OCTOBER 2021
COURAGEOUS CONVERSATIONS GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT, GLOBAL JUSTICE: LEADING, ENGAGING, AND DOING RESEARCH
THEME 3 / PART 2
Presented by the Purdue Policy Research Institute (PPRI) in partnership with the Susan Bulkeley Butler Center for Leadership Excellence
COURAGEOUS CONVERSATIONS
OCTOBER 2021
ABOUT COURAGEOUS CONVERSATIONS Beginning in 2021, the Purdue Policy Research Institute (PPRI) and the Susan Bulkeley Butler Center for Leadership Excellence (Butler Center) have teamed up to host a two-part series called “Courageous Conversations” to stimulate open dialogue about a wicked problem (Part 1), and then move to discussion of approaches to addressing that wicked problem and consider its policy implications (Part 2). This series is intended as an opportunity for all on campus to engage in discussions on difficult issues, learn, and explore actionable solutions.
ABOUT THE PANEL THEME The third theme in this series focused on global development & global justice. In particular, the focus in Part 1 was on peacebuilding, human rights, and basic human needs. Part 2 of this theme specifically focused on basic human needs such as access to water, food, and housing, and policies by nation-states and global institutions pertaining to these development issues. Additionally, panelists were also asked to consider equity concerns--gender, race, ethnicity, caste, class--which are integral to all these issues and inextricably tied to development. Research and scholarship on these issues from across the world draws attention to the importance of understanding cultural context at the national, regional, state, and local levels. It also takes courage to recognize that one may not be the only or primary expert in these fields, and to explore ways in which collaborative and co-creative efforts can have positive impacts. Perspectives from experts on global development issues related to housing, shelter, water and sanitation, and food thus underscored the importance of having engaged research aimed at working with and cocreating solutions with communities, and having sustainable and intersectoral policies to create more resilient communities.
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ABOUT THE PANELISTS Sanjeevani Singh Director of International Housing Programs and Habitat for Humanity
Mohammad Hilmi Senior coordinator and technical specialist for Shelter, Settlements, and Disaster Risk Reduction, InterAction
Kathleen Kirsch PhD Student in Environmental Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder
Gary Burniske Assistant Director for Program Development, International Programs in Agriculture (IPIA), College of Agriculture, Purdue University
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1 SANJEEVANI SINGH DIRECTOR OF INTERNATIONAL HOUSING PROGRAMS AND HABITAT FOR HUMANITY
Sanjeevani Singh from Habitat for Humanity opened her remarks by reiterating the UN’s International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. She stressed that housing is the right of every person, regardless of their age, their gender, their race or income, and is foundational for human development and well-being. Ms. Singh stressed that ‘adequate’ housing is needed, which includes access to security of tenure; availability of basic services, materials, and facilities; affordability; habitability; cultural adequacy; and accessibility. Adequate housing’s accessibility is also dependent on its location, allowing residents adequate access to livelihoods, employment and other social services. Unfortunately, as Ms. Singh pointed out, currently, over 1.6 billion people live in inadequate housing globally, and this number continues to grow, and especially in the Global South. She alluded to a growing housing crisis, with 1 billion people living in informal settlements, of which 350 to 500 million are children, putting them at higher risk of infectious diseases, and limiting their ability to thrive. The WHO has found that children in slum communities are more vulnerable to infectious diseases such as pneumonia and diarrhea, which are often fatal. These diseases can be avoided with improved housing and sanitation conditions. Across global communities, the housing crisis is compounded by rapid urbanization, the climate crisis, public emergencies and conflict; and children in those environments are even more susceptible to their impacts.
1.6 billion people live in inadequate housing globally
350-500 million residents in inadequate housing are children
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It is estimated that by 2030, 600 million urban poor will directly be impacted or exposed to climate change risks, especially since the urban poor are increasingly pushed to the peripheries of cities, making them at-risk to events like flooding, sea and river erosion, disasters, extreme weather, and also extreme temperatures. Ms. Singh also discussed the growing climate crisis, in which the urban poor will be directly impacted or exposed to climate change risks. UNICEF has also found that children have also been plunged into multidimensional poverty due to the COVID-19 pandemic; they lack access to necessities such as food, clean water, and sanitation, and they also reside in conditions or housing conditions that really challenge their rights, their well-being and their long-term prospects. Increasing conflicts from around the world are also causing more and more children to be displaced; more than half of the 70 million forcibly displaced peoples around the world are children. They are thus living as refugees in informal settlements, slums, or refugee camps. There is also an urban and rural divide; in some urban slum communities, children are worse off than their rural counterparts. Children outside of traditional family units also get excluded from any targeted interventions and childhood programs that may be available through schools or community centers. It is estimated that roughly 100 million children are homeless worldwide, and are not served through any programs.
