How particle physics died in deep space

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How Particle Physics Died in

Deep Space Physics at its Highest Level

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Theoretical Physics Once Advanced Science

Gravity Physics (General Relativity

) was published in 1915. It predicted a

socially unwanted expansion of our universe. In1918 it was proved that it had correctly predicted the bending of light by gravitation in curved space-time. In the1920s Hubble discovered that it had also correctly predicted that our universe expands. FACT.

Sitting, from left: I. Langmuir, M. Planck, Marie Curie, H.A. Lorentz, A. Einstein, P. Langevin, Ch.-­‐E. Guye, C.T.R. Wilson, O.W. Richardson 2nd Sitting: P. Debye, M. Knudsen, W.L. Bragg, H.A. Kramers, P.A.M. Dirac, A.H. Compton, L. de Broglie, M. Born, N. Bohr; Standing: A. Piccard, E. Henriot, P. Ehrenfest, E. Herzen, Th. de Donder, E. Schrödinger, J.E. Verschaffelt, W. Pauli, W. Heisenberg, R.H. Fowler, L. Brillouin.

1927, Inst. Int'l de Physique Solvay

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The Einstienian Heritage is Alive

Painting by Evelyne Katz, 1987. By Permission

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More than ever before, this happens today Physicists Fool other Physicists: Nobel Laureate Feynman: "The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you are the easiest person to fool. So you have to be very careful about that.

After you’ve not fooled yourself, it’s easy not to fool other scientists. You just have to be honest in a conventional way.”

You should not fool the layman when you’re talking as a scientist."

I am not trying to tell you what to do about cheating on your wife, or fooling your girlfriend, or something like that, when you’re not trying to be a scientist, but just trying to be an ordinary human being. … I’m talking about a specific, extra type of integrity that is not lying, but bending over backwards to show how you are maybe wrong, that you ought to have when acting as a scientist.

And this is our responsibility as scientists, certainly to other scientists, and to the laymen.

"WHAT DO YOU CARE WHAT OTHER PEOPLE THINK".

One of his books

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Preface

Explorations of expanding dark spaces vs. non-­‐expanding super-­‐clusters of galaxies, as conducted by astronomers and astrophysicists, have generated a revolution in our understanding of the expanding universe; a scientific revolution without parallel in the whole recorded history of mankind; a fresh look at nature, which opened up new horizons and generated new needs to re-­‐examine all previous axioms, definitions, assertions, models, theories and traditional science education.

At the very core of this revolution we find the deterministic, general relativity (Gravity Physics), the indispensible, curved-­‐space-­‐time-­‐based Einsteinian physics for understanding the verified expansion of the universe, including some recent discoveries that would guide us in these lectures vs. the probabilistic, size-­‐arrested, standard quantum model and its various, un-­‐verifiable, associated string formulations and dark energy speculations.

Eventually only one of these two different fundamental outlooks of science and philosophy of science is to survive all updated experimentations and observations; only one to finally account for all verified observations ranging from the multi-­‐verified cosmic expansion of all dark-­‐cold (270 degrees below zero C) voids between all non-­‐expanding super-­‐clusters of galaxies (NASA records below), down to the smallest, unobservable string vibrations claimed at the smallest Planck length.

A first deduced Feynman's principle requires to stop smuggling contrabands into axioms, definitions, assertions, mathematical pre-­‐fitted

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that a priori lead to deluded "proofs" of what armies of theoretical physicists wish to contribute, often in vain. Examples were published before (booklet-­‐end). This time we selected to avoid any mathematical formulation.

CONTENTS

1. Error Principle I: "Prcecise Quantum Definitions" introduce error.

2.. Error Principle II: "Particle Physics" fails to predict & account the verified Expansion of the Universe, which Gravity Physics had predicted in 1915, has been verified since the 1920s and thus it fails as the very fundamental of science, its philosophy and education at any level.

3. Error Principle III: Different pre-­‐edited "proofs" in particle physics which smuggle as contrabands, without decleration, the wished results: E.g., in rejecting retrodiction, advanced waves, final to initial integration in order to "prove" time asymmetries, "entropy growth", electromagnetic irrevrsibility, etc.

4. Error Principle IV: Associated with different quantum-­‐deduced String models and "Dark-­‐Energy" postulations that do not even rise to the scientific level of being wrong. The same applies to quantum-­‐ deduced "THEORY of EVERYTHING".

5. An Old Issue: Riemannian Mathematics: "Discovered", or "Provided"?

6. How theoretical physics died by Its own armies of proponents.

5.1 Bohm's Hidden Variables 5.2 M-­‐Model 5.3. D-­‐Branes

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5.4 Closed or Open Strings?

