Is Theoretical Physics Dying?

Is Theoretical Physics Dying?

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy

Includes EARTH-­‐SPACE DICTIONARY

The New Gravitism Revolution

The New Astrophysical School of Science-­‐Philosophy Awarded the Gold Medal from the NY Academy of Science

by Prof.-­‐Dr. Benjamin Gal-­‐Or

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Is T

P

HEORETICAL

HYSICs

Dying?

Scientists Fooling Themselves? Nobel Laureate Feynman “The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you are the easiest person to fool. So you have to be very careful about that. After you’ve not fooled yourself, it’s easy not to fool other scientists. You just have to be honest in a conventional way.”

“You should not fool the layman when you’re talking as a scientist.

I am not trying to tell you what to do about cheating on your wife, or fooling your girlfriend, or something like that, when you’re not trying to be a scientist, but just trying to be an ordinary human being. … I’m talking about a specific, extra type of integrity that is not lying, but bending over backwards to show how you are maybe wrong, that you ought to have when acting as a scientist.

And this is our responsibility as scientists, certainly to other scientists, and to the laymen.

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WORLDWIDE ACCLAIMS on (i)) "Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy", CPP, 537 pages, 2 Volumes, Hard Cover

(ii) "New Astrophysical School of Science-­‐Philosophy" Gold award by the NY ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(iii) The New Gravitism Revolution

"Gal-­‐Or launches a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject.”

N.Y. Academy of Sciences

"This book has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-­‐Orians”.

Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power."

Chinese Academy of Sciences

"A Master Piece. The well-­‐known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of present-­‐ day scientific theories."

Indian Journal of Physics

"This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening."

Sir Karl Popper, One of the greatest philosophers of modern science

"I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-­‐Or’s book."

HaAretz Newspaper

"We are all Gal-­‐Orians ! "

Editor, Foundations of Physics

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"The works of scientists like Gal-­‐Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-­‐Winner) Prigogine provide important resources. Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-­‐Or is superior)."

The Crisis of the Sciences

"Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds.

Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science.

Sir Karl Popper, in a Foreword, correctly describes it “a great book”.

New Scientist Magazine

"Gal-­‐Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-­‐away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.”

Order Amidst Chaos, Enlightenment Aesthetics

"Einstein's time-­‐symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-­‐Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena!

Gal-­‐Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-­‐chemical and biological evolution -­‐-­‐ that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics -­‐-­‐ that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology.

He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself.

Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-­‐cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.”

Advancement of Physics

“Gal-­‐Or's remarkable book sees and seizes the world whole. He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-­‐delusion.

Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.

His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government.

One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry.

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His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.

The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales.

The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion.

He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries.

The expansion provides, among other things, an unsaturable sink for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life.

He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries.

Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events.

The value of this book lies in the challenging combination of ideas which Gal-­‐Or presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review.

[This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-­‐Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students.”

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, "Nature, Philosophy of"

"Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work!‫ ״‬

A. Cottrell, V. Chancellor, Cambridge University

“One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe. It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.”

Robin forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222

“I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them!

Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to

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be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more!

I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time.

What an ingenious phrase is your, “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”!

I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences.

I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task.

That is to give students an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to.

I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a package that I personally have found most thought-­‐provoking.”

Prof. John A. Wheeler, Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton University

“An interesting and original book, easy to read, interesting and fascinating.”

Novo Cimento Science Magazine

"Interesting to read, integrating much of scientific material."

Deutsche Literatur-­‐zeitung

“A comprehensive explication of a large area of science which the reader may study in many subjects.”

Contemporary Philosophy "Your book “was / is an inspiration in my life”

European reader, 2011/ Facebook "This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read."

Outstanding Books List

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Preface

Is Theoretical Physics Dying?

This book presents Step-­‐by-­‐Step multi-­‐verified facts and reasons why theoretical physics is dying.

Based on Einstein-­‐Feynman-­‐Popper methodologies and theories and confirmed by observations provided by astronomy, astrophysics, biophysics and archeology, the new Gravitism Revolution presents (i) The NY-­‐Academy-­‐of-­‐Sciences-­‐Gold-­‐Awarded New Astrophysical School of Science and philosophy, (ii) reviews of unverifiable string theories, dark-­‐energy postulations, theories and endless claims that Einsteinian Gravity Physics (General Relativity) should be changed to fit their unverifiable claims on multi-­‐universes or the hoax, quantum-­‐based, "Theories of Everything".

