more related to mathematics and less to philosophical, scientific, and linguistic issues. Tarski's theorem is not directly about mathematics but about the inherent limitation of any formal language that is strongly-semantically-self-representational when it contains predicates and function symbols defining the semantic concepts specific to that language.

Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem Gödel [34-43] has demonstrated that conventional mathematics, which we tend to 62

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consider as our supremely logical and consistent system, involves paradoxical, selfreferential statements about itself, i.e., a conventional mathematical system, say, the mathematics of flat space in the Euclidian geometry -- an ‘absolute stage’ upon which Newtonian gravity and physics stands, can be incomplete because one has not discovered all its necessary axioms. In other words, no matter how many physico-mathematical issues theoretical physicists solve, there always will be other issues that cannot be solved by any known laws of physics; and since these laws constitute a finite set of rules, and are based on mathematics, Gödel's theorem restricts them.

Even in computer science one cannot create a complete and consistent finite list of axioms, or an infinite list. Each time one adds a statement as an axiom; there are other correct statements that cannot be proved, even with the new axiom.

Moreover, if the system can prove that it is consistent, it is not. As might have been expected, this idea has been much debated by mathematical philosophers: How can a theory be both correct and unprovable?

Is mathematics a loop of our mind?

Is the mind a self referential loop?

Gödel's first incompleteness theorem shows that any system that allows one to define the natural numbers is necessarily incomplete: it contains statements that are neither provable correct, nor provably false. Some scholars therefore argue that this refutes the logicism of Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell, who had aimed to reduce/define the natural numbers in terms of logic.

Not all axiom systems satisfy these hypotheses, even when these systems have models that include natural numbers as a subset. For example, there are axiomatizations of ‘flat’ space that do not meet the hypotheses of Gödel's theorems.

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Another limitation applies only to systems that are used as their own proof systems.

Gödel's theorem has another interpretation in the language of computer science.

Theorems are computably enumerable: one can write a computer program that will eventually generate any valid proof. One can then ask if it has the stronger property of being recursive: Can one write a computer program to definitively determine if a statement is true or false?

Gödel's theorem says that you cannot. His theorems, however, are confined to sufficiently strong axiomatic systems, i.e., that a theory contains enough arithmetic to carry out the proof of the incompleteness theorem.

Some scholars claim that Gödel's incompleteness theorems have provided a deadly blow to David Hilbert’s program towards a universal mathematical formalism. Nevertheless, the essence of these issues is much more complicated, as indicated below.

Undecidable Statements: A statement is neither provable nor refutable. Hence, some scholars resort to the concept "independent". However, that concept is also ambiguous.

Meta-Language: A sufficiently developed language cannot represent its own semantics.

Any meta-language includes primitive notions, axioms, and rules absent from an object language. Theorems provable in a meta-language are not provable in the object language.

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“Truth”:

Some of the aforementioned theorems may presuppose that mathematical "truth" and "falsehood" are well-defined in an absolute sense, rather than relative. If an axiomatic system can be proven to be consistent and complete from within itself, then it is inconsistent.

Minds and Machines: Gödel's incompleteness theorems may also reflect on human intelligence. While Gödel's theorems cannot be applied to humans, since they make mistakes and are, therefore, inconsistent, it may be applied to the domain of science.

Sets of expressions are considered as coded as sets of numbers. For various syntactic properties (such as a formula, a sentence, etc.), these sets are computable. And any computable set of numbers can be defined by some arithmetic formula.

There are various additional theorems and sub-theorems 34-49. I do not intend to expand on them in these pages, for these pages are mainly written for the general reader, without resorting to any mathematics.

We therefore move next to elaborate on some more practical domains in the mined fields of verifiable scientific theories and proofs.

“Pure Mathematics”

is human attempt to stay aloof and beyond emotions, traditions and ambitions. It may protect one from making mistakes, prior to and aft writing down any mathematical equation.

How mathematics -- combined with verifiable observations -- help protect the human mind from falling into unverifiable traditional dictums or ‘intuitively’ generating mistakes is demonstrated by the following dramatic event in the history of science; when Einstein had concluded that his [tensorial based 2.1-2.3] field equations of general relativity3.3, our most universally verified theory of acceleration and gravity, harbors a mistake. To correct that ‘mistake’, he forced on these equations a ‘correction number’, called the cosmological constant.

Luckily his tensorial field equations were flawless, despite the fact that a cult of believers in its unverifiable interpretations has evolved during the last 90 years or so, hinting about 65

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their needs to leave that artificial constant in Einstein’s field Equations. [See ‘cosmological constant’, ‘dark matter’, ‘dark energy’, Refs. 74 to 114 and Lecture 4.].

