The Einsteinian Heritage in 2017, Vol. III

The Einsteinian Heritage

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy, Volumes I, II, III Is theoreticlal Physics Dying?

Includes EARTH-­‐SPACE DICTIONARY

The Gravitism Heritage

The New Astrophysical School of Science-­‐Philosophy Awarded the Gold Medal from the NY Academy of Science

by Prof.-­‐Dr. Benjamin Gal-­‐Or

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Theoretical Physics at its Historical Highest Level

That historical high level was reached post (i) The creation of the 1915 Einsteinian Gravity Physics (General Relativity) that predicts a strange, socially unwanted, world expansion (or contraction), (ii) That unwanted theory was first confirmed in1918 in correctly predicting the bending of light by gravitation in curved space-time, (iii) Re-confirmed before 1927 by the American astronomer Hubble: We all live in an expanding world that had "beginning", as the Bible states In its first Chapter. See more below.

Sitting, from left: I. Langmuir, M. Planck, Marie Curie, H.A. Lorentz, A. Einstein, P. Langevin, Ch.-E. Guye, C.T.R. Wilson, O.W. Richardson

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2nd Sitting: P. Debye, M. Knudsen, W.L. Bragg, H.A. Kramers, P.A.M. Dirac, A.H. Compton, L. de Broglie, M. Born, N. Bohr; Standing: A. Piccard, E. Henriot, P. Ehrenfest, E. Herzen, Th. de Donder, E. Schrödinger, J.E. Verschaffelt, W. Pauli, W. Heisenberg, R.H. Fowler, L. Brillouin.

1927, Inst. Int'l de Physique Solvay

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Beauty has always been the object of science as a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-­‐away, gravitationally-­‐created, horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.

WORLDWIDE ACCLAIMS

"Gal-­‐Or launches a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject.”

N.Y. Academy of Sciences

"This book has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-­‐Orians”.

Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power."

Chinese Academy of Sciences

"A Master Piece. The well-­‐known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of present-­‐day scientific theories."

Indian Journal of Physics

"This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening."

Sir Karl Popper, One of the greatest philosophers of modern science

"I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-­‐Or’s book."

HaAretz Newspaper

"We are all Gal-­‐Orians ! "

Editor, Foundations of Physics

"The works of scientists like Gal-­‐Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-­‐Winner) Prigogine provide important resources. Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-­‐Or is superior)."

The Crisis of the Sciences

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"Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds.

Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science.

Sir Karl Popper, in a Foreword, correctly describes it “a great book”.

New Scientist Magazine

"Gal-­‐Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-­‐away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.”

Order Amidst Chaos, Enlightenment Aesthetics

"Einstein's time-­‐symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-­‐Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena!

Gal-­‐Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-­‐chemical and biological evolution -­‐-­‐ that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics -­‐-­‐ that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology.

He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself.

Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-­‐cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.”

Advancement of Physics

“Gal-­‐Or's remarkable book sees and seizes the world whole. He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-­‐ delusion. Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.

His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government.

One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry.

His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.

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The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales.

The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion.

He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries.

The expansion provides, among other things, an unsaturable sink for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life.

He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries.

Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events.

The value of this book lies in the challenging combination of ideas which Gal-­‐Or presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review.

[This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-­‐Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students.”

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, "Nature, Philosophy of"

"Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work!‫ ״‬

A. Cottrell, V. Chancellor, Cambridge University

“One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe. It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.”

Robin forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222

“I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them!

Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more!

I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time.

What an ingenious phrase is your, “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”!

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I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences.

I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task.

That is to give students an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to.

I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a package that I personally have found most thought-­‐provoking.”

Prof. John A. Wheeler, Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton University

“An interesting and original book, easy to read, interesting and fascinating.”

Novo Cimento Science Magazine

"Interesting to read, integrating much of scientific material."

Deutsche Literatur-­‐zeitung

“A comprehensive explication of a large area of science which the reader may study in many subjects.” Contemporary Philosophy "Your book “was / is an inspiration in my life” European reader, 2011/ Facebook

"This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read."

Outstanding Books List

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On The Einstienian Heritage Painting by Evelyn Katz, 1987, by Permission

It is only in the quantum theory that Newton’s differential method becomes inadequate, and indeed strict causality fails us.

But the last word has not yet been said.

May the spirit of Newton’s method give the power to restore unison between physical reality and the profoundest characteristics of Newton’s teaching-­‐strict causality. Albert Einstein

Imagination is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world. Albert Einstein

Perfection of means and confusion of goals, seem – in my opinion – to characterize our age.

Albert Einstein

Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds. Albert Einstein

On Einstein’s Personal Philosophy

Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Germany and died on April 19 1955 in the United States. His unprecedented contributions to physics in particular and to science, philosophy, defense [atomic bomb] and politics against Nazi Germany and support of Israel are detailed in Ref. 1, especially in “The World As I See It”.

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On Einstein’s Deep, Scientifically-­‐Based, Religiosity

“It is the fundamental emotion which stands at the cradle of true art and true science. It was the experience of mystery -­‐-­‐ even if mixed with fear -­‐-­‐ that engendered religion.

A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which are only accessible to our reason in their most elementary forms -­‐-­‐ it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute the truly religious attitude;

in this sense, and in this alone, I am a deeply religious man.”

“I cannot conceive of a God who rewards and punishes his creatures, or has a will of the type of which we are conscious in ourselves. An individual who should survive his physical death is also beyond my comprehension, nor do I wish it otherwise; such notions are for the fears or absurd egoism of feeble souls.”

“Enough for me the mystery of the eternity of life, and the inkling of the marvelous structure of reality, together with the single-­‐hearted endeavor to comprehend a portion, be it never so tiny, of the reason that manifests itself in nature.”

“I gang my own gait and have never belonged to my country, my home, my friends, or even my immediate family, with my whole heart; in the face of all these ties I have never lost an obstinate sense of detachment, which increases with age.”.

“One is sharply conscious, yet without regret, of the limits to the possibility of mutual understanding and sympathy with one's fellow-­‐creatures. Such a person no doubt loses something in the way of geniality and light-­‐heartedness; on the other hand, he is largely independent of the opinions, habits, and judgments of his fellows.”

For the following notes one may consult Schilpp, Clark, Golden, Pais.

In lieu of the aforementioned personal-­‐life philosophy, Einstein consistently selected to protect his privacy inside his room, in his house, working in maximized-­‐freedom, undisturbed solitude; even sleeping naked in his room while his privacy has been strictly guarded by his devoted secretary

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Helen Dukas, who also screened his incoming mail, deleted nasty or anti-­‐Semitic letters and politely blocking unwanted visitors. Einstein is also known for his subtle sarcasm.