But the aim and scope of Gravitism are positive: Present a fresh new outlook based on:

(i) Multi-­‐verified expansion of the Cosmos as first predicted by Einsteinian Gravity Physics since 1915 vs. the current debates summarized by Gravitism, which inter alia claims that science starts with astronomy and not by a probabilistic, size-­‐arrested, standard quantum model, that it starts with deterministic curved space time, not by a priori erecting wrong walls and fences by "Precise Definitions" that introduce mistakes outside their limited model domains.

(ii) Updating our "Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy" worldwide acclaimed book with well-­‐ confirmed observations on the coldest world sink of cosmic radiations (270 degrees C below zero) caused and controlled by Multi-­‐Verified expanding, VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 located between all super-­‐clusters of galaxies.

(iii) With gravity, this expanding, cold-­‐dark VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 identified first by Figures 1 to 4 below, control all stellar evolution that generates new particles and atoms that eventually build the chemical elements that lead to (a) Amino-­‐acids, RNA and DNA on this gravity-­‐structured planet, (b) Gravity-­‐Natural-­‐Selection of atmosphere, skeletons, written languages, organized religions, perception of time-­‐asymmetries, curved-­‐space-­‐time, symbols, words, sentences, pages, arts and sciences.

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These carefully re-­‐assessed Steps of most fundamental and traditional concepts also lead to our revolutionary in education via this CCCC – a new CORE CORRICULUM CULTURAL COURSE.

Our CCCC is presented herein below for (A) the young, (B) self-­‐educating adults, (C) scientists who often fool themselves as stated above, or associated with:

(a) Quantum and string theories that start with a priori wrong definitions and axioms, (b) "Dark energy" claims advocated by armies of proponents, (c) Claims that Einsteinian Gravity Physics need be replaced with theirs, (d) Claims that mathematics is discovered, NOT invented, (e) Claims that the 1998 verified accelerated expansion of the universe affirms "dark energy", (f) Pondering from where came our first amino acids, RNA, DNA? (g) Did our DNA originate from the ashes of a dead-­‐star – a supernova? When? Where?

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Part A Fig. 1: Preliminary Definitions of Gravitism (I)

Terminology & Locations

Cold SPACE-­‐

2 wraps all galaxies

and includes intergalactic winds.

SPACE-­‐3 wraps all stars and planets and includes interstellar winds.

Most interstellar winds by-pass our solar system and flow to colder SPACE-2.

Eventually they are irreversibly dissipated in the coldest (270 degrees C below zero), expanding, cosmological

SPACE-1, which is composed of almost empty VOIDS located between all superclusters of galaxies shown below. All images from are taken from References [1-5] or Wikipedia.

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Fig. 2: Preliminary Definitions of Gravitism (II) NASA marked here the 100 million light years scale of our Expanding Universe

Figure 2:

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How Intergalactic Jet-­‐Winds (yellow) enter into all Voids and cause each to expand?

Cluster I

Space-­‐2

Space-3 wraps stars & galaxies

Cluster II

SPACE-­‐1

Space-­‐2

Fig. 3: Preliminary Definitions of Gravitism (III). The observed coldest VOIDS-­‐SPACE-­‐1-­‐ EXPANSION vs. Non-­‐Expanding Gravitational Bodies, [1-­‐5].

PHYSICS-­‐I: By Momentum Conservation How Intergalactic Jet-­‐Winds -­‐-­‐ marked "3rd Cosmological ARROW OF TIME" -­‐-­‐ pour into all VOIDS and forever dissipate and irreversibly there because of the Voids-­‐expansion. They uniformly pour-­‐in from all directions. By momentum conservation they act on ("push-­‐out") the surrounded "outer-­‐walls" composted of non-­‐expanding, gravity-­‐bounded "filaments" of super-­‐clusters-­‐of galaxies.