5.5 Landscapes-­‐Inside-­‐Landscapes

5.6 Symmetry-­‐Asymmetry

5.7 String Mathematical Games Face Endless Criticism

6. Do Dark-­‐Energy proponents fool themselves, other scientists, media editors and the laymen?

7. How DARK-­‐ENERGY is smuggled into science?

8. Gravitism

8.1 In Education and Philosophy

8.2 In Astrophysics it can prevent errors

9. Redefined Thermodynamics prevents Entropic Errors

10. Thought-­‐Experiment prevents conceptual arrows of time errors

11. The Hubble Space Telescope

12. Key Tools of Astronomy

Author

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Introduction

1. Error Principle I: "Prcecise Quantum Definitions" introduce errors.

Precise definitions in probabilistic quantum models and in deduced string formulations a priori erect externally rejecting virtual walls outside their domain, thus a priori rejecting, often without a due declaration, any deterministic gravity physics that is needed for grand unification.

In contrast, gravity physics (Einsteinian general Relativity) applied to space dynamics of the entire universe, does not erect externally rejecting virtual wall for there is no "outside" into which it expand.

Wherefore-­‐I, science should NOT start with quantum definitions.

Wherefore-­‐II, science starts by verified fact: Our universe expands.

In gravity physics this multiple-­‐verified expansion is NOT a priori enforced on any "precise definition", axiom and assertion.

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2. Error Principle II: "Particle Physics" fails to predict & account for the verified Expansion of the Universe, which gravity physics had predicted in 1915 and was verified in the 1920s. Thus it fails as the first fundamental principle of Science, its philosophy and education at any level.

Neither a fundamental or embedded space expansion of the observable universe (thus also of its "genesis" or "beginning"), nor the verified original source of all time asymmetries in nature, or the origin of irreversibility in any real process, are found at or provided by the probabilistic standard quantum model -­‐-­‐ an established fact that has caused armies of quantum theorists to seek, so far in vain, correcting their standard model by resorting to Einstein's gravity physics or, failing that, to try, in vain, to replace it with their string mathematical games, briefly reviewed below.

3. Error Principle III: Pre-­‐edited mathematical or words-­‐

based "proofs" in particle physics smuggle into the formulations "illegal" contrabands without decleration: E.g., rejecting retrodiction, advanced waves, final to initial integration to "extract" time asymmetries, entropy growth, electromagnetic irrevrsibility, etc.

RECAP: Nowadays, more than ever before, armies of "theoretical physicists", without declaring their "illegal" contraband, smuggle into their published attempts to bridge their size-­‐arrested/virtual-­‐wall-­‐ isolated mathematical or wording "proofs" to unify physics but in fact are doing nothing but fooling themselves, other scientists, the media and the laymen.

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4. Errror Principle IV: Different quantum-­‐deduced String

models and "Dark-­‐Energy" postulations do not even rise to the scientific level of being wrong. The same conclusion applies to quantum-­‐deduced "THEORY of EVERYTHING".

Recap.

5. An Old Issue: Riemannian Mathematics: "Discovered", or "Provided"?

Education at any level beyond 9 years olds, may begin by 2 questions:

What is the familiar "gravitation"?

Are mathematics "discovered" or "introduced to our world" integrated with the "laws of physic"?

Riemannian Geometry plays a central role in Einstein's Gravity Physics.

In a complete, simply connected Riemannian manifold, symmetric space is valid when its curvature tensor is invariant under parallel transport.

Lorentzian symmetric spaces become important in Einstein's physics and cosmology, i.e. as (i) Minkovsky Space and (ii) De Sitter Space. Geodesic symmetries may next be defined as affine diffeomorphisms in Riemannian and pseudo-­‐Riemannian situations.

De Sitter universe is one of various cosmological solutions to EFE (Einstein's Field equations) a flat, spatially un-­‐curved universe containing low space-­‐densities of matter.

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6. Did theoretical physics die by Its own proponents?

The first to add a fifth spatial dimension to Einstein's general relativity were Theodor Kaluza (in 1919) and Oskar Klein (in 1926). These attempts attracted Einstein’s attention in his attempts to develop a unified field theory. But Einstein died prior to being successful in this domain.

The current proponents of string theories claim, inter alia, that on very small sub-­‐atomic scales, all fundamental field-­‐forces consist of vibrating strings or membranes of energy.

The spectrum, or zoo, of subatomic particles then emerges (mathematically) as small vibrating strings that by altering their mode of vibration transform, say, an electron into a neutrino, a quark, or other particles, while causing space-­‐time to curve around these entities so as to give rise to Einsteinian relativistic gravity.

Despite three decades of intensive attempts to provide experimental proof of string theories, as conducted by armies of physicists, there is not a single, direct verification test that the theory is correct. And none is expected.

