IPLOCA Road to Success

Onshore Pipelines

The

Road to Success

IPLOCA September 2009 - 1st Edition

Onshore Pipelines

THE ROAD TO SUCCESS

An IPLOCA document – 1st edition September 2009

VOLUME ONE

© Copyright IPLOCA 2009

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1

IPLOCA OBJECTIVES Objective 1 To promote, foster and develop the science and practice of constructing onshore and offshore pipelines, and associated works.

Objective 2 To make membership of the Association a reasonable assurance of the skill, integrity, performance, and good faith of its Members, and more generally to promote good faith and professional ethics in industry.

Objective 3 To maintain the standards of the contracting business for onshore and offshore pipelines and associated works at the highest professional level.

Objective 4 To promote safety and develop methods for the reduction and elimination of accidents and injuries to contractor’s employees in the industry, and all those engaged in, or affected by, operations and work.

Objective 5 To promote protection of the environment and contribute to social, cultural and environmental development programs, both in Switzerland and worldwide.

Objective 6 To promote good and co-operative relationships amongst membership of the Association as well as between contractors, owners, operators, statutory and other organisations and the general public.

Objective 7 To encourage efficiency amongst the Members, Associate Members and their employees.

Objective 8 To seek correction of injurious, discriminatory or unfair business methods practised by or against the industry contractors as a whole.

Objective 9 To follow the established Codes of Conduct set out by the industry and others with respect to working within a free and competitive market, and in doing so, to promote competition in the interests of a market economy based on liberal principle, both in Switzerland and worldwide.

Objective 10 To maintain and develop good relations with our Sister Associations as well as Associations allied to our industry and play a leading role in the World Federation of Pipeline Industry Associations.

Disclaimer In the preparation of THE ROAD TO SUCCESS, every effort has been made to present current, correct and clearly expressed information. However, the information in the text is intended to offer general information only and has neither been conceived as nor drafted as information upon which any person, whether corporate or physical, is entitled to rely, notably in connection with legally binding commitments. Neither its authors nor the persons mentioned herein nor the companies mentioned herein nor IPLOCA accept any liability whatsoever in relation to the use of this publication in whatsoever manner, including the information contained or otherwise referred to herein, nor for any errors or omissions contained herein. Readers are directed to consult systematically with their professional advisors for advice concerning specific matters before making any decision or undertaking any action.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1

Table of Contents (Volume One) Page

Preface

4

Introduction

6

1. Executive Summary

9

2. Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

13

3. The Baseline of a Construction Contract

21

3.1 Scope of Work/Physical Conditions/Environment / Socioeconomic and Local Constraints

21

3.2 Programme

25

3.3 Cost

29

3.4 Conditions of Contract

30

4. Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks during all Phases of a Project

35

5. Management of the Construction Risks in Pipeline Contracts

55

6. Best Practices in Planning and Construction Techniques

61

6.1 Planning, Design and Control

61

6.1.1 ROW and Constructability Study and Guidelines

61

6.1.2 Minimum data Requirements and Activities for the five Project Stages

61

6.2 Earthworks

81

6.2.1 Typical ROW Cross Section

81

6.2.2 Earthworks Design

93

6.2.3 Environment

98

6.2.4 Health and Safety

6.3 External Pipeline Protection Systems

103 106

6.3.1 Review of Key Mainline External Anti-Corrosion Coatings

108

6.3.2 Field Joint Anti-Corrosion Coating Selection Guide

114

6.3.3 Mechanical Protection Selection Guide

120

7. Future Trends and Innovation

127

7.1 Recommended Functional Specifications for a Near-Real-Time Construction Monitoring Tool

127

7.2 Pipeline Simulation Tool

132

7.3 Facing, Lining-up and Welding Skidless Methodology

135

7.4 Lower and Lay: Features and Functional Specifications of the “Ideal Machine�

146

Appendices: List of Appendices included in Volume Two

152

Bibliography

153

Acknowledgements

156

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Preface

Preface “Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” has been prepared and written under the patronage of IPLOCA, the International Pipeline and Offshore Contractors Association.

IPLOCA is a non profit Association with the key objective to foster and develop the science and practice of constructing onshore and offshore pipelines and associated works.

IPLOCA is also promoting co-operative relationships between Contractors, Oil & Gas Investors & Owners and other stakeholders in the pipeline industry and has established fruitful relations with some of the Major Oil & Gas Companies since its inception in 1966.

This document relates to onshore pipeline projects only.

Joint Development of “THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” In 2003 a joint project started on a concept of industrialising the laying of large diameter pipelines for better, safer and faster installation. The land train concept was studied and a number of working groups were formed to identify the main bottlenecks and fields of potential improvements. The land train concept, which only addressed the pipeline construction aspects, was dropped in favour of a broader perspective that addresses all phases of the onshore pipeline project from early development through design, construction and commissioning. The joint work continued and all parties were very keen to develop the findings identified during the earlier phase; the result is summarised in the present document “Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” (herein after referred to as “THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” or “THE ROAD”).

The list of those companies and persons having participated in this joint effort is included in the Acknowledgements section. It comprises persons coming from Oil & Gas Investors & Owners, Design Companies, Construction Contractors, Suppliers and Specialised Subcontractors. This joint approach aims at producing a document that can be used by all stakeholders in the Pipeline Industry.

To whom this document is addressed “THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” has been prepared to assist all stakeholders who participate in the development and construction of pipeline projects whether on a one-off or a regular basis, and in particular: - Investors/Owners’ Project Managers, Senior Management and Project Engineers - Designers’ Project Managers, Senior Management and Project Engineers - Environmentalists who may be involved in pipeline projects - Construction Contractors and Subcontractors key construction personnel, Senior Management and Project Engineers - Students and Teachers in the Pipeline Industry It is IPLOCA’s sincere wish that THE ROAD TO SUCCESS will become a reference document for use in the training of people coming to the Pipeline Industry.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Preface

Objectives “THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” is prepared towards better identifying the key drivers in a pipeline project from development to commissioning. This knowledge should in turn • • •

Improve the preparation process of pipeline projects for mitigation of risks towards a more certain delivery date and budget Improve the relationship between Investors/Owners and Construction Contractors for the success of the projects Improve the competitiveness of the pipeline industry through sound engineering & construction practices and innovative solutions

“THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” is designed to focus on issues that concern specifically the onshore pipeline industry. General contracting issues are dealt with in existing publications some of which are listed under the section Bibliography.

The intent is to provide the reader with the required basic knowledge to improve the delivery of a project, i.e. cost and schedule, whilst reducing the environmental footprint and achieving the desired safety objectives.

Next Steps This first edition will be followed by revised editions incorporating the improvements proposed by the stakeholders and validated by a joint committee of Oil & Gas Investors & Owners, Design Companies, Construction Contractors, Suppliers and Specialised Subcontractors. Comments from Teachers and other university people will also be welcome. Comments may be sent via email to roadtosuccess@iploca.com.

Our joint working groups have already planned for the development of their input in coordination with associations/institutes such as INGA, PRCI, EPRG.

IPLOCA is proud of having served as a forum for such achievement and is committed to continue developing and promoting this document and our Pipeline Industry

© September 2009 - International Pipeline and Offshore Contractors Association [IPLOCA] – All rights reserved.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Introduction

Introduction Pipelines and IPLOCA A pipeline is a facility through which liquids (crude oil and petroleum products) or gases (natural gas, carbon dioxide, steam), or solids (slurries) are transported. Although other forms of transportation are available (tanker, road, rail), pipelines are the safest and most efficient means of transporting crude oil and natural gas from producing fields to refineries and processing plants, and of distributing petroleum products and natural gas to the consumer.

Pipelines are the irreplaceable core of fluid product transportation across the world. They reach billions of consumers, directly into households and into cars. Pipelines are selected as the main mode of transportation due to economics and safety. Road transportation costs escalate with distance, making road the more costly option. Rail is less dependent on distance, but still costly. Ship tankers are comparable to pipelines in terms of cost, but are limited by geography.

Estimated percentages of volumes transported by each mode of transport are shown below.

Pipelines are not new. It is believed that pipelines were used from around 500 BC in China to transport gas. Since then the design and construction development of pipelines has continued, and in recent years pipeline contractors and investors from around the world have worked together within IPLOCA. IPLOCA was formed to share ideas, engage the industry and its stakeholders to facilitate business opportunities and promote the highest standards in the pipeline industry. With members in more than 40 countries, IPLOCA represents some 250 of the key players in the onshore and offshore pipeline construction industry worldwide.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Introduction

Pipeline Issues and Challenges International Pipeline Projects can be both challenging and rewarding. Challenges arise from the inherent interactions between the land, the pipeline route, the communities which live and work nearby and the further complexities of international languages, cultures, traditions, logistics, regulations, legal systems and business practices. The potential for catastrophe is always lurking close at hand to catch the na誰ve or complacent investor and contractor off guard. However, when these challenges are successfully negotiated, leaving a pipeline system with solid integrity and performance as well as satisfied investors, contractors and communities, projects can be very rewarding, both in financial terms as well as in the esteem accorded to all those involved.

It is not always clear to investors or contractors how to overcome the challenges to reap the rewards.

They begin the project journey together, often entering at different stages along the way, always with every intention of reaping the rewards, but all too frequently without an awareness of the challenges they face. When a challenge is encountered, temptation often overtakes the carefully nurtured relationships and good intentions, leading either the investor or the contractor to expect, even demand, that the other part take some action on behalf of the project to remove a challenge, with little or no effort on their own part to address the very challenge they also face, being integrally involved in the very same project.

Unexpected challenges usually lead to misaligned expectations that damage the project and the intended rewards for both parties.

This dynamic has not been lost on the industry, especially the contracting experts within it. Contracting legal and commercial tools have developed to an ever-increasing sophistication, often attempting to commit one party or the other to bear the full consequences of any challenge the project might encounter, invoking the inevitable defensive reactions. Many explicit contract terms and conditions currently in use have been crafted in response to very specific known challenges. But not all challenges can be predicted in advance so, as new challenges become more widely understood within the industry, more and more terms and conditions are reactively developed to try to assign the challenge to one party or the other.

Unfortunately, the projects which discover emerging challenges first, or are without benefit of prior experience, find themselves contractually ill-equipped to address the issues that arise. Prevailing contracting law and practice frequently falls back on obtuse and implied contractual obligations, leading to extended and often venomous disputes. The relationship and interactions between investor and contractor quickly become almost entirely focused on the dispute, leaving the project vulnerable to further challenges and disputes with the attendant loss of the rewards that enticed both parties to enter the journey to begin with. A downward spiral of failure easily and frequently results. The primary beneficiary is the litigation industry; everyone else loses. Various methods of conflict resolution or nearlitigation have been developed and are sometimes employed, but they all share the fundamental flaw of dealing with conflicts reactively.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Introduction

Key Principles There are three key principles that, if recognized and honoured, can prevent international pipeline projects from such a sad fate: 1. Projects are only successful when they establish, nurture and protect close working relationships between investors and contractors by jointly anticipating conflicts and preparing agreements and commercial terms that enable predictable, effective and amicable resolution.

Unresolved project conflicts during project execution escalate and multiply rapidly as they damage the working relationships between investor and contractor and distract the attention of the project team from other challenges to come.

2. It is far better to proactively avoid and reduce project challenges than to assign their resolution, even amicably, to but one party or the other in a contract. Challenges add effort and cost, both of which inherently reduce the rewards for all the parties involved. The earlier in the project cycle the challenges are recognized and addressed, the more reward is preserved. Early data collection, design and planning during project development are essential in this respect.

3. A contract is nothing more than a document recording an agreement between two or more parties. It is essential to establish the mutual agreement before developing and executing the contract. Such an agreement for international pipeline projects must include, inter alia, how each party will address the mutually identified project challenges, both those we know at the time and those as yet unknown. If an explicit and mutual agreement between the parties does not exist in the first instance, any attempt by any party to use a contract document to force an action later is unrealistic, counterproductive, abusive, unprofessional, manipulative, aggressive and rightfully interpreted as a prelude to (commercial) war.

THE ROAD TO SUCCESS It is with these key principles in mind that working groups, drawn from IPLOCA member companies and a select group of international oil companies, set out to create this guidance document called the THE ROAD TO SUCCESS. Our combined experience has led us to recognize why we have struggled on some projects before, why many projects have succeeded and what we need to do consistently to work together more effectively and succeed more often. It describes how to anticipate and avoid challenges before beginning construction, how to conduct construction work to minimize exposure to further challenges and, lastly, how to reach the mutual agreement necessary as the foundation for a successful contract, addressing both known and as yet unknown challenges. It is our firm belief that the approach outlined on THE ROAD TO SUCCESS will work anywhere in the world with any investor or contractor on any pipeline project under any form of contract compensation.

THE ROAD TO SUCCESS is fairly simple in concept, but requires a degree of fair-minded and commercially mature behaviours if travellers are to complete the journey. The junctions on THE ROAD simply are: 1. Properly develop the project before beginning construction with inter alia adequate engineering performed by a multi-skilled team including construction and environmental input.

2. Establish a clear baseline for the project, including the scope, the risks and the plans for responding to those risks, in the construction contracts.

3. Plan for all the risks involved with international business, but especially for those that are unique to pipeline projects but common within our industry.

4. Develop contract agreements, terms and conditions to predefine responses, responsibilities and commercial adjustments, ready to respond to unanticipated project challenges or events.

5. Implement best practices in Planning and Construction Techniques and evaluate merits of future trends and innovative solutions.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 1

1.

Executive Summary

IPLOCA has produced this document to describe state-of-the-art project development and execution practices for onshore pipeline projects and it is the collaborative result from six different work groups.

The first step on The Road is to produce guidelines that will ensure a complete project assessment so as to fully understand the challenges and risks associated with the pipeline project proposed. A common industry term for the activities focused on gaining this understanding is “Front End Loading (FEL)”.

As illustrated in section 2, much of project FEL occurs well before a project is sanctioned and begins construction. During this period, project investors and their design contractors typically have the due diligence obligation to themselves and their shareholders for achieving good FEL and therefore control the work process and make the key project decisions.

The next step on The Road, addressed in section 3, occurs at the point of project sanction where construction begins. A baseline understanding of project scope and risks must be established when contractors enter into the mutual agreement underlying a contract.

After project sanction, irrespective of all the efforts to reduce challenges and risks through the FEL phases, there will always be previously unknown challenges and risks that arise. These represent disruptions and changes to the agreed project baseline, so any pipeline construction contract must document how these residual risks will be addressed and managed. Sections 4 and 5 provide guidance on this.

Finally best practices in planning and construction techniques as well as future trends and innovation are presented in sections 6 and 7.

Section 2

Development Phases of a Pipeline Project This section describes the key points to be addressed during the FEL phases in preparation of the Project Execution phase. A detailed review of the data requirements and activities during those phases is included in section 6.1.2.

Section 3

The Baseline of a Construction Contract This section offers recommendations for establishing the baseline for the Project Execution phases with four chapters: the Scope of Works, the Programme, the Cost and the Contract.

Section 4

Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks during all Phases of a Project Presents a table of the Risk Events (residual risks) likely to arise during the Project Execution phase describing risk ownership, risk mitigation and the respective duties and responsibilities of the project investor – the client – and of the contractor.

Section 5

Management of the Construction Risks in Pipeline Contracts Examples of management of the above residual risks are proposed in this section. These residual risks can be borne by either party to a contract and contract compensation can be in any form mutually agreed by the parties, even lump sum, but a unit rate approach seems most likely as it offers the most clarity at the time of agreement and the best flexibility to deal with consequences as yet unknown.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 1

Section 6

Best Practices in Planning and Construction Techniques Success, however, would not be complete without an effort to permanently improve the Planning and Construction Techniques in our industry. Specialised IPLOCA Working Groups have been assigned the task to revisit the most important Techniques in order to provide the state of the art Construction Processes which would improve the Quality and reduce the impact to the Environment of the works, improve the Health and Safety conditions of their development and offer Cost/Time Saving effectiveness.

6.1

Planning Design and Control It deals first with the Pipeline Routing: the routing and design of a pipeline requires a disciplined and organised sequence of actions to ensure that the most acceptable optimised route avoiding as many hazards as possible has been selected and that the system has been designed to acceptable standards to satisfy fitness for purpose, environmental constraints and safety.

Then it defines the Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for the Five Typical Project Stages introduced in section 2 above.

6.2

Earthworks The terrain, soil types, and geohazards traversed by the pipeline are key factors to consider in the design, the construction and the operation and maintenance of a pipeline project. First, the terrain typically affects pipeline hydraulics, above ground stations, and pipeline protection. Second, soils types will affect heat transfer, pipeline restraint, and constructability. Finally, geohazards often require special design and construction considerations.

The Earthworks section offers guidelines on how to prepare the right of way (ROW) in different types of terrains, on the earthworks design, on the measures recommended to reduce the impact on the environment, and finally on the approach to health and safety.

6.3

External Pipeline Protection Systems Most of the installed and currently planned onshore transmission pipelines around the world are steel pipelines and their integrity during all the manufacturing, handling, storage, installation and service life stages is an important aspect of any pipeline project. The external corrosion and the mechanical impacts have been identified as the most common causes of pipe damage and failure in onshore pipelines.

This section reviews the most current passive external anti-corrosion systems – mainline and field joint coatings - and the supplementary mechanical protection systems and it offers guidelines for selecting the optimal protection system, based on a wide range of technical performance, pipeline design, constructability, environmental impact and economical criteria.

Section 7

Future Trends and Innovation The onshore pipeline industry involves collaborative efforts between multiple stakeholders, each of them having a key role to play at one stage or more during the project life cycle.

Understanding the involvement of each of these players is a vital step towards enhancing the operations on the pipeline project in the areas of efficiency, quality, safety, and environment.

The GIS-based construction monitoring tool and the pipeline activities simulator presented in these sections emerge as two integral components of a well rounded Integrated Pipeline Construction Management (IPCM) System.

Innovative construction equipment and techniques are also being proposed as part of a Novel Initiative developed by the groups specialised in pipe welding and lowering-in activities.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 1

7.1

Near-Real-Time Construction Monitoring Tool The monitoring tool would provide an accurate and timely viewpoint of the different construction and logistics activities on the project, as soon as they occur or can be recorded, so that strategic decisions are made in a faster and better informed way taking into account site feedback and the different roles of project personnel.

7.2

Pipeline Simulation Tool RFQ The simulator would further augment the proactive involvement of key project roles by providing advanced interpretations and what-if scenarios, which would effectively allow the project controls to take prompt corrective action or to identify intelligent pre-emptive measures.

7.3

Facing, Lining up and Welding This section presents a process aiming at improving Health and Safety conditions of work, Environmental impact, Quality of the final product as well as improving the efficiency of the Facing, Line up, Welding (and possibly Field Joint Coating) operations with significant savings in manpower and reductions of construction cycle times.

7.4

Lowering-in and Laying From an initial survey carried out amongst IPLOCA Contractors aiming at defining the ideal features of the specific lowering-in and laying construction equipment (namely “side booms”), it was decided to extend scope to the definition of the “Functional Specifications” of the “ideal construction machines (all types)” to be used on onshore pipeline construction, covering “Transportability”, “Health and Safety”, “Accessories and Comfort” as well as “Environmental Features”.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 2

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 2

2.

Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

Pipeline Projects are usually completed in five stages:

•

Three Front End Loading (FEL) phases for Business Planning, Facility Planning and Project Planning followed by,

• •

Project Execution and ending with, Start-up and Operations.

The “Road to Success” covers the three phases of FEL and the Project Execution phase.

The diagram below highlights a Staged Gated Project System and should be reviewed in conjunction with the minimum data requirements and activities for each FEL phase as included in section 6.1.2.

It is imperative that the foundations of any project are sound and Front End Loading forms a key part in providing the necessary framework and structure for a successful project, particularly FEL 1 and FEL 2.

Staged-Gated Project System

Front-End Loading FEL 1: Business Planning

FEL 2: Facility Planning

FEL 3: Project Planning

Project Execution

Start-up And Operations

Owner/Developer Engineer Construction Input Construction Contractor Operator

Active Participants Active participants through the lifecycle of the project have been highlighted above.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 2

2.1

Front-End Loading (FEL) Phases

Some of the key considerations that will need to be defined during the three FEL phases include: Product availability Applicable Codes and Standards Product Quality

Risk of Natural Hazards and Human threats Pipeline route and its right of way corridor Topographic and geotechnical data Materials (linepipe, valves, tees, flanges, traps) Corrosion allowance

Design Temperature

Stations (compressor, pump)

Design Capacity

Above ground installations (valve stations, pigging stations, metering stations, off take stations) SCADA/Telecoms

Pipe OD Pipe Wall Thickness

Maintenance and Inspection requirements

Inspection Requirements Pigging devices/Integrity Assessment Protection Requirements (Trench depth) Expansion mitigation

Corrosion Coating, Field Joint Coating Cathodic Protection Insulation Operational Philosophy (hydrates, waxing, asphaltenes)

Isolation Valve spacing Crossings Design Overpressure protection (surge protection, linepack)

Design Life Design Pressure

Leak detection Metering requirements

Inspection Philosophy Schedule

Cost Estimates Construction methodology • Camps • Clearing and grading • Material logistics • Ditching • Welding • Pipe bending • Field coating • Backfilling • Hydrotesting • Final grading Pipeline Operations

2.1.1 Business Planning FEL 1 Before starting a project, the pipeline owner/investor (the body funding the project) must prove the economic viability and need for the project i.e. will the project produce the required revenues and profit.

This phase captures the reasoning behind initiating the project and can take considerable time to prepare.

FEL 1 includes:

• • • • • • • 14

Business Case Strategic Objectives Economic Analysis Project Expectations Market Analysis Competitors Review Environmental Constraints

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 2

2.1.2 Facility Planning FEL 2 The purpose of FEL 2 Facility Planning (sometimes referred to as feasibility, preliminary, or pre-FEED), is to ensure the selection of an optimum solution and put some details behind the project. Here we can confirm the physical viability and anticipated cost of a project before any unnecessary time and energy is wasted. This stage of the plan can take from 2 – 6 months depending on project complexity.

FEL 2 Facility Planning includes the review of:

• • • • • •

Environmental and Social Issues Routing Pipeline dimensions (OD, WT, length) In-line facilities (pumps/compressor stations) Regulatory and Governmental requirements Preliminary schedules

Led by the owner, developer or an appointed and experienced engineering contractor, these issues are performed by a joint team and should include a range of technical, engineering, environmental, social and legal specialists. The level of cost estimate at this point is typically +/-30%.

2.1.3 Project Planning FEL 3 Project planning or the FEED phase looks to develop the approved selected solution by narrowing the cost estimate to +/-15% and achieving a higher level of development schedule. At this point any project showstoppers would have been identified as part of the environmental and social impact assessment process and suitable mitigation measures agreed with the relevant stakeholders (as part of the project consent). It is only when consent has been granted that project sanction takes place and particularly since it is then possible to place material orders for long lead items (LLI’s) at this stage so as to meet the development schedule. Project Planning could take from 6 months – 12 months depending on the complexity of project and the environment through which it is routed. If the pipeline has not managed to avoid sensitive environments, timescales for the FEL process can be extended by many months whilst detailed ecological or cultural studies are required.

In comparison with plant projects, the cost of FEL developments for a pipeline project are typically lower, except for possibly international cross border pipelines or complex systems such as high temperature pipelines (design temperature > 70ºC), high pressure pipelines (design pressure > 200 bars), or fast track projects.

However, whilst the cost of the development activity is lower, it is still significant and often underestimated. Pipeline project facility planning (FEL 2) for example can range from one third to three quarter of the activity associated with plant developments. However, the time taken can in certain circumstances be longer.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 2

2.2

Key points to address during FEL

For many project teams the development of a pipeline may be a once in a career event so experience brought to the development may be limited. This often results in the required technology and development processes for pipelines being underestimated by the new developer with the design and plan far exceeding that expected, especially considering the management and approval processes which take time and effort to put into place.