PHYSICS-­‐II: Why the marked VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 function as the ULTIMATE and LARGEST DARK-­‐COLD "THERMODYNAMIC SINK" in the entire visible universe, [1-­‐5].

PHYSICS-­‐III: Expansion of each void away from its center is thus caused and causes side effects, that, eventually, lead to (i) stellar evolution, (ii) supernovas, (iii) Planets, and the gravitational processes that lead to life, [1-­‐5].

These results also provide the physics-­‐based explanation for the 1998-­‐discovered accelerated expansion of the universe, namely, on top of the 100-­‐years verification of the 1915-­‐Einstein's-­‐ prediction/1929-­‐Hubble-­‐Confirmation of left-­‐over inertia expansion of the entire universe since its beginning, known also as "Big-­‐Bang", or "Bereshit", but should be called EINSTEIN-­‐HUBBLE BIG-­‐BANG.

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NOTE: The 1998-­‐detected-­‐and-­‐verified acceleration of the entire cosmological expansion had been physically impossible prior to the formation of "filaments-­‐walls" composed of gravity-­‐bounded super-­‐ clusters of galaxies shown in the recorded images of the visible universe, Fig. 2.

THERMODYNAMICS: The VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 observed and verified expansion is (i) the root-­‐cause of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, (ii) human perceptions and scientific concepts of time, (iii) unified world order, (iv) all gravitational structures-­‐matter, (v) the origin of life. HOW?

Fig. 4: Zooming-into a single, dark-cold expanding VOID/SPACE-1 demonstrates its expansion caused by the marked incoming super-fast Galactic and Interstellar WINDS-JETS from all directions. Cf. Figs 1-3.

Thought Experiment

by the

New Astrophysical Scool -I

The observed 2.7K coldest voids are zoomed-­‐in for a thought experiment published by the New Astrophysical School of Thermodynamics, [1-­‐5].

Imagine a room made of flexible walls, floors and ceiling into which high-­‐speed, stellar-­‐winds as jets-­‐of-­‐ radiation pour in from all directions, non-­‐stop.

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By propulsion force ("thrust of rockets and fighter aircraft by jet-­‐engine") in the opposite direction, these "jets" expand the volume of the room in analogy to the detected increased volume of Voids/SPACE-­‐1, causing the flexible walls, floors and ceiling to recede away.

PART B

The First Six Debated Issues by Revolutionary Gravitism

1. Do fence-­‐erecting quantum definitions, axioms and postulates a priori reject the effects of Einsteinian relativistic expanding universe by Precise Definitions?

2. Is mathematics discovered, not invented? Was it introduced at time zero with the entire set of the laws of physics? ALBERT EINSTEIN: "How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought, which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?" Is it consciousness? Nobel Laureate Eugene Wigner [1].

3. Why Symmetric and Asymmetric Mathematics are Independently Conserved as proved by Reference No. 6?

4. Is Theoretical Physics Dying? Is it time for string proponents to close shop?

Is dark energy a hoax or a Chimera? Do they justify claims by armies of physicists that Einstein gravity physics (General Relativity) is wrong and should be replace to fit their claims? Or are their claims cannot even rise to the scientific level of being wrong? Or are they smuggle what they want to prove without declaring the contraband?

5. How to avoid Wrong Theories based on a priori wrong definitions, axioms, postulates?

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6. Does Gravity control all? From galactic, stellar, planetary structures to all terrestrial structures, life and even the structure of all written languages? of our mind perception of the basic tenets of science, art, faith and cultures?

IN GRAVITISM WE CLAIM: PRECISE DEFINITIONS erect external walls that CAUSE MISTAKES OUTSIDE THEMSELVES.

Einsteinian General Relativistic Universe does NOT erect walls outside it for there is no outside to it, for it does not expand into any other extant space that may be a priori rejected by wrong but precise definition or axiom or a postulate of quantum physics . Thus it a priori does not cause the associated definition mistakes of quantum physics.

