Geoffrey Bawa Regionalist architect of 20th century , Illustrated Research Essay

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Geoffrey Bawa Regionalist architect of 20th century

APHORISM

“Critical regionalism is a rearguard position, a holding operation.”

Kenneth Frampton (2001)

Illustrated Research Essay, June 19, 2020

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Contents

Introduction

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1. Critical Regionalism with relation to Vernacular Architecture

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2. Bawa as “Regionalist” Architect of 20th century

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3. Vernacular Romanticism

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4. Defining terms relating to Bawa’s Architecture Style

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5. Bawa’s style of Contextual Modernism

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6. Architecture between culture nature Dualism, Looking into works of Geoffrey Bawa: Critical Analysis of Kandalama Hotel Sri Lanka

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7. Architecture by Geoffrey Bawa : Some of his Famous works Conclusion

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Introduction In the early days of civilization, architecture is only meant to be a shelter of protection which is built with the help of the locally available materials and it differs from time to time and region to region. Andrew leach quoted “history reminds us that things in the present days are not largely different from how it has been in the past , our present day is the same as the world of past which invoked the aphorism by Burckhardt that ‘history is on every occasion the record of what one age finds worthy of note in another’”(1). If we see from the perspective of vernacular architecture style, it is timeless because the basic foundations of vernacular architecture of a specific place remains unchanged though the course of time. It is the type of architecture which is only dependent on culture, surrounding nature and geography.

During late 19th century when modernity in architecture is corrupting the existing heritage and cultural diversity, ‘regionalist architects’ tried to reduce the complexity of modernism. Geoffrey Bawa is one of the ‘regionalist architect’ from Srilanka who gave modernism a new identity by blending modernity with existing vernacular architecture style of Srilanka in a very romantic way which is also known as ‘Tropical Modernism’. The aim of this essay is to re-evaluate Geoffrey Bawa’s style of architecture and how critical regionalism is depended on vernacular architecture, also discussing various theories of romanticism and it’s evidence in works of Geoffrey Bawa, who is known to be the father of Srilankan Architecture.

1. Andrew Leach “Contemporary History and Past History”, What Is Architectural History?

Oxford: Polity Press, 2010: 91-92, (Accessed June 7, 2020). ProQuest EBook Central,

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Critical Regionalism with relation to Vernacular Architecture “The term ‘Critical Regionalism’ is produced by the amalgamation between culture, topography, climate, craft and traditions. Kenneth Frampton mentioned in his essay “Prospects for a Critical Regionalism’, that according to philosopher Paul Ricoeur regionalism is deeply rooted in culture and tradition of the past civilization.”

(2)

“In 1961, Ricoeur quoted in his essay

that process of cross- fertilization and reinterpretation is impure, where foreign influences affect the regional culture recreating the rooted tradition.”

(3)

Similarly, Kenneth Frampton noted the

‘six points for architecture of resistance’, where he mentioned how modernity is infecting the existing social culture. “The basic strategy of critical regionalism is to integrate self consciousness with the elements of past civilization along with some peculiarities of the particular site like climate, topography and geography.”

(4)

Hence, we can say that critical

regionalism has a strong connection with vernacular architecture of a specific site.

Around 500 BC, the first settlers in Srilanka are the Sinhalese people who established Buddhism, along with their very unique traditions. “Western modernity of Portuguese and Dutch invasions dominated the local culture in post colonial period. Regionalist architects tried to reduce the complex modernity along with embracing the simple local culture and materiality.” (5) Geoffrey Bawa is one of the renowned regionalist architects of Srilanka, who recreated the new architectural language for Srilanka, blending past heritage and literature with surrounding nature and modernity. “According to David Robson and Channa Daswatte, Bawa gathered various artists and designers who came together to experiment and discover the contemporary style of architecture based on local Srilankan traditional methods of craft and construction. He also honoured and integrated the Sinhalese traditional architectural style along with modern materiality in a vernacular way depending on the surrounding tropical environment. Thus his style of architecture is known to be both ‘modernist’ and ‘regional’.” (6) 2. Kenneth Frampton, “Prospects for a Critical Regionalism.” Perspecta 20 (January 1, 1983): 147–162.

3. Paul Ricoeur, “Universal Civilization and National Cultures”, History and Truth (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1961): 276, 283.