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Ms. Singh pointed out that human rights (Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Article 25), housing rights (International Covenant on Economic, Social, Cultural Rights), children’s rights (UN Convention on the Rights of a Child), are all interlinked, interdependent and interrelated. Housing is not strongly represented in the UN Convention on the Rights of a Child, especially when considering the foundational nature of a child's right to housing and its impact on other rights, including the right to life, survival, development, privacy, health. Studies show the transformational impact of adequate housing: it helps eliminate child poverty, it helps improve health, it creates enabling educational environments, reduces gender inequalities, increases access to basic services and ultimately is a key contributor towards the Sustainable Development Goals and building a sustainable future for the next generation.
Source: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/news/communications-material/
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4 MOHAMMED HILMI SENIOR COORDINATOR AND TECHNICAL SPECIALIST FOR SHELTER, SETTLEMENTS, AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION, INTERACTION
Tackling just one issue or one SDG is not enough— they are interconnected, and relevant stakeholders with an intersectional approach need to be included. The target community and local stakeholders have to define their problem and their solutions. Community participation is very essential in realizing solutions to issues at a local level. Mohammad Hilmi opened his remarks by focusing on shelter, settlements, and DRR, reiterating the word ‘shelter’, because communities suffering from global housing issues could have access to some form of shelter, which may not be adequate housing, or may be temporary in nature. Thus, global development issues are also global justice issues. Whose justice are we concerned about? Whose vulnerabilities should be paid attention to? Mr. Hilmi expressed concerns that an issue often seen in program design and implementation is that design and execution is done outside of the impacted area; communities are often not consulted for solutions. He stressed the importance of communities to design and cocreate their solutions--how a project or program is created is important. For example, designing a research question far away from the community and then testing it out there is not the right approach.
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In Yemen, the UNHCR set out a plan in response to the 2020 humanitarian crisis, which involved a population of roughly 30.4 million Yemeni people. Out of these, 24.1 million people needed urgent humanitarian aid, but they targeted 21 million people. The need was for 4.2 billion USD in aid, with 254 partners working on providing relief. The war in Yemen is an ongoing conflict , also similarly seen in Myanmar and Venezuela. Research on the impact on shelter and gender has shown, for example, that women who own land in India are eight times less likely to face domestic violence. A randomized control trial was done to derive this data (Agarwal & Panda, 2007). Mr. Hilmi also pointed out that these issues are not just about housing; social cohesion, resiliency, adequate housing, access to health care facilities etc. are all interconnected. For example, in Nigeria, the infant mortality rate was 40% lower for kids who live in adequate housing. Income generation, economic development, and mental health are also important factors. Thus, according to Mr. Hilmi, intersectoral understanding and collaborative research in global development issues is very important. On the other hand, academic work also needs to include local voices and perspectives. Without those voices, research is not wholly actionable or participatory.
AID NEEDS IN YEMEN*
5.1 million nonfood items
2.5 million emergency shelters
2.3 million rental support
1.2 million winterization support
1.1 million transitional shelters
774,000 repairs and rebuild
2.9 million shelter maintenance and upgrade *according to Mohamed Hilmi, Senior coordinator and technical specialist for Shelter, Settlements, and Disaster Risk Reduction, InterAction
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6 KATHLEEN KIRSCH PHD STUDENT IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, BOULDER
Kathleen Kirsch shared the basics of WASH (water and sanitation hygiene) and how it is inextricably linked to many different UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). She shared that globally, 785 million people lack even a basic drinking water service, that is currently 45% of the world’s population—leading to cases of cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, Hepatitis A, typhoid, polio, and exacerbated stunting. With this cross-cutting discussion, Ms. Kirsch suggested we intentionally think through who gets water. Concerns about water access often uncover very gendered issues including menstrual hygiene and sanitation access. This is basic human well-being issue and should consider the economic costs of illness and the impacts to access to education. The issues related to water and sanitation cut across most if not all of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Ms. Kirsch indicated that it is estimated globally, we will be about 20% behind the water goals, and roughly 33% behind in sanitation goals. The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP) uses “service ladders” to benchmark drinking water services across countries. On the JMP drinking water ladder, the top run denotes “safely managed”, which is drinking water from an improved source that is accessible
The issues are not tied just to lack of infrastructure. The issues are tied to governance and equity and access.