While the various equations of string theories have survived mathematical challenges, each solution represents an entire set of unverifiable predictions; a mysticism of scientists, which, when combined with the fundamental issue of a priori smuggling into these theories what is to be proved, makes them what they are. Einstein’s anti-­‐probabilistic views remain un-­‐falsified. Similarly, the acclaimed “Theory of Everything” is misleading.

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Some of the string theories proponents claim that prior to Genesis a pre-­‐ Genesis world contraction had turned into a black hole that, at the moment of Genesis, had created many WHITE HOLES, namely, our world is just one of them – indeed a beautiful mathematical music play.

6.1 Bohm's Hidden Variables Hidden variable are postulated in string theories as extra [beyond 3 space and one time dimensions] 6, 7 or higher spatial dimensions. Postulated by David Bohm, these ideas are now driving string theories.

These, inter alia, by-­‐pass the embarrassing point-­‐like feathers of ‘particles’ in quantum theories Such variables also allow theorists to get closer to Einstein’s dream of a deterministic world outlook of general relativity that is unified with quantum physics.

Investigating how a string theory may include fermions led to the concept of supersymmetry a mathematical collection of ideas relating bosons and fermions (every particle has superpartner that is not observable.

Superpartners are called squarks, selectrons and gluinos.

6.2 M-­‐Model One group of string game-­‐plays postulates ‘Landscapes-­‐Inside-­‐landscapes’ in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions so as to harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes. The theoretical limit of the M-­‐theory infers that protons, electrons, neutrons and their antimatter counterparts, may be converted to photons and then converted to other particles, i.e., to particles such as protons that may be changed to other particles, such as electrons. It is not yet a fully understood theory.

6.3. D-­‐Branes are membranes of different spatial dimensionality. The membranes are postulated to be gravitational sources, so that one may

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end-­‐up with a modified gravitational model within the framework of string and quantum standard models (See below on their real standing in science today).

They may emit and absorb closed strings and are postulated to emit gravitons and also to emit charge since they emit closed strings, which are gauge bosons.

Pre-­‐supposed tiny entities are postulated to contract to minimize their potential energy. But conservation of energy prevents them from disappearing. Instead they are postulated to oscillate-­‐vibrate.

By pre-­‐assuming the "reality of vibrating strings", one may deduce different vibrational modes that are further postulated to represent different sub-­‐atomic particles. Such postulated strings may split and combine, which may resemble particles emitting and absorbing other particles, as in standard quantum model interactions between sub-­‐atomic particles.

6.4 Closed or Open Strings?

Quantum strings models are postulated to harbor tension, like regular strings of a violin; a tension that is related to their size and shape.

A closed loop string, left to move without external forces, will contract into a smaller loop. But it is further postulated that it would not shrink to a zero-­‐ sized point.

Open strings have two distinct end-­‐points, while closed strings are joined to make a complete loop. The two types may allow speculations about two different spectra of ‘elementary-­‐particle’. For example, one of the closed string modes is the graviton, and in the open string mode it is a photon.

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6.5 Landscapes-­‐Inside-­‐Landscapes These worlds-­‐inside-­‐worlds are claimed to run the world in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions. In these mathematical games they may harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes.

Such models, which are misleadingly called theories by their proponents, are also being postulated to be the theoretical limit of the M-­‐MODEL. Some of the string theories proponents claim that prior to Genesis a pre-­‐ Genesis world contraction had turned into a black hole that, at the moment of Genesis, had created many WHITE HOLES, namely, our world is just one of them – indeed a beautiful mathematical music play.

6.6 Symmetry-­‐Asymmetry

All laws of physics, except in thermodynamics, are space and time symmetric, namely, there is no distinction between any direction in space and in time. However, the 2nd law of thermodynamics, in its fundamental form, states that in using the time coordinate in reality, one can only proceed from past to future and never in reverse.

Accordingly, some theorists claim, in contradiction with thermodynamics, that if the universe is eternal into the future, it must be eternal into the past. Hence, they also claim, that prior to the “big-­‐bang”, there was a symmetrical world contraction into an all-­‐containing black holes.

As the density “had” increased during that pre-­‐creation contraction, gigantic black holes had been formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they all switched to expnasion, the interior of one of them has become “our universe”.

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6.7 String Mathematical Games Face Endless Criticism

Despite the aforestated known set backs to ever verifiy these mathematical games-­‐models, the proponents of these claims still hope that some upcoming observations, say, by the Planck Sattelite and by the ground-­‐ based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, may reveal slight variations in gravitational radiation that might be detected by their effect on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation; perhaps conferring some supportive evidence. But that remains to be proven, if at all.

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6.8 Do Dark-­‐Energy Proponents Fool Themselves, Other Scientists, Media Editors and the Laymen?

Historical events associated with the UNVERIFIABLE DARK-­‐ENEGY HOAX?