Space-Time and Symmetry-Asymmetry

T

he essence and fundamental meaning of curved space-time, symmetry-asymmetry,

statistics and probabilities are understood only by a portion of scientists. A much smaller portion, or, in fact, a splendid minority, maintains that probabilities, statistics and quantum postulates provide them with no ‘free will’. [Volume I].

Differential Equations vs. Observations

I

t is in what is claimed to be the “domain” of mathematics that time-symmetry,

reversibility and the symmetrical laws of physics serve us as key tools to better understand nature, despite the limitations mentioned above. And it is only by combining (conceptual, reversible, analytic) time-symmetry with (factual, aggregated, observational) timeasymmetry, or by combining reversible equations with a priori known, factual, initial and boundary conditions, that one may, mathematically, arrive at a reliable world outlook in agreement with observations/experimentations. For more information see Refs. 7, 8.

While symbols and analytical concepts may be symmetric, words and sentences (in order, syntax, phoneme, form, sound modulation or other modes), or ‘useful’ physico-mathematical equations, are basically asymmetric.

Mathematics, gravitation, symmetry-asymmetry, aggregation, time and meaningful sentences are coupled.

While some minor reservations are justifiable, there is an overwhelming "word of evidence", derived from physics, the languages and the studies of linguistics, cybernetics, information and mathematics that fortifies this contention. (Lecture 7, Vol. VI).

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A theory may be a “set of statements”, some of which are taken as valid without proof (axioms), and others, the theorems, are taken as valid because they are implied by the axioms.

A

complete and consistent set of axioms for

all

mathematics is impossible. "Provable by a theory" means "derivable from the axioms and primitive notions of the theory, using logic.”

The Popperian Falsification Principle Sir Karl Popper, has introduced the Falsification Principle about the ability of mankind to establish what is science and what is nonscience, in addition to what might be ‘true’ within the domain of a given theory, or a set of ‘facts’, axioms or definitions. [Lecture 4] Applied mathematics is often used as unverifiable covers to advance subjectivistic claims, ‘proofs’ and ‘theories’. Lectures 3 and 4, and this one, illustrate how -- by a priori selecting only the time-asymmetric mathematics, or time-asymmetric mathematical solution that fits with their desired ‘proof’ – scientists easily fool themselves, and others.

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The Fooling Assertion by Nobel Laureate Feynman “The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you are the easiest person to fool. So you have to be very careful about that. After you’ve not fooled yourself, it’s easy not to fool other scientists. You just have to be honest in a conventional way.”

“You should not fool the layman when you’re talking as a scientist. I am not trying to tell you what to do about cheating on your wife, or fooling your girlfriend, or something like that, when you’re not trying to be a scientist, but just trying to be an ordinary human being. … I’m talking about a specific, extra type of integrity that is not lying, but bending over backwards to show how you are maybe wrong, that you ought to have when acting as a scientist. And this is our responsibility as scientists, certainly to other scientists, and I think to laymen.”

Applied mathematics is the key tool of the ‘exact sciences’. It constitutes a special kind of 'intelligent thinking’ that is integrated with its ‘universal grammar' -- a sort of critical thinking which has been partially developed to safeguard our minds from prejudices and inconsistencies. Yet, consistency, by itself, is a two-sided issue.

‘Pure mathematics’ is often developed for its own sake, without a priori harboring intentional applications, although they may be ‘un-covered’ 68

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According to Einstein, when we predict the behavior of a specific or confined set of natural phenomena, we usually mean that we have found a ‘constructive theory’ covering this set.

When we find that other sets of phenomena are incompatible with that theory, we tend to either generalize or modify it, or failing that, seek an alternative one.

To this ‘constructive’ category Einstein opposes the so-called “theories of principles” (exemplified, according to Einstein, by thermodynamics and the general theory of relativity), whose point of departure and foundation are not hypothetical constituent, but empirically observed general properties from which mathematical formulae are deduced so as to apply to every case of observation which presents itself.

Thus, according to Einstein, the merit of “constructive theories” lies in their comprehensiveness, adaptability, and clarity for a given set of phenomena, while that of the “theories of principles” -- in their logical ‘perfection’ and universality and in the vast observational spectrum of their formulation at any scale and time.