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on premises, available whenever needed, and it is free from fecal and priority chemical contamination (e.g. arsenic). An “improved water source” is one that has the potential to deliver safe water. An improved water source could be piped water, boreholes, but not surface water with risk of contamination. Additionally, there is global water inequity: 8 out of the 10 people who lacked even basic services on the water side are living in rural areas; and there is insufficient data to capture the full extent of this issue. The sanitation sector also has a ladder: at the top of the ladder, “safely managed” is defined as the use of improved facilities that are not shared with other households and excreta are safely disposed of in situ or removed and treated off-site. The “improved sanitation facility” definition is broader: these can be pipe sewer systems, septic tanks, but also pit latrines without a slab like a ventilated pit latrine. Sanitation inequities are even worse: two-thirds of the people who lacked access to basic sanitation services are living in rural areas; and almost half of those are in Sub Saharan Africa. Additionally, climate change is exacerbating all of these issues. Ms. Kirsch indicated that bad air quality has tremendous health concerns, but current trends in climate change effects impact water scarcity, water security, and the demand for water, globally.
GLOBAL USAGE OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES
8%
22%
70%
drinking water
industrial
agricultural
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Kirsch also discussed the gaps in practice, knowledge, and research. She discussed how water sector practice is concerned with water supply and water treatment. In the sanitation sector, the focus is on containment, emptying, transport, treatment, and disposal of fecal matter, though, ideally, reuse is practiced. A huge gap, however, is hygiene. Prevention efforts are often unsuccessful, as there can be various vectors of disease: washing hands and food is not enough. If floors and dirt are covered in the same contaminants as farm fields, disease can still occur. Even if all surfaces and hands are sanitized, but water is not treated, communities can still fall sick. Thus, sanitation, which often lags behind these other areas, is really critical to sponsor. Ms. Kirsch also stressed the importance of policy research. Critical infrastructure does not equal access to service, and access service does not equal access to sustained service. Infrastructure, however, typically means hardware; the service side, or software, allows for that infrastructure to have continuity. It is the software, the service side, that allows continuity. The quantity and the quality of service is what is needed for access to drinking water and sanitation to be sustained.
50% of the world will be living in water stressed areas by 2025
2 billion people lack access to basic sanitation such as a latrine or a toilet
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9 GARY BURNISKE ASSISTANT DIRECTOR FOR PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT, INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS IN AGRICULTURE (IPIA), COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, PURDUE UNIVERSITY
Gary Burniske focused his presentation on the equity of food aid as part of a humanitarian response to emergencies, using the case of Colombia in 2011. Mr. Burniske reiterated the urgency of climate change, and that climate related disasters are becoming more frequent. Which means that more and more communities are getting impacted by climate change, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, where community resilience is low. Equity issues around food become even more complex in emergency response situations. In Colombia, for example, over a million hectares of agricultural land was flooded during the 2011 growing season. This disaster disrupted community services, and rural infrastructure was destroyed. Households lost their livelihoods and assets. Many people were displaced while others chose to stay in their communities. However, this meant that those who stayed were without access to food, clean water, and other provisions. In particular, Mestizo, AfroColombian, and Indigenous inhabitants were impacted in many ways; those occupying the more marginal lands were even more heavily affected. Research and data from around the world show that minorities and low-income groups often live on the peripheries of urban areas, and inhabit disaster-prone land which is undesirable for those who can afford to live elsewhere. These areas are also the last priority for infrastructure investment. Thus, vulnerability to disasters and lack of infrastructure significantly reduces the resilience of communities living in these areas.
Humanitarian agencies depend upon locals, so teams, consultation processes, and food distribution practices need to adopt policies on equity, diversity, inclusion.