No proof was ever established that the historical "Hail-­‐Cannons" had accomplished anything but raise loud noise, fool media editors, the public, donors and governments to fund their unverifiable claims, somewhat similar to the unverifiable string mathematical games discussed above.

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7. How DARK-­‐ENERGY is smuggled into science?

Claims made today to Extract Donors and Government Funding by about 400 theorists at Fermilab, Universities of Chicago, Pennsylvania, Ohio State, UCL & Argonne National Lab, DOE, NSF, IEEC, IFAE, OzDEZ, NOAD, NCSA, SLAC, CTIO, LMU in Germany, UK Consortium, universities in London, and supported by SCIENCE-­‐AAAS, are voided by

(a) applying simple momentum conservation which unequivocally proves that "dark energy" is nothing but Chimera (right),

(b) resorting to Chimerian base & immeasurable "dark energy", to claim that Einstein Gravity Physics is wrong,

(c) maintaining (a) & (b) results in the greatest mistake in science, generated by theorists and supported by SCIENCE-­‐AAAS.

Early dark energy proponents may have attracted popular media and public support by throwing up alleged "Dark-­‐Hail", which instead of falling back by gravity, is speeding up to the sky,

Thereby fooling main media editors, the public, donors and international governments, to raise astronomical funds for spacecraft & instrumentation aimed to measure the immeasurable "dark hail", or exploit the 1998-­‐ discovery that the universe is NOT slowing down its expansion by gravity, but, by "dark hail", is accelerating, or help sell computer-­‐simulations as

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"tests" of claimed Chimera properties that dictate to "correct" Einstein Gravity Physics.

7.1 Has a version of ESOTERICISM invaded Academia?

In ESOTERICISM, for instance, AGARTHA is a great city claimed to be located inside an earth's hole. Probably invented by the European A. Saint-­‐Yves D'Alveydre, who had claimed his writing are "reliable" and mean that all wisdom and wealth "will be accessible for all mankind, when Christianity lives up to the Hebrew 10 commandments "drafted by Moses and God" and absolutely, applicable "When the Anarchy which exists in our world is replaced by the SYNARCHY". Some other followers claim that Agartha is located in the high Tibet-­‐Himalayas, with "pictorial evidence".

8. Gravitism

Based on Einstein-­‐Feynman-­‐Popper methodologies-­‐theories and confirmed by recent observations in astronomy, biophysics, geophysics and archeology, this new philosophy; Gravitism, concludes that theoretical physics has already died by its own proponents.

WHEREFORE, the aim and scope of Gravitism remains positive and constructive. These include (i) a fresh new outlook at nature, (ii) a new philosophy of physics, (iii) a modified educational methodology based on:

(A) Multi-­‐verified expansion of the Cosmos as first predicted by Einsteinian Gravity Physics since 1915 vs. the current debates summarized by Gravitism, which inter alia claims that science starts with astronomy and not by a probabilistic, size-­‐arrested, standard quantum model, that it starts

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with deterministic curved space time, not by a priori erecting virtual wrong fire-­‐walls and conceptual fences by "Precise Definitions" that introduce mistakes outside their limited model domains.

(B) Updating our "Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy" worldwide acclaimed book with well-­‐confirmed observations on the coldest world sink of galactic and stellar radiation-­‐winds (270 degrees C below zero in SPACE-­‐ 1) caused and controlled by multi-­‐verified expanding-­‐cooling VOIDS located between all super-­‐clusters of galaxies. (See below).

(C) With gravity, the expanding-­‐VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 identified below, control all stellar evolution that generates new particles and atoms, which, eventually, build the chemical elements that lead to (a) Amino-­‐acids, RNA and DNA on this gravity-­‐structured planet, (b) Gravity-­‐Natural-­‐Selection of the fittest bio-­‐atmosphere, bio-­‐structures, gravity-­‐induced skeletons, gravity-­‐based written symbols, languages, gravity-­‐induced organized religions village and city structures, transportation systems, geo-­‐ technologies, arts and sciences as presented below.

8.1 Gravitism in Education and Philosophy

Carefully assessed pro and cones reasons of most fundamental and traditional concepts also lead to our revolution in education via this CCC, which had been prepared and is presented for (i) the young, aged 9 and above, (ii) the self-­‐educating adults, and (iii) scientists who often fool themselves, other scientists, media editors and the laymen as stated above, or associated with:

(1) Quantum-­‐based "String Theories" that start with unverifiable definitions, (2) "Dark energy" claims advocated by armies of fooling themselves proponents,

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(3) Claims that Einsteinian Gravity Physics ought to be replaced with theirs, (4) Claims that mathematics is invented by mortals, not discovered, (5) Claims that the 1998 verified accelerated expansion of the universe affirms their unverifiable "dark energy" hoax, (6) Speculations about from the origin of the first amino acids, RNA, DNA, (7) Did DNA originate from the ashes of a dead-­‐mother – a supernova?