Directed by the inexperienced, a new developer can be guided down the wrong path, which can lead to disappointing results of extended schedules, increased costs and an unfit-for-design installation.

In order to limit disappointing results the following key points should be addressed:

•

Hire relevant experienced and fully qualified multi skilled engineering resources

•

Design basis, Operational and HSES philosophies are in place to fully define the safety, performance and operation requirements of the completed installation

•

Ensure adequate data is available for engineering (design conditions data, social and environmental data, geotechnical and topographical data)

•

Provision of pipeline technical designs to ensure clear and concise installation and that construction specifications and drawings can be produced

The key issues to be addressed will depend on the project type, size, length, location, terrain and whether it is inter-country. This will include a review of Land-take, Biodiversity, Heritage, Pollution control, Agricultural disruption, Traffic management, Loss of remoteness, Communicable diseases, Employment and Trade opportunities.

Besides, no matter the type and size of the project, it is essential for investors/owners to develop their Project Execution Planning from the early phases of the Front End Loading. Too often this task is left to the construction Contractor at the beginning of the Project Execution Phase or during FEL 3 in case of EPC projects. Whilst the establishment of a very exhaustive and detailed Project Execution Planning by the Contractor is essential at that time (refer to section 3.2 and Appendix 3.2.1), the Investors/Owners should initiate it to control in a disciplined manner the progress of the project development.

This should include Contracting strategy, Team participants and roles, Integrated programmes with critical path activities and items, Plans for Health and Safety, Environment and Quality, Controls, Costs and Schedules.

It is also important to remember that a pipeline project is a multi-discipline (joint team) effort involving pipeline engineers, metallurgy, process, control systems, electrical, piping, civil, mechanical as well as social, cultural and environmental specialists. Besides the pipeline design, other activities include Scada and Telecoms, power supply, inline facilities such as valve stations, metering stations, scraper trap station design, rotating equipment selection and specifications.

All the activities in FEL phases 1, 2 and 3 are key to attain a good foundation for the project. It will not help the schedule if a better development option has been found in phase 3, because it will include retracing back to FEL phase 2. This is not an unusual occurrence resulting from a poor study/feasibility phase. A good study phase needs an open forum for ideas where all ideas are equally considered however outlandish.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 2

All areas in Business Planning are key. It is important that an engineer with a broad experience is involved in this phase, who could highlight key driver issues, such as environmental, social, pipe parameters (OD, length), and in-line facilities, and cost metrics.

For the facility planning phase, there should be some joint environmental and construction expertise input, particularly in developing the construction schedules. Environmental restrictions can play a major part on the length of the schedule, or the number of construction spreads required to meet a particular schedule. This is also the phase when Health and Safety requirements to achieve the “zero accident and no harm to persons� will be taken on board and further developed in the project planning phase to be fully in place for the construction and operation phases.

For project planning, a whole range of issues and experts will need to be consulted, so as to address the potential key issues described above and also detailed in section 6.1.2.

The diagrams hereafter illustrate the fact that the Front End Loading phases of the project are where the Owners/Investors have the most influence and impact on the project with the least cost and expenditures. Key decisions left to later in project lifecycle come with a penalty of high cost with little influence to change the outcome.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 2

Fig. 1

Fig. 1 Fig. 1 indicates that at the early phases of the FEL process whilst expenditure is low, big decisions are made. “Where will the pipeline go? Will we build a pipeline or use ships?� The ability to influence the form of the project is high. It is thus essential at this stage that the investor and the engineer work closely and consider the value added outcomes of all potential solutions. For this to be effective, experience is essential.

As the project moves to the next FEL stage the major project decisions have been made but critical parameters are yet to be fully addressed. The ability to influence the project is still high. It is therefore fundamental at this stage to gain more understanding of the route and of the system design. The system design will define the pressures, flows, pipe diameters and pump or compressor station requirements.

However the main drive is to gain more knowledge of the route options and to remove uncertainty. Key factors for review are generally the pipeline profile, soil conditions and potential environmental and social constraints. As the expenditures are still low a constraint found in any area like unstable terrain or environmentally very sensitive area can be coped with by major re-routing without disruption.

The influence and expenditure graph shows how progression through the project phases results in a lower ability to influence the design. On a pipeline this is truer than with a plant development. The influence line drops off faster through FEL3. However the expenditure on a pipeline even at this stage is low in comparison with plant developments. It is therefore essential to ensure experience and knowledge is used effectively at these early stages of the work. During FEL 3 it is likely that commitments will be made to authorities and land owners, the form of the project is almost fixed.

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 2

Fig. 2

Fig. 2 As with most standard estimating methods, the early stages of the project are called “screening estimates” or “conceptual estimates”. At this stage of the project things remain undefined and a large contingency is required to cover the expected but unknown aspects of the design.

In pipeline terms the knowledge of soils and land issues as well as an optimised system design has not been completed. The routing is based on maps or images and the sizing based on norms and simplistic assessments. The project estimate “Baseline” at this stage is therefore made up of the estimated price and an almost equal level of contingency. At this stage of the project this is not a real problem for the investor as he is looking to provide data that provides him with comparisons with other potential developments and to see if his expected returns can be potentially realised. It should be realised that Contingency is part of the estimate and is not discretionary or padding it will be spent. Addition of arbitrary contingency to cover the estimate shortfalls is thus not a tenable solution. What remains a problem at the early stages of development is the Project Risk and how this will impact planning and quality or certainty of the “Baseline”. Contingency should not be confused with design allowances or development or with management reserves. (Refer to Appendix 3.4.5 “Cost Estimate of a Pipeline Project/Contingencies”).

As the project leaves FEL2 the feasibility has been tested the routing information has been improved and the sizing of the system has been scoped and understood. The level of unknowns is less and the contingency can be reduced.

Throughout the stages of the project the knowledge and certainty improve until the developer is confident enough to sanction the full expenditure.

It can be seen that if the work is performed well the out-turn cost or “Baseline Cost” of the project remains the same and contingency and unknown is exchanged for certainty and knowledge. We are reducing project Risk and becoming more confident of the “Baseline Estimate”.

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Fig. 3

Fig. 3 It illustrates that during the FEL phases the reduction of Project Risks is the most effective. It also shows how the total process of FEL and Execution fits together. Of course even at project hand over some operational residual risk still exists although if the process has been followed correctly this should be minimised.

Conclusion This section has stressed the importance of properly planning and executing the FEL1, FEL 2 and FEL 3 phases towards safely executing a quality construction works within the optimum cost and schedule. It requires the early involvement of all experts under an integrated team during these phases covering the following topics:

• • • • • • • •

Safety Environment Construction Public Relations Operations Pipeline design Socio-economic factors and Security

Further information on the minimum data requirements and activities for each FEL phase is included in section 6.1.2.

At a certain point of the FEL phase 3 a Baseline will be established for the purpose of agreeing the Construction Contract. This is the subject of section 3.

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3.

The Baseline of a Construction Contract

The recommendations below can be classified in four categories:

•

Detailed definition of the Scope of Works, of the Physical Conditions of the Site, of the Environment and of the Socioeconomic and Local Constraints.

This will define the baseline of the contract to be entered by the Parties.

•

Establishment of a Detailed Project Execution Plan, including a fully Resourced Programme of the works described in the Baseline to monitor progress and promptly assess the time impact of changes to the project or to its environment.

•

Recommended extent of the Cost Information to include in all the contracts which cost structure may vary from: • • • • •

Cost Plus Bill of Quantities Activity Schedule Lump Sum Or a combination of the above.

to enable a prompt evaluation of the cost impacts of: • Changes to the project or to the environment of the project • Mitigation measures elaborated to reduce the adverse consequences of the above changes

•

The Conditions of Contract

In this section and the following sections 4 and 5, the Owner/Investor will be called the “Client” being party to a contract entered into with the “Contractor”, the other party.

3.1

Detailed Definition of the Scope of Works of the Physical Conditions of the Site, of the Environment and of the Socioeconomic and Local Constraints

3.1.1 Scope and Physical Conditions

•

Definition of the pipeline route/right of way… (refer also to section 6.1.1)

The pipeline route and its impact on the environment will need to be considered, justified and approved by regulators, the general public and land owners.

Hence, consultation is a key part of routing. Key environmental and regulatory steps are illustrated overleaf.

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The development of a pipeline route commences with the known start and end points, for example a gas field and a LNG terminal. Sometimes the integration of the terminal location with the route which a pipeline can take will also be a variable to consider.

Once the end points are determined, the routing becomes an iterative process starting with the consideration of a wide area of interest and several potential corridors. As major constraints and cost drivers are considered the Investor/Owner and the Engineering team begin the process of refinement.

The chosen corridor which emerges is progressively narrowed as the FEL process continues and as more data is available. At the end of FEL 3 the route is defined as the “final Right of Way” (ROW).

Typically the route alignment steps are:

• • • • • • • •

Multiple 10 km wide corridors between the two end points of the pipeline 10 km-wide corridor of interest • (desktop routing/satellite imagery) 500 m-wide ‘preferred route corridor (large scale maps) Route using Route Maps with scale 1:50,000 100 m-wide ‘ specified corridor’ (more detailed maps) Large Scale routing: Detailed routing: 1:5,000 to 1:10,000 maps 20 to 40 m-wide ‘construction corridor’ (detailed routing/preliminary surveys) • Site Reconnaissance: Surveys: Soils data: Initial Consultations with Statutory Authorities: Preliminary Alignment Sheets 8 m-wide ‘permanent corridor’ (ROW) (final surveys)

Special attention is to be paid to sections of the Right of Way which may not be fully available at the commencement of the works due to land availability or environmental constraints. They should be clearly identified and become a programme constraint similar to sections where flooding or snow prevents access part of the year. Anticipation of such situations is more productive than facing the problems once the full spread(s) is (are) in progress and suddenly stopped or disrupted.

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•

Other land areas beyond the linear construction corridor of the pipeline are required for: • Access routes to the right of way • Designated areas for camp sites • Waste disposal locations • Pipe storage area • Borrow pits • Benching (on side slope) • Additional working space adjacent to road, rail, water and special crossings (such as archaeological areas or environmental constraints) • Temporary nursery sites/translocation areas for storing turves, plant material or temporary removal of protected species • Compensation or accommodation works (agreed as part of the consent/easement) • Temporary airstrips and helipads • Temporary right of way for laying pipelines to water sources for the provision of water tests

These areas should be established and detailed as part of the FEL process.

• • • • •

• • •

Description of the geological assumptions together with an allowance for variations to be part of the Baseline Seismic and volcanic constraint Crossing assumptions Other special physical constraints resulting from environmentally sensitive areas, archaeological surveys...

Specific quality requirements for pipe and pipe protection such as: • Land pipe requirements (metallurgy for steel pipes, etc) • External mainline pipe coating, field joint coating and supplementary mechanical protection system. (refer to section 6.3) Description of the extent of early works which are being carried out by others to provide, for instance, additional accesses to the site, drainage works, ROW clearance, crop removal and of their expected completion dates Description of additional site investigation or product testing (by whom) to conduct at the commencement of works and to include in the Baseline Detailed description of the standards of reinstatement required

3.1.2 Health and Safety, Environment, Socioeconomic and Local Constraints The HSES requirements are essential aspects of a project development. Historically, whilst pipelines provide a very safe and environmentally friendly form of transportation, lost time incidents and other issues are still evident during construction. HSES costs time and money to implement effectively and must be planned for in depth from the outset of the development. Commercial pressures may develop to scale down costs at all levels of a project. Clients must prevent any scope and cost reduction in the field of HSES and define clearly from the onset the detailed requirements as described right.

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The Environment and the Socio-economic and Local Constraints should be clearly defined in the contract documents and are generally contained in the social and environmental impact assessment.

A summary of the commitments made as part of the pipeline routing and FEL 1, 2 and 3 stages should be included in the scope of works as part of the construction contract and identified on the alignment sheets.

•

Detailed Health and Safety requirements in terms of organisation (detailed list of personnel with qualifications), provision of facilities (training schools, hospitals, infirmaries,..), training requirements and expected targets to achieve plus allowance for additional resources to be part of the Baseline

•

Health provisions including working in contaminated land, dust inhalation, extremes of temperature and working time restrictions

•

Transmission of pests, diseases and alien species (plant material), particularly when working in intensive agricultural regions, or animal husbandry areas

•

Detailed environmental requirements (limitations on emissions, surface discharge, effluents, noise, waste selection and treatment; special treatment fauna and flora; special measures near living areas…) and allowance for potential additional requirements to be part of the Baseline

•

Precise description of the weather assumptions to be part of the Baseline together with the assumptions for flooding, snow and storms, all of which have a significant influence on the programme of works and on the way resources are mobilised

•

Detailed security measures envisaged in the context of the country where works will be carried out

•

Special attention to the socioeconomic environment including the extent of the required actions to be undertaken by all parties (i.e. public meetings, brochures, media publications, TV programmes, etc.) in this respect should be well defined in a plan and part of the Baseline with whatever allowance necessary to include. They should include inter alia the requirements of the laws of the country, of any special agreement made at government level or possibly of the financial institutions

•

In countries where applicable, description of the specific local constraints negotiated with the local governments or administrations: they may cover conditions of employment of labour and staff, working hours, restrictions on employment of foreign labour and staff, procedures for permits and licences, custom procedures and restrictions, definition of the laws and regulations to apply to the project, accommodation works agreed with the local landowners or local administration organisations

•

Archaeology and protection of cultural sites of significance should be dealt with sensitively and in accordance with the consent conditions and local laws and customs

It is the responsibility of the Client and its technical advisors (engineers, land agents and environmental advisors) to provide the Contractor with a clear summary of the restrictions identified along the route of the pipeline and of the commitments which have been agreed during the FEL 1, 2 and 3 stages.

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3.2

The Resourced Programme of the Works described in the Baseline

The Detailed Project Execution Plan established for the construction phase (refer to Appendix 3.2.1 for detailed recommendations) of the works defined in the Baseline will result in a fully Resourced Programme of Works (manpower, plant, material, facilities) as defined below.

A detailed March Chart for all the linear activities combined with standard Critical Path Method (CPM) programmes for fixed installations (such as pump/compressor stations or valve stations) should constitute this Resourced Programme.

The March Chart should incorporate all the details of the terrain (roads, railways, waterways, electrical power lines, underground utilities), expected ground conditions, anticipated weather in relation to the seasons and geography (mountains, low lands, arid zones, deserts, swamp areas), environmental constraints, local community constraints and political constraints as defined in the Baseline.

It is the recommended tool to assess correctly the complexities of a pipeline project, to evaluate the criticalities of the programme of works, to follow up progress and promptly assess the impacts of disruptions, changed conditions and Stoppages as compared with the Baseline. (Refer to Appendix 3.2.2 – “A Dummies Guide to March Charts�).

A typical sample is presented overleaf:

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Extract from the March Chart on the previous page:

In order to arrive at an acceptable construction programme, the following should be established in detail:

•

The minimum mobilisation time necessary for the Contractor and the Client (the Engineering Team where applicable) to assemble their teams who will have to familiarise themselves with the project as a first step, then plan in detail and then mobilise resources. Considering the pressure to get the project in operation as early as possible this preparation time can often be reduced to nearly nothing: this is certainly detrimental to achieving a proper “kick off” to the project. Indeed the teams who tendered a contract on the Contractor’s side and the teams who prepared and evaluated those tenders on the Client’s side are not always the teams who will execute the project. Therefore a minimum preparation period varying from a few weeks to a few months, depending on the size and complexity of the project, in addition to the proposed construction programme, would certainly lead to a smoother development of the operations (unless that preparation period has been included in the tendering process as a step in the finalisation of the contract with the “preferred tenderer”)

•

The average rates of progress for the different activities I, II, III,…which are dependent on the terrain, the ground conditions, the weather at the considered period of the year, the environmental constraints, the local constraints and obviously the resources allocated

•

The minimum time lag between two activities A0, B0, C0,… should also be clearly established taking into consideration: • The Contractor’s own constraints (learning curves, changing the teams of local labour when crossing different regions, maintenance of equipment, breakdowns) • The expected weather conditions at a given period of the year which may affect progress of one activity more than one of the following activities (e.g. rain at PK 100, good weather at PK 80) • The Client’s constraints: the Client may demand that allowances for minor stoppages should be incorporated (and priced) in the base programme (e.g. 2 days per month to cater for design considerations, local disturbances, shortage of some supplies,..) or that there should be a limit to the distance of the various phases of the works

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With such a tool the most critical sequences of works will always be highlighted and the effects of changes or disruptions to the project on the programme of works can be promptly assessed.

Any areas where the contractor considers the information is incomplete or alternative routing/construction/mitigation measures should be considered should be clearly identified early in the construction programme to allow for consultation with the client, their advisors, local landowners and stakeholders.

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3.3

Recommended Extent of the Cost Information to include in all the contracts

Experience shows that the major cost impact of changes on projects is the additional cost of teams and resources related to the additional time they spend on site either working with full running costs or in standby with reduced running costs.

Changes to the Baseline/disruptions/Stoppages have in general two consequences for a project:

• •

The duration of certain activities will be extended There might be a need for mobilising additional resources to mitigate an overall extension of time to the project

In this section and in the following sections 4 and 5 the word “cost” is understood from a Client’s point of view: it means the price paid by the Client to the Contractor which includes the Contractor’s direct and indirect costs, its overheads and profit.

Therefore, in order to offer to both Employer and Contractor Project Management teams the possibility to promptly evaluate the cost impacts of changes and/or disruptions to a project, the Contract Price should include the breakdown of the weekly costs of the main working crews in operation (including energy, spare parts and consumables for the equipment and machines used as well as labour and staff costs including food, lodging and transport) and the weekly costs of the site overheads (offices, stores, yards...), as well as that of the management overheads, combined with a schedule of the costs of the same working crews in standby (when no energy and consumables for major equipment is used), and of the costs of potential mitigation measures (such as cost of moving different crews in relation with distance). All weekly costs would exclude the cost of incorporated materials since their cost impact is quantity related instead of time related.

Examples of time related costs (weekly costs) for a pipeline contract together with examples of evaluation of time and cost impacts of Stoppages are attached in Appendix 5.2.1.

In the case of Cost Plus type contracts, the actual costs plus fees are compared at given intervals to a bill of quantities or an activity schedule, which should include such time related cost information as described above.

In the case of Bill of Quantities or Activity Schedule type contracts, these time related costs should be incorporated as bill items or activity items in the pricing document.

In the case of Lump Sum contracts, a breakdown of these time related costs should be in an appendix attached to the Tender.

This time related cost information, together with the fixed costs for mobilisation of teams, equipment and facilities (which generally form part of most contracts but should also be included in the Lump Sum tenders), are essential management tools of changes.

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3.4

Conditions of Contract

3.4.1 Traditionally, contracts terms tend to be issued by Clients and market forces and/or financial institutions tend to drive in their favour. Too often risk allocation continues to be pushed from one party to another depending on prevailing environmental or market conditions, with little consideration to the loss of potential value and earnings incurred due to inattention to reducing the risk to begin with.

However, as a general principle, the conditions of contract (general conditions and particular conditions) should not be overly favourable to one contracting party vis-Ă -vis the other party (ies). Indeed, experience shows that construction and operational risks are best allocated where they can most appropriately be managed and borne. A fair contract helps to significantly reduce the risks of conflicts, delays and disruptions when difficulties occur in the performance of a project by clearly identifying the agreed risk allocation and providing fair compensation for bearing them.

3.4.2 Several (unsuccessful) attempts have been made in the past to develop standard balanced contract conditions, applicable to all types of major onshore pipeline projects. The failure of these attempts was largely due to the fact that National Clients are bound to abide by the local contracting practices and Global Clients have, over the years, developed their own contract conditions which, they feel, can adapt to the varying context of their projects.

3.4.3 Whatever the conditions of contract utilised, the recommendations above acknowledge the specificities of onshore pipeline projects as well as the uniqueness of their Sites. Unlike the relatively small concentrated areas of other construction projects (such as Terminals, Pump/Compressors Stations,..), onshore pipeline projects often extend over several hundreds of kilometres, crossing State and/or International Boundaries.

The likelihood, therefore, of encountering conditions different to those upon which the Initial Design and Construction Programme were predicated is higher than in other construction projects, hence the requirement for a good FEL as the likelihood of changes is inherent to pipeline projects.

This requires that the parties analyse potential risks at an early stage (during the bid phase) and that the contractual baseline is set accordingly to ensure that anticipated risks are fairly allocated. Both parties can benefit from prudent front end loading (refer to section 2).

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3.4.4 As demonstrated here, the baseline of a good pipeline construction contract must include a clear definition of inclusions and limitations for key risks. The Scope of Works provides the basis for an agreement between Contractor and Client. Under ideal circumstances this would be sufficient for an onshore pipeline contract.

However, in reality, risk events, when they occur, lead to contractual disputes unless the contract addresses these issues. Contracts should therefore include terms which allow sufficient commercial flexibility to address these inevitable variances while still preserving the performance incentives inherent in the commercial terms for the baseline portion of the scope.

This requires the recommended “spirit of trust and mutual co-operation between the parties” and the situation where lack of clear and concise scope and engineering definition leads one party to consider exploitation at the cost of the other should be avoided. Under-priced lump sum bids under-priced may be seen by the Client as a benefit, whilst the Contractor may see the opportunity for change and scope increase during the execution of the work. In actual fact the result is disputes, delays and additional costs seldom to any party’s benefit.

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Exemplary preferred conditions of contract have been achieved in international onshore pipeline projects. Clauses of general interest for all construction contracts such as exchange risk, country risk, indemnities, insurance, payment terms etc. are not further developed herein as they may be found in general contract literature. There are certain contract clauses that have a particular impact upon onshore pipeline projects. The guidelines included in Appendix 3.4.4 address the following:

• • • • • • • •

The weather conditions/inclement weather The environment and archaeology The definition of (and access to) the site The programme (and adjustment thereto, including compensation) The relations with Third Parties (there is an unusual large number of third parties involved in a pipeline project) The supply of materials The ground conditions The responsibility for design and constructability

3.4.5 Many a contractor has fallen into a trap associated with risk pricing when Clients insist in having the Contractor to bear some of the risk impacts. The desire to achieve commercial advantage sometimes tempts a Contractor to bid a lump sum contract based on a calculation of the estimated costs of inherent risks.

The Baseline Cost Estimate is normally based on the expected cost of the project. This cost includes the required contingency commensurate with the project definition at that stage of the work, where the contingency is added to the base estimate to a level that is equivalent to the 50/50 (or P50 see graphic below). On to this a bidder will add reserve that provides his company with the level of assurance that the execution of the work with all normal risks will achieve his goal of profitability. This level of bid is normally assessed at a level where the company can be 80-90% sure of the outcome or in general terms the P80 estimate. (This process is described further in Appendix 3.4.5.)

Whilst some bidders may be sufficiently confident in their ability to execute work to an estimated budget based on the 50/50 estimate, or with little to no reserve it does assume that the bidder has 100% definition of all risks and unknowns and that his price is complete. This is an unlikely condition and normally results in the bidder placing a high reliance on claims or changes to his advantage.

Some project risks occur in a continuous and incremental fashion, so that the differing price points considered by different bidders will only vary from the actual cost outcome by degree, leaving the bidder marginal profit or loss in the end.