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ESTIMATED HUMAN IMPACT OF FLOODS IN COLOMBIA APRIL 2011
SEPTEMBER 2011
111
81
people killed
people killed
69,000
289,000
people displaced/homeless
people displaced/homeless
Mr. Burniske indicated that during the 2011 northern Colombia floods, over 2 million people were affected. The government’s disaster preparation and response office was very overwhelmed. UN OCHA played a coordination rule, particularly among local development and humanitarian agencies that were present because of the ongoing civil conflict in the region. Thus, they were already on the ground and operational, but were not focused on disaster response and recovery before the floods. In the aftermath of the disaster, both short-term and long-term food aid was essential for saving lives and livelihoods until the water receded, crops could be replanted, and grazing areas could be recovered. Ms. Burniske described that distribution of aid was unequal among minorities— Afro-Colombians and Indigenous people were left out or the last to receive assistance often weeks later, or not at all. Because the disaster struck at the height of the growing season, it caused severe food security issues. Lack of diversity and representation in the humanitarian aid teams was a huge issue; the local staff that were hired were mainly Mestizos, and connected to just those communities. Afro-Colombian and Indigenous communities were not represented in these teams. Minority children, already food insecure, were negatively impacted as well.
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Mr. Burniske also highlighted the gendered biases in aid distribution. In Colombia, for example, he indicated that Mestizo men dominated the food distribution points. However, distributing food aid to women became problematic due to cultural beliefs and systems. Another point made by Mr. Burniske emphasized that food allocation and distribution is dependent on accurate numbers of households impacted; however, a large region like northern Colombia, lacking accurate data, meant that not all who were affected by the disaster were accounted for in the aid provision, especially access to food. Reliance on incomplete or inaccurate information can be problematic in these situations. Thus, is imperative for aid teams to not only hire locally, but to also hire representationally. If not, as seen in Colombia, aid teams begin to function according to the biases of the people they work with, which can impact food aid recipients in a catastrophic way. During a crisis, there is no time for community engagement—and therefore diverse teams representing the interests of all communities are essential. Left: Floods in the province of Bolivar, Colombia (May 23, 2011) https://unitar.org/unosat/node/44/1563? utm_source=unosat&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaig n=freemaps
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12 INSPIRATIONS FROM COURAGEOUS CONVERSATIONS: POLICY CONSIDERATIONS The following policy considerations are inspired by the collective expertise shared by the panel and event participants. This is not intended to be an exhaustive list, but a summary of ideas discussed and points of deliberative steps forward. Policy Consideration 1: Promote child-centered social protection systems and programs According to the World Bank, “Social protection systems help individuals and families, especially the poor and vulnerable, cope with crises and shocks, find jobs, improve productivity, invest in the health and education of their children, and protect the aging population.” These are powerful tools that can help individuals and communities in achieving health, education, and well-being goals. They are particularly important in alleviating poverty and thus ensuring more equality in access to opportunities. The need for social protection programs increased exponentially during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Oxfam, social protection programs need to be resistant to collapse during a crisis when people need them the most; they need to be put into action swiftly; making sure all no population groups are excluded; provide a coordinated effort, and think more long-term to ensure resilience to future shocks. Children, in particular, are the most vulnerable, and thus there need to be robust and universal child-centered social protection programs (ILO-UNICEF, 2019). A child’s initial years are critical for his or her development, and children in poverty are at-risk for malnutrition, infection, diseases, and other factors than can inhibit their growth (United Nations, 2018a). According to the ILO-UNICEF report, almost two-thirds of children around the world are not covered by any social protection programs, and as of 2019, over 689 million children were living in poverty. Data found that programs like Argentina’s Universal Child Allowance, Mongolia’s Child Money Programme, and South Africa’s Child Support Grant have made considerable difference in their communities (United Nations, 2018b). Social protection programs thus need to target health,