When? Where?

Gravitism. Painting by Monica C. Fernandez, 2012

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8.2 Gravitism redefines deep spaces to avoid errors

What Expands vs. What Does Not

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Cold SPACE-­‐ wraps all galaxies. It includes all galactic winds.

SPACE-­‐3

wraps all stars and planets and includes all stellar winds.

Stellar winds are enhanced by shocks as explored by VOYAGERS 1 and 2 (their paths are marked). Most stellar winds,

cosmic rays, by-pass the stars, including our solar system, and "flow" to SPACE-2. Eventually these winds are irreversibly including

dissipated in the coldest (270 degrees C below zero), expanding, dark cosmological

SPACE-1,

which is composed of almost empty

VOIDS

EXPANDING, INTERGALACTIC

located between all super-clusters of galaxies. NASA records are provided next below. All images are taken from the author's advances in COSMOLOGY, PHYSICS and PHILOSOPHY [1-5] or from Wikipedia.

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“ly” marks the distance light travels in almost empty SPACES 1, 2 and 3 during one year: 300,000 km/sec times 3600 sec/hr times 24 hrs/day times 365 days/year.

How Intergalactic Jet-­‐Winds (yellow) enter into all Voids and cause each to expand?

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The Low energy density expanding VOIDS absorb galactic-­‐stellar winds entering them from all directions as marked in images above and located inside expanding SPACE-­‐1.

BASIC CLASSICAL PHYSICS: A simple Momentum Conservation for all galactic jets-­‐winds that enter each void from all directions provides unequivocal proof of a recently confirmed by Hubble Telescope accelerated expansion of the universe. Note that the galactic clusters and the stars do not expand with the expanding universe, only the dark voids in between do, as marked. But as explained below, various different rotations take place simultaneously inside the various spaces redefined herein.

The "3rd Cosmological ARROW OF TIME" marked represents stellar and galactic winds, which non-­‐stop enter any VOID from all directions and forever dissipate and irreversibly stay there.

RECAP: The "filaments" of super clusters of galaxies recorded above wrap around each void. Under he conservation of momentum all are non-­‐stop being reaction-­‐forced-­‐pushed-­‐out by the galactic-­‐stellar jets-­‐winds entering each void from all directions and thus accelerate the left over inertia of the the expansion of the universe since the "Big Bang".

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BASIC CLASSICAL PHYSICS: The marked VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 function as the LARGEST DARK-­‐COLD "THERMODYNAMIC SINK" in the entire visible universe.

Each of these gigantic expanding voids acts as part of the largest cosmological sink of radiations removed away from active stars, a removal away from core-­‐generated energy by external, outgoing "winds", thus allowing the stars to evolve and produce additional heavy chemical element from light ones, as elaborated further below.

NOTE: The more massive a star is, the faster it converts low to higher elements. This fact is due to higher internal gravitational pressures inside the cores of the more massive stars, thus causing the conversion rate to accelerate by the resulting higher core temperatures.

Once out of the core hydrogen "fuel", gravitationally collapse ends their lives, some undergoing a gigantic explosion termed supernova.

The dust, debris and gas spread by this explosion in SPACE-­‐3 may end up forming planets in orbit around stars like our sun and gradually, by gravitationally-­‐induced "natural selection" eject gases from their interiors to form atmospheres and generate geophysical processes that lead to life.

9. Redefined Entropy-­‐Free Thermodynamics to avoid errors The origin of irreversibility in nature, namely, the origin of the physics of thermodynamics is observationally supported by three cosmic processes: (a) The irreversible cooling of the expanding universe during the radiation dominated era whereby the structure-­‐less medium density and temperature is reduced, the 1st Cosmological-­‐Thermodynamic Arrow of Time. (Diagram above). (b) The earliest formation of -­‐Thermodynamic Arrow of Time.

(Diagram).

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(c) The earliest formation of "filaments" (or sort of cosmic walls) composed of SUPER-­‐CLUSTERS OF GALXIES AROUND EACH VOD, leading to

the 3rd Cosmological-­‐Thermodynamic Arrow of Time. (Diagram and list at book end).

RECAP: Expanding VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 constitute (i) the root-­‐cause of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, time-­‐asymmetries and verifiable unified world order controlled and structured by gravitation.

Zooming In Zooming-­‐into a single dark-­‐cold expanding void illustrates the non-­‐stop, entering from all directions, super-­‐fast, highly energized Galactic-­‐Stellar Winds-­‐Jets.

This process causes simultaneous expansion of each and all voids under momentum conservation-­‐reaction on all "filaments-­‐Walls" around each void

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10. A Thought-­‐Experiment that prevents errors and misunderstanding Imagine a room made of flexible walls, floors and ceiling into which high-­‐ speed, galactic-­‐stellar-­‐winds, as jets-­‐of-­‐radiation, pour in from all directions, non-­‐stop.