Consequently proper education from age 9 and up should:

(i) begin with verified observed facts and theories regarding the entire universe, which expands away from its beginning, as detailed in PART A and below,

(ii) be based on well-­‐established factual and theoretical evidence of updated verified cosmology,

(iii) not begin with any definition of "the particles zoo" provided by the established STANDARD QUANTUM MODEL neither with associated derived or induced STRING THEORIES (PART XX) or any as quantum-­‐gravity theories.

v Quantum axioms thus deny Einstein's Gravity Physics, EGP, which defines the universe.

v Rejecting EGP rejects curved-­‐space-­‐time fields, astrophysics, world History, cosmology, etc.

v Wherefore, quantum definitions/axioms a priori reduce their use to "MODELS".

v EGP is based on Einstein Field Equations, EFE, which, with EGP, describe the universe.

v Unlike the quantum standard model, EFE is neither scale-­‐arrested, nor a model.

v Wherefore, science does NOT start with the Standard Quantum Model.

v Wherefore, science does not start with 'particles', but with Fields in curved space.

v

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v Wherefore, science starts with First Fact: OUR UNIVERSE EXPANDS.

v WORLD EXPANSION MEANS TIME ASYMMETRY, THE ORIGIN OF THERMODYNAMICS.

v SINCE CONFIRMED BY HUBBLE, it means that there was a beginning, as the BIBLE says.

There is neither embedded beginning of the universe nor of time asymmetry or of irreversibility in quantum models-­‐theories, unless a priori the contraband is smuggled in without due declaration to fit observations.

v World beginning may also dictate CREATOR of all laws of physics and the expansion.

Mathematics was introduced to the cosmos with the laws of physics at zero time and do exist since universally and only gradually being discovered and used by human brains-­‐minds, but not invented by them.

v This Approach opens two gates: (A) Mathematics is an integral part of both theoretical and observational-­‐experimental physics, (B) Mathematics had been created and introduced the universe with the laws of physics by the CREATOR. (C) If they are only discovered, do they indicate a creator? We later return to this issue. First we return to PART-­‐A-­‐observations under the rules of Gravitism and the new Astrophysical School of Science and Philosophy.

v EXPANDING VOIDS, detected between super-­‐clusters-­‐of galaxies rule our universe.

v The expanding voids are largest "sinks" of all galactic/stellar radiations.

"Galactic/stellar radiation" include stellar and galactic winds first defined by Figs. 1-­‐ 4. These include Cosmic Rays that are being studied observationally and theoretically in astrophysics and astronomy.

The energy density identified inside the coldest (270 degrees C below zero) of the expanding VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 vary around 1 eV. (Fig. 3).

The energy density of staller and galactic winds is enhanced by billions of shockwaves around each of the billion stars in each galaxy to reach at least 1016 eV.

Factual background includes that of an observer at the center of each void, who observes such high-­‐energy jets pouring non-­‐stop into his neighborhood from all

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directions, then clash with all the other near him, thus irreversibly dissipating there forever due to the simple fact that "His Void" expands and thus can sustain no saturability limit. (Fig. 3).

v

v

v

v

v

v

v

v

Thus, without these cold, expanding voids, thermal equilibrium rules a no-­‐processes world.

Science thus starts with radiation thermodynamics of the verified, expanding, cold voids.

Cold-­‐voids-­‐expansion do explain the origin of time-­‐asymmetries/irreversibility.

Wherefore, this expansion also explains the origin of the 2nd LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS, Wherefore, these voids constitute the sole origin of life building-­‐elements by supernova, Fence-­‐free EFE-­‐EGP thus fully controls all physical world history and LIFE ORIGINS. All stars, galaxies, structures, supernova, planets, life, black holes, evolve this way.

Wherefore, Physics without verified astronomy-­‐cosmology and deterministic EGP fails.

Incorporating these conclusions into our CCCC:

1. Education of the next generation, especially at ages 8-­‐14 when it is expected to strongly affect their future life, when their minds are at top receptive qualities, almost free of unverifiable concepts, eager to learn, understand and investigate anything regarding • • • • •

the whole world, the smallest vs. the largest, its past, present and future, the treasures of physics, biophysics, astrophysics, cosmology, philosophy, Biblical genesis vs. Einstein's gravity physics vs. Hubble's discoveries, Life Origin in world history, in string theories, all ruled by mathematics.

Why?