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nutrition, education, and shelter among other aspects, to allow children to thrive and break the cycles of poverty they often find themselves in. UNICEF already has activities to further this agenda; however, the impacts of COVID-19 have made the situation more dire, and therefore nation states need to act more urgently to provide these programs on a permanent and universal basis (The Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2020). Policy actions to consider: Encourage all countries to introduce either conditional or universal social protection programs for children; data from Argentina suggests that conditional cash transfer programs had higher success rates of keeping children in school and healthy (Arévalo, 2018) Make attending school and getting regular health checks be part of the conditions for cash transfers Policy consideration 2: Promote inclusive, resilient, and sustainable upgrading of informal settlements According to the OECD, informal settlements are “areas where groups of housing units have been constructed on land that the occupants have no legal claim to, or occupy illegally” and “unplanned settlements and areas where housing is not in compliance with current planning and building regulations (unauthorized housing).” According to UN-HABITAT, slums lack at least one of the following characteristics: “durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions; sufficient living space which means not more than three people sharing the same room; easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price; access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people; security of tenure that prevents forced eviction.” Definitionally, therefore, informal settlements are often slums, typically lacking features that make them adequate housing: “adequate privacy, adequate
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space, adequate security, adequate, lighting and ventilation, adequate basic infrastructure and adequate location with regard to work and basic facilities-all at a reasonable cost.” .” Informal settlements are also often a large part of the urban fabric in cities in developing countries, forming dense concentrations of informal economies and other economic and industrial activities that provide employment for residents. They also house most of an urban area’s low-income workers. Thus, upgrading these spaces by providing missing infrastructure like piped water, sewer lines, drainage systems, toilets, etc. can improve living conditions, and contribute to reduction in preventable illnesses, injury, disability, and premature death (Satterthwaite & Sverdlik, 2021). These upgrades, however, need to be inclusive, resilient in order for better health outcomes to sustainable in the long-term. Policy actions to consider: Ensure that upgrading is not eviction; during the upgrades, residents should not be pushed out on their own without providing any alternative or temporary housing Upgrades can be phased; starting with basic upgrades like community taps and toilets, and ramping up to piped water and toilets in every home, along with electricity, and paved access roads Encourage informal communities to organize into local community development groups that can help plan and implement upgrade projects with local, state, and federal governments Ensure that upgrades are resilient to external shocks like natural or manmade disasters or public health events like COVID-19 Ensure that upgrades and interventions do not exacerbate climate impacts
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Policy consideration 3: Promote urban inclusion, resilience, and sustainable development In the last few decades, the global community has experienced rapid urbanization, which has in turn caused rising inequities and exclusion, particularly among expanding urban areas. International organizations like the World Bank, the UN, and others have thus been working for years to focus on bridging the gap in these widespread inequities to create more inclusive and just communities. The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), formulated in 2015, were signed on by 193 countries with the goal to have a holistic approach to ending poverty, while promoting sustainability through economy, ecology, and equity. Sustainable development, therefore has been a global goal for several years. Significant advancements have also been made towards achieving these goals; the COVID-19 pandemic, however, worsened some of the existing gaps. Work on SDG 11, which focuses on creating sustainable cities and communities, for example, has shown that the plight of slum dwellers has worsened since 2020. The Urban Land Institute (ULI) has also found that there continues to be a widespread disconnect between important work done on urban resilience, inclusion, and sustainable development among both academics and practitioners, however, not always in sync with each other. Urban development examples from Washington D.C. show how inclusive urban development need to go hand in hand with longterm public policy to create just, livable, and resilient cities. Policy actions to consider: Connect academic research with public policy in a way that is helpful to communities Ensure that in considering urban inclusion, policies and actions gain width, but not at the cost of depth (Short, 2021). Ensure that urban inclusion initiatives stress: spatial inclusion, social inclusion, and economic inclusion to ensure that cycles of poverty and marginalization in global communities can be broken.