Before Einstein left Hitler’s Germany to the United States, a professor in Berlin was extremely nasty in targeting him. One day Einstein was informed that Professor XXX just died. Einstein’s reaction:

“Everyone does something good in his life, even Professor XXX; he died.”

As a younger man he used to play his beloved violin in the homes of some German women. One day, while he was playing there, they started knitting.

Einstein stopped playing, packed his violin to leave, and apologized:

“I would not even dream to disturb you from your knitting work.”

On another occasion, as a celebrity living in his house near a lake outside Berlin, his wife urged him to change his simple, but comfortable home dress, to a formal one, for dignitaries are to arrive soon to visit him. His response:

If they come to visit me, let them meet me as I am dressed and work in my house.

If they come to see my formal dress, please show them my closet.

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Scientists Fool Scientists? Nobel laureate Feynman

"The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you are the easiest person to fool.

So you have to be very careful about that.

After you’ve not fooled yourself, it’s easy not to fool other scientists. You just have to be honest in a conventional way.”

You should not fool the layman when you’re talking as a scientist."

I am not trying to tell you what to do about cheating on your wife, or fooling your girlfriend, or something like that, when you’re not trying to be a scientist, but just trying to be an ordinary human being. … I’m talking about a specific, extra type of integrity that is not lying, but bending over backwards to show how you are maybe wrong, that you ought to have when acting as a scientist.

And this is our responsibility as scientists, certainly to other scientists, and to the laymen.

S

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Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy

Gravitism. Painting by Monica C. Fernandez, 2012

Volume I

SIR KARL POPPER, Foreword ……………….……………..…… xx SIR ALAN COTTRELL, Foreword ………………….………........ xxi Preface ……………………………………..….……….…..…….......... xxii

Introduction

1.1 The Revival of Relativistic Cosmology vs. Modified Concepts in Physics and Philosophy

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1.1.1 The problem of ordering ………………………...…… 3

Preliminary Definitions of Gravitism in CCCC Fig. 1: Preliminary Definitions of Gravitism (I)

Terminology & Locations

Cold SPACE-­‐

2 wraps all

galaxies and includes all galactic winds.

SPACE-­‐3 wraps all stars and planets and includes all stellar winds.

As depicted, stellar winds energies are enhanced by stellar shocks and by-pass the stars, including our solar system, and "flow" to the much colder SPACE-2. Eventually these are irreversibly dissipated in the coldest (270 degrees C below zero), expanding, cosmological composed of almost empty

SPACE-1,

which is

VOIDS located between all super-clusters of galaxies

multi-verified in the NASA records provided next below. All images are taken from the author's publications [1-5] or from Wikipedia.

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Fig. 2: Preliminary Definitions of Gravitism in CCCC (II) (i) the marked “ly” is the distance light travels in almost empty SPACES 1, 2 and 3 during one year: 300,000 km/sec times 3600 sec/hr times 24 hrs/day times 365 days/year. (ii) the 100 million light years scale marked is to comprehend the size of our Expanding Universe.

Figure 2:

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How Intergalactic Jet-­‐Winds (yellow) enter into all Voids and cause each to expand?

Cluster I

Space-­‐2

Space-3 wraps stars & galaxies

Cluster II

SPACE-­‐1

Space-­‐2

Fig. 3: Preliminary Definitions of Gravitism in CCCC (III). The observed and studies during recent years VOIDS-­‐SPACE-­‐1-­‐EXPANSION vs. Non-­‐Expanding Gravitational Bodies, [1-­‐5] is summarized by this diagram and the analysis present next.

PHYSICS-­‐I: Momentum Conservation vs. the DARK ENERGY HOAX. The marked "3rd Cosmological ARROW OF TIME" are energetic stellar and galactic winds, including cosmic rays, which pour into all expanding cold VOIDS and forever dissipate and irreversibly stay there because of the Voids-­‐Expansion, which they cause to accelerate under the following facts:.

They uniformly pour-­‐in from all directions.

Next, by simple momentum conservation the surrounded "outer-­‐walls" (Fig. 4) composted of non-­‐ expanding, gravity-­‐bounded "filaments" of super-­‐clusters-­‐of galaxies, are jet-­‐reaction-­‐forced-­‐out and expand in the same way in all detected voids, which are interconnected as SPACE-­‐1.

PHYSICS-­‐II: Why the marked VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 function as the ULTIMATE and LARGEST DARK-­‐ COLD "THERMODYNAMIC SINK" in the entire visible universe, [1-­‐5].

PHYSICS-­‐III: SIDE EFFECTS: The multi-­‐verified expansion of all VOIDS in interconnected SPACE-­‐1 causes far way side effects in all non-­‐expanding galaxies and active stars around each.

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Can these "side effects" lead to life?

The huge expanding voids act as the largest cosmological sink of radiations removed away from stars surfaces. This removal allows all stars to be active to evolve and generate new chemical elements in their cores. (details provided below).

The most massive stars, Due to higher gravitational pressures, and thus high core temperatures, the most massive stars faster consume their "Fuel" (See below) than in less massive stars like our sun.

Once out of "fuel", gravitationally collapse ends their lives, some undergoing a gigantic explosion termed supernova.

The dust, debris and gas spread by this explosion into SPACE-­‐3 may end up forming planets in orbit around stars like our sun and gradually, again by gravitational "natural selection" (see below) form atmospheres and generate other geophysical processes that lead to life, (see below).

RECAP 1. The 1998-­‐discovered accelerated expansion of the universe, namely, on top of the 100-­‐years verification of the 1915-­‐Einstein's-­‐prediction/1929-­‐Hubble-­‐Confirmation of left-­‐over inertia expansion of the entire universe since its beginning, known also as "Big-­‐Bang", or "Bereshit", but should be called EINSTEIN-­‐HUBBLE BIG-­‐BANG. 2. The well-­‐verified acceleration of the entire cosmological expansion had been physically impossible prior to the formation of the observed "filaments-­‐walls" around each expanding void (Figs. 2 and 4).

3. These "filaments" are composed of gravity-­‐bounded super-­‐clusters of galaxies, each containing billions of active, evolving stars. (Fig. 5).

4. Preliminary THERMODYNAMIC CONCLUSION: The expanding cold VOIDS constitute (a) the root-­‐ cause of irreversibility in the world, the origin of time asymmetries and of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, [1-­‐5].

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THERMODYNAMICS: The VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 observed and verified expansion is (i) the root-­‐cause of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, (ii) human perceptions and scientific concepts of time, (iii) unified world order, (iv) all gravitational structures-­‐matter, (v) the origin of life. HOW?