2. Why mathematics? – which is generated inside the brain – an a priori ASSUMED ISOLATED SYSTEM FROM THE REST OF THE UNIVERSE. So how it does describe it, and so accurately? How it controls Einstein's Gravity Physics as well as the STANDARD QUANTUM MODEL? There is no answer. The issue does not die -­‐ speculations rise.

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3. GRAVITISM? the Astrophysical School of Thermodynamics? (Worldwide published comments above). These works only in part deal with these unsolved issues by resorting to cosmological origins of time asymmetries, to astronomy-­‐cosmology-­‐gravity links that affect all systems, including axon-­‐brain-­‐webs, possibly down to the extremely small Planck Scale that cannot be observed.

• • •

• • • • • •

Would these works affirm (i) the root cause of mathematics is inside the brain, (ii) Mathematics exists universally, or cosmologically, and only gradually is being discovered and used by the human brains-­‐minds, not invented by them, (iii) Approach (ii) opens two gates: (A) Mathematics is an integral part of both theoretical and observational-­‐experimental physics, (B) Mathematics had been created with the laws of physics by a CREATOR. Approach (ii) provides some support to why mathematics had accurately predicted, since 1915, the Einstein-­‐Hubble's expanding universe.

It also raises questions regarding the claimed physics how brains-­‐minds discover mathematics that describe the fundamental interactions of nature.

Currently we do not know which approach conforms reality, the physical or the unified mathematical-­‐physical.

It remains a great mystery of all time.

4. Intelligent design may thus, eventually, harbor a future wide acceptance, whereby: v v v

Bible First Lines of Genesis become integrated with verified history of modern science.

Establish verified integration with the Creator of mathematics and verified laws of physics.

Aesthetic OUTLOOOK: Active life today, or at any time, is a beautiful road to beyond the horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.

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PART C

Mathematics was discovered, Not created?

Riemannian symmetric spaces are important in both mathematics and physics. Were they created or discovered?

Riemannian Geometry plays the central role in Einstein's Gravity Physics, EGP, (General Relativity).

In a complete, simply connected Riemannian manifold symmetric space is valid when its curvature tensor is invariant under parallel transport.

Lorentzian symmetric spaces become important in Einstein's physics and cosmology, i.e. as (i) Minkovsky Space and (ii) De Sitter Space. Geodesic symmetries may next be defined as affine diffeomorphisms in Riemannian and pseudo-­‐Riemannian situations.

De Sitter universe is one of various cosmological solutions to EFE (Einstein's Field equations) a flat, spatially un-­‐curved universe containing low space-­‐densities of matter.

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PART D Back to the Expanding Cosmos

The 1998 Discovery that the Expansion of our Universe is being Accelerated

The Hubble Space Telescope has, since 2016, confirmed the 1998 discovery. The mechanism thus involves two simultaneous processes: PROCESS A: Regions of space populated with denser galaxies increasingly attract matter into them by the force of gravity, which, in turn, further empties the less dense regions that includes large expanding voids between all super-­‐clusters of galaxies. with ever larger voids in between.

PROCESS B: The large expanding voids between all super-­‐clusters of galaxies are acting as the

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greatest sinks of all radiation emerging from all active galaxies and stars [1-­‐5].

Fig. 5: Our SPACE-­‐2 "Neighborhood” is home to thousands of galaxies. Note the zoom-­‐in scale 10 million light years. Even at this scale our entire solar system is less than a visible dot somewhere in the marked “Local Group”. Our home cluster is marked in Astronomy Virgo.

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Fig. 6: Even when one further zooms-­‐in to a scale of 1 Million Light Years shown, our Solar System is still less than a visible dot.

The Andromeda galaxy is marked in yellow.

It is 2,200,000 light-­‐years away and is almost similar to our galaxy.

It is also characterized by a spiral structure.

We see it today as it was when the earliest hominids left East Africa to arrive at the "promised land".

Both galaxies are the largest in our Local Group, which is about 10,000,000 light-­‐years in its largest spatial ‘diameter’.

“ly” is the distance light travels in almost empty SPACES 1, 2 and 3 during one year: 300,000 km/sec times 3600 sec/hr, times 24 hrs/day, times 365 days/year.