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Ensure that urban justice is part of the urban inclusion and urban policy efforts (Fainstein, 2014) Promote an index for urban resilience, learning from the experiences of the 100 Resilient Cities project by the Rockefeller Foundation (Fitzgibbons & Mitchell, 2019) Policy Consideration 4: Promote better data collection, research, and management International development issues in the areas of shelter, water, sanitation, and hygiene are complex and intersectional. The UN has provided access to various kinds of data via resources like UN Data the UN Statistics Division, and UN DESA’s data portal. At the macro level, this is a good start. At the more local and micro level, however, the UN and other international institutions can promote better data collection, research, and management of information at a more granular level. For example, according to Kathleen Kirsch, while data may exist on provision of WASH services, information and research on failing hardware is lacking. Infrastructure, while being one of the most important aspects of daily life, is also one of the most overlooked services at the local level. These services, or their lack thereof, also impact the ability of communities to be resilient, especially in the water and sanitation sectors. Thus, having better geospatial and localized models would be helpful for researchers and practitioners to better understand the problems and design solutions accordingly. Additionally, promoting research and management efforts that also emphasize monitoring, evaluation, and learning within and from communities—and can make a long-term difference in local contexts. Policy actions to consider: Promote intersectional data collection and research that brings together stakeholder communities, academics, and practitioners
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Promote training and participation among local stakeholders and policymakers for data collection, research, and project management Promote inclusion of monitoring, evaluation, and learning within and from communities in development projects Policy Consideration 5: Promote more strategic and inclusive community, public, private, and development sector partnerships In the field of global development, correctly defining quality of life (QOL) plays a significant role in appropriately addressing community needs (Costanza et al., 2007). This involves being sensitive to specific communities and their contexts, and then designing solutions and approaches based on the identified needs that would improve QOL. Approaches to these solutions can often vary widely, involving a variety of stakeholders and partnerships from sectors like community, public, private, and development. Research has also shown that ‘community’ can differ in definition, typically categorized by ‘geography, interaction and identity’ (Bowen et al., 2010). Thus, understanding local community contexts, and how those communities are shaped and formed, is an important consideration in creating partnerships and relief efforts, such as those described by Mr. Burniske in Colombia. Community engagement can also vary, depending on the kinds of stakeholders involved. Engaging with communities thus occurs on a continuum, from transactional, to transitional, to transformative (Bowen et al., 2010). While the first two are relatively passive, transformative engagement requires ‘building trust’, ‘authentic dialogue’, and ‘critical reflectivity’ (Bowen et al., 2010). Research found that community engagement efforts by private sector entities have been rarely transformative (Bowen et al., 2010), even when that is the most beneficial option for a community. Thus, for communities to truly benefit from participation and engagement both in development and relief efforts, creating strategic and inclusive more community, public, private and development sector partnerships will be essential.
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Policy actions to consider: Emphasize the importance of transformational engagement with target communities Ensure inclusivity and representation with considering community partnerships Ensure that any public-private partnerships created have mechanisms for ‘democracy, legitimacy, and accountability’ (Flinders, 2005; Willems & van Dooren, 2011), especially for relief efforts Emphasize effective consensus building when creating multi-stakeholder development efforts (Innes & Booher, 1999) Ensure ‘collaborative participation’, which builds on, and encourages authentic dialogue, a broad array of networks, and institutional capacities (Innes & Booher, 2004)
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19 REFERENCES Agarwal, Bina, and Pradeep Panda. 2007. “Toward Freedom from Domestic Violence: The Neglected Obvious.” Journal of Human Development 8 (3): 359–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880701462171. Arévalo, C. (2018). Universal Child Allowance (AUH): A contribution to the discussion on the role of conditionalities. https://www.unicef.org/argentina/media/4186/file/Universal Child Allowance (AUH).pdf Bowen, F., Newenham-Kahindi, A., & Herremans, I. (2010). When suits meet roots: The antecedents and consequences of community engagement strategy. Journal of Business Ethics, 95(2), 297–318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0360-1 Costanza, R., Fisher, B., Ali, S., Beer, C., Bond, L., Boumans, R., Danigelis, N. L., Dickinson, J., Elliott, C., Farley, J., Gayer, D. E., Glenn, L. M. D., Hudspeth, T., Mahoney, D., McCahill, L., McIntosh, B., Reed, B., Rizvi, S. A. T., Rizzo, D. M., … Snapp, R. (2007). Quality of life: An approach integrating opportunities, human needs, and subjective well-being. Ecological Economics, 61(2–3), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.02.023 Fainstein, S. S. (2014). The just city. International Journal of Urban Sciences, 18(1), 1– 18. https://doi.org/10.1080/12265934.2013.834643 Fitzgibbons, J., & Mitchell, C. (2019). Just urban futures? Exploring equity in “100 Resilient Cities.” World Development, 122, 648–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WORLDDEV.2019.06.021 Flinders, M. (2005). The politics of public-private partnerships. British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 7(2), 215–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467856X.2004.00161.x ILO-UNICEF. (2019). Towards universal social protection for children: Achieving SDG 1.3. https://www.unicef.org/media/49401/file/Towards universal social protection for children.pdf