4. Kenneth Frampton, “Six Points for Architecture of Resistance.” Towards a Critical Regionalism (1981): 16-20 5. John D. Rogers, “Society and Space: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Postcolonial Identity in Sri Lanka.”

The Journal of Asian Studies. Cambridge University Press, (February 1, 1999): 243-244 6. David Robson and Channa Daswatte, “Serendib Serendipity: The Architecture of Geoffrey Bawa” AA Files 35(1998):26-28

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Bawa as “Regionalist” Architect of 20th century Geoffrey Bawa is one of the most prominent regionalist architect around the late 20 th century. The way he transformed South East Asia with his very dominant style of architecture which is the beginning of Tropical Modernism. “Looking into his early life he studied Law and English from St Catharine's College, Cambridge in 1938. He went to London to be a Barrister in 1944. In 1946, the death of his mother is one of the turning points of his life, after which he travelled for two years, from United States to Italy and finally settling in Srilanka.” (7)

Fig: 2 Geoffrey Bawa at his home on 33rd Lane, Photographed by David Robson in 1989 7. David Robson and Channa Daswatte, “Serendib Serendipity: The Architecture of Geoffrey Bawa” AA Files 35(1998):26 8. Channa Daswatte, “ Biography” Geoffrey Bawa Trust , accessed 24 May , 2020 https://geoffreybawa.com/biography Fig 2: 2David Robson, Geoffrey Bawa at his home on 33rd Lane, 1989, c. From David Robson, Geoffrey Bawa: the master architect of Sri Lanka: Photograph (STIR publisher, September 17, 2019), accessed, May 10, 2020 .https://www.stirworld.com/think-opinions-geoffrey-bawa-the-master-architectof-sri-lanka

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“After settling in Srilanka, he bought the abandoned rubber estate to design an Italian garden in between the tropical environment of Srilanka. While designing he realized his lack in technical knowledge of construction and architecture, so he took help of H. H. Reid, practicing architect in Reid and Begg , a Srilankan architectural firm. In 1952, Reid passed away; Bawa’s sole interest in designing and architecture helped him to graduate Diploma in Architecture in 1956 from Architectural Association in London. Finally in 1957, he came back to Sri Lanka at age 38 as an Architect to take over what is left of Reid,” (9) and he started his unique style which became the most influential style in the history of Modern Architecture. “His designs break the barriers between inside and outside, between buildings and landscape, and he characteristically links a complex series of semi –open spaces – rooms, courtyards, loggias, verandahs – amalgamating with the surrounding environment and landscape.” (10)

Fig: 3 Geoffrey Bawa in his studio, 1985, Photographed by David Robson in 1985

9. David Robson and Channa Daswatte “Serendib Serendipity: The Architecture of Geoffrey Bawa” AA Files 35(1998):26 10. Channa Daswatte, “ Biography” Geoffrey Bawa Trust , accessed 24 May , 2020 https://geoffreybawa.com/biography Fig 3: 3David Robson, Geoffrey Bawa in his studio, 1985, c. geoffreybawa.com, accessed May12, 2020, https://geoffreybawa.com/biography

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Vernacular Romanticism Geoffrey Scott indentified four fallacies underlying the architectural theory which are ‘romantic fallacy’, ‘mechanical fall fallacy’, acy’, ‘ethical fallacy’ and ‘biological fallacy’. In his romantic fallacy he quoted “Naturalism in architecture is partly poetic but frankly aesthetic. He also explained how architecture is influenced by its history, its past culture which are long lived and adapted, ultimately forming a part of the nature that surrounds them. The influence of the ‘Sense of Nature’ affects the architecture.”(11) “Romanticism derives its essence from literature which is neither practical nor scientific but poetry.”(11) Bawa’s ’s architectural style looks poetic rather than manmade, which makes it a pure example of Naturalism. He designed spaces with existing art and local materials. The romantic approach of his style of designing with nature is really comfortable to live and aesthetic sthetic with traditional and native forms. Figure 4 illustrates the entrance of the Kandalama Hotel, showing how Bawa integrated nature and the built form. The entrance itself feels as if it is overall a part of the surrounding space which is why he was often of known as a “Romantic Vernacularist”