By propulsion force ("thrust of rockets and fighter aircraft by jet-­‐engine") in the opposite direction, these "jets" expand the volume of the room in analogy to the detected increased volume of Voids/SPACE-­‐1, causing the flexible walls, floors and ceiling to recede away.

11. The Hubble Space Telescope Since 2016, the Hubble Space Telescope has confirmed the 1998 discovery of the accelerated expansion of the Universe. The confirmed mechanism thus involves two simultaneous processes: PROCESS A: Regions of space populated with denser galaxies increasingly attract matter into them by the force of gravity, which, in turn, further empties the less dense regions that includes large expanding voids between all super-­‐clusters of galaxies. with ever larger voids in between.

PROCESS B: Cold-­‐dark voids between all super-­‐clusters of galaxies acting as final sinks for all radiation emerging from all active galaxies and stars.

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Further Zooming In Zooming in further to the resolution indicated by 1 Million ly reveals Our SPACE-­‐2 "Neighborhood”, which is home to thousands of galaxies.

Even at this scale our entire solar system is less than a visible dot somewhere in the marked “Local Group”. Our home cluster is marked in Astronomy Virgo.

Our Solar System is still less than a visible dot in this Record

The Andromeda galaxy is marked in yellow.

It is 2,200,000 light-­‐years away and is almost similar to our galaxy.

It is also characterized by a spiral structure.

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We see it today as it was when the earliest hominids left East Africa to arrive at the "promised land".

Both galaxies are the largest in our Local Group, which is about 10,000,000 light-­‐ years in its largest spatial ‘diameter’.

The "Local Group" includes M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87, M89 and M31 (Andromeda).

Andromeda’s system consists of Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32, M110, NGC 147, NGC195, AND I-­‐V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd largest galaxy in ‘our’ local group, also includes the Pisces Dwarf as a satellite.

‘Our’ satellite galaxies consist of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Darco Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Canis Major Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, Carina Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Tucana Dwarf, Leo I, Leo II, Leo A, Sag DEG, etc.

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"Fog" in Galactic Images

“Fog” visible inside galactic records are actually records of billions of stars like our sun, or more massive ones.

Our Solar System extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, comets,

rocks and dust in ‘our’ community. It is located inside non-­‐expanding SPACE-­‐ 2 that wraps our entire galaxy and is spatially interconnected with expanding VOIDS/SPACE-­‐ 1.

Gravitational structures of clusters and superclusters of galaxies vary considerably -­‐-­‐ from that of Virgo, Leo, Ursa, Coma and Hercules to long ‘filaments’.

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12. Key Tools of Astronomy

How Red Shifts help prove that the Voids in SPACE-­‐1 Expand?

Red Shifts in astronomy serve as key tools in making scientific discoveries.

These are based on wavelength change of photons propagating through the expanding VOIDS in SPACE-­‐1.

There is, however, a distinction between various red shifts.

The color spectrum on the right illustrates a redshift – light waves marked as horizontal black lines are "shifted up” (white arrows) in the direction of the red region.

It is caused when objects exhibit a simple local Doppler-­‐Effect redshift (Image above) or a space expansion. Rather than resulting from relative velocities

vis-­‐à-­‐vis

earth,

the

photons

undergoing increase in wavelength because of the expansion of a medium through which they are traveling.

Hubble Cosmic Expansion Law: Uo = Hor where “r” is distance from earth to “CLUSTER I” (image), which represents super-­‐ clusters of galaxies, Ho the Hubble Constant and Uo the recession velocity calculated,

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namely, the recession velocity of super-­‐clusters as they move-­‐away from an observer on earth, and/or from each other.

Why Hubble was refused to be awarded the Nobel?

Hubble’s astronomical observations in the 1920s have revolutionized not only physics, but the traditional perceptions of billion around the world.

Yet he was refused to be awarded what he so MUCH DESERVED: A NOBEL, allegedly for similar non-­‐ethical reasons that Einstein had also been refused the Nobel for his Spacial relativity and General Relativity, both of which have revolutionaized not only physics, but the traditional perceptions of scientists and billions around the globe.

FACTUAL BACKGROUND: Post Einstein's forcing a stupid number to stop the socially unwanted expansion of our world, aspredicted by his Gravity Physics Equations, allegedly most of the NOBEL committee members wrongly assumed that Einstein had been finished by a non-­‐scientific addition of a stupid number to his equations.

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In fact, Einstein later stated that adding that stupid number to his equations because of what other think, was the "worse mistake of my life". That was stated only after Hubble has unequivocally proved that, in fact, he, Einstein's, by his 1915 gravity physics, had already predicted what he, HUBBLE, has empirically discovered and proved a few years later, a grand cosmological discovery that has made both, the most celebrated world heros of science against all mediocre minds and ulterior stealthy haters.