Yet, Einstein did not trust some semi-hidden aspects of his own general theory of relativity2.5. Two such events are described next: The failure of statistical mechanics (both classical and quantum) to deduce and explain the origin of irreversibility, time-asymmetries, cosmic and local structuring, generation of order and what is called “entropy growth” -- as well as its philosophical and applicative limitations and lack of large-scale universality -- has been explained in Volume I. (See Table of Contents).

Einstein had not suspected that his general theory of relativity already incorporates another ‘theory of principle’: Thermodynamics, especially the so-called Second Law of Thermodynamic. Namely, the foundations of thermodynamics should NOT be a separate, stand-alone, theory of science; it should NOT be fragmented from the rest of physics. It constitutes an integral part of gravity-induced, interconnected, unified physicophilosophical knowledge.

In ancient mythology chaos was often the nothingness out of which the first objects of existence appeared. The Biblical Genesis refers to earliest existence as “without form, and void”; modern science dubs it the structureless hot-dense “Radiation Era”, and 69

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produces evidence from its close.

EXISTENTIALISM

E

xistentialism is briefly mentioned here with regard to Hawking’s festival with the

media and the ill-informed, as defined by the opening pages.

This branch of philosophy deals with what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of apparently meaningless or absurd writings and practices of some academics, when they act as scientists.

Said warning

is directed against those who act in the name of science, but often dress up their linguistic, mathematical formulations and/or initial and boundary imposed conditions, with a contraband smuggled into them without a due declaration of what they want “to prove�. (Vol. I, and reviews above.).

Such misleading acts

are often performed in both style and content, which not only endanger the very existence of verified science in the age of confusing options ruled by the internet, in the age of single-liner students and the current noreading-books majority.

Most important,

said popular activities are remote from verifiable facts, are close to chimera, and do endanger the very existence of verified science.

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On Einstein’s Personal Religion-Philosophy

A

lbert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879

in Germany and died on April 19 1955 in the United States. His unprecedented contributions to physics in particular and to science, philosophy, defense [atomic bomb], politics against Nazi Germany and support of Israel are detailed in Ref. 1, especially in “The World As I See It”.

Einstein’s deep religiosity “It is the fundamental emotion which stands at the cradle of true art and true science. It was the experience of mystery -- even if mixed with fear -- that engendered religion. A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which are only accessible to our reason in their most elementary forms -- it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute the truly religious attitude; in this sense, and in this alone, I am a deeply religious man.”

“I cannot conceive of a God who rewards and punishes his creatures, or has a will of the type of which we are conscious in ourselves.

An individual who should survive his physical death is also beyond my comprehension, 71

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nor do I wish it otherwise; such notions are for the fears or absurd egoism of feeble souls.”

“Enough for me the mystery of the eternity of life, and the inkling of the marvelous structure of reality, together with the single-hearted endeavor to comprehend a portion, be it never so tiny, of the reason that manifests itself in nature.”

“I gang my own gait and have never belonged to my country, my home, my friends, or even my immediate family, with my whole heart; in the face of all these ties I have never lost an obstinate sense of detachment, which increases with age.”.

“One is sharply conscious, yet without regret, of the limits to the possibility of mutual understanding and sympathy with one's fellow-creatures. Such a person no doubt loses something in the way of geniality and light-heartedness; on the other hand, he is largely independent of the opinions, habits, and judgments of his fellows.”

For the following notes one may consult Schilpp, Clark, Golden, Pais, etc. in Ref. 1.

In lieu of the aforementioned personal-life philosophy, Einstein consistently selected to protect his privacy inside his room, in his house, working in maximized-freedom, undisturbed solitude; even sleeping naked in his room while his privacy has been strictly guarded by his devoted secretary Helen Dukas, who also screened his incoming mail, deleted nasty or anti-Semitic letters and politely blocking unwanted visitors. Einstein is also known for his subtle sarcasm.

Before Einstein left Hitler’s Germany to the United States, a Professor XXX in Berlin was extremely nasty in targeting him. One day Einstein was informed that Professor XXX just died. Einstein’s reaction: “Everyone does something good in his life, even Professor XXX; he died.”

As a younger man he used to play his beloved violin in the homes of some German women. One day, while he was playing there, they started knitting. Einstein stopped playing, packed his violin to leave, and apologized: “I would not even dream to disturb you from your knitting work.”

On another occasion, as a celebrity living in his house near a lake outside Berlin, his wife urged him to change his simple, but comfortable home dress, to a formal one, for dignitaries are to arrive soon to visit him. His response: If they come to visit me, 72

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let them meet me as I am dressed and work in my house.

If they come to see my formal dress, please show them my closet.