Fig. 4: Zooming-into one dark-cold expanding void can illustrate super-fast energized galactic winds-jets mixed with stellar ones, as they non-stop enter each and all voids from all directions, thereby causing, under momentum conservation, propulsion reaction that "force away" ("causing simultaneous expansion of each and all voids"), whereby all surrounding "filaments-Walls" composed of gigantic super-clustering galaxies around each and all observed voids, recede away from each other in what is called the 1998 discovery of the expanding and accelerating universe.

Cf. Figs 2 and 3.

A Simple Thought-­‐Experiment within Gravitism The observed 2.7K coldest voids are zoomed-­‐in for a thought experiment published by the New Astrophysical School of Thermodynamics, [1-­‐5].

Imagine a room made of flexible walls, floors and ceiling into which high-­‐speed, stellar-­‐winds as jets-­‐of-­‐radiation pour in from all directions, non-­‐stop.

By propulsion force ("thrust of rockets and fighter aircraft by jet-­‐engine") in the opposite direction, these "jets" expand the volume of the room in analogy to the detected increased volume of Voids/SPACE-­‐1, causing the flexible walls, floors and ceiling to recede away.

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1.1.2 How did it all start? ……………………………………………..… 5

1.1.3 The first seven stages ………………………………………..... 7 1.1.4 The present matter-­‐dominated Era……………………….… 11

2.1 The Einsteinian Methodology: A Preliminary Remark ….... 11

2.2 The Withdrawal of Philosophy From Physics (and of Physics From Philosophy) ……………………………...…………….. 13

2.3 The Greatest Ambition of Physics …………………..….......... 16

2.3.1 Unification of initial-­‐boundary conditions first?

Unification of fields second? ………………..…............................... 16 2.3.2 Should unification begin with differential equations? …………………..………………............. 17 2.4 The Great Physico-­‐Philosophical Gains from the Discovery of the Cosmic Background Radiation ………... 19 2.5 The Expanding Universe ………………………….…............. ... 22 2.6 The 1977 “Aether Drift” Discovery ……………..……….......... 23 2.7 Verification of Physical Laws by Astronomy and Astrophysics …………………………………….……….…………………….... 24 3.1 Some Tentative Assertions …...…………………..…......…..... 26

3.2 The Skeptic’s Outlook .…………………...………....….…………... 69

PART I Preliminary Concepts

Lecture I

From Terrestrial Gravitational Structures to Black Holes & Neutrinos in Astrophysics

1.1 Gravitation, Asymmetry and Structure ……………….…………….... 80 A fallacy associated with current theories ……………............. 80 1.1.2 Gravity-­‐induced sedimentary structures …………... 81 1.2 Stars and the Hertzsprung-­‐Russel Central Diagram ………. . 88 1.3 Supernova, Gravitational Collapse,

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Neutron Stars, Pulsars ……………………………………………………..… 92 1.4 X-­‐Ray Astronomy, Binary X-­‐Ray Systems, and Gravitational Clocks ………………………………………………..... 100 1.5 Black Holes …………………………………………….…………………………….… 106 1.6 Gas, Dust and the Formation of Stars in Our Galaxy .……………. 113 1.7 How Are Cosmic Distances Measured? …………………… …………… 116 1.8 Neutrino Astronomy and Astrophysics ……………………………… . 130 1.9 The Emergence of Gamma-­‐Ray Astronomy ………………………….. 132 1.10 Exploration of Extra-­‐Solar Space by Unmanned Spacecraft …. 134

Lecture II

From Classical to pre-­‐Particle Physics

2.1 Aim and Scope ……………………………………………………………. 138

2.2 Limitations of Theories ………………………………….……………. 140

2.3 The General Macroscopic Equation …………………….….........142 2.4 Continuity Equation (Total Mass Conservation) …………....146 2.5 Conservation of Linear Momentum and Gravity.………….. 147 2.6 The Navier-­‐Stokes Equations and Gravity ………………….. 149 Kinetic-­‐Energy Equation and Dissipation Function in Gravitational Fields ……………… 152

2.7 First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy Conservation Equation ……………………………………………... 154 2.8 First Law and Enthalpy …………………………...…………………. 156 2.10 First Law In Terms of Temperature Field 2.11 Entropy Balance Equation ……………………………………….…. 159 2.12 Beyond Classical Physics …………………………………......... 160 2.13 Neutrinos and the Powerful Role Conservation Equations Play in Subatomic Processes (Addendum) … 163

Lecture III

From General Relativity & Relativistic Cosmology to Gauge Theories

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………....... ………. 167 3.1.1 Einstein’s field equations in general relativity ……….…... 169

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3.1.2 Confirmation of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation ………… 172 3.2 Principles and Formulations of General Relativity and.

Relativistic Cosmology ………………...……….……………… 191 3.3 Observations, The “Age” of the Universe And “Equivalent Local Cells” …………………….……….….... 200 3.4 Timekeeping, Accelerated Observers and the Principle of Equivalence ………………………….…………… 204 3.5 From General Relativity to Unified Field Theories 205

PART II

From Physics to Philosophical Crossroads and Back

Lecture IV

The Arrows of Time

4.1 Time and The Arrow of Time: 4.2 The Most Distorted of All Ideas? ………………………………..…. 215

4.3 Asymmetry-­‐Symmetry-­‐Space-­‐Time and The Unification of the Laws of Physics …………………… 216

4.3 Methodology, Aim and Scope ………………………..……... 217 4.4 Confusing Concepts of Time and Time Asymmetries 219 4.5 The Entropic Arrow of Time ………………………………………………. 222 4.6 Causality, Causation and Time Asymmetries ………………………. 226 4.7 Causation and Determinism in Relativistic Theories ……………………………………………………….. 227 4.8 Cosmological Arrows of Time and Cosmic Time ……….…… 230 4.9 A Few Remarks ……………………………………...………………………. 232 4.10 Time-­‐Reversal Invariance and Irreversibility ……..… 236 4.11 Microscopic Time Asymmetries in “Elementary Particles” ………………………….…..…… 240

The Death of Scale-­‐Based Physics……………….……….............. 242

The “Dual” Quantum-­‐Geometrodynamical School and “Superspace” …………………………………..……..……. 243 Fading Memory in Classical Physics ………………………........... 247 Doubts as to the Universality of Entropy ……………….…......... 249

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Entropy-­‐Free Thermodynamics & Arrows of Time ........... 250

Lecture V

The Crisis in Quantum Physics

5.1 Preliminary Review …………………………………….……………….. 255 5.2 The effect of gravitation and the outside world on quantum physics:

5.2.1 The three main schools of thought …………………… 261 5.3 Einstein’s Objections to the Uncertainty Principle ………..... 262 5.4 The Heresy of a Few Skeptics ………………………….………….... 265 5.5 Mythologized Concepts of Quantum Physics .….………..... 265 5.6 5.7 The Failure of Classical and Quantal Statistical Mechanics to Deduce Irreversibility and Time Asymmetries ………………………………………………..... 267

5.8 The Emergence of Quantum Chromodynamics and Super-­‐Symmetry …………………………………........ 272 5.6.1 Spatio-­‐Temporal Approach to Quantum Physics 272 5.6.2 From Weinberg-­‐Salam Theory to Quantum Chromodynamics ……………………….................. 273 5.6.2.1 Conservation laws as symmetry principles; and vice versa …………………………………………………………...... 273 5.6.2.2 Global, exact, approximate, isotopic and SU(3) symmetries ……………………...………..... 274 5.6.2.3 From SU(3) to renormalizable gauge theories ……………………………………..................................... 276 5.6.2.4 Quark confinement asymptotic freedom in gauge theories …………………………............................. 276-­‐1 5.6.2.5 QCD and the search for higher symmetry principles ………………………………..……………………………..... 276-­‐1 5.6.3 From Quantum Field Theories to Super-­‐Symmetry & Super-­‐Gravity ……………………………………........................ 276-­‐3 5.6.3.1 On the limits of quantum gravity and ‘Unified Field Theories’ ……………………......………………... 276-­‐4

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PART III

From Physics to Cosmological Crossroads and Back

Lecture VI

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy

6.1 Reduction of Thermodynamics to Gravitation ……. 277

6.1.1 Methodology ……………………………………………….......… 277 Dialectical Gravitism: Definition of the first problems …………………………………………………………………………... 278

6.1.3 Gravitation as super-­‐asymmetry ………………… 279 6.2 The Earliest and Most Universal Asymmetry:

Observational Evidence …………………..………................... 279

6.2.1 Which space expands and which does not? …...…………………………… 282 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.3 Gravitation-­‐Asymmetry Principle of Equivalence …………………. 284 6.2.4 6.4 Can Inter-­‐cluster Space Be Saturated With Radiation? …… 287 6.5 Derivation of the Master Asymmetry from Gravitation Theories ………………………...… ………………………. 290

6.6 Irreversibility in the New Gravitational Cosmological Thermodynamics ………………...…………………………. 293

6.7 Origin of Dissipation in Newtonian Fluids ……..…… ………… 297 6.8 Terrestrial Thermodynamics ……………………..……………………… 299 6.9 Connections with Classical and Continuum Thermodynamics …………………………………..…………………….......... 301

6.10 Electromagnetic Irreversibility and the Master Asymmetry …………………….....….......................... 303

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Lecture VII

Cosmological Origin of Time

7.1 Time: The All-­‐Embracing Concept ………………………..………... 309 7.2 Cosmological Origin of Time ………………………....................... 310 7.3 Cosmological Interpretations of Newton’s Laws of Motion …………………………………..…........................... 314

7.4 Gravitational Origin of Structure and Evolution .……. 316

7.5 Gravitation and the Outflow of Energy Into Un-­‐Saturable Space ……………………………………………………….. 322

7.6 Stellar Evolution …………………………………………... 324 7.7

7.8 Terrestrial Evolution ………………………………......... 325 7.9

7.10 Some Open Questions ……………………………..…… 326 Microscopic T-­‐Violation and the Master Asymmetry: A possible Connection? ……… 327

Lecture VIII

Black Holes Vs. Unification of Asymmetries

8.1 Introduction ……………………………………………… 330 8.2 Observational Evidence ………………………….… 331 8.3 Schwarzschild Solution and Black Holes …………. 332 8.4 Black Holes Mechanics and Entropy ……………… 340 8.5 Can Black Holes “Evaporate”? ……………………. 341 8.6 Primordial Black Holes? ………………………….... 341 8.7 Back to the Melting Pot of Unification? …………....341

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PART IV

Beyond Present Knowledge

Lecture IX

Gravitism vs. Havaism 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

The Futile Quest for Final Answers ………………….. 349 An Example in Havayism ……………………..…....…….. 350 From Cosmology to Irreversible Structures and Memory ……………………………………..….… 365

The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………..…………… 415

VOLUME II 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

Introduction ……………………………………………................... 420

A Few Historical Remarks on Time, Mind and Symmetry 437

The Philosophy of Time & Change:

Some Historical Notions …………………….…………………... 455

Structuralism and the Divided American Thought: A Short Glossary of Terms ………………………………..……… 467

Policy and Publicity: A Critique ………………………………….. 483

Thought-­‐Provoking and Thought-­‐Depressing Quotations … 495

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17 Critique of Western Methodology ……………………………….. 530

VOLUME III

Lecture X

What is misleading in probabilstic String Theories?

Einsteinian Philosophy Extended in Gravitism

Current experimental techniques in science cannot provide any reliable verification or confirmation of any claim of structures at 10-­‐19 meter scale of experimentation, which is more than 15 orders of magnitude below any verification of string theories, or of any theory.

Thus, any theory claimed to be based on space dynamics or structures at 10 or 15 orders of magnitudes below the capability of any scientific verification is not scientific and not even rising to the scientific level of being wrong.

Moreover, all string theories have failed to converge into a single acceptable formulation, and no string theory version has made any prediction that differs from those made by other verified the standard model of quantum physics.

NEVERTHELESS, whatever the future holds for string theories, they have become an active branch of popular physics, that, in part, had originated from Einstein’s search

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for a unified field theory of gravity and quantum physics. Yet, as demonstrated below, their proponents on may have already caused the death of theoretical physics for the next generations.

The first to add a fifth spatial dimension to Einstein's general relativity were Theodor Kaluza (in 1919) and Oskar Klein (in 1926). These attempts attracted Einstein’s attention in his attempts to develop a unified field theory. But Einstein died prior to being successful in this domain.

The current proponents of string theories claim, inter alia, that on very small sub-­‐atomic scales, all fundamental field-­‐forces consist of vibrating strings or membranes of energy. See below.

The spectrum, or zoo, of subatomic particles3.2 then emerges (mathematically) as small vibrating strings that by altering their mode of vibration transform, say, an electron into a neutrino, a quark, or other particles, while causing space-­‐time to curve around these entities so as to give rise to Einsteinian relativistic gravity.

Despite three decades of intensive attempts to provide experimental proof of string theories, as conducted by armies of physicists, there is not a single, direct verification test that the theory is correct. And none is expected.