However, projects often have discrete risks which result in an “all or nothing” cost impact. While the probability of these risks is still variable, their cost outcome is not. Competitive pressures often tempt Contractors to bid such risks at less than expected cost on the hope that the unconsumed contingency will become additional profit or can be recovered through claims. When the risk does arrive and is not sufficiently supported with funds, the expected profit is not only lost but profit is drawn from other aspects of the project to offset the risk cost impact. Contractors feel forced to recover their incurred risk costs from their Clients, often creating an uneasy perception with their Clients. This inevitably leads to commercial stress and can work to unravel the contractual arrangements made between the parties.

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Cumulative Probability

The alternative advocated here is to be overt in the contract as to how much of the risk cost impact is included in the baseline and how the excess or residual risk will be addressed commercially. Clients are especially urged to avoid entering contracts where known risks have been aggressively priced at a point below the likely cost impact. The better answer is to have the Client bear the risk and avoid the commercial inefficiency of potentially paying for the risk twice – once in the baseline and again in a claim!

Cost Outcome Contracts need to contain an appropriate contractual and commercial mechanism to deal with (unanticipated) risks that eventuate during the course of the work - despite parties’ best efforts to counter, factor in, or eliminate these risks. For risk not accounted for in the baseline, parties can agree, in advance, the form of compensation and the method of calculation of the adjustment.

3.4.6 Therefore, the characteristics of onshore pipeline projects make it more important to attain a well defined allocation of risks between the parties. Furthermore, parties need to determine early on how they are going to deal with residual execution risk. This is fundamental to achieving optimum contractual co-operation between the parties and minimising conflicts surrounding eventual contract adjustments.

Conclusion The baseline of a Construction Contract needs to be clearly established including Scope of Work, the Detailed Execution Plan with a resourced March Chart Programme for all linear activities combined to CPM programmes for all fixed installations, the Cost elements and the Conditions of Contract.

There may be circumstances when the baseline has not been sufficiently developed at time of going to tender and needs to be improved through early works to arrive at a better Contract.

Section 4 hereafter will review the main risks of pipeline construction contracts and propose mitigation measures which can be implemented at various stages of the development of the Project.

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4.

Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks during all Phases of a Pipeline Project

After project sanction, irrespective of all the efforts to reduce challenges and risks through the FEL phases, there will always be previously unknown challenges and Risk Events that arise.

Risk Events specific to pipeline construction projects retained in this section relate to events which lead to slowdowns, hindrances and stoppages (all being called “Stoppages” in this document) affecting some part(s) or of the whole of the construction activities.

The Table in the following pages lists those residual Risks Events which are likely to be encountered during the Construction phase of a project.

•

Column 1 classifies the Risks Events in nine categories • A (Weather), • B (Archaeological and Man Made Artefacts), • C (Geological), • D (Flora and Fauna), • E (Social and Security), • F (Materials), • G (Engineering), • H (Permit Conditions) and • I (ROW Remediation)

•

Columns 2 & 3 describe the Risk Event considered

•

Column 4 indicates at which FEL period the Risk Event should start to be considered

•

Columns 5 & 6 define who should be the Risk Owner

•

Column 7 defines the extent of the baseline reference and the extent of the risk mitigation (if any) to include in the baseline.

•

Columns 8 & 9 describe the respective duties and responsibilities of the Contractor and of the Client for each Risk Event

35

36

A Weather

Category

Item

c

b

a

Contractor

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N°

Special weather constraints/weather FEL 2 X windows at crossings such as periods of flooding of a river, significant commercial fisheries imposing periods without construction activities‌

Isolated cases of inclement weather FEL 3 X conditions such as storms/hurricane/typhoons, ROW flooding, snow event, temperature extremes, temperature and humidity extreme combined conditions, air quality (e.g. ozone, sandstorm, smog, blizzard whiteout, fog), rockfalls and snow slides.

Inclement weather conditions creating FEL 2 X weather windows to be included in the programme of the works: those conditions may concern the rainy seasons/the monsoon, the periods when the land is flooded, when the snow constantly covers the land, the periods of permafrost, the periods when rock falls or snow slides are likely to occur, known periods of limitations (partial or total) to construction resulting from extreme temperatures or from temperature and humidity combined conditions or from uninterrupted humidity or light rain...

Description of events

Risk Events Table

Weather constraints and weather windows at crossings to be part of the baseline.

Climatic data should be readily available. Define in contract the expected time loss for those events during certain months of the year and the conservative preventing measures to implement as baseline.

Make explicit and mutually agree the weather allowance in the baseline.

Agree the criteria for defining a weather window including the consequenses of the said weather on accessability, trafficability and environmental impact (i.e. land too wet which could be damaged badly in case of traffic although the cause, the rain or the snow, has ended for some time...). Plan the works around the predefined weather windows.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Baseline constraints to be included in the programme of construction of crossings.

Bear cost of preventing measures and include time loss in baseline programme.

All weather impacts and their consequences falling within the baseline weather allowance, said allowance being explicitly defined by the contract.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Bear the cost of additional constraints in excess of baseline.

Bear cost of additional preventing measures and/or time loss in excess of baseline.

Bear the cost of any weather impacts above and beyond the baseline weather allowance as explicitly defined by the contract.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

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Client

Archaeological and Man Made Artefacts Weather

B

Category

Impact on cultural heritage (graves etc).

Unexploded ordinance, contaminated soil (prior human impact).

d

Perceived threat to antiquities.

b

c

Uncharted or unexpected archaeological find, unexpected mine workings, landfill.

Description of events

a

Item

Risk Events Table Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째 Contractor

FEL 3

FEL 3

FEL 3 X

FEL 3

Client

X Conduct field surveys and clearing activities prior to field mobilization.

Develop response procedures to protect personnel and equipment.

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization and avoid burial locations. Develop response procedures to protect the site.

Develop good relations with the local communities. Solicit their mitigations and implement them. Develop and conduct a community relations program.

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization. Develop response procedures to protect the site.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Report all finds.

Report all finds.

Develop good relations with the local communities. Solicit their mitigations and implement them.

Develop and conduct a community relations program. Bear all costs for avoidance.

Report all finds.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work. slowdown/relocation if required.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work. slowdown/relocation if required.

Intervene where relations deteriorate to threaten client reputation.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work. slowdown/relocation if required.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

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37

38

Archaeological and Man Made Artefacts Weather

B

Category

Impact on cultural heritage (graves etc).

Unexploded ordinance, contaminated soil (prior human impact).

d

Perceived threat to antiquities.

b

c

Uncharted or unexpected archaeological find, unexpected mine workings, landfill.

Item

a

Description of events

Risk Events Table Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째 Contractor

FEL 3

FEL 3

FEL 3 X

FEL 3

Client

X Conduct field surveys and clearing activities prior to field mobilization.

Develop response procedures to protect personnel and equipment.

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization and avoid burial locations. Develop response procedures to protect the site.

Develop good relations with the local communities. Solicit their mitigations and implement them. Develop and conduct a community relations program.

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization. Develop response procedures to protect the site.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Report all finds.

Report all finds.

Develop good relations with the local communities. Solicit their mitigations and implement them.

Develop and conduct a community relations program. Bear all costs for avoidance.

Report all finds.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work. slowdown/relocation if required.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work. slowdown/relocation if required.

Intervene where relations deteriorate to threaten client reputation.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work. slowdown/relocation if required.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

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Geological

C

Category

Geology at crossings.

Swallow holes, ground liquefaction, mud volcanoes, crusted unstable soil (subkha), karst.

c

Ground conditions differing from the ground conditions (hard rock, hard ground, soft ground, sandy area, etc) derived from field surveys conducted prior to field mobilization (including geophysical and subsoil work).

Description of events

b

a

Item

Risk Events Table

Contractor

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3

FEL 2

FEL 2 X

Client

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization, including geophysical and subsoil work.

X Carry out detailed ground investigation at crossing including trial holes and boreholes and if possible carry out investigations below river beds. Ensure depth of investigation is below required construction depth. Consider seasonal variations of water table.

Provide the design and set the baseline.

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization, including geophysical and subsoil work in areas accessible then to define the baseline assumption of the various ground conditions to be encountered. At the start of work as soon as all sections of the ROW are available trial holes to be carried out to check initial assumptions.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Include a baseline allowance for minor deviation of geology from that expected and define that allowance explicitly in the contract.

Contractor to allow for competent performance based on conditions indicated in baseline ground information.

In addition to the baseline include an allowance for deviations from the expected geology and define that allowance explicitly in the contract. As a guideline the limit of those deviations would be a) a change of the execution process, b) a change of equipment required, c) a variation of soil nature beyond an initially defined band.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work slowdown/relocation if required.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work slowdown/relocation if required.

Bear the cost for work slowdown/relocation or change of execution process or additional equipment required should unexpected geology beyond the deviations defined in the contract causing construction difficulty be identified at commencement or during construction phase.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

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Geological

C

Category

Side slope slows work rate.

Erosion.

e

f

Landslides/Rock streams.

Item

d

Description of events

Risk Events Table

Contractor

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3 X

FEL 3 X

FEL 3 X

Client

Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization to understand RoW constraints.

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization, including geophysical and subsoil work. Implement erosion control techniques during construction/reinstatement.

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization, including geophysical and subsoil work. Instigate landslide monitoring and mapping programmes.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Bear all costs.

Include a baseline allowance for erosion mitigation and define that allowance explicitly in the contract.

Include a baseline allowance for landslide mitigation and define that allowance explicitly in the contract.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Conduct surveys prior to work.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost in case additional mitigation in excess of the baseline allowance is required.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost in case additional mitigation in excess of the baseline allowance is required.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 4

Geological

C

Category

Backfill and padding material/Borrow pits and royalties.

Soil Disposal (excess/surplus soil, native soil not required).

i

Swamps.

Description of events

h

g

Item

Risk Events Table

Contractor

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3 X

FEL 3 X

FEL 3 X

Client

X Baseline to indicate the expected extent of materials to be disposed and identify the possible disposal grounds along the pipeline route as well as the licence requirements.

X Baseline to indicate the expected extent of possible reuse of excavated materials and identify borrow pit possibilities along the pipeline route as well as protection measures to the pipeline, if required, in rocky areas.

X Development of measures for working under those difficult conditions, taking into account seasonal work implementation, use of specialised machinery, plank roads construction, gravel & geotextile, work slowdown in those sections, etc.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Adhere to baseline data with allowance for minor deviations to be defined in the contract.

Adhere to baseline data with allowance for minor deviations to be defined in the contract.

Adhere to baseline data with allowance for minor deviations to be defined in the contract.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Bear the cost in case of work slowdown/ work front relocation, due to deviations beyond those defined in the contract.

Bear the cost in case of work slowdown/ work front relocation, due to deviations beyond those defined in the contract.

Bear the cost in case of work slowdown/ work front relocation, due to deviations beyond those defined in the contract.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

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Flora and Fauna

D

Category

d

Planned mandatory exclusion periods/animal habitats etc...

Spread of animal and plant diseases.

Introduction of invasive species.

b

c

Unexpected listed species or wildlife along pipeline route.

Item

a

Description of events

Risk Events Table

Contractor

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3 X

X

FEL 3 X

Client

Identify exclusion zones and time periods before contract execution.

Schedule work in the base plan to avoid them.

Identify potential diseases and ensure suitable wheel cleaning and mitigation measures are implemented.

Define species risk. Develop and adhere to control procedures and include them in tender requirements.

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization. Develop response procedures to protect the wildlife.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Bear all costs. Adhere to control periods defined in contract.

Bear all costs for mitigation measures.

Bear all costs. Adhere to control procedures defined in contract.

Report all finds.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Conduct surveys prior to work. Identify exclusion zones and time periods in the contract.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Define disease risk.

Develop control procedures and include them in contract requirements.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Define species risk.

Develop control procedures and include them in contract requirements.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work slowdown/ relocation if required.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 4

Flora and Fauna

D

Category

Habitat fragmentation.

Unanticipated mandatory exclusion periods.

g

h

FEL 2 X

FEL 3 X

Hunting/ poaching pressure.

f

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

Discovery of dangerous transient FEL 3 X species on ROW, site storage areas or worker camps.

Description of events

Contractor

e

Item

Risk Events Table

Client

X Identify exclusion zones and time periods before contract execution.

Schedule work in the base plan to avoid them. Identify the risk drivers of these exclusions and make some probabilistic time allowance for variations from the base plan. similar to weather allowance).

Ensure flight paths and species access across the spread are identified and kept open, minimise vegetation clearance or provide temporary secure crossing of ROW.

Ensure workforce are instructed hunting is unacceptable. Provide security to prevent unauthorised access via new access routes.

Ensure that fences/gates are properly maintained. Warn workforce if danger is known.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Identify the risk drivers of exclusions and provide a base time allowance for variations from the base plan. Explicitly define the allowance in the contract.

Bear all costs. Adhere to control procedures defined in contract.

Bear all costs. Adhere to control procedures defined in contract.

Bear all costs. Adhere to control procedures defined in contract.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work slowdown/ relocation in excess of the baseline allowance.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Define species risk.

Develop control procedures and include them in contract requirements.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Define species risk.

Develop control procedures and include them in contract requirements.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Define species risk.

Develop control procedures and include them in contract requirements.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

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Social and Security

E

Category

Disease spread amongst the workforce.

Workforce substance abuse.

d

Unreasonable landowner behaviour causing disruption to schedule.

b

c

Unexpected protest groups along the route or a portion of the pipeline route crosses an area where security of the personnel involved in the construction may not be correctly ensured.

Item

a

Description of events

Risk Events Table

Contractor

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3 X

FEL 3 X

Client

Develop and enforce zero tolerance policies and procedures. Develop workforce testing programs and certification requirements for vehicle and machinery operators.

Maintain and appropriate health education program. Provide workforce monitoring. Discourage working sick. Quarantine where necessary. Coordinate with Local Community health officials. Maintain hygiene of common facilities.

X Develop good relations with the Local Communities. Solicit their mitigations and implement them prior to construction.

X Contractor to develop good relations with the local communities including Villagers Representatives, Local Councils, Government Departments, Affected Landowners called below Local Communities. Provide for security patrols. Establish liaison with local law enforcement.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Bear all costs for avoidance.

Bear all costs for avoidance.

Define the engagement of the Contractor in local relations which should be measurable and included in the baseline. Include as well any allowance for lost time to be included in the baseline programme.

Define the engagement of the Contractor in local relations which should be measurable and included in the baseline. Include as well any allowance for lost time to be included in the baseline programme.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Intervene to give support for avoidance actions.

Intervene to give support for avoidance actions.

Bear cost of excess stoppages.

Bear cost of excess stoppages.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 4

Social and Security

E

Category

Certain portions of the site are not available as scheduled in the baseline programme due to preliminary works done by others not completed.

i

ROW and access roads sometimes provide access to areas previously inaccessible. They may then be used by other for their convenience.

g

Access to the ROW is available but access to the main supply points of the country (harbour, local main stores,..) or access to pipeyards/site stores or camps or access to borrow pits needed to supply suitable backfill materials are temporarily unavailable due to external reasons (i.e. national strike, national shortage of certain materials, intervention by action groups, other security reasons,...)

Workforce criminal act.

f

h

Populous criminal act.

Description of events

e

Item

Risk Events Table

Contractor

X

Client

Bear all costs for avoidance and obtain support from Local Communities.

Report events.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

X Insert the time needed for preliminary Bear cost of baseline works in the baseline programme with agreed allowances. with agreed allowances.

X Provide security measures as may be Bear all costs of the defined in the baseline (e.g. security baseline allowance. guards/lighting...)

Bear cost to excess to baseline.

Bear cost of excess to baseline allowance.

Bear cost of excess to baseline allowance.

Intervene to resolve matter with the Local Communities.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

X Provide security measures as may be Bear all costs of the defined in the baseline (e.g. security baseline allowance. guards/lighting...)

Maintain relationships with workforce. Define behavioural standards for the workforce.

Provide a security/policing resource.

X Maintain relationships with Local Communities and law enforcement.

Define behavioural standards for the workforce.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

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Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

46

Social and Security

E

Category

Contaminants.

n

Personnel protection against wild animals.

l

Transport/ infrastructure pressures.

Technological terrorism.

k

m

Impacts of project on Local Communities and their economy.

Item

j

Description of events

Risk Events Table

Contractor

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3 X

FEL 3 X

X

FEL 3 X

Client

Permits should define actions and measures to take to investigate risks such as entomological, epizootic, radioactive or chemical issues and define the surveys required for the areas previously inaccessible. Those would define the baseline.

X Ensure that appropriate traffic assessments have been carried out prior to works and any mitigation measures agreed with local governing body.

Ecological surveys, areas revelation of wild animals habitation. Development of measures for personnel protection against wild animals.

X Pipeline guarding, work with Local Communities, selection of pipeline construction technology.

X Develop good relationship with Local Communities. Ensure that workforce understand codes of behaviour to be adhered too. Highlight the community and economic benefits rather than the negativities associated with the project.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Excess mitigation by Client

Bear cost of baseline actions and measures.

Provide a Traffic Management Plan based on those traffic assessments as well as traffic monitoring and controls to be included in the baseline.

Bear all costs for protection and avoidance actions.

Report events.

Bear cost of excess to baseline resources and time.

Bear cost of excess to baseline resources and time.

Intervene to give support for avoidance actions.

Intervene to resolve matter with the Local Authorities.

Bear cost of excess to Joint actions by Contractor and Client with baseline resources and time. the Local Communities.

Define allowances in terms of resources and time to provide in the baseline.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Contractual impact

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 4

Social and Security

E

Category

Equipment failure/unsuitable equipment.

War in region/Hostilities.

q

Workforce labour unrest/disruptions/Strike.

Description of events

p

o

Item

Risk Events Table Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3

Contractor

X

X

Client

X Fully understand geo-political risks.

Evacuation plans is place. Work abandonment plans. Payments during hostilities.

Ensure Contractor understands that the suitability of equipment is its full responsibility and that Contractor has adequate maintenance capacity.

Develop good relations with the workforce and any representatives.

Monitor external agents acting to influence the workforce. Develop and conduct an active labour relations program. Provide for security patrols. Establish liaison with local law enforcement. Develop a labour law compliance verification system and where applicable establish a Site Labour Agreement.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Contractor and Client to jointly prepare plans.

Report events.

Bear cost of schedule impact in case of failure or unsuitability of equipment.

Bear all costs for avoidance.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Contractor and Client to jointly prepare plans.

Report events. To be dealt with under Employer's risks/Force majeure.

Intervene to give support for avoidance actions.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

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Materials

F

Category

An event elsewhere affecting material supply/non-delivery of materials to be procured by Contractor.

Client decides that further in-situ FEL 3 testing for new materials to be used in the project (i.e. new field joint coating material,..)

c

d

FEL 3

An event elsewhere affecting material supply/non-delivery of materials supplied by Client.

FEL 3

b

Item

Aggregate sourcing.

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

a

Description of events

Risk Events Table

Contractor

X

Client

X Materials and testing procedures to be defined in the baseline.

As part of the quality assurance Contractor to establish a procurement plan defining follow up procedures and controls with special emphasis on long lead items.

X A clear plan for the delivery of materials supplied by the Client, with special attention to long lead items should form part of the baseline.

X Establish sources of aggregate prior to work commencement to ensure demand/quality can be met as part of the baseline.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Bear cost of baseline allowance.

Bear cost of delays or deal with the matter under Employer's risks/Force Majeure.

Baseline programme to be based on such delivery plan.

Bear cost of baseline allowance.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Bear cost of excess to baseline.

Assist in the follow up and controls of long lead items.

Bear cost and time impact of any delay to delivery plan.

Bear cost (if any) of any change of sourcing required.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 4

Engineering

G

Category

Unplanned route diversion or the Client decides to proceed with some changes to the scope of the works.

Change of crossing method/Change of design.

Breakdown of crossing equipment (HDD or micro tunnelling machine) leading to the abandonment of the crossing attempt.

Crossing equipment become blocked due to tunnel collapse or ground squeeze.

Damage to third party pipeline/facilities resulting in spill/ Damage to buried services.

b

c

d

e

Description of events

a

Item

Risk Events Table Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

X

Contractor

FEL 3 X

FEL 3

FEL 3

Client

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Maintain spill response procedures and Initiate response actions equipment. Conduct spill response drills. and bear cost.

Observe and report spill near misses.

Train workforce in spill prevention.

Identify all third parties in baseline survey.

Engage third party in risk management.

Ensure third party representative is on site when crossing their services.

X Early review of geology has governed Contractor to operate the choice of crossing method and equipment within the equipment. recommended mechanical limitations.

Bear repair cost as well as cost and time impact of resetting new equipment for a new crossing.

Bear cost and time of Contractor to establish impact due to change. detailed construction methodology of the baseline together with a breakdown of construction costs/unit rates.

The baseline crossing method defines Bear cost of breakdown, of time impact and of the crossing equipment to be used. resetting equipment for a new crossing.

X An early review of construction techniques should be carried out to determine feasibility of each crossing to ensure that the crossing can be safely built in the available time and that sufficient land/access is available. The crossing method derived from this early review to be included in the baseline.

Bear cost of excess above baseline.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

X Pipeline route and scope of the works Plan for the baseline with any minor deviation are defined in the baseline. specifically spelled out in the baseline.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

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Engineering

G

Category

Unexpected earthquake fault crossing.

j

Off Spec water discharging into adjacent water ways.

h

Unidentified buried services.

Discovery of informal tips/fly tipped waste.

g

i

Waste management on RoW and office sites.

Item

f

Description of events

Risk Events Table

Contractor

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3

FEL 3

X

FEL 3 X

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Client

Baseline to include information of final survey before construction.

Include a baseline allowance for minor deviation of geology from that expected and define that allowance explicitly in the contract.

X Conduct field surveys prior to field mobilization, including geophysical and subsoil work.

Bear cost of these measures as part of the baseline.

Report all finds.

X Ensure that all buried services and their details are known (owner, size, service, depth, date of installation, design life, abandonment method).

Build catchment basin to impound water. Sample and test runoff daily and during rain events.Ensure Engineering has designs for this at all likely locations prior to construction.

X Ensure appropriate mitigation measures are in place if necessary to avoid contamination/ harm to work force etc.

Conduct surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work slowdown/ relocation if required.

Bear cost of excess above baseline.

If site conditions are such that additional measures are needed, bear cost of those additional measures.

Conduct field surveys prior to work. Bear the cost for work slowdown/relocation if required.

Control compliance with plan.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

Contractor to establish detailed Ensure compliance with waste management plan for all waste plan. produced by the project as part of the baseline.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 4

Permit Conditions

H

Category

Discharge of off-spec hydrotest water. FEL 3 X

d

FEL 3 X

FEL 3 X

Ground contamination due to chemical spillage.

Operations outside of permitted conditions such as: - weather, mud, run-off

b

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3 X

Contractor

c

Failure of protection provisions, such as: - sub-standard - failure to maintain - sabotage - storm event

Description of events

a

Item

Risk Events Table

Bear cost of compliance and remedial.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Bear cost of compliance and remedial.

Prior to contract execution, define Bear cost of compliance discharge specification and treatment and remedial. options for off spec water and gain approval for both supply and disposal of hydrotest water.

Maintain spill response procedures and equipment. Conduct spill response drills. Observe and report spill near misses. Train workforce in spill prevention.

Establish adequate controls.

Establish adequate controls.

Establish adequate controls.

Establish adequate controls.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

Understand the performance Bear cost of compliance standards for permit conditions and and remedial. define operational limitations.

Identify a compliance officer to enforce them. Have adequate field engineers to provide suitable designs.

Understand the performance standards for permit conditions and design the RoW protections accordingly. Establish daily patrols, inspections and a correction crew.

Suspend local operations as required until protections are restored.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

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Client

52

Permit Conditions

H

Category

Any restriction on working Hours at special points or specific crossings.

Late or slow issue of necessary permits.

f

g

Introduction of new permit conditions during construction.