Fig: 4 Entrance of the Kandalama Hotel, Srilanka, 1994 1994,, Photographed by David Robson 11. Geoffrey Scott, “The Romantic Fallacy” in Architecture of Humanism: A Study in the History of Taste, Taste (Boston and New York, Houghton and Mifflin Company, 1914), 67-81, 39-40 Fig 4: 4David Robson, Entrance of the Kandalama Hotel, Srilanka Srilanka, 1994 c. From David Robson, Geoffrey Bawa: tthe master architect of Sri Lanka: Photograph (STIR STIR publisher, September 17, 2019), accessed, May 10, 2020 .https https://www.stirworld.com/think-opinions-geoffrey-bawa-the the-master-architectof-sri-lanka

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Defining terms relating to Bawa’s Architecture Style Geoffrey Bawa is one of the architects who changed the style of modern architecture. archit Today what we call it as ‘sustainable architecture architecture’,, his style of design is sustainable with integrating indoor and outdoor spaces maximizing natural ventilation and daylighting. Bawa’s architecture style totally relies on surrounding urrounding environment and climate, which can be also termed as ‘vernacular architecture. rchitecture.’ Not only geography, but his style of designing also blends with the traditions and culture of the surrounding environment, creating very beautiful and passionate interior erior and landscape spaces, therefore he is called as “Romantic Vernacularist Vernacularist” (12).

He effortlessly balanced the local essence of culture and nature with modernity successfully defining the term ‘Critical Critical Vernacularism.

Vernacularism.’ Bawa’s integration of natural landscapes scapes within his designs, using local traditional materials for construction and creating a green sustainable environment, which many architects have neglected during that time.

Fig: 5 Veranda of the Ena de Silva house, 1962

Fig: 6 Bawa on site of Silva house, 1960

12. Carl O'Coill, and Kathleen Watt, “The The politics of culture and the problem of tradition: re-evaluating re Regionalist interpretations of the architecture of Geoffrey Bawa Bawa” (2009), 1-2. eprints.lincoln.ac.uk, eprints.lincoln.ac.uk accessed May 14, 2020, http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/1823/1/The_Politics_of_Culture_and_the_Problem_of_Tradition.pdf http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/1823/1/The_Politics_of_Culture_and_the_Problem_of_Tradition.pd Fig 5: 5David Robson, Veranda of the Ena de Silva house, 1962 c. From David Robson, Geoffrey Bawa: tthe master architect of Sri Lanka: Photograph (STIR publisher, September 17, 2019), accessed, May 10, 2020, https https://www.stirworld.com/think-opinions-geoffrey-bawa-the the-master-architectof-sri-lanka Fig 6: 6David Robson, Bawa on site of Silva house house, 1960, c. From David Robson, and Channa Daswatte “Serendib Serendipity: The Architecture of Geoffrey Bawa” AA Files 35: Photograph (1998):26

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Bawa’s style of Contextual Modernism “Andrew Leach mentioned six historiographical approaches to organize the history of modern architecture which are the style and period, geography and culture, biography, type, (13) technique, theme and analogy.”(1 All of these factors effects architecture of a specific place and

time. Similarly Geoffrey Bawa’s ‘style’ of architecture concerns the ttraditional raditional history of the Sinhalese and Dutch colonial rule. “Wolfflin maintains the idea that ‘style’ is a visual revelation of the state of a work, which is a product of time.” (13) Also, if we see in another perspective, vernacular can be a timeless aes aesthetic thetic which remains constant for a specific place. Bawa redefined modernism along with Srilankan traditional vernacular architecture. In figure 7 we can see the old picture of Srilanka, the type and materially of the traditional Sinhalese houses, and in contrasting ontrasting to that in figure 8 we can see how Geoffrey Bawa sustained the traditions of the past along with the touch of modernity.

Fig: 7 Galle roads, Old Srilanka, 1860

Fig: 8 Gallery Cafe, Colombo the Gallery Cafe. 1998

13. Andrew Leach “Organizing the Past”, What Is Architectural History?

Oxford: Polity Press, 2010: 47-48, (Accessed Accessed June 7, 2020 2020). ProQuest EBook Central.