While the various equations of string theories have survived mathematical challenges, each solution represents an entire set of unverifiable predictions; a mysticism of scientists, which, when combined with the fundamental issue of a priori smuggling into these theories what is to be proved, makes them what they are. Einstein’s anti-­‐probabilistic views remain un-­‐falsified. Similarly, the much acclaimed “Theory of Everything” is misleading.

Some of the string theories proponents claim that prior to Genesis a pre-­‐Genesis world contraction had turned into a black hole that, at the moment of Genesis, had created many WHITE HOLES, namely, our observable universe is just one of them – indeed a mystic science but a beautiful mathematical music to the brain-­‐mind.

Hidden variables are postulated in string theories as extra [beyond 3 space and one time dimensions] 6, 7 or higher spatial dimensions. Postulated by David Bohm, these ideas are now driving string theories.

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These, inter alia, by-­‐pass the embarrassing point-­‐like feathers of ‘particles’ in quantum theories Such variables also allow theorists to get closer to Einstein’s dream of a deterministic world outlook of general relativity3.3 that is unified with quantum physics.

Investigating how a string theory may include fermions led to the concept of supersymmetry a mathematical collection of ideas relating bosons and fermions (every particle has superpartner that is not observable. Superpartners are called squarks, selectrons and gluinos.

M-­‐Theory is one group of string theories that postulates ‘Landscapes-­‐Inside-­‐landscapes’ in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions so as to harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes. The theoretical limit of the M-­‐theory infers that protons, electrons, neutrons and their antimatter counterparts, may be converted to photons and then converted to other particles, i.e., to particles such as protons that may be changed to other particles, such as electrons. It is not yet a fully understood theory.

D-­‐Branes are membranes of different spatial dimensionality. The membranes are postulated to be gravitational sources, so that one may end-­‐up with a modified gravitational theory within the framework of string and quantum theories. They may emit and absorb closed strings and are postulated to emit gravitons and also to emit charge since they emit closed strings, which are gauge bosons.

Pre-­‐supposed tiny entities are postulated to contract to minimize their potential energy. But conservation of energy prevents them from disappearing. Instead they are postulated to oscillate-­‐ vibrate. By pre-­‐assuming the reality of vibrating strings, one may deduce different vibrational modes that are further postulated to represent different sub-­‐atomic particles. Such postulated strings may split and combine, which may resemble particles emitting and absorbing other particles, as in quantum interactions between sub-­‐atomic particles.

Quantum strings are also postulated to harbor tension, like regular strings of a violin; a tension that is related to their size and shape. A closed loop string, left to move without external forces, will contract into a smaller loop. But it is further postulated that it would not shrink to a zero-­‐sized point.

Open strings have two distinct end-­‐points, while closed strings are joined to make a complete loop. The two types may allow speculations about two different spectra of ‘elementary-­‐particle’.

For example, one of the closed string modes is the graviton, and in the open string mode it is a photon3.1

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‘Landscapes-­‐Inside-­‐landscapes’, (worlds-­‐inside-­‐worlds) in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions are postulated in string theories to harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes. Such theories are also being postulated to be the theoretical limit of the M-­‐theory.

Symmetry-­‐Asymmetry: All laws of physics, except those of thermodynamics, are space and

time symmetric, namely, there is no distinction between any direction in space and in time.

However, the 2nd law of thermodynamics, in its fundamental form, states that in using the time coordinate one can only proceed from past to future and never in reverse. Accordingly, some theorists claim, in contradiction with thermodynamics, that if the universe is eternal into the future, it must be eternal into the past. Hence, they claim, prior to creation [the “big-­‐bang”] there was a symmetrical world contraction into an all-­‐containing black hole.

As the density “had” increased during that pre-­‐creation contraction, gigantic black holes had been formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they all switched to expnasion, the interior of one of them has become “our universe”.

These Claims Encounter Endless Debates

Yet, their proponents still hope that some upcoming observations by, say, the Planck Sattelite and the ground-­‐based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, may reveal slight variations in gravitational radiation that might be detected by their effect on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation; perhaps conferring some supportive evidence.

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Do Dark-­‐Energy Proponents Fool Themselves, Other Scientists, Media Editors and the laymen?

Historical events associated with the current, UNVERIFIABLE DARK-­‐ENEGY HOAX

No proof was ever established that these historical "Hail-­‐Cannons" do anything but raise loud noise, fool media editors, the public, donors and government to fund otherwise needed moneys for better education, health programs, the army, and helping the poor and elders.

Claims made today by about 400 theorists at Fermilab, Universities of Chicago, Pennsylvania, Ohio State, UCL & Argonne National Lab, DOE, NSF, IEEC, IFAE, OzDEZ, NOAD, NCSA, SLAC, CTIO, LMU in Germany, UK Consortium, universities in London, and supported by SCIENCE-­‐AAAS, are voided by

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(a) applying simple momentum conservation which unequivocally proves that "dark energy" is nothing but Chimera,

(b) resorting to Chimerian base & immeasurable "dark energy", to claim that Einstein Gravity Physics is wrong,

(c) maintaining (a) & (b) results in the greatest mistake in Science, generated by theorists and supported by SCIENCE-­‐AAAS.

Early dark energy proponents may have attracted attention by throwing up alleged "Dark-­‐Hail", which instead of falling back by gravity, is speeding up to the sky, whereby they may also

(i) fool themselves, fellow scientists, media editors, the public, donors & international governments, to raise astronomical funds for space craft & instrumentation aimed to measure the immeasurable "dark hail",

(ii) exploit the 1998-­‐discovery that the universe is NOT slowing down its expansion by gravity, but, by "dark hail", is accelerating,

(iii) help sell computer-­‐simulations as "tests" of claimed Chimera properties that dictate to "correct" Einstein Gravity Physics.

Is ESOTERICISM engulfing some sectors of Media-­‐Academia activities?

In ESOTERICISM, for instance, AGARTHA is a great city claimed to be located inside an earth's hole.

Probably invented by the European A. Saint-­‐Yves D'Alveydre, who had claimed his writing are "reliable" and mean that all wisdom and wealth "will be accessible for all mankind, when Christianity lives up to the Hebrew 10 commandments "drafted by Moses and God" and absolutely, applicable "When the Anarchy which exists in our world is replaced by the SYNARCHY". Some other followers claim that Agartha is located in the high Tibet-­‐Himalayas, with pictorial "evidence".

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Lecture XI, Volume III

Is Theoretical Physics Dying?

This Core Curriculum Cultural Course – CCCC -­‐ presents step-­‐by-­‐step multi-­‐verified facts and reasons why

(a) all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices,

(b) that failure to acknowledge this is self-­‐delusion,

(c) that failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism, to ethics-­‐less academic culture where scientists often fool themselves, other scientists, the media and the laymen and where theoretical physics in particular is dying.