Item

e

Description of events

Risk Events Table Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째 Contractor

FEL 3 X

FEL 3

FEL 3

Client

Any restrictions on working hours should be identified within the baseline tender.

X Understand the permitting process and cycle time risks before beginning work. Schedule work areas to adapt to higher risk permits. Incorporate likely risk areas into schedule and possibly instruct Contractor to to provide costs for partial or full move rounds.

X Carefully review permit conditions and expectations and contingencies with relevant authorities before beginning work. In case of late changes a joint Client/ Contractor team to react swiftly.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

Contractor should programme and price for complying with identified restrictions.

The baseline should include a clear permitting plan.

Report events. Apply for new permits and proceed to a joint risk mitigation exercise.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Bear costs of delays in case plan is changed.

Bear costs resulting from new permit conditions.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 5

RoW Remediation

I

Category

Inadequate revegetation/bio reinstatement or difficulties of remediation.

Inadequate erosion protection cutback at river crossings and erosion protection at steep slopes.

b

c

Inadequate scour protection at river crossings.

Description of events

a

Item

Risk Events Table

Contractor

Consideration of risk at FEL phase N째

FEL 3 X

FEL 3 X

FEL 3 X

Bear cost of compliance and remedials.

Bear cost of compliance and remedials.

Normal baseline mitigation by Contractor

Establish adequate controls.

Establish adequate controls.

Establish adequate controls.

Excess mitigation by Client

Contractual impact

Ensure adequate reinstatement Bear cost of compliance measures have been imposed i.e. and remedials. correct seed mix ratios/use of geo jute/effective top soil storage to avoid loss/erosion.

Understand the performance standards for permit conditions and define operational limitations.

Establish daily patrols, inspections and correction crew. Include designs in engineering.

Understand the performance standards for permit conditions and define operational limitations.

Establish daily patrols, inspections and correction crew. Include designs in engineering.

Mitigation defined at FEL 3

Mitigation measures

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Client

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 5

5.

Management of Construction Risks in Pipeline Contracts

Proposed guidelines are given in this section to deal with specific risk events associated with the construction of on shore pipelines which generally result in stoppages, slowdowns and hindrances (all three called “Stoppages” below) to the progress of the works.

It is understood that good design and works preparation at FEL phases can significantly reduce the occurrence and/or extent of Stoppages at the construction stage.

However, due to the very nature of pipeline construction numerous residual causes may trigger all types of stoppages.

Below is the list of the most common causes of Stoppages, followed by guidelines to assess:

• • • 5.1

Their impact on progress The possible mitigation measures The cost impacts of stoppages and the cost of mitigation measures

List of the most common causes

The list of events which may lead to Stoppages are developed in section 4 above under 9 Categories.

Typical examples are highlighted below.

5.1.1 Weather and climate (Category A) The weather during certain periods of the construction may be worse than the limits defined in the baseline and taken into account in the construction programme.

5.1.2 Archaeology and other unforeseen events (Category B) Events affecting or stopping the progress of the works.

5.1.3 Geology/Ground conditions (Category C) When there is a significant change as compared with the baseline with a larger extent of ground conditions requiring specific equipment for excavation and/or backfill and/or reinstatement (e.g. quality and/or extent of the rock, presence of large boulders/cobbles, swamp areas,..)

5.1.4 Fauna and Flora (Category D) Discovery of unexpected species or protected wildlife along the pipeline route.

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5.1.5 Access to the site, Social and Security matters (Category E) The access to certain portions of the site - the pipeline route or certain working areas - may not be available or may be restricted in some ways. There are many reasons which could create such a situation and the most common are listed below:

• • • •

Some land acquisition along the pipeline route might not be finalised or land owners may request to revisit the conditions of transfer of ownership Intervention by an action group using the publicity and/or the negative impact on the project schedule to promote their cause and/or obtain that the authorities consider their demands Security reasons: a portion of the pipeline crosses an area where security of the personnel involved in the construction may not be correctly ensured Access to the pipeline route is available to the construction team but for instance: • access to the main supply points in the country (e.g. access to and from the harbour or airport or local supply stores) • access to the site pipe yards and/or to the main stores • access to the borrow pits (when excavated material, even treated, are not suitable for backfill)

are temporarily unavailable due to external reasons or interferences (e.g. national strike or national shortage of certain materials or consumables, intervention by action group, security reasons)

• •

Preliminary works or adjacent works done by others interfering with the pipeline route or with main accesses to the ROW or to some of the main installations are not completed in an area at the time when work on the pipeline should proceed Seasonal restrictions including breeding periods for protected species, climatic conditions (flooding, rainy seasons, snowfall etc)

5.1.6 Material supply (Category F)

• •

Late delivery of materials supplied by others (ordered directly by the client) and/or quality of such material (e.g. main valves) The client and the designer decide further in-situ testing for new material to be used on the project (e.g. new field joint coating)

5.1.7 Engineering, changes of scope/variation orders (Category G)

• •

56

There is a need to change the design of a certain portion of the work (e.g. unexpected ground conditions, seismic fault or unstable ground in a zone where access was not fully available for investigations at an earlier stage) Similarly the client decides to proceed with some changes to the scope of the works as a result of the above or for some other reason (e.g. new material/component to be used, procurement time impact, larger excavation required for a seismic fault and special backfill material to be used, procurement time impact)

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 6

5.1.8 Permits or Licences (Category H)

• • • •

5.2

Delays in the issuance by the authorities of permit for the works or permit to access some restricted areas (e.g. military zones, border zones,..) or licences to use certain products (e.g. explosives) Delays in agreeing method statements for construction in sensitive areas (i.e. river crossings, designated sites) Restrictions due to transmittable diseases Consent for waste disposal facilities, water abstraction and discharge, camps and/or borrow pits have not been issued

Assessment of their impact on progress, possible mitigation measures and resulting cost impact

5.2.1 The impact of the above events on progress can only be correctly assessed if a detailed programme of works with precise assumptions has been understood and agreed by all parties at the onset (refer to section 3.2 “Establishment of a Detailed Resourced Programme” above). It is also essential that “Early Warning Procedures” be in place so that any party identifying an event with potential impact on progress can promptly organise early warning meetings to jointly establish the responses to the consequences of those events.

Then the management of Stoppages can follow the sequences below:

5.2.1.1 The significant Stoppage (meaning greater than the allowance made in the base programme) of one activity does not affect other activities. This may be the case if: a) the activity affected is well ahead of the base programme b) the following later scheduled activities are significantly behind the base programme c) a combination of a) and b) in other words the actual time lag A1 or B1 or… is greater than the minimum agreed time lag A0 or B0 or…

In the above three situations, the overall programme is not affected and unless further significant Stoppages are expected, there is no immediate need to mitigate the delay of the affected activity.

In terms of cost impact, only the cost of the crew (people, equipment and consumables with the crew environment, transport, lodging and management) from the affected activity over the Stoppage period is to be considered.

5.2.1.2 The significant Stoppage of one activity does affect some but not all the subsequent activities.

For instance Stoppage of I impacts on II and III but not on IV and on the others.

As in 2.1.1 above, the overall programme is not affected and unless further significant Stoppages are expected, there is no immediate need to mitigate the delay of the affected activities.

In terms of cost impact, only the costs of the crews from the affected activities (I, II and III) over the Stoppage period are to be considered.

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5.2.1.3 The significant Stoppage of one activity does affect all the subsequent activities.

This is often the case at the start of works when the Stoppage of the ROW or the stringing for instance just prevents the start of the following activities.

It is also the case when all activities (whether progressing as per base programme or not) are following each other more or less with the agreed minimum time lag A0, B0, C0,..

Here in the absence of mitigation measures (such as strengthening certain crews to subsequently accelerate the works or jumping over the problem zone, (refer to paragraph 2.2) all subsequent activities will be delayed and there may be a risk for the completion date of the project.

In terms of cost impact, the cost of the first crew affected as well as the cost of all following crews over the Stoppage period should be considered but the effect of the Stoppage may also induce the extra cost of an extension of the completion time of the project.

Examples of evaluation of time and cost impacts of full stoppages or of slowdowns to certain activities intervening at various stages of the construction process are included in Appendix 5.2.1.

5.2.1.4 The special case of repeated Stoppages When repeated Stoppages occur they may affect productivity of the working crews who have not had sufficient time to get over repeated remobilisation phases and learning curves. The evaluation of this loss of productivity is not simple. However should longer periods in the past without Stoppages and better productivity exist, they should become the reference to estimate the impact of repeated Stoppages during subsequent periods. In the absence of such reference a joint critical analysis of actual progress as compared with the planned progress is the only solution.

5.2.1.5 The special case of repeated changes to the works such as repeated re-routing, changes of depth, changes of types of protection or backfilling material, when they occur close to the time when works were planned to be performed may also have a disruptive effect to the progress and to the productivity. They should be avoided as far as possible. The evaluation of the impact of those repeated changes is also complex and the same recommendations as in 5.2.1.4 should apply.

5.2.2 Mitigation Measures When significant events of Stoppages occur, the different mitigation measures could consist of:

•

•

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Jumping over the affected zone: if possible (existence of adequate alternative roads or tracks to the ROW) solution prevailing when the duration of the Stoppage is likely to last for much longer than the time needed to move equipment and personnel of a given crew. However the logistics of such move need to have been prepared (or at least identified) in advance to obtain the full benefit (availability of sufficient transport equipment such as low beds for heavy equipment, availability of lodging for personnel, camps, availability of storage and materials,..)

Revised sequence of work (restarting work in another location initially planned to be done at a later stage) when, for instance a Stoppage may prevent completion in an area where the weather is forecast to change soon (snow, heavy rain...) making jumping impossible. Similar logistical problems as for jumping should be addressed

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• • •

Strengthening some of the crews (for instance more hard rock encountered needing additional specific equipment or more requirements for imported backfill material requiring more dumpers for transport of appropriate material) Mobilisation of additional equipment and personnel to implement an overall acceleration Mobilisation of a full new spread

Similarly in the last three examples the logistics of such operations are fundamental to the successful implementation of the measures.

It is therefore recommended to start some of the planning at the onset of the project:

• •

Make provisions in the tender such as the main infrastructure of the camps to be built in advance of their actual need in the base programme, provision of alternative access roads/tracks if feasible, provision of additional low beds for transfers of heavy equipment Prepare and mobilise the same at the start of the project and initiate the early identification of availability of specific equipment and additional acceleration equipment as soon as the early signs of delays materialise

The cost impact of certain mitigation measures could be significant. The more costly those measures become, the more difficult it is, for the project management, to make the required prompt decisions.

In this respect, the role of a Sponsor Group, associating senior executives both from the Client side and from the Contractor side, with no direct role in the management of the contract but closely monitoring the development of the project, is certainly the required support to the project management in those circumstances.

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6.

Best Practices in Planning and Construction Techniques

6.1

Planning and Design

The Planning, Design, and Control (PDC) Workgroup’s mission was to develop guidelines for planning, design and construction of pipeline projects that would provide the right data at the right time in a project lifecycle to increase communication between all stakeholders, reduce project uncertainties, and plan for success.

The objective was to prepare functional specifications and recommended guidelines to improve planning and design processes, simulation and control of the construction activities, and communications during all phases of an onshore pipeline project. The deliverables were to contribute to improvements in safety, reduction of risks and uncertainties, better integrity management of the asset and efficient project execution.

Current industry observations and findings reflect the following:

•

The pipeline route has a major influence on the success or failure of pipeline projects

•

Insufficient information along with disjointed or misaligned activities during the planning and design phases results in uncertainties, risks, and potential delays – It is very difficult to recover from a poor design or plan during construction

•

Data collection and data management standards are applied inconsistently across the industry and from project to project

•

Communication and data flow between all stakeholders is fragmented and complex

To address some of the issues related to the above stated observations the PDC workgroup have identified four activities as listed below:

• • • •

ROW and Constructability Study & Guidelines Minimum data requirements and activities for the five project stages Recommended Functional Specifications for a Near-Real-Time Construction Monitoring Tool Pipeline Simulation Tool RFQ Package

The deliverables from the first two activities are addressed in detail in the following sections 6.1.1 and 6.1.2.

Deliverables from the last two activities which constitute recent developments are addressed in section 7.1 and 7.2.

6.1.1 ROW and Constructability Study & Guidelines Constructability issues play a key part in the pipeline right of way (ROW) route selection. Selecting a route without considering constructability early in the selection process may lead to additional cost and schedule impacts in the latter phases of the project. It is not un-common for the most cost effective route to be chosen during the early project phases only to find later on that the original cost savings have been offset by increased construction costs, leading to much higher overall higher project costs.

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In order to gain an appreciation of Right of Way constructability issues in the pipeline industry, the key consequential constructability issues that may arise during the route selection phase are discussed below.

Reference is also made to Appendix 6.1.1 on Pipeline Route Selection Process.

6.1.1.1 Constructability Issues Right-of-Way (ROW) constructability issues can be broadly classified in the following eight categories:

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Constructability Issues

General Description

Access

This issue covers access to the ROW from existing roads including the requirement to construct access roads from existing roads as well as access along the ROW i.e., the ease or difficulty of travel along the ROW and the frequency of access points to the ROW. Access to the pipeline and associated above ground installations (AGIs) is not only required during construction, but will be required all year round (365 days) for pipeline maintenance and emergency repairs.

Non-contiguous ROW

Also known as “skips”, this issue addresses sections of the ROW for which permission to work is pending, forcing the contractor to move around the section, disrupting continuous lineal progress and requiring a return of equipment and labor to complete the ROW at a later date.

Working Space

Elements in this issue include satisfactory minimum width requirements, boundary restrictions e.g., the requirement to remain within the strict confines of the ROW, constricted working space due to permit requirements, existing structures or parallel existing pipelines. Working space requirements will need to be of sufficient width, length and height so as to allow the footprint of the maximum expected equipment size to be used.

Restoration

This issue covers the requirements to restore the ROW after construction to a near pre-construction state including dealing with landowners to settle damage claims.

Environmental Mitigation

This subset includes the considerations necessary to meet environmental permit requirements both during construction—special construction techniques to minimize damage to sensitive areas, flora and fauna—as well as for post-construction mitigation requirements—strict restoration requirements: re-vegetation, construction of retaining walls, etc.

Permits

This issue includes the impacts resulting from permit compliance requirements and the issues associated with permits that must be obtained by the contractor.

Terrain

The ROW preparation challenges posed by the physical conditions to be encountered e.g., hills, mountains, desert, wetlands, this issue also typically includes aspects such as topsoil segregation requirements and road, rail and river crossings.

Community Relations

This issue includes issues, more typically encountered on an international project in a developing country, such as local content requirements, community assistance programs during construction e.g., building a road to a village, and nominated local subcontractors which the contractor must utilize during construction.

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Industry experience to date generally considers that terrain is the top key constructability issue, followed by access and working space. In developed countries, working space is a high issue, whereas in other countries access is often a high issue due to remote terrains. Depending upon the region of the world where the project is built, community relations is sometimes also a high issue. The issues can be ranked as follows.

6.1.1.2 Overview of Constructability Issues The simple proposition to move hydrocarbons through a pipe from point A to B is quickly complicated by recognizing that the Right-of-Way (the “ROW�) element affects all the project stakeholders: owners, landowners/users, environmentalists, agencies, regulators, engineers, contractors and operators.

Developing countries may present more flexibility for pipeline ROW options due to un-matured permitting and environmental guidelines, but these countries are fast adopting the approach of the developed countries, particularly regarding environmental issues. In developed countries, environmental concerns tend to dominate other route selection issues.

Because of the predominant nature of environmental concerns, existing pipeline corridors or other existing linear corridors (such as roads or electrical lines) are preferred when a project looks to route a new line. A new scar on the landscape will likely add time and cost to the project from both an environmental and permitting perspective.

The owner and engineer orient the pipeline route to comply with environmental and cultural limitations, permit restrictions, landowner/land-use constraints, and engineering and construction considerations. Within the boundaries of the available corridor and along with the regulatory confinements, attention is given to terrain, soil type and access to the ROW for construction and operation.

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The Contractor has to manage multiple difficulties including limited access to the ROW during construction, and constrictions and restrictions to the working space. While these obstacles can be daunting, time consuming and costly, construction is a one-time event in the life cycle of a pipeline system.

The multiple and sometimes conflicting variables which determine pipeline route selection may combine to make constructability issues appear to be a secondary consideration which could lead to an expensive and time consuming mistake.

In general, a pipeline route should be optimized to minimize the impact to habitations, environment and other valued land areas while at the same time be as short and as constructible as possible. Shorter pipelines (not withstanding those through inhabited areas and severe terrain) are typically less expensive to install and operate, offer less maintenance needs, expose less land (and often less of the public) to pipeline operations, are safer, have less impact on future development, and provide more efficient hydraulics.

Choosing a pipeline route that meets these criteria can be a challenging balancing act between the desires of the landowners, the permitting authorities, and the pipeline owners whose functional and financial needs are the driving force behind the project.

This process often includes a number of iterations of route selection, evaluation, negotiation, refinement before the final route is selected.

Routing preferences move toward terrains that are flat, open (unoccupied and non forested), dry, and have stable soils and away from terrains that are occupied, hilly to mountainous, heavily eroded, wet, contain unstable soils, and have numerous crossings (natural or manmade watercourses, roads, etc.). By prioritizing and weighing all the different features and terrains encountered in combination with conscientious, good faith negotiations with the landowners and the permitting authorities and never losing sight of the owners goals and needs for the pipelines functionality, cost, and safety an optimal route can be found.

6.1.1.2.1 Access Once a route has been selected, access to the route must be obtained first for engineering assessment and survey, for construction, and then permanent access for operations and maintenance. Construction access is important as it involves the transport of heavy equipment and material to the Right of Way (ROW). Permanent access for operations and maintenance is by far the most important as this will be required all year round (365 days) for any potential emergency inspections and repairs. Access may be via public or private means. Public roads and highways are used to get material and equipment into the general vicinity, if not directly to, the area on the ROW where they are needed. Otherwise, the contractor must rely on either access directly down the ROW or by private access, negotiated with landowners, to get his equipment and material to the ROW. Access down the ROW is relied upon heavily by the contractor, but this is frequently interrupted by the presence of natural features such as marshes and soft ground, streams, and ravines. Long driving distances are often involved in circumventing these features by public roads. In such cases, private access, by means of a private road or temporary board or gravel road (built by the contractor) on private property, is often required. Temporary access roads are most often removed after construction and pre-existing private roads used must typically be left in as good or better condition than found.

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6.1.1.2.2 Non-contiguous ROW Non-contiguous ROW is primarily a planning and permitting issue, and is often encountered where landowner negotiations for the ROW have been prolonged or face litigation or where permitting issues have not been fully resolved in a given area at the time construction is scheduled to begin. Unresolved access to the ROW can force a contractor to reload, move, and unload his equipment repeatedly and also complicates the logistics of moving material to the ROW. Similarly, missing ROW sections can interfere with the efficient hydrostatic testing of the pipeline once installed and can force the contractor to return to the area once the ROW is obtained. This interference with the normal pipeline construction and testing process lowers construction efficiency, raises costs, and extends the construction schedule thus delaying the pipeline in-service time. As a result, every effort should be made to minimise contiguous ROW issues prior to start of construction.

6.1.1.2.3 Working Space Working space constitutes the area in which the construction equipment will operate while installing the pipeline and associated facilities. For the pipeline itself, this is a combination of the ROW and the temporary workspace outside the ROW, which is negotiated with land owners, for use on a temporary basis during construction only. This temporary workspace is often located parallel to and on both sides of the pipeline ROW. The full, running construction corridor (ROW and temporary workspace) is typically broken into three, parallel strips. First, there is the pipe trench located in the central portion of the corridor (and within the ROW), second, the spoil side workspace where the trench spoil is placed, and third, the working side (opposite the spoil side of the trench) where the pipe is strung and welded together, the side booms operate, and typically a travel or passing lane is provided outside the pipe and side booms. The width of the temporary workspace is largely dependent on the size of the pipe, the size of the equipment to handle it (side booms, etc.), the depth of the trench, and the degree to which soil segregation is required. Typically, additional temporary workspace is provided at road, stream and other crossings where more or special construction equipment is required, crossing pipe sections (drag sections) must be fabricated, and additional requirements for spoil storage must be made. These additional temporary workspace requirements are essentially standard for road and stream crossings, but can be much larger and more complex for special construction areas such as at horizontal directional drilled (HDD) crossings.

The proper allowance of workspace on a pipeline project creates an efficient construction environment where high levels of safety and productivity can be achieved and maintained, construction schedules are reduced, costs are mitigated, and a better industry reputation maintained altogether. Whereas, inadequate workspace creates an inefficient and unsafe work environment where equipment and personnel must work too closely together, equipment is restricted in its ability to move and pivot, material storage and fabrications must be done at remote locations then transported to site, spoil must be transferred to multiple locations, access and passing lanes are nonexistent or restricted, and project schedules are prolonged, safety and quality is sacrificed, and costs increased among other negative effects.

In general, adequate work space is a key component to a successful pipeline project.

However, the availability of space is dependent on the terrain being crossed. Construction in mountainous terrain, at the peaks, will limit working space, meaning that construction traffic will require more control moving up and down the right of way compared to a flat right of way. This will affect construction rates, and hence overall schedules.

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6.1.1.2.4 Restoration Restoration is the return of the temporary construction workspace and, the pipeline ROW, to a condition similar prior to the construction of the pipeline. Restoration plans are generally negotiated with the land owners, environmental engineers, and permitting authorities prior to construction commencement. Plans are drawn up according to the agreements with all involved. Typically the restoration of ROW and workspace involves the return of appropriate plant life to these areas and updating ground drainage to work as before. In some cases it will also involve the replacement of road and parking lot surfaces (etc.) or the stabilization of stream and river banks at crossings. In the latter cases, care should be taken to prevent settlement or erosion of those surfaces in the years following construction. In the former, (regarding plant life restoration) the workspace may be typically allowed to either return to its natural state somewhat on its own or be replanted with plant life, including trees, similar to those in the surrounding area. Typically the ROW itself is not replanted with trees or heavy brush as it must be passable by maintenance and emergency vehicles, and be able to be monitored by crews on foot or by plane. There are exceptions to this such as along navigable and scenic rivers where tree screens are often required by the permitting authorities. However, any trees or heavy brush planted near pipelines must have shallow roots so as not to interfere with the pipeline and its coating. At a minimum, the disturbed ground is typically graded then seed, lime, mulch, fertilizer, etc. is spread to provide a temporary stabilization to the soil surface to mitigate erosion (in accordance with the approved plans). At times, the soil must be broken or aerated to some degree if it has been compacted too severely by construction equipment. Farmers will often take care of the restoration of their own cropland in accordance with their own plans with expectations of compensation for their effort. In some cases the restoration effort may extend over several years until a specified (in the permit) percentage of the disturbed land has been restored. Complicated restoration efforts (as might be required in national parks) are often subcontracted out by the owner or prime contractor.

6.1.1.2.5 Environmental Mitigation As an example, a large diameter pipeline, 100 miles long may traverse various terrain types and cross through or near many farms, parks, forests, and/or prairies, and may cross dozens of streams and/or rivers. Such a pipeline can potentially disturb over 1200 acres of land and leave in its path a prominent scar across the countryside. In an effort to mitigate the negative impact to the environment of a pipeline project it is important to first assess the types of environments through which the pipeline is proposed to pass. Second, to develop a plan by which the impact of the pipelines construction and operation in those environments is mitigated. This environmental mitigation plan for a pipeline project is prepared in cooperation with the land owners and the permitting authorities. The first, and most important, tool by which environmental impact is mitigated is optimized routing of the pipeline. By that means alone, very important or sensitive land areas have the best opportunity to minimize or eliminate negative environmental impact. Additional mitigation measures include:

• • • • • • •

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Boring or HDD under or passed areas of concern Reduced ROW and/or workspace width Bridging over areas of concern Increasing the depth of cover or insulating the pipe (where surface heating or cooling is a concern) Rearranging mainline valves out of areas of concern Sharing ROW with adjacent utilities Using existing bridges

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• •

Installing interconnections with existing pipelines (where extras capacity is available) rather than building a new pipeline Using skid mounted equipment prefabricated elsewhere

And yet other ways exist to reduce or eliminate the impact of pipeline construction and operation to the environment. As for land that is impacted by the pipeline, a plan must be developed in cooperation with the landowners and permitting authorities, to restore the disturbed environment, as much and as soon as possible, to its preconstruction state.