Fig 7: 7Ankie Renique, Galle road road, Old Srilanka, 1860 c. wordpress.com, Accessed 6 June, 2020, https://ankierenique.wordpress.com/2012/07/14/old-ceylon ceylon-in-photos/ Fig 8: 8Sebastian Posingis, Gallery Cafe, Colombo the Gallery Cafe. 1998 c. Photoshelter.com, Accessed 12 June, 2020, https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery--image/The-GalleryCafe/G0000kMj1jcpM98c/I0000obBf0pqOO04/C0000xIEsjdPRv40

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Fig: 9 Villa No 87, Galle Road, Bentota, Sri Lanka 1978,, Geoffrey Bawa

Fig: 10 Courtyard space of Geoffrey Bawa’s House in Lunuganga, 2007

Bawa’s architecture style is the hybrid form of architectural language where old traditions meet new modernism. He always respected nature and environment, thus encouraging passive vernacular materiality ateriality all over. In figure 9 we can see the semi open landscape spaces of Villa 87 at Galle road inn Bentota. Similarly in figure 10 we can see how he created a beautiful courtyard playing with open space and built form all around.

Geoffrey Bawa incorporated orated architectural elements like courtyards, verandahs and series of pavilions in his designs to honour the past traditional culture of Sinhalese architecture. The use of columns reflects the Dutch colonial essence and with the same time he introduced modern m innovations, thus narrating a very interesting story through his designs. Every design used to be his own experiments with different style of architecture therefore never repeating the same twice.

The way he used to design spaces it’s hard for the users to realize what is built and what is natural. According to Andrew Leach biography plays an important role in shaping one’s architectural style therefore, “Bawa’s Bawa’s Sensitivity towards designing with tradition and nature reflect his past family history which was tied to ethnic and cultural diversity.” (14)) 14. Robson, David. “Genius of the Place: The Buildings and Landscapes of Geoffrey Bawa.” in Modernity and Community: Architecture in the Islamic World World, edited by Philippa Baker, 17-48.

48. London: Thames & Hudson, 2001. 19 Fig 9: 9Sebastian Posingis, Villa No 87, Galle Road, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1978 c. Photoshelter.com, Accessed 12 June, 2020, https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery-image/Villa-Nohttps://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery 87/G0000QGfXcBZ.uGU/I0000vP390IxsNP0/C0000xIEsjdPRv40 Fig 10: 10David and Bonnie,, Courtyard space of Geoffrey Bawa’s House in Lunuganga, 2007, 2007 c. Flickr. Accessed 5 June, 2020, https://www.flickr.com/photos/36338186@N05/4616711544/

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Architecture between culture nature Dualism Looking into works of Geoffrey Bawa: Critical Analysis of Kandalama Hotel Sri Lanka

Fig: 11 Drawing, section through the clift, Kandalama Hotel Sri

Lanka

Kandalama Hotel in Sri Lanka is one of the very prominent projects of Geoffrey Bawa.

While critically analyzing his design, I will be arguing on Bawa’s designs having a subtle and romantic relationship between culture and nature, which is an overall productive approach to modern architecture during 20th century. Bawa always thought about humans as a part of nature.

Unlike other architects his designs never differentiated human culture and actions from nature, but actually he integrated the human actions and culture within the natural environment thus creating ating a sense of awareness of a sustainable approach, without degrading the natural ecosystem.

Fig 11: 11David Robson, Drawing, section through the cliff, Kandalama Hotel Sri Lanka, 1991-1994 1991 c. geoffreybawa.com, accessed May 5, 2020, https://geoffreybawa.com/archive

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Fig: 12 Site plan at the main entrance level, level 1991-1994

We can see the view of the entrance lobby and reception area in figure 13, 1 the idea of not demolishing the existing topography and using the natural materiality is another way of sustaining nature, reducing deforestation and other ecological imbalances that are causing present day climate crisis. Bawa’s way of modernity is different and unique from other architects around that time. In figure 14 we can see the beautiful invisible barrier between nature and culture, how both of them are co linked with each other with minimal construction and demolition practice.