(d) that the multi-­‐verified facts provided by the 1998 discovery that our world expansion and cooling is forever being accelerated.

(e) that according to Einsteinian-­‐inspired Gravitism life destiny may not be a cold death, but a hot one. NO ESCAPE.

Based on Einstein-­‐Feynman-­‐Popper methodologies and theories and confirmed by recent observations provided by astronomy, biophysics, geophysics and archeology, Gravitism provides:

(i) The main tenets of the NY-­‐Academy-­‐of-­‐Sciences-­‐Gold-­‐Awarded New Astrophysical School of Science and philosophy,

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(ii) Reviews of unverifiable string theories, dark-­‐energy postulations and endless claims that Einsteinian Gravity Physics (General Relativity) should be changed to fit their unverifiable claims on multi-­‐universes or of a popular hoax, essentially quantum-­‐based-­‐model: "Theories of Everything".

The aim and scope of Gravitism are positive and constructive

These include (i) a fresh new outlook, (ii) a new philosophy, (iii) a modified educational methodology based on:

(A) Multi-­‐verified expansion of the Cosmos as first predicted by Einsteinian Gravity Physics since 1915 vs. the current debates summarized by Gravitism, which inter alia claims that science starts with astronomy and not by a probabilistic, size-­‐ arrested, standard quantum model, that it starts with deterministic curved space time, not by a priori erecting virtual wrong fire-­‐walls and conceptual fences by stealthy "Precise Definitions" that introduce mistakes outside their limited model domains.

(B) Updating our "Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy" worldwide acclaimed book with well-­‐confirmed observations on the coldest world sink of galactic and stellar radiation-­‐winds (270 degrees C below zero in SPACE-­‐1) caused and controlled by multi-­‐verified expanding-­‐cooling VOIDS located between all super-­‐ clusters of galaxies. (Figs. 1 to 5).

(C) With gravity, the expanding-­‐VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 identified below, control all stellar evolution that generates new particles and atoms, which, eventually, build the chemical elements that lead to (a) Amino-­‐acids, RNA and DNA on this gravity-­‐ structured planet, (b) Gravity-­‐Natural-­‐Selection of the bio-­‐atmosphere, bio-­‐ structures, gravity-­‐induced skeletons, gravity-­‐based written symbols, languages, gravity-­‐induced, organized religions based physical and virtual structures-­‐events,

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perception of time-­‐asymmetries, curved-­‐space-­‐time, high-­‐rise building, village and city structures, transportation systems, geo-­‐technologies, arts and sciences.

Carefully assessed pro and cones reasons of most fundamental and traditional concepts also lead to our revolution in education via this CCC, which had been prepared and is presented for (i) the young, aged 9 and above, (ii) the self-­‐ educating adults, and (iii) scientists who often fool themselves, other scientists, media editors and the laymen as stated above, or associated with:

(1) Quantum-­‐based "String Theories" that start with unverifiable definitions, (2) "Dark energy" claims advocated by armies of fooling themselves proponents, (3) Claims that Einsteinian Gravity Physics ought to be replaced with theirs, (4) Claims that mathematics is invented by mortals, not discovered, (5) Claims that the 1998 verified accelerated expansion of the universe affirms their unverifiable "dark energy" hoax, (6) Speculations about from the origin of the first amino acids, RNA, DNA, (7) Did DNA originate from the ashes of a dead-­‐mother – a supernova?

When? Where?

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Lecture XII, Volume III

Should science start by Einsteinian deterministic curved space-­‐time or by a probabilistic, size-­‐arrested, standard quantum model or by associated string, dark-­‐energy or "Theories-­‐of-­‐Everything"?

Neither a fundamental or embedded "beginning" of the universe, nor time asymmetries and the origin of irreversibility in nature is found at the fundamental basis of the probabilistic standard quantum model, unless an a priori contraband is smuggled in without a due declaration to fit the verified observations of Einsteinian Gravity Physics in various addendum attempts to improve the standing and reliability of armies of theoretical physicists.

PRECISE DEFINITIONS erect external VIRTUAL FENCES, or a sort of a FIRE-­‐WALL that CAUSE MISTAKES OUTSIDE THE AXIOMS DOMAINS v

defined and force their proponents to add corrections or addendums that fit with what facts they wish to smuggle into their activity domain without declaring the contraband.

Einsteinian General Relativistic Universe does NOT erect external virtual fences or any sort of "fire-­‐walls" outside its domain, because there is no "outside" to its domain, for it does not expand into any other extant space that may be a priori rejected by wrong precise definitions or axioms or the various postulates of the standard quantum model or associated theories that preserve it in their fundamental base.

Thus it a priori does not cause the associated definition mistakes.

Wherefore via Gravitism, science start with it, as elaborated, step-­‐by-­‐step by this multi-­‐ verified CCCC.

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v These issues are too important to be left only to physicists, for they involve philosophy, philosophy of science, philosophy of physics, general and universal education on all levels, perhaps even starting from age 9.

Recent discoveries in astronomy, astrophysics and astrobiology have generated a revolution in our understanding of science, physics and the philosophy of physics without parallels in the whole history of education. These discoveries require reassessment of all traditional definitions:

v

v

v

Precise definitions, especially in fundamental, probabilistic quantum-­‐ associated activities in theoretical physics, often without stating it, deny Einstein's Gravity Physics (General Relativity), which (i) defines and had predicted since 1915 the multi-­‐verified expanding universe, (ii) is based on deterministic, curved space-­‐time fields, to start with, (iii) unlike the quantum standard model, is neither scale-­‐arrested, nor a model.

Wherefore, science does NOT start with the Standard Quantum Model.

Wherefore, science starts by multi-­‐verified Fact: The deterministic, Einsteinian, Gravity-­‐Based universe DOES EXPAND, the most central fact in science and our understanding of the world. However, this central fact IS NOT incorporated in the probabilistic quantum-­‐associated activities in theoretical physics.

The multi-­‐verified world expansion is NOT fundamentally predicted by the standard Quantum Model unless it is smuggled into its equations .in various String See below the Lecture on String Theories and "Theory-­‐Of-­‐Everything" vs. our Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy book at XX to XX.

v

WORLD EXPANSION MEANS (i) TIME ASYMMETRY, (ii) THE ORIGIN OF IRREVERSIBILITY IN NATURE, (iii) The very base THERMODYNAMICS in

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PHYSICS, (iv) The most basic tenets of philosophy, and in particular, the philosophy of science, the philosophy of physics.

v

SINCE CONFIRMED BY HUBBLE, the world expansion also means that there was a "beginning" at "zero time", a "Genesis" of "all", a "Big-­‐Bang" explosion whose expansion by inertia has been going on for about 17.8 billion years.

v

Are these facts incorporated in the Standard Quantum Model?

v

Neither a fundamental or embedded "beginning" of the universe, nor time asymmetries and the origin of irreversibility in nature is found at the fundamental basis of the probabilistic standard quantum model, unless an a priori contraband is smuggled in without a due declaration to fit the verified observations of Einsteinian Gravity Physics in various addendum attempts to improve the standing and reliability of armies of theoretical physicists.