6.1.1.2.6 Permits Any and all pipelines that are to leave the property of the pipeline owner and cross either public land or private land, not owned by the pipeline owner, must be approved by the appropriate public authorities. It is the duty of the public authorities to ensure that all laws of the land are obeyed, that the rights of private property owners are respected, and that there is an overriding public good provided by the pipeline project. The approval of the project, by the public authorities, is generally provided in the form of a permit, signed by the appropriate public representative and officially issued.

This permit, often issued with stipulations, is the means by which the pipeline is approved to be designed, constructed and operated. Different countries have differing regulatory and permit requirements. Such permits can typically be broken into three types. These are typically Federal, State, and local. Generally speaking, if a pipeline is classified as having Common Carrier status (carrying the products of more than one company) then the owner company is given the right of Eminent Domain, which in effect, allows the pipeline owner company to condemn property owners in court to obtain (at fair market value) the access, ROW, and/or workspace needed to construct and operate their pipeline. Typical reasons that permits are issued include the following:

• • • •

•

•

To confirm that a pipeline project is in the best public interest and that a fair increase in commodity or tariff rates may be made, by the owner company, to offset the projects costs To confirm that property owners, on whose property the pipeline is to be located, are not unduly burdened by it To confirm that the environmental impact is acceptable and that appropriate mitigation and restoration will be conducted To confirm that the route and workspace has been searched for prehistoric and historic sites in the vicinity of the project and that either the project’s impact to any such sites is nil or acceptable and that appropriate restoration will be performed (as required) To confirm that the route and workspace has been searched for endangered species and habitat in the vicinity of the project and that either the project’s impact to any such sites is nil or acceptable and that appropriate restoration will be performed (as required) To confirm the acceptance of road, railroad, stream and other crossings

Numerous additional types of permits might also be required. These permits can take from a few days to prepare a simple drawing and obtain a local road crossing permit to over a year to apply and obtain a federal permit for a large multi-state project.

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6.1.1.2.7 Terrain This is the top key construction issue. In weighing the construction, material, and operational costs and needs of a cross country pipeline, there will sometimes be decisions made during the routing process to traverse a shorter distance through a more difficult terrain rather than take a longer distance through a more favorable terrain (and vice-versa).

Generally, shorter pipelines make for lower construction, material, and operational costs.

However, in some cases, it may be preferable to take a longer route around an area, such as a dense city or a mountain range, rather than take the shorter and more direct route through it. Complications can increase substantially in mountainous and other regions affecting safety and extending the construction schedule resulting in increased costs.

In addition, product transportation and operation costs can significantly increase though mountainous regions (for liquid lines). In such cases, for example, the increase in costs for a mountainous route, over the life of the pipeline, could outweigh those for a longer route around a mountain range. These are issues that must be worked out in the overall process of optimizing the pipelines function and lifetime cost (construction, material, and operations).

Never the less, difficult terrains are often part of a chosen pipeline route, to a greater or lesser extent, and must be dealt with by the construction contractor. Such terrains might include mountains, marshes, permafrost, urban areas, unstable soils (moving sand dunes, etc.), rugged areas with much erosion and exposed rock, areas with poor access, etc.

In all these cases, careful planning of the workspace, access, material storage yards, construction equipment to be used, pipeline installation methods, and construction schedule (winter, summer, etc.) in consideration of the terrain will make vast improvements in the safety and productivity of the construction phase of the project.

6.1.1.2.8 Community Relations Presenting a proposed pipeline project, to the communities it affects, in a positive way and maintaining a good and positive relationship with affected communities is key to minimizing many of the problems that can often hamper the permitting, construction, operation, and maintenance of a pipeline. Project administrators should notify communities early on about the plans for a proposed pipeline project by contacting community administrators, posting newspaper notices, and conducting public meetings. Open public meetings provide an opportunity for local officials, landowners, business leaders, and other affected parties to receive information about the pipeline(s) location(s), construction schedule, and key project contacts. These meetings can also provide a means of providing information about the benefits of a pipeline project (economic stimulus, jobs, etc.), allow community members to have their questions answered and concerns addressed, rectify misunderstandings that frequently alarm people unnecessarily about pipeline projects, and avert negative media attention. Likewise, these meetings allow for dialogue with property owners and community.

Overall, good relationships between pipeline owner companies and communities are invaluable toward improved routing and facility location options, ROW and workspace negotiations, assistance from the local contractors and workforce, and opportunities for the use of community infrastructure and facilities among other things.

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6.1.2 Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for the Five Typical Project Stages

The diagram below shows the typical project cycle time and the project phases in relation with the Construction Contract duration.

It is also important to bear in mind that a pipeline project is a multi-discipline effort involving coordination between pipeline engineers, metallurgy, process, control systems, electrical, piping, civil and mechanical works as well as social, cultural and environmental specialists.

6.1.2.1 FEL 1 Business Planning Business planning is utmost importance as it sets the foundation stone for the project, ie why the project is required, that project expenditure is necessary, and the purpose of the project.

Defining the purpose of the project is key, as the project phases following this FEL 1 will aim at providing the optimum solution to comply with the project purpose/statement of requirements (SOR). It basically sets the ground rules/constraints around which the design will be performed.

This activity normally involves the following:

• • • • • • •

Business Case Strategic Objectives Economic Analysis Project Expectations Market Analysis Competitors Review/Competing projects Environmental Constraints

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Cost estimates and schedules are a key driver, and both of these require overall pipeline knowledge covering pipeline size determination, pump or compressor requirements, Scada/telecoms, pipeline security, environmental issues, terrain, and regulations.

As stated above, a pipeline projects is a multi-discipline effort. A composite team of pipeline, process, controls, piping, civil, environmental, social and safety engineers is required. For business planning of long distance pipelines crossing country borders, both legal and commercial inputs are also required to advise on international/cross border conditions and tariffs, international negotiations The costing analysis will need to offset revenue costs against:

• • •

Tariffs (cross-borders) Material and construction (pipe, valves, SCADA, rotating equipment, fiscal metering) OPEX (fuel usage, security, maintenance and inspection, CO2 offset)

A high level pipeline schedule showing the start and end date to commissioning the line is important. Key overview activities include:

• • • • •

EIA (Environmental Impact Studies) Regulatory permits and approvals Design Long lead items (pumps, compressors, linepipe, SCADA/telecoms) Construction

The minimum data requirements are typically:

• • • • • •

Existing infrastructure information Political situations Expectations Market information Competitor data Key environmental constraints

The output from the business planning phase is typically

• • • • • • • • •

Business case justification document Project statement of requirements Framework/Scope/Project Objectives Regulatory plan Decision Review Packages Cost Estimate – (+/- 50%, or order of magnitude OOM) Schedule Timeline Project Execution Plan Project Risk Assessment (commercial/technical/environmental)

It is important that the above deliverables have been thoroughly studied, as any changes later on could introduce flaws for the whole philosophy leading to the effort having to be re-done.

This would result in redundant work, and consequential impacts on the schedule.

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A Regulatory Plan is also of paramount importance to plan the submission of the key approval documents during the alternative selection phase. It is also needed to ensure that the schedule takes into account public consultation meetings, local area/local jurisdiction approvals and governmental approvals.

Any problems in these areas can jeopardize the project viability.

6.1.2.2 FEL 2 Alternative Selection The alternative selection phase is where the pipeline system design is further progressed to confirm viability and to review and select the optimum solution. This phase should deliver the requirements set out during the business planning phase, develop cost estimates to +/-30%, and produce a project schedule containing greater detail.

The selection phase will utilize the project statement of requirements (SOR), Framework, Scope, and project objectives to develop viable options meeting the project requirements.

These options will be driven by safety, environmental and social constraints, and cost, and can include: • Routing options • Pipeline configurations (single line/multiple lines) • Pipeline diameter vs. design pressure options • Pipeline diameter vs. no of pump/compression station locations It is important that all the viable options have been considered in detail and that there is agreement on the optimum solution selected. It is important that a solution selection criterion is prepared, is agreed, and is robust enough to ensure that the correct criteria are used for the selection analysis. The key requirements need to be ranked higher in the list as appropriate.

It is not uncommon that a number of selection phase studies are done to ensure that the correct solution for further engineering development is selected. In some cases, design competitions are held with this intention.

The engineering activities involved during this phase are generally:

• • • • •

Establish Regulatory/Permitting requirements/schedule Desktop Routing Study (starting with 10km wide corridor) Perform Hydraulic Study to ascertain pipeline sizes Engineering to select solution for further design HSE Plan

Minimum data requirements:

• • • • •

Project Statement of requirements Local regulations and codes Pipeline owner/operator Design Specifications Other data required for the work is collected as required Environmental impact assessment

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The output is a study report generally comprising the following:

•

• •

• • • • •

• •

• •

Pipeline Route • Routing plan drawing • Route Maps • Number of and Station locations (valve, pigging, pump, compression, metering) • Terrain (topographical/geotechnical) description • Crossings Process description including minimum operational requirements Pipeline system parameters: • Design code • Outside diameter • Wall thickness/material grade • Length • Pressure/Temperature profile • Corrosion protection SCADA/telecoms requirements AGI’s/Station layouts/plot plans (valve, pigging, pump, compression, metering) Plant layouts (equipment upstream and downstream of the pipeline system) Preliminary Equipment list/MTO’s Regulatory • Permitting and regulatory plans • Authorizations and approvals plan • Crossings approval plan Construction methodology HSE • Safety Plan • Preliminary Environmental Impact Assessment • Environmental constraints (plant, pipeline and stations) • Health Plan • Community Awareness Plan • Public Relations Plan • Environmental Risk Register Cost estimate Schedule

It is recommended that an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report be commissioned after this phase using the pipeline route maps and station location/layouts as the basis. The purpose of this will be to highlight any major issues preventing project realization before committing to any further funding.

6.1.2.3 FEL 3 Project Definition The project definition phase is where the engineering of pipeline system is enhanced to a level providing a +/-15% estimate, and the schedule activities are now shown to a more detailed level.

The process includes:

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Project Management Contracts Plan Regulatory Material Selection

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• • • • • •

Hydraulic Study Routing Study (Narrow down to a 100 m - 500 m wide corridor) Engineering Plan Procurement Plan Construction Plan HES Plan

The input will include:

• • • • • • •

Alternative Selection Phase report Field data Topographical and Geotechnical Surveys Environmental Assessment Inputs from specialists (e.g. river/flood plain crossings) Regulations and codes Pipeline owner/operator Design Specifications

In this phase the route should be nearing finalisation, GIS (geographic information system) should be set up, and constructability and construction planning becomes a key issue together with engineering.

During the course of project definition, when the route maps have been better defined, a constructability session with engineers and construction contractors present should be conducted to ensure that the design has not introduced expensive and time consuming stipulations. Construction contractors may be able to advise of more cost effective and less time consuming options regards pipeline and stations layouts.

Topographical and geotechnical surveys should be scoped, specified and awarded at the start of project definition to enable the results to be used.

The Output of FEL 3 typically includes the following: Economic Evaluation Of Alternatives Decision Review Packages Org Charts Staffing Plan Cost Estimate - Class 3 Detailed Project Schedule Project Execution Plan Freeze/Commit To Design Scope Of Works Contractor Pre-Qualification/Selection Contract Enquiry Packages Technical Bid Evaluations Contract Awards Permitting And Regulatory Plans

Typical Drawings • Pipeline Right-Of-Way Detail • Bored Road Crossing • Minor Water Crossing • Open Cut Road Crossing • Trench & Backfill Details • Pipe Crossing Through Wet Areas • Bored Crossing Trench Detail • Fencing Facility • Railway Crossing Bored (Single) • Railway Crossing Bored (Dual) • Pipeline Concrete Coating • Pipeline Marker Sign • Pipeline Pig Launcher Arrangement • Pipeline Pig Receiver Arrangement • General Arrangement Scraper Receiver Approach

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Authorisations And Approvals Plan Crossings Approval Plan

Materials And Corrosion System MAOP Flow Assurance Station Spacing/Location Number Of Stations Horsepower Requirement/Station Transient Analysis Results Surge Analysis Results System Sketch Populate GIS Routing Corridor Route Maps Design Basis Material Selection Cathodic Protection Design Scada Philosophy Operating Philosophy Control Philosophy Mechanical Design • Wall Thickness • Operational Stress Analysis • Upheaval Buckling Analysis • Bend Analysis • Expansion/Anchoring Analysis • Anchor Flange Calculations • Line Erosion Analysis

• • • • • •

Flotation/Sinkage Road Crossing Rail Crossing River Crossing Blasting Earthquake CP Plan Detailed Drawings • Plot Plans • Alignment Sheets • Valve Stations • Scraper Station Ga • Pipeline Main Line Valve • Cross-Sectional Crossing Drawings (Plan And Profile) Showing Pipeline In Relation To All Existing Facilities

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• •

Valve Station Location Drawing Pipeline Main Line Valve – Vented General Arrangement • Anchor Block Detail • Sketches • Plot Plans • Layouts • Tie-Ins Risk Register Metering Philosophy Facility Specs (Pump/Compressors, Metering, Traps, Etc.) MTO/Long Lead Items Design Report Mto Plan Crossings List Environmental Compliance Engineering Equipment Engineering Project Drawings Project Data Sheets Survey Specifications Equipment Specifications Material Specifications Construction Specifications Pre-Commissioning/Commissioning Specifications Vendor Pre-Qualification/Selection Material Enquiry Packages Technical Bid Evaluations Material Award Packages Contract Award Packages Vendor Print Reviews Procurement Support (typically long lead items) • Line Pipe • Corrosion Coatings • Pig Launchers/Receivers Material Logistics Plan Construction Plan March Charts Safety Plan Environmental Impact Assessment Health Plan Community Awareness Plan Public Relations Plan Environmental Risk Register

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In addition to the pipeline design itself, the other elements of the design include the upstream and downstream facilities, pipeline safety and control, SCADA/telecoms, metering, station design, access roads/infrastructure, buildings etc.

Pipeline design will include diameter and wall thickness confirmation and operability stress analysis, and will include anchoring analysis.

Depending on the schedule, and market conditions it is not uncommon, to place some materials orders during this phase for long lead items (LLI’s) such as linepipe, rotating equipment, and SCADA. Specific engineering actions to define these long lead materials are then performed. Materials can be novated at a later stage to the contractor.

HSEIA (Health Safety and Environmental Impact Studies) activities such as QRA, HAZOP/SIL, HAZID, SIMOPS, will be conducted. The findings from these studies will be included in the design.

QRA (Quantitative Risk Assessment) is a risk assessment activity, part of an integrity management program, to understand the nature and location of risks along the pipeline and at the AGI’s/Stations.

QRA (Quantitative Risk Analysis) is often used to qualify the probabilistic risk approach in which not only the consequence of an adverse event is calculated but also the likelihood is quantified.

SIL (Safety Integrity Level) study is a measure of Probability to Fail on Demand (PFD) of any Safety Instrumented System (SIS) installed on the pipeline (eg surge protection equipment). SIL is a statistical representation of the integrity of the SIS when a process demand occurs. A demand occurs whenever the process reaches the trip condition and causes the SIS to take action. In simpler terms, SIL is a measurement of performance required for a Safety Instrumented System (SIS).

Four SILs are defined, with SIL4 being the most dependable and SIL1 being the least. A SIL is determined based on a number of quantitative factors in combination with qualitative factors such as development process and safety life cycle management.

Hazard and operability studies are a methodology for identifying and dealing with potential problems in industrial processes, particularly those which would create a hazardous situation or a severe impairment of the process. It is commonly known as HAZOP. It is sometimes also called Hazard and Operability Analysis. It is said to be the most widely used method of hazard analysis in the process industries, notably the chemical, petrochemical and nuclear industries. HAZOPs are conducted by a team of people that are knowledgeable in the process; the team is led by a trained facilitator that uses a list of guide words to lead the discussions.

SIMOPS (SIMultaneous OPerationS) is defined as performing two or more operations concurrently.

When installing a pipeline next t existing operating pipelines, a SIMOPs plan is required to ensure that the operation and safety of the existing pipeline is not compromised.

A typical design chart is shown overleaf.

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Typical Design Chart

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6.1.2.4 Project Execution The project execution phase at this stage of the development by Client is mainly characterised by material procurement activities, construction planning and logistics. The engineering is completed to enable specification of all materials required.

The project execution phase is characterised by:

• • • • • • • • • •

Project Management Contracts Plan Regulatory Material Selection Hydraulic/Flow Assurance Detailed Routing (Minimum 22 m wide construction corridor, down to 8 m wide permanent ROW corridor) Engineering Plan Procurement Plan Construction Plan HSE Plan

Input:

• • • •

Output from Project Definition, FEL 2 and FEL 3 Regulatory approvals Permit approvals Crossing approvals

The key engineering activities will be to finalise the Scada and Telecoms design, the stations design, and prepare construction specifications. A multi-discipline engineering team will complete the design.

Construction drawings are prepared for the crossings, and any special pipeline sections at route pinch points. Details on the drawings need to sufficiently clear to enable the construction site team to understand the requirements and to build to these requirements. Ambiguous information will result is site queries and loss of construction. Ambiguous information can also lead to misinterpretation of instructions leading to construction not consistent with the design philosophy. This is one of reasons to involve construction group in the design phase to ensure that handover from office engineering to site team is clear and concise.

Construction engineering activities will include developing the material storage and logistic plans, construction spreads, hydrotest water supply and disposal plans, hydrotest plans. The supply and environmentally safe disposal of hydrotest water can sometimes be a key issue on remote location pipelines, particularly in hot countries.

The project deliverables are not just pipeline engineering, but across the whole board from process, piping, controls to civil works and environment for access roads, infrastructure for maintenance and inspection to security fencing at the AGI’s and stations.

Operating and commissioning manuals will need to be prepared in readiness for the pipeline start-up. The operating manuals will need to be clear and concise instructions on how to operate the system (start up, shutdown and for safely how long, turndown, turn-up rates, re-start, and pigging requirements and frequencies).

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There will also need to be manuals for the plant, AGI’s/stations, and for the SCADA/telecoms.

A typical alignment sheet is shown below which shows the pipeline plan and topographical profile as well as data such as:

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

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Pipe outside diameter Pipe wall thickness Pipe material Design factor/class location Coating Burial depth/soil cover depth, including special locations to mitigate against buckling (if required) Intersection Points (IP’s) locations where pipeline changes direction Chainage (KP) kilometre point Location of horizontal and vertical bends Water table Existing services Crossing location Any other project specific salient features

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6.1.2.5 Start-up and Operations The start-up and operations is the last phase where the pipeline is readied to be commissioned and operated. This is the true test that the installed system will meet the design conditions originally stipulated.

The performance testing will involve introducing fluid into the pipeline, and ensuring that all the associated systems are working properly.

Also all the documents created during the execution phase, ie the design drawings, material documents and construction records are collated into an as-built document, similar to the technical section in a user manual.

The as-built document, which should comprise of a number of volumes, should contain all the information required to understand the system composition should something go wrong. This would typically comprise:

• • • • • • • •

Design basis Alignment sheets Crossing drawings Material specifications Vendor documents (for materials) Line pipe material certificates Hydrotest data Construction records (weld sheets, joint coating sheets)

The benefits of using GIS (geographic information system) are that the as-built data can be stored with the GIS system and the information tagged to the relevant locations. This will mean that pointing to a location will bring up all the available as-built information for that point.

Instigating GIS at the definition phase will enable a cradle to grave information system that can be updated across the design and operating life span of the pipeline. It could also be used to track materials during the procurement and construction phase, and to record maintenance and inspection history during the operational phase.

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Input

• •

Execution phase documents Operating and Commissioning Manuals

The output will generally include: Summary Data Book Design Basis Data Book Design Calculations Quality Plans And Manuals Special Procedures Cost Summaries Manufacturing Data Book Tender Specifications Equipment And Material Specifications Purchase Orders As-Built Vendor Drawings Material And Testing Certificates Vendor Inspection Reports Special Manufacturing And Fabrication Procedures Heat Treatment Certificates Special Procedures Fabrication Data Book Pipeline Installation Data Book

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Contracts Job Hazard Analyses Monthly Progress Reports Non-Destructive Testing Summary And Radiographs Weld Procedures And Qualification Certificates Welder And NDT Inspector Qualification Certificates Pipeline Facilities Installation Book Field Sketches, Survey Notes And Red-Line Mark-Up Data Book Construction Inspection Reports As-Built Drawings As-Built Survey Data - Electronic Copy Cathodic Protection Survey Data Book Video Survey Data Book Pressure Testing Data Book Hydrotest Reports Pre-Commissioning Data Book Commissioning Reports

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6.2

Earthworks

The terrain, soil types, and geohazards traversed by the pipeline are key factors to consider in the design, the construction and the operation and maintenance of a pipeline project. First, the terrain typically affects pipeline hydraulics, above ground stations, and pipeline protection. Second, soils types will affect heat transfer, pipeline restraint, and constructability. Finally, geohazards often require special design and construction considerations.

This Earthworks section offers guidelines on how to prepare the right of way (ROW) in different types of terrains, on the earthworks design, on the measures recommended to reduce the impact on the environment, and finally on the approach to health and safety.

Section 6.2.1 describes the Typical Cross Sections of the ROW in 10 different types of terrains with a table indicating the recommended dimensions for constructability. Indeed Earthworks include preparing the right of way, digging the trench, ensuring trench side stability, soil handling and storage, backfill and excess spoil disposal, and finally reinstatement. Therefore the ROW configuration must allow smooth development of all those operations.

The following section 6.2.2 deals with the Earthworks Design and in particular the pipeline trench design.

The recommendations to reduce impact of the earthworks operations on the Environment are detailed in section 6.2.3.

Finally statistics have shown that pipeline trenches and earthworks operations are a major source of fatalities in the pipeline industry. Therefore, Health and Safety is paramount, and all pipeline construction method statements and procedures must be developed around safety. This is the subject of section 6.2.4.

6.2.1 Typical ROW Cross Sections for large Diameter Pipelines in 10 different terrain configurations Please refer to the following drawings.

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Cross Section n째1

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Base Case

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Cross Section n째2

Rock ROW

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Cross Section n째3

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Sand dunes area

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Cross Section n째4

Wet Land with dry Construction

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Cross Section n째5

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Shabka

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Cross Section n째6

Side slope

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Cross Section n째7

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Wetland with under water Construction

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Cross Section n째8

Arctic Conditions

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Cross Section n째9

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Environmental Sensitive Areas

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Cross Section n째10

Ridge

91

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1: Base case

15 6

40

2.3

30

N-A

11

N-A

10

10

N-A

24

1.5

1.5

1.5 2

0.9

14

0.3

N-A

13

17

(all distances in meters)

Angle (trench top) (degree)

Traffic lane

Recommended R.O.W.

Depth (trench)

-

Angle (slope) (degree)

-

Material area

Material area 1

Material area 2

Snow + Ice road

-

-

-

-

Trench top

Cover

Working area

Top soil

Backfill

Economic R.O.W. (material area)

A

B

C

D

E

G

L

M

M1

M2

N

R

SM

SW

TB

TT

V

W

Y

Z

EM

EW Economic R.O.W. (working area) 17.5

12.5

N-A

0.1

15.5

0.8

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

24

N-A

10

10

N-A

11.5

N-A

30

1.9

40

6

N-A

2: Rock R.O.W.