Our "Local Group" includes M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87, M89 and M31 (Andromeda).

Andromeda’s system consists of Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32, M110, NGC 147, NGC195, AND I-­‐V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd largest galaxy in ‘our’ local group, also includes the Pisces Dwarf as a satellite.

‘Our’ satellite galaxies consist of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Darco Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Canis Major Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, Carina Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Tucana Dwarf, Leo I, Leo II, Leo A, Sag DEG, etc.

“Fog” visible inside this galaxy is composed of billions of stars like our sun.

Our Solar System extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, comets, rocks and dust in ‘our’ community. It is located inside non-­‐expanding Space 2 that wraps our entire galaxy and is spatially interconnected with expanding VOIDS/Space 1.

Gravitational structures of clusters and superclusters of galaxies vary considerably -­‐-­‐ from that of Virgo, Leo, Ursa, Coma and Hercules to

long ‘filaments’.

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PART E

Tools of Astronomy

Red Shifts Prove Voids/SPACE-­‐1 EXPAND Red Shifts in astronomy serve as a key tool to many discoveries, including wavelength change of photons propagating through the VOIDS-SPACE-1.

There is a key distinction between red shifts.

The color spectrum on the right illustrates a redshift – light waves marked as horizontal black lines are shifted “up” (white arrows) in the direction of the red region. It is caused when objects exhibit a simple local Doppler-­‐Effect redshift (Image above) or a space expansion. Rather than resulting from relative velocities vis-­‐à-­‐vis earth, the photons undergoing increase in wavelength because of the expansion of a medium through which they are traveling.

Hubble Cosmic Expansion Law: Uo=Hor where “r” is the distance from earth to “CLUSTER I”, which represents super-­‐clusters of galaxies, Ho the Hubble Constant and Uo the recession velocity calculated, namely, the recession velocity of super-­‐ clusters as they move-­‐away from an observer on earth, and from each other.

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A

ccording to Einstein's General Relativity, which is

G

RAVITY

P

HYSICS

(1) Special relativity effects are locally valid in small regions of space-­‐time that are approximately ‘flat’, i.e., are under low gravity values, like on Earth.

(2) The universe is not expanding "into" anything outside itself.

(3) Galaxies move and rotate individually in SPACE-­‐2, but do not expand.

ONLY VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 Expand The overall expansion of the universe since the Big Bang start of physical time about 13.8 billion years ago is largely due to left over inertia from that initial "explosion".

Hubble’s astronomical observations prove that the clusters of galaxies are moving away from each other. Hence, the universe had a beginning at the very start of the expansion.

E. HUBBLE

VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 expansion is independently confirmed-­‐ verified by the cosmic microwave blackbody

radiation.

A few simultaneous motions are involved: (i) Earth rotates and travels around the sun, (ii) the sun travels around the galactic center, (iii) our galaxy

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rotates about 250 km/hr at our Orio Arm. These motions should not be confused with the recession speed of clusters and super-­‐clusters of galaxies away from each other. [R(t) in the main diagram]. This motion is also termed ”the Hubble Expansion”. Our galaxy is deviating from this uniform expansion motion by about

600 km/sec.

Einstein’s Lens

Einstein’s General Relativity (EGR, or Gravity Physics is formulated and reviewed in Volume I of our 1981-­‐,1983, 1987 book '"Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy, CPP, Springer Verlag, with key mathematics and the verifying tests involved.

These are NOT reproduced herein.

Generally speaking EGR is formulated in the same form for all observers – accelerating, linearly moving, rotating, standing on a minor astronomical body, like earth, or on a massive star. For that aim one needs ‘translators’ from one observer coordinate-­‐system to another.

These ‘translators’ are energy-­‐momentum metric tensors that include first and second mathematical derivatives in three space coordinates and in one time coordinate of any local physical properties: mass, energy and momentum.

Changes in the gravitational force are accounted for by changes in the curvature of space-­‐time, on one hand, and by changes in local mass-­‐energy and momentum on the other side of Einstein’s Field Equations, EFE.

EGR includes Einstein’s Special Relativity and conservation equations of mass, energy and momentum.