Fig: 13 Interior view of supporting columns and natural atural rock formation formation, 2001

Fig: 14 View along corridor dug through rock, 2001

Fig 12: 12David Robson, Site plan at the main entrance level, 1991 1991-1994 c. geoffreybawa.com, accessed May 5, 2020, https://geoffreybawa.com/archive Fig 13: 13Christian Richters, Interior view of supporting columns and natural rock formation, 2001 c. archnet.org, accessed May 5, 2020, https://archnet.org/sites/3041/media_contents/29426 Fig 14: 14Christian Richters, View along corridor dug through rock, 2001 c. archnet.org, accessed May 5, 2020, https://archnet.org/sites/3041/media_contents/29427

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The modern yet very minimal and elegant interiors, (figure 15) with beautiful natural material palette show Bawa’s designs very competitive in the age of modernity. “The physical segregation in-between etween floors, allowing the continuous flow of vegetation, earth and water 14) among the interior built forms” (14 (figure 12, 13, 14).

In figure 16 we can see the ariel view of the project, which seems just an extension of the existing natural mountain clif clift.. The most salient feature of the resort is the blurred visibility.

The guests or visitors are visually connected with the green without actually being physically connected therefore; Kandalama is one of the Bawa designs showing the how beautifully traditional ional architecture can amalgamate with nature maximizing indoor outdoor spatial relationships.

Fig: 15 Interior staircase lobby area, 2005

Fig: 16 Ariel view of Kandalama hotel ,1991

15. Robson, David. “Genius Genius of the Place: The Buildings and Landscapes of Geoffrey Bawa.”

Bawa London: Thames & Hudson, 2001. 32 16. Robson, David G., and Geoffrey Bawa. Geoffrey Bawa : the Complete Works London: Thames & Hudson, 2002, 86 17. Ceridwen Owen. “Architecture Between The Culture Culture-Nature Nature Dualism: A Case Study Of Geoffrey Bawa’s Kandalama Hotel.” Archnet-IJAR IJAR 2, no.1 (March 1, 2008):40–56. https://doaj.org/article/adb12a7208e84ff49a22d33408e55493.

Fig 15: 15Mia Sparrow, Interior staircase lobby area, 2005 c.verbierinteriorphotography.com,accessedMay ,accessedMay3,2020,http://verbierinteriorphotography.com/heritance teriorphotography.com/heritancekand alamah-sri-lanka/ Fig 16: 16David Robson, Ariel view of Kandalama hotel, 1991 c. Robson, David. “Genius of the Place: The Buildings and Landscapes of Geoffrey Bawa.” in Modernity and Community: Architecture in the Islamic World World, edited by Philippa Baker, 17-48.

48. London: Thames & Hudson, 2001. 19

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Architecture by Geoffrey Bawa: Some of his Famous works Here, in figure 17 we can see how Geoffrey Bawa retained the natural elements and made it a part of the interiors , yet perfect design for a tropical urban life.

He blended the

surrounding and built colonnades without actually building the physical walls in all sides, showing evidence of Bawa’s love of Naturalism.

Fig: 17 The Lobby area of the The Polontalawa Bungalow, 1964

Bawa designed a number of government own buildings in his later life,, Steel Corporation building is one of the iconic ones (figure 18, 19). If it is seen from outside, it resembles a perfect traditional tropical building, similarly from inside users can experience poetry of visual naturalism through the series of punctured windows in the walls, with comfortable maximum daylighting and ventilation , thus connecting with nature.

Fig: 18 The colonnaded verandah of Steel Corporation building, 19 1966

Fig: 19 Steel Corporation building, building 1966

Fig 17: 17Sebastian Posingis, The Lobby area of the The Polontalawa Estate Bungalow, 1964 c. Photoshelter.com, Accessed 12 June, 2020 https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery--image/ThePolontalawa-Estate-Bungalow/G0000wkOkbFCDXQ0/I00006fH7UFp4Ptg/C0000xIEsjdPRv40 Bungalow/G0000wkOkbFCDXQ0/I00006fH7UFp4Ptg/C0000xIEsjdPRv40 Fig 18: 18Sebastian Posingis, The colonnaded verandah of Steel Corporation building,, 1966 19 c.Photoshelter.com, Accessed 12 June, 2020, https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery--image/SteelCorporation-Offices-and-Housing/G0000xhPWDyRNVr0/I0000uldq7VoubPU/C0000xIEsjdPRv40 Housing/G0000xhPWDyRNVr0/I0000uldq7VoubPU/C0000xIEsjdPRv40 Fig 19: 19Sebastian Posingis, Steel Corporation building and houses, 1966 c. Photoshelter.com, Accessed 12 June, 2020, https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery--image/SteelCorporation-Offices-and-Housing/G0000xhPWDyRNVr0/I0000bmOZ63TkHHo/C0000xIEsjdPRv40 Housing/G0000xhPWDyRNVr0/I0000bmOZ63TkHHo/C0000xIEsjdPRv40

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Fig: 20 Natural landscapes of Lunuganga, 1984

Fig: 21 Natural landscapes of Lunuganga, 1984

Bawa purchased 10 hectare of land to design Italian gardens in between tropical forest in Srilanka. Lunuganga is one of the examples of his natural landscapes designs (figure 20, 21).