25

30

0.6

N-A

18

2

8

3

3

1

43

N-A

25

25

N-A

13

N-A

55

2.9

80

12

30

16.5

18.5

0.6

0.3

11

0.9

8

2.5

1.5

1.5

N-A

N-A

7

13

N-A

16.5

N-A

35

2.3

42

N-A

45

18

15

0.9

N-A

13.5

1.1

4

1.5

2.5

3

28

N-A

7

10

N-A

13

N-A

35

2.2

40

5

45

3: Sand 4: Wet Land 5: Sabkha Dunes with dry Area use Construction

30 15 17 N-A N-A N-A 40 2 1 2 10 1.2 10 N-A 1 25 15

11 N-A 17 5 N-A 29 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 0.9 13 0.3 N-A 19.5 15.5

40

2.3

40

N-A

20

20

N-A

0.3

16

0.9

2

2

3

3

34

1

N-A

N-A

16

14

N-A

40

2.3

40

6

9

3

N-A

0.3

N-A

0.9

2

1.5

1

2

12

N-A

N-A

N-A

N-A

7

N-A

N-A

2.3

12

N-A

N-A

6

N-A

0.3

N-A

0.9

2

1.5

3

1

14

N-A

8

8

N-A

8

30

N-A

2.3

30

N-A

7: Wetland 8: Arctic 9: Environ- 10: Ridge with under Conditions mental water Sensitive construction Areas 30 N-A 15 15

15

35

2.3

40

6

15

6: Side Slope

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6.2.1.2 Table of the dimensions shown on the Cross Sections

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6.2.2 Earthworks Design/Trenching for Pipeline Construction 6.2.2.1 Introduction Trenching is the favoured pipeline installation method. In spite of its apparent simplicity, thorough analysis is required at the design stage of the numerous interrelated factors. This chapter provides an insight to the factors, issues and solutions for trenching which may be present and required to achieve a successful, design code and legally compliant pipeline trenching solution.

6.2.2.2 Why Are Pipelines Buried?

6.2.2.2.1 General Pipelines are buried for a number of reasons. These include: • To avoid the pipeline becoming a barrier to people, animals and vehicles • To minimise visual impact • To reduced the risks to the pipeline from third party interference. This can be either voluntary (e.g. hot-tapping, vandalism, terrorism) or involuntary (e.g. vehicle, machine or tool impact) • To improve protection of the over-ground environment from a catastrophic pipeline failure such as an explosion, a high-pressure leak, or a toxic release • To use the soil as a part of the pipeline design. E.g. soil cover can provide restraint, and favour or hinder heat transfer • Cost – in most cases burial will result in a lower overall capital and maintenance cost These reasons, together with the pipe characteristics, the soil type, and the nature of the carried product, are considered in the trench and the backfilling requirements. They are discussed in more detail below.

6.2.2.2.2 Community access The most obvious reason for burying a pipeline is to make its presence virtually invisible to the above-ground community. In populated areas, the need for roads and access ways make the burial of pipelines a necessity. Moreover, pipelines often cross privately owned land and it wouldn’t be acceptable to effectively divide properties into two or more parcels. Even areas devoid of activity, it is often advisable to bury pipelines to allow hiking, hunting, off-road driving but also to preserve natural landscapes.

6.2.2.2.3 Wildlife Direct loss of habitat Pipeline construction results in changes in the habitat value of the land. Habitat discontinuities in forested landscapes and may also serve as conduits facilitating the spread of undesirable plants and animals (Seabrook and Dettmann, 1996; Parendes and Jones, 2000), thus creating a loss of habitat for indigenous species.

Habitat fragmentation Pipelines dissect continuous habitat patches resulting in smaller patch sizes and higher edge to interior ratios. The loss of interior habitat is of concern for edge-sensitive species and smaller overall patch sizes may result in the loss of area-sensitive wildlife.

Reduced access to vital habitats As barriers to wildlife movement, pipelines reduce access to vital habitats for a variety of wildlife species. Wide-ranging mammal species can lose access to important habitats when movements are restricted by pipelines. Critical habitats required by wildlife species can be separated on either side of a pipeline, jeopardizing local populations (Fig. 1).

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Disruption of social structure Decreased animal movement can undermine processes that help maintain regional populations over time. Barriers to movement can block the exchange of individuals among populations, eliminating gene flow and disrupting the ability of “source” populations to support declining populations nearby. Barriers to dispersing individuals also eliminate opportunities to re-colonize vacant habitat after local extinction events.

Population fragmentation and isolation Pipelines create barriers to movement that subdivide animal populations. Local population extinctions may occur due to stochastic genetic and demographic events, environmental variability and natural catastrophes. Population extinction is more likely to occur in smaller populations, such as those produced by habitat fragmentation.

Disruption of processes that maintain regional populations The dispersal of individuals between populations has been shown to be important for the maintenance of genetic viability within local populations, and for maintaining local and regional populations in the face of population extinctions.

Fig. 1 Wildlife and pipelines

6.2.2.2.4 Third party risk The industry categorises “third party” incidents as incidents caused by persons not involved with operating or maintaining the pipeline – farmers, homeowners, construction crews and excavators – i.e. people who in the course of their normal activities may cause pipeline damage.

The root causes of third party damage of pipelines are complex, random, and difficult to forecast and control. Third party damage is the most common cause of incidents to pipelines, which can cause a hole or a complete rupture of the pipeline. Fig. 2 shows the third party risk relative to other risks.

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Fig. 2 Incidents by cause and size of leak (after Porter et al. 2004). Source: European Gas pipeline Incident data Group (EGIG).

In most situations, the ground directly over a buried pipeline will be used in the same way as adjoining land. This means that third party interference (whether intentional or not) can be encountered especially in rural areas where people are more likely to perform earthworks without first getting clearance from the local administration who would know about pipeline presence. In general, mechanical damage occurs after the pipeline is in service from activities in the pipeline right-of-way. Such damage may occur slowly (e.g., rocks) or quickly (e.g., excavation equipment). Activities associated with mechanical damage occurrences typically include:

• • • •

Drainage and agricultural activity Infrastructure construction (buildings, road-making, excavation, drilling, fencing, horizontal drilling and trenching) Exposure to projectiles: rocks, shrapnel, bullets (exposed pipelines) Unauthorized hot tapping and grinding

The risk of external interference can be mitigated by the following:

• • • •

•

Increasing awareness of the pipeline, e.g. land owner liaison and over-ground markers Monitoring of the Right of Way, e.g. flying, walking and or driving the ROW at regular intervals Providing increased resistance to penetration in the pipe itself, e.g. increasing the wall thickness Physically preventing contact with the pipe (see Fig. 3): when this cannot be achieved by exclusion (e.g. by fencing each side of the right of way) or by the use of barriers (e.g. by placing a slab of concrete on top of the pipe), separation from third party activity can be achieved by increasing the burial depth Legal and voluntary systems that require third parties to consult pipeline and other buried services operators before commencing excavation. Some counties use ‘one-call’ systems to provide a central communication point so that third parties can quickly and easily obtain from a single source detail of all relevant buried services

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Fig. 1 Concrete slab protecting the pipeline.

Avoiding third party interference is essential to protect a pipeline’s integrity. A pipeline failure can have catastrophic consequences both in unpopulated areas (e.g. a major oil release damaging the natural environment) and in populated areas (e.g. an explosion). Fig. 2 shows the aftermath of a pipeline explosion in Ghislenghien, Belgium. Two factories were destroyed, claiming the lives of 24 people and injuring 132. The pipeline was buried 6 m underground, carrying gas at 70 bars. Damage to the pipeline probably occurred as a mechanical soil stabiliser, involved in the final stages of a car park construction project, was driven into the ground causing damage to the wall of the pipeline. The damage took the form of evenly spaced gouges in the steel wall of the pipeline. Two weeks after the completion of the car park the gas pressure was increased in the pipeline, which then ruptured at a 350 mm long gouge because of the high localised stresses.

Fig. 2 Aftermath of the explosion at Ghislenghien, Belgium.

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6.2.2.2.5 Restraint Applying soil cover on a pipeline provides restraint to movement of the pipe in all directions.

The friction between the pipe coating and the soil provides restraint against pipe expansion in the longitudinal direction and can be strong enough to lock longitudinal movement of the pipeline due to thermal expansion caused by temperature changes.

Structures installed below the surface of the earth may support the weight of the materials above it, depending upon certain characteristics of the fill and the structures design. The fill characteristics (principally internal soil friction) tend to influence (positively or negatively) the gross weight of the material above the pipe structure. How much of the vertical load is applied on the pipeline is dependent upon the relative compressibility (stiffness) of the pipe and the soil.

For very a rigid pipeline, the side fills may be very compressible in relation to the pipe and the pipe may carry practically all the load. Trench loads on a pipe are often calculated with the widely recognized and conservative Marston equation which was developed at the Engineering Experiment Station of Iowa State College from a series of experimental studies.

6.2.2.2.6 Insulation/heat retention Underground temperatures throughout the year vary much less than over-ground temperatures as the soil acts as a buffer to atmospheric temperature variations. Burying a pipeline can therefore be a means of insulating the pipe or the product it contains from extreme temperatures or variations of temperature. This can be used to preserve the pipeline temperature and prevent an energy loss/gain which would require reheating or cooling at the receiving end, or which could simply lead to unacceptable problems such as freezing of the product.

6.2.2.3 Pipeline Trench Design Please refer to Appendix 6.2.2: “Pipeline Trench Design� and further design recommendations.

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6.2.3 Environment All pipeline construction projects will potentially have impacts on the environment to one degree or other.

The degree of impact can depend on the sensitivity of the receiving environment, the construction techniques used, and the size of the project (pipeline length).

The degree of impact on the environment is initially identified during the Environmental Impact assessment (EIA) process. Impacts are given a detailed rating, which takes into account factors including the sensitivity of habitat, proximity to other sensitive receptors, and how the pipeline will be constructed. As part of the EIA process mitigation measures to actively reduce, or offset the environmental impact of the project are suggested, and these measures are incorporated into the projects Environmental Management Plan (EMP). The EMP defines the environmental objectives for the construction project, and provides clear guidance for environmental best practice for all activities for the personnel involved. The EMP can also be used as a basis for the training of site personnel in environmental best practice.

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process In order that environmental impacts can be reduced, negated, and/or offset as far as is practicably possible, appropriate mitigation measures are agreed as part of the EIA process and incorporated into the overall plan for construction works.

The EIA process follows recognised standards that are recognised by national governments, clients, trade associations, World Bank and International Finance Organisations.

If undertaken properly an environmental assessment aids all those involved in the project and planning process (including the project developer). It ensures that the developer has focussed on the environmental considerations of the project at an early stage, rather than being forced to reconsider an alternative solution once construction is underway.

The first requirement for assessing the impact of a proposed activity is a survey. A thorough survey, including an assessment of all available evidence, will enable any impacts to be accurately assessed and allow appropriate mitigation to be developed and agreed.

Mitigation measures can take a number of forms; the most common forms of which are outlined in the following table:

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Avoidance

Where viable, the project or activity will be redesigned to avoid impacts

Reduction

Reduction will be considered when all options for the avoidance of impacts have been exhausted or deemed to be impractical (e.g. Reduced working width, reduced construction hours/ numbers of construction vehicles etc.).

Compensation

Where the potential for avoidance of and reducing impacts has been exhausted, consideration will be given to environmental compensation (e.g. the creation of alternative habitat to offset that which has been disturbed/destroyed.

Remediation

Where adverse effects are unavoidable, consideration will be given to limiting the level of impact by undertaking remedial works.

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Typical Impacts Environmental impacts from pipeline projects depend on local conditions, and the techniques employed in construction, however there are a number of potential impacts that are characteristic for terrestrial pipeline construction spreads:

•

Habitat disturbance – Can take the form of temporary or permanent disturbance/alteration to pre existing habitat over the length of the pipeline spread

•

Soil Erosion – Wind or water erosion of the trench slope or stored soils during construction, or of the spread during/following construction. Erosion can vary according to the terrain, soil type, and degree of vegetation cover, construction methods, and weather conditions

•

The spread of weeds/alien/invasive species, and/or contaminated soils through soil tipping and excavation, and by construction vehicles tracking along the pipeline spread

•

Potential impacts to statutory designated areas, protected/vulnerable species, or protected/vulnerable habitats due to construction activities

•

Potential socio-economic impacts, such as construction noise, dust generation, access to public rights of way, employment (positive and negative) supply chain, impacts on farming activities, in particular livestock and visual impacts to locals and visitors to an area

•

Health impacts from construction activities, including introduction of new infectious diseases from workforce in remote communities, camp conditions, security and pollution

•

Impacts on watercourses – River crossings and stream diversions have impacts on watercourses. Other impacts could include increased siltation in rivers, and the risk of pollution by construction machinery (fuel/lubes spills)

•

Impacts on known/unknown archaeological sites/artefacts may be damaged or disturbed by construction activities

•

Impacts on wildlife – As well as habitat disturbance, pipeline projects can create direct disturbance to wild animals by noise and dust creation, particularly during sensitive lifecycle periods (such as breeding). Open construction spreads, as well as completely reinstated projects can create linear features in the landscape, which can be a temporary barrier to migration pathways in the same way as roads and railways

Typical Mitigation Measures Many of the following mitigation measures are considered as environmental best practice by the pipeline construction industry. These measures typically apply to pipeline projects undertaken across all habitat types.

•

Habitat disturbance and soil erosion can be mitigated by appropriate soil handling techniques during construction; limiting the amount of topsoil stripped to the absolute minimum required, and for as shorter a duration as possible. In addition regular watering of stripped topsoil areas can help reduce dust generation and surface wind erosion, as can limiting traffic and speed of traffic on the pipeline spread. Appropriate storage of stripped and excavated soil, and limiting the gradients of slopes/trench sides during construction and timing construction works to avoid the wettest times of the year are also important considerations

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100

•

The spread of invasive or alien species and contaminated soils along pipeline routes can be mitigated by appropriate weed control measures, limiting vehicle movements, appropriate separate soil storage and machinery washing points at regular intervals along pipeline routes

•

Impacts on statutory designated sites can be reduced at the pipeline routeing study stage by avoiding such areas, wherever possible. Other measures include keeping the width of the construction spread to a minimum, and timing works such that they avoid sensitive periods for protected/vulnerable species and/or habitats. Construction techniques such as horizontal directional drilling (HDD) can also be used to avoid particularly sensitive areas

•

Careful selection and maintenance of construction equipment helps to minimise noise and airborne emissions to the local community

•

Sustainable use of resources, including fuel, water, fencing, skids and temporary road material (including associated borrow pits) may have the additional benefit of reducing waste

•

Mitigating impacts to watercourses can be achieved by ensuring appropriate site drainage has silt settlement or filtration prior to discharge. Ensuring that any open-cut river crossings are timed to coincide with periods of lowest sensitivity (avoiding breeding/spawning periods, and periods of highest water flow, as well as undertaking crossing works as quickly as possible); alternatively HDD construction techniques are used, particularly on wider river crossings. Impacts to watercourses from accidental fuel or lube oil spills can be minimised by ensuring that no refuelling of equipment takes place in close proximity to watercourses.

The potential for accidental releases of fuel and/or lube oils and grease to watercourses can be further reduced by using machinery that is in a good state of repair (appropriately maintained) and new

•

Impacts to known/unknown archaeological, religious sites and artefacts can be mitigated at the routeing stage by avoiding known areas. Whilst an archaeological watching brief can be maintained during topsoil stripping and trench excavation to prevent undue damage to any previously unknown areas

•

Minimising the extent of open trench allows the passage of wildlife and communities who need access cross the working width

•

Careful reinstatement of pipeline working width, following the completion of construction activities reduces the potential for pipeline projects to have a residual impact on habitats.

Consideration of reinstatement should be undertaken early in the construction process, and may entail seed collection, tree felling, specialist machinery for topsoil stripping (such as turfing), the need to source local plant material, or the requirement for water to establish plants. Where possible pipelines are often routed through agricultural land whereby, although there is a temporary disturbance to habitat and farming land, typically due to the seasonality of the land use, complete reinstatement occurs very quickly. Post construction monitoring should be undertaken (for a minimum period of 2 years) to ascertain the overall success of the reinstatement works and assess the recovery of the environment. Monitoring is particularly important in those areas where habitat is of significance for conservation.

Careful consideration should be given to ensuring that the ground conditions, by storing are replacing topsoil and soil layers in the correct order, decompaction and drainage

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All the measures aimed at mitigating the impacts from construction activities can form part of a site Environmental Management Plan (EMP). The EMP transfers the commitments made during the routing, financing and consents identified in the EIA document into practical guidance for the construction contractors to cost and implement as part of the construction works. It can also form the basis for appropriate environmental training of personnel working on site.

Pipeline Construction in Different Environments There are a number of environmental impacts that are more habitat specific, and as such require differing approaches to their mitigation strategies.

Soft Soils – Soft soils are prone to compaction during construction works, and can often require the use off bog mats to reduce soil damage. During very wet periods soft soil sections of the pipeline spread can be temporarily closed off to prevent undue compaction. Reinstatement involves the removal of the bog mats and ripping up of the soils, prior to re-profiling to alleviate the compaction.

Sand Dunes – Dune systems are particularly sensitive (particularly in the low lying more stable areas) and are often susceptible to flash flooding, and as such pipeline routeing should identify such areas and re-route if necessary. Dust generation can be a problem, but this can be kept to a minimum, by keeping vehicle movements and speeds to a minimum. Reinstatement is of particular importance and difficulty in sand dune areas as they are often mobile in nature, and require some specialist reinstatement techniques. The dunes need to be re-contoured as close to their original state as possible, also reinstating the original drainage channels and watercourses.

Peatland – As with other soft soil environments, measures to protect and mitigate compaction will be required. Draining water from the excavation can lead to an imbalance in the peat, which can damage its integrity, as such appropriate water quality and erosion control measures will need to be utilised, such as geo textiles. Straw bales, or rock riprap. There is also the potential for the pipeline trench to act as a drainage channel. To prevent this inert plugs can be placed in the trench at intervals to prevent poor drainage.

Side Slopes – Potential for erosion of the trench on steep slopes can be mitigated by the placing of trench plugs at regular intervals to prevent free flow of water and silt through the trench. Slopes should be graded to avoid soil creep, and the use of pre-existing planting or erosion control geo textile matting should be maximised to aid slope stabilisation. Early establishment of vegetation is important on side slopes.

Swampy Areas – Similar measures should be taken as in peatland and soft soil environments to mitigate against soil compaction. In addition pipelay through swamps are susceptible to water build up in the excavated trench; dewatering may be useful but care should be taken of the discharge location.

In addition sediment traps, or filtration measures to reduce silt in the water should be taken prior to discharge of trench water.

Forested Areas – To minimise the degree of tree clearance required, the working width of the pipeline spread should be reduced as much as possible. Machinery working in such environments should be able to work safely in a reduced space. Where tree roots have been cut, but the trees not felled the crown of the tree should be reduced accordingly to reduce water stress, and protect the tree from any long-term damage. Measures should also be taken to avoid disturbance to nesting birds, or species/habitats of conservation importance. Account should be taken of tree canopy species who would typically travel across the working width, walkways or access points may need to be provided.

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Ridge – Ridges are constrained, and as such will require that the working width be reduced. There is a lack of available space for the storage of equipment and excavated material, so activities require careful advance planning. Side casting can have large-scale visual impacts, and although reinstatement of the contours is particularly difficult, it is important to restore as close as possible the original contours. Early reinstatement of vegetation to stabilise soils and minimise erosion and potentially re-contouring land should be considered to minimise the overall visual impact.

Tundra – Tundra habitats may include permafrost. The working season is first determined by borehole investigations, which provide information about the depth and extent of the permafrost, and in turn help guide appropriate construction and reinstatement techniques. Modelling may need to be undertaken to ascertain the thermal effects of the permafrost on the pipeline and contents, and vice-versa. Insulation measures may be required for the pipeline prior to operation. Accurate reinstatement of the strata profile is particularly crucial in permafrost habitats, as it is important to appreciate how the ground may alter its physical properties seasonally.

The tables in Appendix 6.2.3 give an overview the measures to reduce the impact of the works on the environment.

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6.2.4 Health and Safety Earthworks sites have the potential to be among the most dangerous due to the variety of work that is carried out in and around the area of work. Without appropriate controls one of the greatest risks is the collapse of the sides of excavations. Too often this has and will continue to result in fatalities and serious injuries. Some of the following information highlights the real dangers of earthworks past and present.

• • •

During the period 1990-2000 there were 771 fatalities involving excavations in the USA USA reports that pipeline trenches are one of the major source of fatalities in the pipeline industry 38% of the fatalities that occur are in trenches less than 3 m deep

A large proportion of excavation accidents are avoidable if the correct control measures are put in place.

Any involved organisations and companies have a responsibility to protect the health and safety of all personnel which may include sub-contractors and visitors, to ensure the health and safety of everyone involved or impacted by the earthworks operation. Although earthworks are carried out in a wide range of environments most of the hazards, and therefore the control measures to reduce the impact of the hazards, are generic irrespective of the work location.

Examples of General Hazards include:

• adverse Weather • heavy loads • work equipment • confined spaces • local community • wildlife

• ground conditions • lifting • working at height • hazardous materials • vibration

• ambient temperatures • pipe movement • emergency response • noise • illumination

During earthworks activities, one of the most significant risks to personnel is the collapse of the walls of excavations or trenches. This can happen quickly, with very little warning, therefore appropriate controls must be put in place before work begins in the area. Great care must be taken in the design of the work area taking into account the soil type and environment. Consideration must also be given to using sloping walls to protect the integrity of the trench walls. In the case of any trench over 1.2 m deep shoring, sloping or stepping must be used to improve the stability of the trench. Once the trench has been dug it should be inspected daily or after any event which may alter its integrity.

Adverse weather can greatly increase the risk of earthworks in all environments. All types of soil are likely to become more unstable if very wet or dry which can lead to the collapse of side walls. Shoring of the sides of the excavation or trench boxes can be used to protect workers when they are in the trenches.

Heavy rainfall can also lead to the flooding of trenches. Pump systems may be required to remove water from the ground and consideration should be given to the length of the trench dug out if heavy rain is expected. High winds can also hamper lifting and pipe movement operations. These types of operations should be ceased if operators feel it is unsafe to continue or an appropriate limit should be identified and put in place. Lift plans should be in place for pipe all lifting operations. Weather can also affect the ability of machinery to operate so consideration of the best time of year to carry out projects is essential.

Temperature, weather too hot or cold can also impact on the health and safety of personnel. Reactive measures could also include providing appropriate heating, cooling and areas of shade.

Ground conditions, heavy loads and vibration can also have an effect on the integrity of the excavations.

Unstable ground conditions can lead to problems with the operation of plant and machinery.

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Creating a track for plant to operate on may be the best option to avoid the risks of plant sinking or becoming bogged down. Heavy loads such as pipe and excavated material should be placed at a distance away from the edge of the excavations so as to avoid exerting extra pressure on the walls which could increase the risk of collapse. Vibration caused by plant movement or machine operation could also affect the ground conditions and the integrity of the excavation. By ensuring appropriate preparations are taken when developing the Right of Way, (ROW), acceptable ground conditions can be achieved. Limiting and using the correct size of plant and machinery can also reduce the effects of vibration.

Working at height will also be a common hazard across a variety of working environments. This could be the dangers associated with working at the top edge of the trench or access and egress from plant machinery. Suitable barriers can be used to keep people back from the leading edge of the trench. All staff should be given and use appropriate PPE which may include fall arrest equipment. For such equipment personnel must be trained and deemed competent before its use.