HUBBLE in fact had unequivocally proved that (clusters) of galaxies are moving away from each other. Hence, the universe had a very hot and dense "beginning" at the very start of the world expansion – a beginning that is called Big-­‐Bang, but historically should be termed "EINSTEIN-­‐ HUBBLE GENESIS" (or -­‐ BANG").

Local vs. cosmological tools of Astronomy

(1) Special relativity effects are valid locally in small regions of space-­‐ time that are approximately ‘flat’, i.e., are under low gravity values, like on Earth.

(2) The universe is not expanding "into" anything outside itself. (we return to this).

(3) Galaxies move and rotate individually in SPACE-­‐2, but do not expand.

(4) ONLY the Coldest Dark VOIDS in SPACE-­‐1 Expand.

The explosive expansion of the entire universe since its beginning had started about 13.8 billion years ago. It is detected today by astronomical methods (see below) as left over inertia expansion from the initial EINSTEIN-­‐HUBBLE GENESIS "explosion".

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VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 expansion is independently confirmed-­‐verified

cosmic microwave blackbody Radiation. by

the

Our complex motions in deep space (i) Earth rotates and travels around the sun, (ii) the sun travels around the galactic center, (iii) our galaxy rotates about 250 km/hr at our Orion Arm. These motions should not be confused with the recession speed of clusters and super-­‐clusters of galaxies away from each other.

[R(t) [main diagram]. This motion is also termed ”the Hubble Expansion”. Our galaxy is deviating from this uniform expansion motion by about 600 km/sec.

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What, within a single page, Is "Einsteinian Gravity Physics"?

Einstein’s General Relativity (EGR, or Gravity Physics] is formulated in the same form for all "observers" – accelerating, linearly moving, rotating, standing on a minor astronomical body, like earth, or on a massive star. For that aim one needs ‘translators’ from one observer-­‐coordinate-­‐system to another.

These ‘translators’ are energy-­‐momentum metric tensors that include first and second mathematical derivatives in three space coordinates and in one time coordinate of any local physical properties: mass, energy and momentum.

Changes in the gravitational force are accounted for by changes in the curvature of space-­‐time, on one hand, and by changes in local mass-­‐ energy and momentum on the other side of Einstein’s Field Equations, EFE. Acceleration is equivalent to gravity.

EGR includes Einstein’s Special Relativity and conservation equations of mass, energy and momentum.

In low gravitational fields, like on earth, Einsteinian Gravity is approximated by NEWTONIAN GRAVITY.

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Einstein’s Gravity Lens

Gravitational Lens were predicted by Einstein in 1936. [Image below].

These help reveal early (far-­‐away) galaxies. HOW?

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The brown-­‐orange arrows show the magnified source, while the gray-­‐white arrows show the actual path of light from the hidden source.

Einstein calculated such effect for future astronomy. And today the “lens” become very useful when the gravity of a massive cosmic object curves space-­‐time between the observer and a hidden, far-­‐away galaxy, that by Einstein's Lens can be discovered.

The key point is that this effect magnifies early galaxies and it is important in astronomical efforts to study the "Early Age of the Universe”, which had started about 200,000 to 350,000 years after the “Big Bang”.

“Expansion of the universe” or “expansion of space itself” may be defined as the expansion of the cold-­‐dark voids shown above. This issue has confused many theorists.

Most important is the solid evidence that has been accumulated by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope and by two Voyager Space-­‐Probes (identified in #24) as well as by ground-­‐based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, and by others.

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Cosmic Chemistry by Nuclear Fusion

The most important “chemical” processes in the universe are caused

by GRAVITY.

Gravity causes extremely high pressures in the inner cores of active stars. Inside these hot cores all chemical elements beyond hydrogen, are generated by transforming (fusing) hydrogen plasma, [H], into heavier elements like Helium [He], carbon [C], oxygen [O], nitrogen [N], phosphor [P]] of active stars.

A typical sun-­‐Like star is a “factory” for producing new chemical elements like the ones marked on the right, all the way heavy one, IRON, at its very hottest core.

STELLAR WINDS are Energy-­‐material streams in the sun interior shown above include convection currents from the very hot, thermo-­‐nuclear reacting core, "up" to the colder sun surface, including various types of radiations and particles pouring out into non-­‐ expanding, colder SPACE-­‐3 as INTERSTELLAR WINDS (First image, Part A). These are mixed in Space-­‐2 with similar winds to form Intergalactic

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Winds that eventually dissipate irreversibly in the coldest spaces in the universe: VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1.