He decided to retain the natural ecosystem, without creating artificial landscapes. Bawa said, most beautiful thing about Lunuganga is “the effect of sunlight filtering through the leaves” (18).

In figure 22, we can see how Bawa designed the interiors simple, elegant

and

sophisticated,

also

creating a natural courtyard oasis in between the four walls. He tried to bring in the ‘Sense of Nature’ within the building, thus increasing the human –nature relationship.

Fig: 22 Semi open courtyards at The Ratnasivaratnam House., 1979 18. Robson, David G., and Geoffrey Bawa. Geoffrey Bawa : the Complete Works London: Thames & Hudson, 2002, 56 Fig 20: 20Sebastian Posingis, Natural landscapes of Lunuganga, 1984 c.

Photoshelter.com, Accessed 12 June, 2020 https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/galleryhttps://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery image/Lunuganga/G00005rOmy_Imkpk/I0000tLW4Z_BfZLI/C0000xIEsjdPRv40 Fig 21: 21Sebastian Posingis, Natural landscapes of Lunuganga, 1984 c.

Photoshelter.com, Accessed ssed 12 June, 2020, https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/galleryhttps://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery image/Lunuganga/G00005rOmy_Imkpk/I0000JtLXc_c3Dfg/C0000xIEsjdPRv40 Fig 22: 22Sebastian Posingis, Semi open courtyards at The Ratnasivaratnam House., 1979 c. Photoshelter.com, Accessed 12 June, 2020, https://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery-image/Thehttps://sebastianposingis.photoshelter.com/gallery Ratnasivaratnam-House/G0000.uRACqG9y8w/I0000vMxzImWWT0I/C0000xIEsjdPRv40 House/G0000.uRACqG9y8w/I0000vMxzImWWT0I/C0000xIEsjdPRv40

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Conclusion Therefore, while acknowledging Bawa’s designs and his theories, we seen his style of architecture illustrates ‘Art with Nature’ which evokes the words from Geoffrey Scott that “There is beauty of art and a beauty of Nature. Construction, when it relaxes the principles of design does not become nature; it becomes more probably slovenly art.” (19) Through critically analyzing his designs, it is determined that Geoffery Bawa never differentiated literature with human beings and nature. He cherished every natural elements starting from ocean breeze to filtering sunlight with contrasting lush greenery and the sound of flowing water, therefore encouraging sustainable architecture long before it became globally known.

Hence, Geoffrey Bawa’s ‘style’ of architecture illustrates critical regionalism which has a strong connection with vernacular architecture. We have also seen how Bawa’s architectural style affected modernism in 20th century. His dualistic mindset of modernity as well as respecting the local culture shaped Srilanka’s new identity during the 20 th century. Andrew Leach quoted that by “late 20th century architectural culture is usually called as architectural theory, during that time architecture is actually shaped by a number of factors like culture, religion, society, technology, utopia, memory, literature, film and so forth” (20). Therefore we can see how architecture of Srilanka is recreated through Bawa’s strong representation of naturalism and romanticism in his designs at the same time respecting the past traditions and cultural diversity. As Bawa once said “Architecture cannot be totally explained but must be experienced”(21).

19. Geoffrey Scott, “The Romantic Fallacy” in Architecture of Humanism: A Study in the History of Taste, (Boston and New York, Houghton and Mifflin Company, 1914), 92-93 20. Andrew Leach “Theme and Analogy”, What Is Architectural History?

Oxford: Polity Press, 2010: 67-70, (Accessed June 7, 2020). ProQuest EBook Central, 21. Geoffrey Bawa , “ Architecture” Geoffrey Bawa Trust , accessed 24 May , 2020 https://geoffreybawa.com/architecture

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