Specific training must be given to those performing work in confined spaces and it would be advisable to operate a permit to work system in those situations due to the high risks associated with this type of work.

Another generic hazard is work equipment. Due to the nature of the job there will be a large variety of work equipment in use during earthworks including heavy plant machinery, lifting equipment, generators, compressors, ladders and hand tools. All equipment should be fit for purpose and be given a visual inspection prior to use. Electrical equipment should be inspected on a regular basis and records should be kept. Lifting gear should be certified by a 3rd party and also inspected by operators prior to use.

Where applicable guards must be available and in use at all times on machinery. Operators should be trained and competent in the use of all machinery that they will use. Any faulty equipment should not be used in any circumstance.

Illumination of the work area must be considered for earthworks as it can be a hazard in all types of environment. Poor lighting can lead to an increase in workplace accidents such as trips and falls.

Assessment must be made based on the amounts of natural light available in the area and the requirement for artificial lighting to maintain lighting levels. At the planning stage of the project the requirement for night working should be assessed and suitable lighting plans put in place if required.

Ensuring that the health and safety impact on the local community is reduced to as low as reasonably practicable is important in all earthworks. Providing information to the local population regarding the work being undertaken can highlight any potential risks. Another aspect is ensuring good site security is in place to reduce the risk of people entering the work area without authorisation.

Risks associated with wildlife can vary widely throughout the different earthworks environments. Where there is a risk to the workforce from disease spreading animals or poisonous animals, emergency plans should be in place to control the risks. Where animal attacks are likely fencing can be used to restrict access to the work area. Medication may be required to prevent disease and information must be passed onto the workforce regarding these risks.

There is the potential for exposure to hazardous materials with the malfunction of work equipment i.e. oil spills or contact with materials pre-existing on the site. A thorough analysis of the work area should take place before any work is carried out to ensure the land is not contaminated. Monitoring should continue throughout the lifespan of the project. Spill kits should be available to deal with any spillage that occurs on site and personnel should be provided with any necessary RPE or PPE. With the digging the trenches workers may also be exposed to excessive levels of dust. Dust suppression through spraying water or use of appropriate RPE can be used if necessary to deal with this issue.

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Due to the remote nature of a lot of earthwork locations employers must develop and regularly test an emergency response policy. This would include ensuring good communication channels, having trained first aid providers on site and good first aid/medical provisions. Planning of the quickest, safest routes to hospitals and other local facilities must also be undertaken. An important feature of this would be identifying and providing the best mode of transport to get to these locations. Regular tests of evacuation and emergency procedures should be carried out to ensure the effectiveness of these plans.

There are many other hazards that can arise in certain earthworks operations. The tables in Appendix 6.2.4 give an overview of how we can employ systems to reduce the risks from the main hazards of the work and maintain the health and safety of all personnel involved.

Health and safety relies upon three key elements to ensure safe working practices during earthworks:

•

ENGINEERING - Engineering controls/Guarding/Automation of systems/Preventative maintenance

•

PROCEDURES – HSE Policy/Procedures/Monitoring and Measuring/Audits/Risk Assessments

•

BEHAVIOURAL – Communication systems/Health and safety as a personal value/Leading by example

Although each element is important in its own right the system only works when all 3 elements work together to ensure the health and safety of all involved in the projects.

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6.3

External Pipeline Protection Systems

Pipeline integrity for durations well above the nominal 25-35 years of service is an important aspect in any pipeline’s design, construction and operation. Pipelines should not fail during their entire service life because such failures could lead to human and economic costs. As the public’s perception of pipeline failures is (generally) much worse than the actual human and economic failure costs, a lot of resources have been dedicated to protect the pipes against any potential damage that could lead to pipeline failure.

As the majority of installed and planned onshore transmission pipelines around the world are steel pipelines, this document will focus on the protection of the steel pipes.

In order to ensuring a service life without failure, we need to apply a life-cycle approach to the steel pipe protection, so that we avoid damage and failure during all the steel pipe’s life stages:

• • • •

Pipe transportation – from pipe mill or coating facility to temporary storage yards or to the right-of-way Pipe handling – loading, unloading at different locations Pipeline installation – stringing, lowering in, backfilling Pipeline service life until decommissioning

The industry has been trying for decades to target the most common causes of onshore pipe damage and failure. In this context, the statistical data available for the onshore transmission pipeline systems – both gas and liquids – show that mechanical impact damage (including third-party damage and construction/repair damage) and external corrosion represent the cause for more than half and up to two-thirds of the reported onshore pipelines incidents and failures1.

Corrosion is an electrochemical phenomenon that leads to the degradation of the steel pipe material and could ultimately produce the failure of the pipeline. There are multiple ways of preventing corrosion or protecting the pipe against it, such as the use of corrosion-resistant alloys, steel pipe design corrosion allowance, external anti-corrosion coatings and cathodic protection (CP) systems. Some prevention and protection systems are called passive systems, such as external anti-corrosion coating, whereas others are considered active prevention and protection systems, such as the cathodic protection (CP) systems.

For the purpose of this document we are going to focus on the external anti-corrosion coatings – both mainline coating (Section 6.3.1) and field joint coating (Section 6.3.2) solutions, leaving the other corrosion prevention and protection systems to be assessed in the future phases of this project.

Mechanical damage can be sustained when the steel pipe suffers an external impact or penetration from rocks, outcrops, construction equipment – excavators, backhoes, drills –, other pipe joints, etc. There are multiple ways of preventing mechanical damage and protecting the pipe and its coatings, such as pipeline above ground markers, call-before-you-dig numbers, sand bedding and padding, concrete coatings, mechanical padding with select backfill, etc. Most common mechanical protection systems are reviewed in Section 6.3.3.

In order to minimize the risk for the stakeholders involved in the design, construction, operation and maintenance of the onshore pipelines, the prevention and protection systems against both corrosion and mechanical damage should be discussed as early as possible in the pipeline construction process and their technical, purchasing requirements and installation procedures clearly specified in the construction contracts.

1

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For onshore pipeline incident information, please see the reports and statistics published by government agencies such as the US Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA), the US Department of Transportation Research and Special Programs Administration, industry associations such as Association of Oil Pipe Lines (AOPL), Conservation of Clean Air and Water in Europe (CONCAWE), as well as other sources such as Transmission Pipelines and Land use: A Risk-Informed Approach, Special Report 281, US Transportation Research Bureau, 2004 or Subsea Pipeline Engineering, Palmer, A.C., King R.A., 2004

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Finally, in order to make the most informed choice for the external anti-corrosion and mechanical damage prevention and protection of the onshore pipelines, the parties involved should use the following categories of selection criteria:

•

Technical performance criteria – help the involved parties to compare the different potential prevention and protection options in terms of their technical performance.

Examples of such criteria include resistance to impact, abrasion, penetration, cathodic disbondment, long-term stability, etc

•

Pipeline design and constructability criteria – allow pipeline design engineers and contractors to choose the prevention or protection solution that minimizes the project design and constructability limitations and constraints such as limitations in terms of trench materials or climatic conditions, additional manpower and equipment needed for installation, additional right-of-way space needed, etc

•

Environmental impact criteria – help the project stakeholders to minimize the overall environmental footprint of the project – examples include vegetation loss, disturbance or habitat loss for fauna and flora, etc

•

Economical criteria – allow the parties involved to choose the prevention or protection solution that offer the best cost/benefits ratio – examples include availability, total installed cost (including the material supply cost, but also the direct and indirect installation costs), etc

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6.3.1 Review of Key Mainline External Anti-Corrosion Coatings The purpose of the mainline external anti-corrosion coatings is to isolate the pipe steel from the external environment – soil, air, water and, thus to protect the steel from corrosion damage that could lead to failure. The mainline coatings protect the whole length of the steel pipe except for the variable-length area where two pipes are joined – this area is usually protected by separate field joint coating solutions (assessed in the next section).

The mainline external anti-corrosion coatings can be categorized using several criteria:

•

Coating materials – powder systems (based on epoxy resins), polyolefin systems (polyethylene, polypropylene), liquid systems, other materials (asphalt, coal tar) Except for the single-layer coatings, all the others usually have a primer layer (closest to the steel), one or more topcoat layer and sometimes an adhesive between two coating layers

•

Application method – electrostatic spraying, extrusion, liquid spraying, liquid painting, tape-wrapping, hybrid application (electrostatic spraying/extrusion)

Other categories are starting to be used, based on new criteria such as application temperature ranges, operating temperature ranges, etc.

Except for the single-layer coatings, all the others usually have a primer layer (closest to the steel), one or more topcoat layer and sometimes an adhesive between two coating layers. Mainline coatings are usually applied in a specialised facility.

The most widely used coatings in the industry are reviewed in the following sections. Please note that the list of coatings described below is not exhaustive, as other mainline external anti-corrosion coatings are also used in the onshore pipeline projects, but on a more limited scale. In Appendix 6.3.1 you will also find a table comparing the strengths and weaknesses of the mainline coatings described below.

6.3.1.1 Fusion-Bonded Epoxy (FBE) Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings are thin film coatings based on epoxy-resin powder materials. Thickness and other coating configuration requirements can be found in the new EN ISO 21809-2 standard, as well as CSA Z245.20. Most FBE coatings are rated for operating temperatures up to 85°C in dry conditions and 65°C in wet conditions, but new products have been developed and are currently developed for higher operating temperatures.

FBE coatings were separately developed in Europe and North America and are usually applied in specialised coating facilities in powdered form by electrostatic spraying. The pipes are preheated and then blast-cleaned. Pipe surface is then inspected for any defects and the pipe is then washed and rinsed. Induction heating brings then the pipe to the temperature required for the spraying of the epoxy powder. The epoxy particles are flowing, melting and bonding to the steel. The next step is to cool down the pipe through water quenching. Finally, the pipe is inspected for coating defects – holidays – and then loaded out for storage.

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Fig.1 – Fusion bonded epoxy external coating

FBE coatings have undisputed benefits for the users. They offer excellent corrosion protection and excellent adhesion properties. FBE coatings are very flexible, resistant to soil stresses and have good handling characteristics. They are usually used in pipeline projects that have standard requirements – i.e. do not have challenging terrain configurations, soil types, climatic conditions, exposure to water/moisture or harsh storage and handling conditions.

For the external anti-corrosion field joint coatings that are most commonly used with FBE mainline external anti-corrosion coatings please see section 6.3.2.

6.3.1.2 Dual-Layer Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Dual-layer fusion-bonded epoxy coatings are also based on epoxy-resin powders. Their thickness and minimum technical performance requirements are standardized in CSA Z245.20.

Like the single-layer coatings FBE coatings, most dual-layer FBE coatings are rated for temperatures up to 85°C in dry conditions. Dual-layer FBE coatings are usually made of a fusion-bonded epoxy primer, similar to the coatings in section 6.3.1.1 and, depending on the targeted application, a tougher FBE topcoat, usually called abrasion-resistant overcoat (ARO), or a high operating temperature FBE topcoat.

The application process for dual-layer fusion- bonded epoxy coatings (2L FBE) is very similar to the one for single-layer FBE coatings, with the two FBE layers being sprayed successively, and takes place in a specialised coating facility as well.

Fig. 2 – Dual-layer FBE external coating

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Dual-layer FBE coatings are usually used in specialty applications that require high abrasion resistance, such as horizontal directional drilling (HDD) projects and offer improved handling, as well as higher abrasion and impact resistance than the single-layer FBE coatings. Other dual-layer FBE coatings are used for high operating temperature environments where increased flexibility is considered a benefit.

For the external anti-corrosion field joint coatings that are most commonly used with dual-layer FBE mainline external anti-corrosion coatings please see section 6.3.2.

6.3.1.3 Three-Layer Polyethylene (3LPE) Three-layer polyethylene (3LPE) mainline coatings are multilayer anti-corrosion systems consisting of a layer of fusion-bonded epoxy primer, a polyethylene-based adhesive layer and an outer layer (topcoat) of polyethylene. Their thickness and minimum technical performance requirements are the subjects of multiple industry and international standards such as DIN30670, NFA49711, CSA Z254.21 and the upcoming EN ISO 21809-1 (draft). Most 3LPE mainline coatings are rated for operating temperatures of up to 85°C. 3LPE coatings are applied in specialised coating facilities. The pipes are pre-heated and then blast-cleaned. Pipe surface is then inspected for any defects and the pipe is then washed and rinsed. Induction heating brings then the pipe to the temperature required for the spraying of the epoxy powder of the primer. The epoxy particles are flowing, melting and bonding to the steel. The polyethylene-based adhesive and then the polyethylene topcoat are then successively extruded on the rotating pipe. The next step is to cool down the pipe through water quenching. Finally, the pipe is inspected for coating defects – holidays – and then loaded out for storage.

Fig. 3 – 3LPE external coating

Each of the three layers of the 3LPE coatings adds specific technical performance characteristics to the final coating system: the FBE primer offers excellent adhesion to the steel substrate, as well as all an excellent corrosion resistance potential; the adhesive bonds the epoxy primer to the polyethylene outer layer; and the polyethylene topcoat offers very good damage resistance, making the whole coating system tougher, more durable and resistant to environment factors such as moisture penetration. 3LPE coatings are used in projects that present technical challenges, such as rough storage or handling conditions, challenging backfill material or harsh climatic conditions.

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For the external anti-corrosion field joint coatings that are most commonly used with 3LPE mainline external anti-corrosion coatings please see section 6.3.2.

6.3.1.4 Three-Layer Polypropylene (3LPP) Three-layer polypropylene (3LPP) mainline coatings are multilayer anti-corrosion systems consisting of a layer of fusion-bonded epoxy primer, an adhesive layer and an outer layer (topcoat) of polypropylene. Their thickness and minimum technical performance requirements are the subjects of multiple industry and international standards such as DIN30670, NFA49711, and the upcoming EN ISO 21809-1 (draft). Most 3LPP mainline coatings are rated for operating temperatures of up to 110°C. The application process for three-layer polypropylene (3LPE) coatings takes place in a specialised coating facility and is very similar to the one for 3LPE coatings – described in section 6.3.13 – with the epoxy primer being applied by electrostatic spraying on the inductionheated rotating pipe, followed by the application of the adhesive layer and the extrusion of the polypropylene top layer.

Fig. 4 – 3LPP external coating

Each of the three layers of the 3LPP coatings adds specific technical performance characteristics to the final coating system: the epoxy primer offers excellent adhesion to the steel substrate, as well as all an excellent corrosion resistance potential; the adhesive bonds the epoxy primer to the polypropylene outer layer; and the polypropylene topcoat offers very good damage resistance, creating the most durable and damage-resistant plant-applied external anti-corrosion coating systems. 3LPP coatings are used in projects that present technical challenges, such as rough storage or handling conditions, challenging backfill material or harsh climatic conditions.

For the external anti-corrosion field joint coatings that are most commonly used with 3LPP mainline external anti-corrosion coatings please see section 6.3.2.

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6.3.1.5 Three-Layer Composite Coatings Three-layer composite mainline coatings are multilayer anti-corrosion systems. As an example, a three-layer composite coating system currently supplied for onshore pipeline projects consists of a layer of fusion-bonded epoxy primer, a specially formulated polyolefin adhesive layer that achieves a strong chemical bond with the FBE primer and a fused mechanical bond with the topcoat, and an outer layer (topcoat) of polyethylene. The thickness and minimum technical performance requirements of the three-layer composite external coatings are the subjects of multiple industry and international standards such as CSA Z245.21, and the upcoming EN ISO 21809-1 (draft). Existing three-layer composite mainline coatings are rated for operating temperatures of up to 85°C. Three-layer composite coatings are applied in specialised coating facilities. The pipes are preheated and then blast-cleaned. Pipe surface is then inspected for any defects and the pipe is then washed and rinsed. Induction heating brings then the pipe to the temperature required for the spraying of the epoxy powder of the primer. The epoxy particles are flowing, melting and bonding to the steel. The polyolefin-based adhesive and then the polyethylene topcoat are then successively sprayed on the rotating pipe. The next step is to cool down the pipe through water quenching. Finally, the pipe is inspected for coating defects – holidays – and then loaded out for storage.

Fig. 5 – Example of a 3-layer composite external coating

Each of the three layers of the three-layer composite coatings adds specific technical performance characteristics to the final coating system: the epoxy primer offers excellent adhesion to the steel substrate, as well as all an excellent corrosion resistance potential; the adhesive bonds the epoxy primer to the outer layer; and the topcoat offers very good damage resistance, creating a very durable coating system. Like 3LPP and 3LPE coatings, three-layer composite coatings are used in projects that present technical challenges, such as moisture penetration, rough storage or handling conditions, challenging backfill material or harsh climatic conditions.

For the external anti-corrosion field joint coatings that are most commonly used with three-layer composite mainline external anti-corrosion coatings please see section 6.3.2.

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6.3.1.6 Tape Coatings Tape mainline coatings are multilayer anti-corrosion systems. As an example, a tape coating system consists of a layer of liquid epoxy primer, an adhesive layer, and an outer layer (topcoat) of polyethylene. The thickness and minimum technical performance requirements of a tape coating system are described in DIN30670. Existing tape mainline coatings are rated for operating temperatures of up to 60째C. Tape coatings are applied in specialised coating facilities or in the field. The pipes are blastcleaned, then the pipe surface is then inspected for any defects and the pipe is then washed and rinsed. The epoxy primer is usually applied in liquid form (painting, brushing). The adhesive layer is then applied. The polyethylene topcoat tape is finally wrapped on the pipe. Finally, the pipe is inspected for coating defects.

Tape coatings are used in certain markets in projects that need good damage resistance.

For the external anti-corrosion field joint coatings that are most commonly used with tape mainline external anti-corrosion coatings please see section 6.3.2.

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6.3.2 Field Joint Anti-Corrosion Coating Selection Guide High performance pipeline corrosion protection coatings have been developed to meet the demanding requirements of current pipeline operating and field conditions. A variety of pipeline-coating technologies are available and selection has evolved along geographical lines. As an example, in North America fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) continues to be the most common coating, although the market is beginning to use more multi-layer coatings such as 3-layer polyethylene (3LPE) and dual-layer fusion bonded epoxy (DLFBE). In Europe, Asia, Middle East and South America, multi-layer polyolefin coatings such as 3-layer polyethylene (3LPE) and 3-layer polypropylene (3LPP) are the dominant types of pipe coatings.

Globally, more kilometers of pipe are coated with 3-layer polyolefin than any other type of coating.

These coating decisions are generally based on the owner-company or engineering company preferences, but also on the pipeline construction and operating conditions. As an example, coating damage is a real concern in regions where limited transportation infrastructure, rough pipe handling, aggressive backfills and high populations are prevalent. This creates the need for robust, multi-layer coatings.

Once the coated pipe is delivered to the right-of-way and pipeline welding begins, then application of the field joint corrosion protection must commence.

There are several types of commercially available external anti-corrosion field joint coatings. For the purposes of this document, the specific types of field joint coatings have been identified as being most suitable for use with the various mainline coatings.

Aside from the mainline coating compatibility the criteria for determining which field joint coating to use encompasses a number of variables. Pipe diameter, operating temperature, construction conditions, backfill, soil conditions and contractor capabilities all affect coating choice. Appendix 6.3.2 outlines the various mainline coatings along with the most suitable field joint coatings and relevant standards.

While mainline coatings are applied in consistent factory environments, field joint coatings are applied in a variety of conditions which the photos below depict.

Fig. 6 - Application of field joint coating protection in desert conditions

In desert conditions, sand storms and huge day/night temperature fluctuations present special problems.

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Fig.7 – Application of field joint coating protection in cold climates

Cold climates require additional equipment and expertise to deal with the low temperature construction conditions.

The paragraphs below provide a brief description of the most common field joint coatings in use today.

6.3.2.1 Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE) Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings are thin film coatings based on epoxy-resin powder materials. They can vary in thickness depending on specification and be applied as single layer or dual layer coatings. For the purposes of field joints, FBE is only recommended for use with FBE mainline coatings due to the very high application pre-heat temperatures which would damage other types of mainline coatings. Prior to application, the field joint must be blastcleaned to minimum Sa 2.5 and inspected for soluble salt contamination. If the soluble salt levels are deemed as being too high, then remedial measures to remove the contamination and re-blast will be required.

Induction heating is then used to bring the field joint cutback to the temperature required for the application (typically 240ÂşC) of the epoxy powder which is flocked on using manually held or semi-automatic spray nozzles/application equipment. The field joint is allowed to cool naturally or through water quenching. Finally, the field joint is inspected for thickness and coating defects such as holidays and then ready for burial.

Fig. 8 - Field applied FBE

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6.3.2.2 Two-Layer Polyethylene Heat-Shrinkable Sleeve (2LPE HSS) These types of heat-shrinkable sleeves have been commercially available since pipeline coatings applied in manufacturing plants became commonplace in the early 1960’s. They consist of a cross-linked and stretched polyethylene sheet coated with a mastic or butyl-based adhesive resulting in the 2-layer system. The application is direct to metal with surface preparation requirements varying from simple hand wire brush to commercial blast. No primers are required.

Application is done by preheating the field joint to a specified temperature (typical maximum of 80ºC), wrapping the sleeve around the field joint, securing a closure strip and heat-shrinking the sleeve using suitable propane or natural gas fuelled torches.

Fig. 9 - 2-layer sleeves ready for application

6.3.2.3 Three-Layer Polyethylene Heat-Shrinkable Sleeve (3LPE HSS) Three-layer polyethylene heat-shrinkable sleeve systems consist of an epoxy primer and a heatshrinkable sleeve. In rare cases, the epoxy primer can be a fusion bonded epoxy but, more commonly, a 2-component, 100% solids liquid epoxy. The heat-shrinkable sleeve consists of a cross-linked and stretched polyethylene sheet coated with a hot-melt, hybrid or polyethylenebased adhesive layer depending on the pipeline design service temperature.

The field joint must be blast-cleaned to minimum Sa 2.5 and inspected for soluble salt contamination. If the soluble salt levels are deemed as being too high, then remedial measures to remove the contamination and re-blast will be required.

Application is done by preheating the field joint to a specified temperature, applying the liquid epoxy primer to the steel cutback, force-curing the epoxy primer (typically 90 - 120ºC) then wrapping the sleeve around the field joint, securing a closure strip and heat-shrinking the sleeve using suitable propane or natural gas fuelled torches. Preheating and force-curing stages may be done with either induction heating or gas fuelled torches.

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Fig. 10 - 3-layer heat-shrinkable sleeve graphic

Fig. 11 - Completed and tested 3-layer HSS

6.3.2.4 Three-Layer Polypropylene Heat-Shrinkable Sleeve (3LPP HSS) Three-layer polypropylene heat-shrinkable sleeve systems consist of an epoxy primer and a heat-shrinkable sleeve. The epoxy primer is a 2-component, 100% solids liquid epoxy. The heat-shrinkable sleeve consists of a cross-linked and stretched polypropylene sheet coated with a polypropylene-based adhesive layer.

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The field joint must be blast-cleaned to minimum Sa 2.5 and inspected for soluble salt contamination. If the soluble salt levels are deemed as being too high, then remedial measures to remove the contamination and re-blast will be required.

Application is done by preheating the field joint to a specified temperature, applying the epoxy primer to the steel cutback, force-curing the epoxy primer (typically heating to 175ยบC), then wrapping the sleeve around the field joint, securing a closure strip and heat-shrinking the sleeve using suitable propane or natural gas fuelled torches. The force-curing stage must be done with induction heating.