(A) According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics, the bigger the mass of a star, the higher are its core pressures and temperatures and faster are the nuclear fusion processes in its interior,

(B) All active stars (billions detected in each of the detected billion galaxies in the visible universe) generate in their interiors the basic chemical elements beyond hydrogen and helium;

(C) All basic elements of life had

been generated in the cores of a now dead Mother that had died in a violent explosion termed Supernova.

How Chemical Evolution of Stars was verified?

On both fusion and fission scientists know much today.

Fusion is the reaction in hydrogen-­‐bomb explosions, while fission is the reaction in atomic reactors and in ‘regular’ atomic weapons.

When a certain amount of iron is formed in the interiors of any active star, endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic one. (The exothermic reaction generates energy, while the endothermic consumes it.)

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"Natural Selection” is, in Fact, "Gravity Natural Selection”

All galaxies, stars and supernovas are primary structures in our expanding world are gravity-­‐generated.

Secondary generated gravity structures, include planetary systems around stars, stellar winds, galactic winds, black holes, SPACES 1, 2, 3.

Third generated gravity structures include gravity-­‐ induced atmospheres, biological evolution, geo-­‐structures, time systems, village, city and transportation systems, up-­‐down/gravity-­‐oriented symbols, written languages, lines, books, mind perception of time-­‐space, sky-­‐earth, high-­‐rise buildings, high priests, tall minarets and church towers, "High" cultural elite vs. "Low social circles", archeology and history main events.

The 2nd generated gravity structures include supernova explosions which throw into SPACE-­‐3 Hot debris, rocks and gas. Floating in Space-­‐3, post the explosion, the debris, dust and gas where located near the path of our sun.

Captured into orbit around it, gravity next further dictated the evolution of life. Gravity compressed some debris to form the observed spherical planets in the Solar system. Life followed as detailed below.

Is a dead star-­‐supernova our mother?

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Revisiting "Precise Definition"

Precise definitions erect external VIRTUAL FENCES, or a sort of a FIRE-­‐WALL that CAUSEs MISTAKES OUTSIDE THE AXIOMS DOMAINS defined and forced by their proponents if they add corrections that fit with what facts they wish to smuggle into their activity domain without declaring the contraband.

Einsteinian General Relativistic Universe does NOT erect external virtual fences or any sort of "fire-­‐walls" outside its domain, because there is no "outside" to its domain, for it does not expand into any other extant space that may be a priori rejected by wrong precise definitions or axioms or the various postulates of the standard quantum model or associated theories that preserve it in their fundamental base.

Author

"Gal-­‐Or launches a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject.”

N.Y. Academy of Sciences

"This book has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-­‐Orians”.

Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power."

Chinese Academy of Sciences

"A Master Piece. The well-­‐known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of present-­‐day scientific theories."

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Indian Journal of Physics

"This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening."

Sir Karl Popper, One of the greatest philosophers of modern science

"I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-­‐Or’s book."

HaAretz Newspaper

"We are all Gal-­‐Orians ! "

Editor, Foundations of Physics

"The works of scientists like Gal-­‐Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-­‐Winner) Prigogine provide important resources. Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-­‐Or is superior)."

The Crisis of the Sciences

"Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds.

Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science.

Sir Karl Popper, in a Foreword, correctly describes it “a great book”.

New Scientist Magazine

"Gal-­‐Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-­‐away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.”

Order Amidst Chaos, Enlightenment Aesthetics

"Einstein's time-­‐symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-­‐Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena!

Gal-­‐Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-­‐chemical and biological evolution -­‐-­‐ that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics -­‐-­‐ that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology.

He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself.

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Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-­‐cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.”

Advancement of Physics

“Gal-­‐Or's remarkable book sees and seizes the world whole. He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-­‐delusion. Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.

His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government.

One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry.

His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.

The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales.

The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion.

He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries.

The expansion provides, among other things, an unsaturable sink for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life.

He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries.

Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events.

The value of this book lies in the challenging combination of ideas which Gal-­‐Or presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review.

[This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-­‐Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students.”

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

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Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, "Nature, Philosophy of"

"Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work!‫ ״‬

A. Cottrell, V. Chancellor, Cambridge University

“One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe. It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.”

Robin forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222

“I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them!

Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more!

I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time.

What an ingenious phrase is your, “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”!

I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences.

I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task.

That is to give students an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics.

You do both tasks far better than I could hope to.

I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a package that I personally have found most thought-­‐provoking.”

Prof. John A. Wheeler, Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton University

“An interesting and original book, easy to read, interesting and fascinating.”

Novo Cimento Science Magazine

"Interesting to read, integrating much of scientific material."

Deutsche Literatur-­‐zeitung

“A comprehensive explication of a large area of science which the reader may study in many subjects.” Contemporary Philosophy

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"Your book “was / is an inspiration in my life” European reader, 2011/ Facebook

"This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read."

Outstanding Books List

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