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G

ravitational lens were predicted

by Einstein in 1936. [Image]. They help reveal early (far-­‐away) gravitating objects. HOW?

The brown-­‐orange arrows show the magnified source, while the gray-­‐white arrows show the actual path of light from the hidden source.

Einstein calculated such effect for future astronomy. And today the “lens” become very useful when the gravity of a massive cosmic object curves space-­‐time between the observer and a hidden, far-­‐away galaxy, that by Einstein's Lens can be discovered.

The key point is that this effect magnifies early galaxies and it is important in astronomical efforts to study the "Early Age of the Universe”, which had started about 200,000 to 350,000 years after the “Big Bang”.

“Expansion of the universe” or “expansion of space itself” may be defined as the expansion of the cold-­‐dark voids shown above. This issue has confused many theorists.

Most important is the solid evidence that has been accumulated by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope and by two Voyager Space-­‐Probes (identified in the first image, PART A), as well as by ground-­‐based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, and by others.

In Conclusion: The use of Einstein Lens, new infrared, radio, X-­‐ray and other techniques, has increased the reliability of recorded information about phenomena and processes in the most remote regions of curved space-­‐time.

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Evolution of Cosmic Chemistry by Nuclear Fusion

T

he

most

important

“chemical” processes in the universe are caused by GRAVITY.

Gravity causes extremely high pressures in the inner cores of active stars. Inside these hot cores all chemical elements beyond hydrogen, are

created

by

transforming

(fusing) hydrogen plasma, [H], into heavier elements like Helium [He], carbon [C], oxygen [O], nitrogen [N], phosphor [P] and iron [Fe] inside billions of active stars. But that is only the initiation of the verified physical processes that lead to life.

A typical sun-­‐Like star is a “factory” for producing new chemical elements like the ones marked on the right, all the way heavy one, IRON, at its very hottest core.

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INTERSTELLAR WINDS: Energy-­‐material streams in the sun interior shown above include convection currents from the very hot, thermo-­‐nuclear reacting core, "up" to the colder sun surface, including various types of radiations and particles pouring out into non-­‐expanding, colder SPACE-­‐3 as INTERSTELLAR WINDS (First image, Part A).

These are mixed in Space-­‐2 with similar winds to form Intergalactic Winds that eventually dissipate irreversibly in the coldest spaces in the universe: VOIDS/SPACE-­‐ 1.

In Conclusion: (A) According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics, the bigger the mass of a star, the higher are its core pressures and temperatures and faster are the nuclear fusion processes in its interior, [5].

(B) All active stars (billions detected in each of the detected billion galaxies in the visible universe) generate in their interiors the basic chemical elements beyond hydrogen and helium; (C) All basic elements of life had been generated in the cores of a now dead Mother that had died in a violent explosion termed Supernova.

How do we know that?

On both fusion and fission scientists know much today.

Fusion is the reaction in hydrogen-­‐bomb explosions, while fission is the reaction in atomic reactors and in ‘regular’ atomic weapons.

When a certain amount of iron is formed in the interiors of any active star, endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic one. (The exothermic reaction generates energy, while the endothermic consumes it.)

All active stars, including our sun, produce energy through such nuclear fusion.

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S

upernova vs. “

Gravity Selection”

S

upernovas are gravity-­‐caused phenomena that astronomers observe in galaxies

when a massive star ends its life by internal collapse-­‐implosion. The collapse begins when the fusion process that produces energy, ends, [5].

Star explosion throws out into SPACE-­‐3 Hot debris, Dust, Gas

Floating in Space-­‐3, post the explosion, the debris, dust and gas where located near the path of our sun. Captured into orbit around it, gravity next further dictated the evolution of life. Gravity compressed some debris to form the observed spherical planets in the Solar system. Life followed as detailed below.

I

s a dead star-­‐supernova our mother

?

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Why supernovas Explode?

The sole sin of such innocent stars is being too fat and big, thereby converting their huge mass -­‐-­‐ initially only hydrogen and helium -­‐-­‐ by the well-­‐known fusion to heavier chemical elements -­‐-­‐ oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphor, etc. -­‐-­‐ more quickly than do smaller stars, like our sun.

Early Sample pages of this DRAFT stop here

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