World beginning may also dictate CREATOR of all laws of physics and the expansion.

ADDENDUM-­‐I on Mathematics

Mathematics was introduced to the cosmos integrated with the laws of physics at zero time and has since been existing universally, gradually being discovered and used by human brains-­‐minds, probably not invented by them.

v This Approach opens two gates: (A) Mathematics is an integral part of both theoretical and observational-­‐experimental physics, (B) Mathematics had been created and introduced the universe with the laws of physics by the CREATOR. (C) If they are only discovered, do they indicate a creator? We later return to this issue. First we return to PART-­‐A-­‐observations under the rules of Gravitism and the new Astrophysical School of Science and Philosophy.

v EXPANDING VOIDS, detected between super-­‐clusters-­‐of galaxies rule our universe.

v The expanding voids are largest "sinks" of all galactic/stellar radiations.

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"Galactic/stellar radiation" include stellar and galactic winds first defined by Figs. 1-­‐4.

These include Cosmic Rays that are being studied observationally and theoretically in astrophysics and astronomy.

The energy density identified inside the coldest (270 degrees C below zero) of the expanding VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 vary around 1 eV. (Fig. 3).

The energy density of staller and galactic winds is enhanced by billions of shockwaves around each of the billion stars in each galaxy to reach at least 1016 eV.

Factual background includes that of an observer at the center of each void, who observes such high-­‐energy jets pouring non-­‐stop into his neighborhood from all directions, then clash with all the other near him, thus irreversibly dissipating there forever due to the simple fact that "His Void" expands and thus can sustain no saturability limit. (Fig. 3).

v Thus, without these cold, expanding voids, thermal equilibrium rules a no-­‐processes world.

v Science thus starts with radiation thermodynamics of the verified, expanding, cold voids.

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LECTURE XIII, VOLUME III

On Preliminary Issues Raised by Gravitism Is Riemannian mathematics discovered, or created?

Riemannian symmetric spaces are important in both mathematics and physics. Were they created or discovered?

Riemannian Geometry plays the central role in Einstein's Gravity Physics, EGP, (General Relativity).

In a complete, simply connected Riemannian manifold symmetric space is valid when its curvature tensor is invariant under parallel transport.

Lorentzian symmetric spaces become important in Einstein's physics and cosmology, i.e. as (i) Minkovsky Space and (ii) De Sitter Space. Geodesic symmetries may next be defined as affine diffeomorphisms in Riemannian and pseudo-­‐ Riemannian situations.

De Sitter universe is one of various cosmological solutions to EFE (Einstein's Field equations) a flat, spatially un-­‐curved universe containing low space-­‐densities of matter.

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Back to the Expanding-­‐Cooling Voids in SPACE-­‐1

The Hubble Space Telescope has, since 2016, confirmed the 1998 discovery. The mechanism thus involves two simultaneous processes: PROCESS A: Regions of space populated with denser galaxies increasingly attract matter into them by the force of gravity, which, in turn, further empties the less dense regions that includes large expanding voids between all super-­‐clusters of galaxies. with ever larger voids in between.

PROCESS B: The large expanding voids between all super-­‐clusters of galaxies are acting as the greatest sinks of all radiation emerging from all active galaxies and stars [1-­‐5].

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Fig. 5: Our SPACE-­‐2 "Neighborhood” is home to thousands of galaxies. Note the zoom-­‐in scale 10 million light years. Even at this scale our entire solar system is less than a visible dot somewhere in the marked “Local Group”. Our home cluster is marked in Astronomy Virgo.

Fig. 6: Even when one further zooms-­‐in to a scale of 1 Million Light Years shown, our Solar System is still less than a visible dot.

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The Andromeda galaxy is marked in yellow.

It is 2,200,000 light-­‐years away and is almost similar to our galaxy.

It is also characterized by a spiral structure.

We see it today as it was when the earliest hominids left East Africa to arrive at the "promised land".

Both galaxies are the largest in our Local Group, which is about 10,000,000 light-­‐years in its largest spatial ‘diameter’.

Our "Local Group" includes M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87, M89 and M31

(Andromeda).

Andromeda’s system consists of Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32, M110, NGC 147, NGC195, AND I-­‐V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd largest galaxy in ‘our’ local group, also includes the Pisces Dwarf as a satellite.

‘Our’ satellite galaxies consist of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Darco Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Canis Major Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, Carina Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Tucana Dwarf, Leo I, Leo II, Leo A, Sag DEG, etc.

“Fog” visible inside this galaxy is composed of billions of stars like our sun.

Our Solar System extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, comets, rocks and dust in ‘our’ community.

It is located inside non-­‐expanding Space 2 that wraps our entire galaxy and is spatially interconnected with expanding VOIDS/Space 1.

Gravitational structures of clusters and superclusters of galaxies vary considerably -­‐-­‐

from that of Virgo, Leo, Ursa, Coma and Hercules to long ‘filaments’.

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Lecture XIV, VOLUME III The Key Tools of Astronomy Red Shifts Help Prove that the Voids in SPACE-­‐1 Expand Red Shifts in astronomy serve as key tools in making scientific discoveries. These are based on wavelength change of photons propagating through the expanding VOIDS in SPACE-­‐1.

There is, however, a distinction between various red shifts.

The color spectrum on the right illustrates a redshift – light waves marked as horizontal black lines are "shifted up” (white arrows) in the direction of the red region. It is caused when objects exhibit a simple local Doppler-­‐Effect redshift (Image above) or a space expansion.

Rather than resulting from relative velocities vis-­‐à-­‐vis earth, the photons undergoing increase in wavelength because of the expansion of a medium through which they are traveling.

Hubble Cosmic Expansion Law: Uo = Hor where “r” is distance from earth to “CLUSTER I” (Fig. 3), which represents super-­‐clusters of galaxies, Ho the Hubble Constant and Uo the recession velocity calculated, namely, the recession velocity of super-­‐clusters as they move-­‐away from an observer on earth, and/or from each other.

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According to Einstein's General Relativity (GRAVITY PHYSICS):

(1) Special relativity effects are locally valid in small regions of space-­‐time that are approximately ‘flat’, i.e., are under low gravity values, like on Earth.

(2) The universe is not expanding "into" anything outside itself.