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Innes, J. E., & Booher, D. E. (1999). Consensus building and complex adaptive systems: A framework for evaluating collaborative planning. Journal of the American Planning Association, 65(4), 412–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944369908976071 Innes, J. E., & Booher, D. E. (2004). Reframing public participation: Strategies for the 21st century. In Planning Theory and Practice (Vol. 5, Issue 4, pp. 419–436). https://doi.org/10.1080/1464935042000293170 Satterthwaite, D., & Sverdlik, A. (2021). The Implications of Informal Settlement Upgrading Programs for Access to Water, Sanitation, and Public Health. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Global Public Health, February, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190632366.013.317 Short, J. R. (2021). Social Inclusion in Cities. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 3, 22. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsc.2021.684572 The Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action. (2020). Social protection and child protection: Working together to protect children from the impact of COVID-19 and beyond. https://bettercarenetwork.org/sites/default/files/202012/social_protection_and_child_protection.pdf United Nations. (2018a). Childhood: when social protection is most crucial. In Promoting Inclusion Through Social Protection: Report on the World Social Situation 2018 (pp. 27–34). United Nations Publication. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wpcontent/uploads/sites/22/2018/07/Chapter-IIChildhood-when-social-protection-is.pdf United Nations. (2018b). Promoting Inclusion Through Social Protection: Report on the World Social Situation 2018. United Nations Publication. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wpcontent/uploads/sites/22/2018/06/rwss2018-full-advanced-copy.pdf Willems, T., & van Dooren, W. (2011). Lost in diffusion? how collaborative arrangements lead to an accountability paradox. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 77(3), 505–530. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852311408648
21 FURTHER READING Pricing Water Resources and Water and Sanitation Services. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2010. Retrieved from https://read.oecdilibrary.org/environment/pricing-water-resources-and-water-and-sanitationservices_9789264083608-en#page73 This report examines data on prices and tariffs for water supply and sanitation services, collected at national and local levels from both households and industries from around the world. The report found that in both OECD and non-OECD countries, issues are arising related to “limited availability of water resources, their deteriorating quality, the impacts of climate change and poor management” as well as “access to adequate, sustainable, and affordable water and sanitation services for all, including poor households.” The report discusses context-specific finance instruments and pricing programs for water-related services, especially in OECD countries where tariffs can vary greatly between local communities and among households. Tariffs, taxes, and transfers (3Ts) for WSS services, water supply, wastewater management, etc are part of the policy debate on water that has moved from calling for ‘full cost recovery (FCR)’ to ‘sustainable cost recovery (SCR). The report also discusses infrastructural implications of tariff collection, and operation and maintenance costs of WSS services and infrastructure. The report also examines the four main policy objectives and their components: Environmental sustainability, financial sustainability, economic efficiency, and social concerns. Lopez, Andrea Carla and Mohamed Hilmi. “Roadmap for Research: A Collaborative Research Framework for Humanitarian Shelter & Settlements Assistance”, InterAction: 2021. Retrieved from https://www.interaction.org/blog/roadmap-for-research/ This report brings together over 75 academics and professionals from around the world, representing a variety of organizations, to reflect on humanitarian-based themes. This volume addresses critical gaps that currently exist in research and pose questions for further research. The report addresses a wide range of subjects: diversity, inclusion, sexuality, environmental and ecological concerns, and hazards research.
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Thaller, Louise, Mohamed Hilmi, and Tulio Mateo. “The Settlements Approach Guidance Note: Where Boundaries and Action Merge”, InterAction: 2020. Retrieved from https://www.interaction.org/blog/the-settlements-approachguidance-note/ This report highlights an important gap in the humanitarian sector, especially around the theme of shelter. The report lays out the ways in which development, relief, and humanitarian agencies can have a more integrated approach to addressing crises of shelter. This approach seeks to work within communities, within existing structural frameworks, and to ensure that agencies providing aid are also benefited through more focused and better planned efforts. Hilmi, Mohamed. “More Than Four Walls And A Roof: The Wider Impacts of Humanitarian Shelter and Settlements Assistance”, InterAction: 2020. Retrieved from https://www.interaction.org/blog/more-than-four-walls-and-a-roof/ This report presents critical analysis of the impact of shelter assistance, by reviewing information and data available from a variety of agencies and organizations providing shelter-based humanitarian aid. The report analyzed a range of themes like physical health, mental health, poverty reduction metrics, food security, nutrition improvements, gender-based concerns, family life improvements, crime reduction, social cohesion, social capital, governance impacts, disaster risk reduction, resilience, and the environment. The report found that shelter-based aid has wide-ranging nonshelter-based outcomes, underscoring the importance of providing shelter to communities in need.
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