References 1.

On Einstein’s GRAVITY PHYSICS (Vol. I; Vol. III, Lecture I); On Einstein’s Personal Philosophy (Vol. III, Lecture II); Reviews & Biographies on Einstein and on his Work in Physics, Philosophy, Politics: F. Golden, Person of the Century: Albert Einstein, Time (Jan 3, 2000); J. Schmidhuber, Albert Einstein (1979–1955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever' (2006); F. Philip, Einstein: His Life and Times, Alfred Knopf, (1953, 1972); About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930); On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation, Scientific American (4): 13 (1950); Nobel Foundation, Albert Einstein — Biography; D. Howard and J. Stachel, Einstein: The Formative Years, 1979-1909, Springer (2000); P. A. Schilpp (Ed.), Albert Einstein — Autobiographical Notes, Open Court Publishing (1979); P. A. Schilpp, (Ed.), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Harper Torchbook (1951); R. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times, Harper-Collins (1984); Why War? (1933, with Sigmund Freud); P. Galison, Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time; A. Pais, Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press (1982); J. Crelinsten, Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity, Princeton University Press (2006); H. Kant, Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin; J. Renn, (Ed), Albert Einstein — Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH. (2005); Brian, Dennis Einstein: A Life, New York: John Wiley & Sons (1996); Helen Dukas and Banesh Hoffman (eds) Albert Einstein, The Human Side, Princeton University Press (1981); Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz, NL; G., Goettling, Einstein's refrigerator, Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine (1998); Publications by Einstein, some with associates, or replies to rivals, etc.: A. Einstein: Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity), Ann. Phys. 4: 513 (1901); A. Einstein, On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light, ibid, 17: 132 (1905); A. Einstein, new determination of molecular dimensions, PhD thesis (April 30, 1905); A. Einstein, On the Motion Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of 73

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Heat of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, (Brownian Motion), ibid., 17: 549–560 (1905); A. Einstein, On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, (on Special Relativity) Ibid, 17: 891 (1905); A. Einstein, Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?, (on Mass-Energy equivalence), Ibid, 19: 639 (1905); A. Einstein, On the Influence of Gravity on the Propagation of Light, ibid, 35: 898 (1911); A. Einstein, ibid. 10, 195 (1909); ibid. 10, 323 (1909); W. Ritz, (Wrongly Attacking Einstein’s Origin of Electromagnetic Irreversibility), Phys. Z. 9, 903 (1908); A. Einstein, Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation), Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844 (1915); A. Einstein, Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity), Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1917); A. Einstein, Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 19: 121 (1917); A. Einstein, Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Amsterdam: Elsevier (1923); A. Einstein, Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases) Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch—Mathematische Klasse: 261 (1924); A. Einstein, Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes (On meanders in the courses of rivers) Die Naturwissenschaften 14: 223 (1926); A. Einstein, B. Podolsky and N. Rosen, Nathan, Can QuantumMechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", (The EPR Paradox) Physical Review, 47 (10): 777 (1935); A. Einstein, Lens-Like Action of a Star by the Deviation of Light in the Gravitational Field, Science 84, 506 (1936) (Gravitational Lens, Einstein Rings); (1922 poof that Einstein’s universe must expand or conract by A. Friedman: Über die Krümmung des Raumes, Z. Phys. 10 377 (1922), (English translation: Gen. Rel. Grav. 31, 1991 (1999): U.S. Patent 1,781,541 , Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd (refrigerator), November 11, 1930; A. Einstein, On Science and Religion, Nature 146: 605 (1940); A. Einstein, et al. To the editors, New York Times (4 December 1948); A. Einstein and L. Infeld,, The World As I See It (1934); A. Einstein, The World as I See It. New York: Philosophical Library. (1949). A. Einstein, The Evolution of Physics, (1938); Out of My Later Years (1950); A. Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity, Princeton University Press (1956).

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the MASTER ORIGIN of all evolutions, of all time asymmetries, of the 2nd-Law of Thermodynamics, of the building blocks of life, of thinking atoms, of irreversibility, of linguistic arrow of time, of Gravitism, of Havayism, to start with. Bibcode:1978ApJ...222..784G.doi:10.1086/156198. ISSN 0004-637X. D.J. Schwarz and B. Weinhorst, Isotropy of the Hubble Central Diagram: Comparing Hemispheres, Astronomy & Astrophysics 474: 717 (2007) D. L. Wiltshire, Exact Solution to the Averaging Problem in Cosmology, Phys. Rev. Lett. 99: 251101 (2007).

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