(3) Galaxies move and rotate individually in SPACE-­‐2, but do not expand.

(4) ONLY VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 Expand.

The overall expansion of the entire universe since the Big Bang had started about 13.8 billion years ago. It is largely due to left over inertia from the initial Big-­‐Bang "explosion".

Hubble’s astronomical observations prove that the clusters of galaxies are moving away from each other. Hence, the universe had a beginning at the very start of the expansion.

E. HUBBLE

VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 expansion is independently confirmed-­‐ verified by the cosmic microwave blackbody

radiation.

A few simultaneous motions are involved: (i) Earth rotates and travels around the sun, (ii) the sun travels around the galactic center, (iii) our galaxy rotates about 250 km/hr at our Orion Arm. These motions should not be confused with the recession speed of clusters and super-­‐ clusters of galaxies away from each other. [R(t) in the main diagram]. This motion is

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also termed ”the Hubble Expansion”. Our galaxy is deviating from this uniform expansion motion by about 600 km/sec.

Einstein’s Lens

Einstein’s General Relativity (EGR, or Gravity Physics is formulated and reviewed in Volume I of our 1981-­‐,1983, 1987 book '"Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy, CPP, Springer Verlag, with key mathematics and the verifying tests involved.

These equations are NOT reproduced in Volume III

Generally speaking EGR is formulated in the same form for all observers – accelerating, linearly moving, rotating, standing on a minor astronomical body, like earth, or on a massive star. For that aim one needs ‘translators’ from one observer coordinate-­‐system to another.

These ‘translators’ are energy-­‐momentum metric tensors that include first and second mathematical derivatives in three space coordinates and in one time coordinate of any local physical properties: mass, energy and momentum.

Changes in the gravitational force are accounted for by changes in the curvature of space-­‐time, on one hand, and by changes in local mass-­‐energy and momentum on the other side of Einstein’s Field Equations, EFE.

EGR includes Einstein’s Special Relativity and conservation equations of mass, energy and momentum.

Gravitational lens were predicted by Einstein in 1936. [Image]. They help reveal early (far-­‐away) gravitating objects.

HOW?

The brown-­‐orange arrows show the magnified source, while the gray-­‐white arrows show the actual path of light from the hidden source.

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Einstein calculated such effect for future astronomy. And today the “lens” become very useful when the gravity of a massive cosmic object curves space-­‐time between the observer and a hidden, far-­‐away galaxy, that by Einstein's Lens can be discovered.

The key point is that this effect magnifies early galaxies and it is important in astronomical efforts to study the "Early Age of the Universe”, which had started about 200,000 to 350,000 years after the “Big Bang”.

“Expansion of the universe” or “expansion of space itself” may be defined as the expansion of the cold-­‐dark voids shown above. This issue has confused many theorists.

Most important is the solid evidence that has been accumulated by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope and by two Voyager Space-­‐Probes (identified in the first image, PART A), as well as by ground-­‐based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, and by others.

In Conclusion: The use of Einstein Lens, new infrared, radio, X-­‐ray and other techniques, has increased the reliability of recorded information about phenomena and processes in the most remote regions of curved space-­‐time.

Evolution of Cosmic Chemistry by Nuclear Fusion

The most important “chemical” processes in the universe are caused by GRAVITY.

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and iron [Fe Gravity causes extremely high pressures in the inner cores of active stars. Inside these hot cores all chemical elements beyond hydrogen, are created by transforming (fusing) hydrogen plasma, [H], into heavier elements like Helium [He], carbon [C], oxygen [O], nitrogen [N], phosphor [P]] inside billions of active stars. But that is only the initiation of the

verified physical processes that lead to life.

A typical sun-­‐Like star is a “factory” for producing new chemical elements like the ones marked on the right,

all the way heavy one, IRON, at its very hottest core.

STELLAR WINDS are Energy-­‐material streams in the sun interior shown above include convection currents from the very hot, thermo-­‐nuclear reacting core, "up" to the colder sun surface, including various types of radiations and particles pouring out into non-­‐expanding, colder SPACE-­‐3 as INTERSTELLAR WINDS (First image, Part A). These are mixed in Space-­‐2 with similar winds to form Intergalactic Winds that eventually dissipate irreversibly in the coldest spaces in the universe: VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1.

In Conclusion: (A) According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics, the bigger the mass of a star, the higher are its core pressures and temperatures and faster are the nuclear fusion processes in its interior, [5].

(B) All active stars (billions detected in each of the detected billion galaxies in the visible universe) generate in their interiors the basic chemical elements beyond hydrogen and helium; (C) All basic elements of life had been generated in the cores of a now dead Mother that had died in a violent explosion termed Supernova.

How do we know that?

On both fusion and fission scientists know much today.

Fusion is the reaction in hydrogen-­‐bomb explosions, while fission is the reaction in atomic reactors and in ‘regular’ atomic weapons.

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When a certain amount of iron is formed in the interiors of any active star, endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic one. (The exothermic reaction generates energy, while the endothermic consumes it.)

All active stars, including our sun, produce energy through such nuclear fusion.

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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-­‐Or. Quotations banned without written permission. CPP Volumes I, II, III

Lecture XV, Volume III

"

Natural Selection” is in fact "Gravity Natural Selection”

All galaxies, stars and supernovas are primary structures in our expanding world are gravity-­‐generated.

Secondary generated gravity structures, include planetary systems around stars, stellar winds, galactic winds, black holes, SPACES 1, 2, 3.

Third generated gravity structures include gravity-­‐induced

atmospheres, biological evolution, geo-­‐structures, time systems, village, city and transportation systems, up-­‐down/gravity-­‐oriented symbols, written languages, lines, books, mind perception of time-­‐space, sky-­‐earth, high-­‐rise buildings, high priests, tall minarets and church towers, "High" cultural elite vs. "Low social circles", archeology and history main events.

2nd generated gravity Structures include Supernova explosions which throw into SPACE-­‐3 Hot debris, Dust, Gas.

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Floating in Space-­‐3, post the explosion, the debris, dust and gas where located near the path of our sun. Captured into orbit around it, gravity next further dictated the evolution of life. Gravity compressed some debris to form the observed spherical planets in the Solar system. Life followed as detailed below.

Is a dead star-­‐supernova our mother?

Why supernovas Explode?

The sole sin of such innocent stars is being too fat and big, thereby converting their huge mass -­‐-­‐ initially only hydrogen and helium -­‐-­‐ by the well-­‐known fusion to heavier chemical elements -­‐-­‐ oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphor, etc. -­‐-­‐ more quickly than do smaller stars, like our sun.

SAMPLE PAGES of this DRAFT stop HERE

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