Fig.12 - 3-layer polypropylene sleeve application

6.3.2.5 Three-layer Polypropylene Field-Applied Systems (3LPP, IMPP, FSPP) Systems consist of a polypropylene tape or sheet (3LPP Tape), flame sprayed powder (FSPP) or injection moulded polypropylene (IMPP). Each of these systems consists of a fusion-bonded epoxy primer, a powder applied polypropylene adhesive and an outer layer of polypropylene applied by wrapping, spraying or injection moulding. All of these systems are applied using specialised application equipment. The methods of application may be proprietary to the service company and generally requires specialised equipment and highly trained applicators.

6.3.2.6 Adhesive Tape Systems (CAT) Tape coatings are multilayer anti-corrosion systems. As an example, a tape coating system consists of a solvent based liquid primer, an adhesive layer, and an outer layer (topcoat) of polyethylene. These types of systems often use two types of tapes such as a soft first layer for corrosion protection and second layer for mechanical protection.

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6.3.2.7 100% Solids, 2-Component Liquid Epoxy or Polyurethane (2CLE, 2CPU) Commonly referred to as “liquids”, most liquid coatings in use for pipeline protection are either 100% solids, 2-component epoxies or polyurethanes. The 2 components being “base (or polyurethane: polyol)” and “cure (or polyurethane: isocyanate)” parts, sometimes referred to as Part A - Base and Part B - Cure. The base and cure must be formulated to work together and mixing a base from one manufacturer and cure from another is not possible. The cure component is formulated to impart various cure times depending on type of application and application environmental conditions.

Liquid epoxies are formulated using a variety of epoxy raw materials. A few high performance epoxies have operating service temperatures up to the 130ºC range. Liquid epoxies are applied to field joints of FBE coated pipelines and appear to be most companies’ choice for pipeline rehabilitation projects. Polyurethane coatings are generally used as pipeline coatings for ambient temperature water pipelines or for lower operating service temperature conditions.

Liquid coatings are usually available in sprayable and brushable formats. The spray versions generally have a much faster set-up time and very limited “pot-life”. The extended pot-life of the brushable version provides adequate time for the applicator to mix and brush-apply the coating onto the pipeline section.

Fig. 13 - Liquid epoxy brush application

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6.3.3 Mechanical Protection Selection Guide As mentioned earlier, mechanical impact damage is one of the most common causes of onshore pipeline incidents. Pipelines thus need mechanical protection in order to avoid or reduce the damage from impacts. The mechanical protection need for each onshore pipeline project has to be addressed, whenever possible, at an early stage in the design and/or construction of the pipeline in order to ensure the integrity of the corrosion protection system(s) and thus the long-term pipeline integrity.

All the most common external anti-corrosion and insulation plant and field-applied coatings have imbedded a basic mechanical protection potential coming from the intrinsic damage resistance of the coating raw materials. Multi-layer external coatings have been developed to specifically improve the basic mechanical protection potential of the single-layer external coatings. However, the basic mechanical protection potential that can be obtained at a reasonable total installed cost, even by using multi-layer external anti-corrosion coatings such as those detailed in section 6.3.1, is rather limited, especially during high impact potential activities such as backfilling. For example, field trials have shown that even with the most impact-resistant coating systems, the maximum size of the backfill material that could be used during standard backfilling should be no more than 5-6 cm in diameter2.

Therefore, the onshore pipeline industry has focused on developing supplementary mechanical protection systems that increase the damage resistance of the pipe and pipe coating during the various stages of their life-cycle.

In this context, as mechanical impacts from different sources can happen at any time during the life of a pipe joint, the supplementary mechanical protection systems can be categorized based on the time horizon of their protection:

• •

Protection during transportation – separation pads, etc

•

Protection during installation (lowering in, backfilling) – sand padding, concrete coatings, non-woven geotextiles, etc

•

Protection during pipeline’s service life - above ground pipeline markers, coatings, concrete slabs, etc

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Whole pipe life-cycle protection – including all stages above – selected plant-applied concrete coatings

Protection during handling (loading in and out) and storage – protection pads, sand berms, wood pads, etc

The existing supplementary mechanical protection methods and systems can also be separated in several categories based on their location relative to the pipe:

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Above-ground systems – pipeline markers, ‘call-before-you-dig’ numbers, separation or protection pads, etc

•

Buried trench protection systems – tunnels, concrete slabs, steel plates or wires that protect or deny access to the pipeline trench, etc

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Buried pipe protection systems – can be either protection systems that are protecting just partially the diameter or the length of the pipe, such as foam pillows, sand bags, etc or systems that are protecting the whole diameter and length of the pipe – such as plant and field-applied coatings, sand padding, select backfill (mechanical padding), non-woven geotextiles, rock shield materials, etc

For some examples of such field trials, please see Optimization of Pipeline Coating and Backfill Selection, Espiner R., Thompson I, Barnett J, NACE, 2003 and other similar sources listed in the section’s Bibliography

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Supplementary mechanical protection systems can also be categorized based on the location where the protection is applied – in a specialised facility or in the field by a specialised contractor.

Based on these categories, for the purpose of this document, we are going to focus on the systems that are protecting the whole diameter and length of the pipe – the buried total pipe protection systems, both plant-applied and applied in the field.

The most widely used buried total mechanical protection systems in the industry are reviewed in the sub-sections 6.3.3.1-.6.3.3.4. Please note that the list of systems described below is not exhaustive, as other systems are also used in the onshore pipeline projects, but on a more limited scale.

6.3.3.1 Concrete Coatings Concrete coatings were created to offer supplementary mechanical protection to the pipe and pipe coating. When applied in a specialised coating plant, concrete coatings are the only mechanical protection systems in the industry that protect the pipe during the whole pipeline construction process (transportation to ROW, temporary storage, handling, stringing, lowering in, backfilling) and the entire pipeline service life.

Concrete coatings can be plant-applied (through side-wrap, spraying or impingement processes) or applied in the field – as form and pour or moulded concrete and are covered by the EN ISO 21809-5 (draft) standard. All concrete coatings are reinforced by either wire mesh, rebar cages or different types of fibres. While the reinforced concrete coating covers the pipe length, its field joint areas are protected by either field-applied reinforced concrete, wirereinforced polyethylene open-cell sheets or wood slats. Some concrete coatings are wrapped in a perforated polyethylene outer tape that avoids the concrete spalling and allows curing (the PE tape can then be removed at the customer’s demand). The minimum thickness of the concrete coatings is 6-7 mm (fibre-reinforced concrete), while the maximum that can be applied is 150 mm for the side-wrap process and around 200 mm for the impingement and form and pour processes. Some of the fibre and wire mesh reinforced concrete coatings with a thickness of up to 25 mm are bendable according to the industry specifications – 1.5° per pipe diameter. Some of the fibre-reinforced and higher thickness concrete coatings are not bendable, reducing their capability of following the terrain configuration in the field.

Fig. 14 – Bendable plant-applied concrete coating

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Concrete coatings offer some of the highest mechanical protection among the existing systems by taking at the same time less space. A 25 mm wire mesh reinforced concrete coating, for example, offers the equivalent impact protection of a layer of 300 mm of sand padding. Some concrete coatings are capable of resisting penetration from trench bottom outcrops, if specific point loading parameters supplied by the applicators are satisfied.

If available in the project’s region, concrete coatings offer the highest flexibility to pipeline designers and contractors, as they have no limitations of use in terms of terrain configuration (they work very well on steep slopes), trench material type (large rocks) or climatic conditions (very cold climates), as all the other systems have. When applied in a plant, the concrete coatings are not delaying the construction of the pipelines and do not require additional material, equipment or manpower on the right-of-way.

On the other hand, while reducing other pipeline construction costs, concrete coatings increase the weight that has to be transported and handled to and on the right-of-way. The concrete coatings that are not bendable are also less useful, as the coated pipe cannot follow the terrain configuration. Field-applied concrete coating is slow, can delay the pipeline construction and usually cannot offer the quality guarantee of a plant-applied coating.

6.3.3.2 Sand Padding Sand bedding and padding is one of the most frequently used supplementary mechanical protection system during the last decades. This system only protects the pipe against impacts during its lowering in, trench backfilling and during its service life after installation.

Sand padding is applied in the field. After the pipeline trench is opened, sand or fine gravel is imported using sand trucks, usually from a commercial sand pit in the region. The fine material is dumped adjacent to the trench. A first layer of sand, the sand bedding - usually 20-30 cm thick - is then placed on the trench bottom for protection against rock or other hard outcrops.

The pipe is then lowered in and another layer of sand or other fine material is placed (padded) around and on top of the pipe – usually another 20-30 cm on top of the pipe. The trench backfill is finished with some of the material excavated from the trench and the topsoil. Finally, the surplus spoil – the original trench material displaced by the imported sand/fine gravel, such as shot rock, cobbles, boulders – is usually removed from the right-of-way and disposed of - at a cost - at a different location.

Fig. 15 – Sand bedding for a pipeline

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The sand padding provides adequate mechanical protection to the pipe and pipe coating and, by changing the thickness of the top sand layer can withstand backfill impacts from virtually any size of trench material. Sand also offers a certain degree of protection against penetration from trench bottom outcrops, as long as the outcrops are not in direct contact with the pipe.

Sand padding has some limitations in terms of climatic conditions – sand can freeze in large chunks in cold weather, making padding more difficult or impossible. Its protection can also be impaired by sand washouts on steep slopes or in other draining areas.

Sand padding needs additional material (sand), equipment (sand trucks, padding machines), additional manpower (truck drivers, one bedding team after the trenching team and one padding team after the lower-in team), space (sand truck access and – sometimes – temporary sand dump areas) on the right-of-way and adds surplus trench material disposal costs.

6.3.3.3 Select Backfill (Mechanical Padding) The select backfill method, also called mechanical padding, was created to offer mechanical protection to the pipeline by taking advantage of the local material that was excavated at the opening of the trench. This method protects the pipe only during its lowering in, trench backfilling and during its service life after the installation.

The select backfill (mechanical padding) is applied in the field. The local material excavated at the opening of the trench is fed into the mechanical padding machine, where it is screened based on size. The finer material is then placed under, around and on top of the pipe for protection against large backfill materials – the layer under and on top of the pipe are each usually 20-30 cm thick. The trench is then closed by adding the remaining larger size trench material and the topsoil.

Fig. 16 – Mechanical padding machine

The select backfill (mechanical padding) provides adequate mechanical protection to the pipe and pipe coating and, by changing the thickness of the top padding layer can withstand backfill impacts from virtually any size of trench material. The biggest advantage of this system is that the original trench material can be used entirely and there is no requirement for imported fine materials (sand, etc). Select backfill has the best results with dry granular trench materials.

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The performance of this system is reduced in regions with wet, silty or clay trench materials.

There are some limitations in terms of climatic conditions – mechanical padding is more difficult when trench materials are frozen. This system is also not very practical on steep slopes or areas with reduced or no right-of-way access for equipment.

Mechanical padding needs additional equipment (mechanical padding machines), additional manpower (padding machine operators) on the right-of-way, as well as additional time for setting up and demobilizing the padding machines.

6.3.3.4 Rock Shield and Non-Woven Geotextile Systems Rock shield materials are polyethylene or PVC based solid sheets or open-cell extruded pads; non-woven geotextiles are needle-punched polypropylene fibre-based rolls. These materials are designed to protect the pipe and pipe coating against damage during pipe lowering in, trench backfilling and during the pipeline’s service life after installation.

Rock shield and non-woven geotextile materials are installed on the pipe in the field outside the trench, in a spiral “cigarette” wrap application using tape or Velcro to secure the seam. Smaller diameter pipes can be longitudinally wrapped. Rock shield materials are available in rolls of various styles, sizes, thicknesses (usual range 6-11 mm per layer for rock shield and 4-14 mm per layer for non-woven geotextiles) and technical performance properties.

Fig. 17 – Installation of rock shield material on the pipe

Rock shield and non-woven geotextile materials offer good mechanical protection to the pipe, especially in gravel/small cobble trench materials: according to the suppliers, the strongest multi-layer non-woven geotextiles can withstand impacts from backfill material up to 10 cm in diameter without any damage (holidays) to the anti-corrosion coating or the pipe. They do not protect against penetration from trench bottom outcrops and have to be combined with other systems (sand) in order to create some degree of protection.

Rock shield and non-woven geotextile systems will not provide adequate mechanical protection in rocky trenches and with large and very large size backfill material. Rock shield could produce cathodic protection system shielding if it is not an open-cell material, while, based on the industry available information, the impact of the non-woven geotextiles on the cathodic protection system is unclear and needs further research.

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Installation of rock shield or non-woven geotextile materials could slow down the pipeline construction and needs additional material (rock shield, geotextile sheet), manpower (field installation crew) on the right-of-way, and sometimes other mechanical protection systems (sand, select backfill). Wastage can also be costly if the rock shield sheet width does not match the pipe diameter. The protection efficiency will be dependent on the quality of the field installation crew’s work.

6.3.3.5 Mechanical Protection Selection Guidelines In order to make the most informed choice for the supplementary mechanical damage prevention and protection of the onshore pipelines, the parties involved should use the following categories of selection criteria:

•

Technical performance criteria – such as time horizon of the protection (whole life cycle protection? protection during installation? etc); impact resistance during backfill (maximum allowable backfill size); resistance to penetration (from trench bottom, etc); flexibility (impact on pipe cold bending); impact on the cathodic protection system; etc

•

Pipeline design and constructability criteria – such as limitations in terms of trench material, terrain configuration, harsh climatic conditions; right-of-way allowance and access limitations; increased contractor risk (additional equipment and manpower needed, construction delays, potential future remediation cost risk, etc); regulatory limitations (pipeline operator specifications, government/industry standards and regulations); etc

•

Environmental criteria – minimum impact on the right-of-way and surrounding environment during pipe transportation, handling, installation and service life – impact can be measured by vegetation loss, increased erosion potential, volume of excavated and landfilled trench material, fauna and flora disturbance, etc

•

Economical criteria – system availability in the region; total installed cost (including the material supply cost, but also all the direct and indirect mechanical protection installation costs)

Please find in Appendix 6.3.3 a table comparing the discussed supplementary mechanical protection systems based on the above-listed criteria.

In terms of selection methodology, based on the above-mentioned criteria categories and if the basic mechanical protection provided by the external anti-corrosion coatings is not enough for the needs of a pipeline project, the stakeholders can take a three-step approach in selecting the optimal supplementary mechanical protection system or combination of systems (as some of the systems discussed above can be combined for increased mechanical protection): 1. Shortlist the preferred supplementary mechanical protection systems or combinations of systems based on the pipeline project specifics and on technical, design, constructability and environment impact criteria – see table in Appendix 6.3.3 for help.

2. Once the most interesting systems or combinations of systems are selected, check the availability of those systems in the project’s region or in a region with easy logistic access to the project’s region.

3. Choose among the available short listed systems or combinations of systems the option with the lowest total installed cost or the best cost/benefit ratio.

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The selection of the supplementary mechanical protection solution should be done, as the selection of the mainline and field joint coatings, as early in the pipeline design and construction as possible, in order to ensure consistent and cost-effective corrosion and mechanical protection for the pipeline.

Although the general technical performance of the different supplementary mechanical protection systems is well understood in the industry, we recommend that further research be done for clarifying some technical performance aspects such as the comparative resistance of the different systems to penetration from outcrops in the trench bottom, re-validate the maximum backfill size that is allowed for the different systems and the impact of increasing pipeline operating temperature on the performance of the different mechanical protection systems.

*

*

*

The industry has come a long way in developing a wide range of external anti-corrosion and supplementary mechanical protection systems. However, as the pipeline sector is growing further, challenges are born from the complexity of the new pipeline projects – more extreme climatic conditions, populated areas, longer pipelines, etc – and from the new pipeline operation requirements – increasingly high or low operating temperatures, higher pressures, new fluids or gases transported through pipelines, etc. Innovation is thus needed to continue protecting the new pipelines and to maximize their transportation potential.

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7.

Future Trends and Innovation

7.1

Recommended Functional Specifications for a Near-Real-Time Construction Monitoring Tool

Introduction With the target of enhancing the operations of onshore pipeline construction in the aspects of efficiency, quality, safety and environment, the concept of developing a responsive and prompt project controls tool emerged as a prospective route towards establishing an Integrated GIS-based Pipeline Construction Management System.

The purpose of this section is to recommend the basic functional specifications for developing a "nearreal-time (near-live) monitoring tool”, a comprehensive project controls tool with a GIS-based interface, which can be utilized during the life-cycle of the pipeline construction project. Technical specifications and subsequent development of a system that meets these specifications would follow this preliminary phase.

Scope of Innovation The tool aims at presenting an accurate outlook on the major aspects of construction cycle as well as significant related events, as soon as they occur or can be recorded, and in a visual geographical environment. Updated feedback would be inclusive of:

• • • • •

Construction progress reporting Project information and documentation Assets and resources management Material control and traceability information Quality control data

The ensuing visual controls platform shall comprise data-rich feeds and dynamic reporting which would enhance the proactive involvement of project staff for better anticipation of construction conditions and improvement of the critical decision making process.

Description Building on the collaborative experience of pipeline contractors, major data groups were identified as key elements of the pipeline construction phase. While these groups are not necessarily conclusive, they provide the guideline for the way forward. Appendix 7.1.1 provides a more comprehensive profiling of the groups, information sources, attributes, data workflows, and potential operations enhancements.

The following is a list of these data groups with their associated classes:

•

Material Management

• Pipe Shipments • Pipe Yards • Stores Information

•

Manpower

• Accommodation Information • Manpower Data

•

Equipment

• • • •

Machinery and Vehicle Stores Emergency Equipment Equipment Tracking Information Vehicles Tracking Information

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•

Progress

• Construction Progress of Activities • Planning/Scheduling of Activities

•

HSE and Social

• • • •

•

Points of Interest (hospitals, medical centers, police stations, etc.)

Accidents and Incidents Grievances and Complaints Areas of Special Status Engineering Data

• • • • • • •

Pipeline Routes Crossings Access Roads AGI’s and Tie-in Points Marker Points Fiber Optic Cables Geotechnical and Cathodic Protection Data

The diagram below is an indicative schematic of the information associated with the data groups identified in this section, and how they serve – along with the technical specifications – to provide the high level users with an integrated controls platform.

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Features With this scope in mind and to facilitate user interaction, the development of this platform must encapsulate state-of-the-art features and workflows built on the concepts of a GIS interface, web accessibility and shared data repositories. The tool would be empowered by:

• •

Links to the existing project controls and logistics systems

• • •

Modern technologies and practices in systems development

Business features such as EDI (Electronic Data Interchange), flags, notifications, flexible reporting tools, and improved procedures State-of-the-art market tools R&D on new concepts with innovation potentials

For each of the data groups, an EDI with the related systems to which the tool will link needs to be developed. An EDI is generally defined as a standardized or structured method of transmission of data between two media, and in this context the EDI will govern what information will be collected for each data group, its format, in addition to how, when and by whom it shall be acquired. Properly characterized and implemented EDI’s are integral in the successful design and operation of the tool.

Flags and notifications are also conceived as essential features. The idea is to have intelligent reminders or prompts that are automatically generated to highlight anomalies, arising points of concern, or cues for further considerations, and that require action (flags) or raise awareness (notifications). Whereas the trigger for flags and notifications would be based on the data processed from various data groups, their design and scope needs to be based on a well-founded knowledge of the construction workflows and on the different roles of the project players who would need to interpret them and take consequent actions.

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Flags and notifications would take on different formats, including RSS feeds, SMS, multimedia messages, emails, or even image and video feeds, with access through the interface. The accessibility to these flags would be linked to different roles on the project, for example equipment notifications would be directed mainly to plant managers and engineers whereas material shortages would be displayed for material personnel and control managers. The format for these notifications should allow for an adequate level of flexibility to meet different needs and work practices by different players, for instance the ability to subscribe to specific RSS feeds upon demand, and secure limited access to sensitive feeds. The figure below is a conceptual example of a GIS-based dashboard that collects information about site construction equipment and associated systems, and acts as a monitoring tool for these assets. It incorporates the above EDI concept, GPS locating technology, and an RSS-type strip for flags and notifications.

Another feature of vital benefit to the management is the ability to extract various formats of progress, statistical, analytical and listing reports. While formal reports can be obtained by links to the EDMS, the tool must accommodate more interactive reporting techniques including pivot tables, dashboard queries, data mining techniques and visual charts.

The concept of near-real-time inherently implies the employment of latest available technologies. As such, development of this tool would typically involve innovations in:

•

IT and communication such as satellite connectivity, WiMAX and WiFi technologies, GPRS, and GSM

•

Automated data acquisition techniques such as the utilization of handhelds, PDA’s, RFID’s, etc

•

Modern construction approaches and technologies such as computerized NDT, AUT, automatic welding, and GPS surveying

•

Business process management and project controls workflows and solutions

Expected Advantages In line with the IPLOCA Novel Construction objectives, the development of this tool stimulates innovation in the processes of controlling the pipeline construction and invokes improved technology techniques, market software and R&D on new concepts to achieve this step forward. Potential benefits include:

•

Efficiency: The tool would instigate an overall improvement in the efficiency of project construction tasks by allowing decision makers to monitor site activities, retrieve up-todate progress reports, foresee possible hiccups and take immediate action

•

Quality: By serving as near-live information storage and sharing container, the tool would improve the quality of work done at supervisory level, drilling down to the direct manpower level. The data would be availed at a secure role-based portal for all key players including project management, engineers, construction crew leaders and project partners

•

Safety would be potentially enhanced by adopting this tool through:

• Providing immediate alerts on safety and security threats and concerns that would otherwise escalate without prompt action

• Assisting management in better planning for safer activities related to manpower, including accommodation, transportation and emergency plans by providing a multilevel geographical view of the project different locations and facilities

• Cutting down site visits by supervisory personnel by providing remote access to most of the information required

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•

Environmental awareness is promoted through the utilization of the tool by:

• Better control and maintenance of project equipment with early notifications of breakdowns and spills and in essence better control of emissions

• Identification of environmentally sensitive issues and zones and propagating this knowledge to the different levels of project staff

• Decreasing the carbon footprint created by the project supervisory personnel by reducing the necessity for direct site visits, hence promoting “Green Construction Culture” The conceptual specifications in Appendix 7.1.1 are the first step towards building this tool. The latter would in turn provide a cornerstone for the pipeline simulation tool discussed in the following section, by availing the pre-requisite information needed for more accurate simulations of construction activities and related what-if scenarios.

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7.2

Pipeline Simulation Tool - Conceptual Specifications for Building a Computer-Based Simulation Model of the Logistical and Construction Activities Related to the Pipeline Project

Introduction Pipeline construction projects are by nature complex linear projects with dynamic properties that vary along the length and duration of the project. Although it is possible to use analytic techniques to plan and manage the performance of such projects, using simulation can provide us with an advantage in addressing the complexity and dynamicity involved in pipeline projects. This section summarizes the requirements and methodology to be followed in building a simulation of the logistical and construction activities related to an onshore pipeline project using Discrete Event Simulation and the High Level Architecture.

Scope and Benefits Part of the overall mission of IPLOCA’s Novel Construction Initiative is to reduce costs, potentially increase the pipe laying speed to approximately seven kilometers per day, and improve the predictability of outcomes for all onshore pipeline projects. Each of these objectives on its own, if reached, would be considered a major achievement. Simulation is a means of performing tests and analyzing results using a computer instead of going into the field with all the associated expenses and time required. It allows us to build conceptual models of projects and processes and experiment with them in an effort to optimize their configuration for real life cost and time savings. A computer simulation of pipeline construction projects is a valuable predictive tool where we can vary inputs, collect and analyze outputs, and determine bottlenecks and sources of waste and delay. We can also determine the best preemptive measures to take to minimize risks of delays and cost overruns.

Proposed Methodology and Technical Tools Simulation tools of varying complexity are available, and careful selection of the proper mix for onshore pipelines is of importance. Following are our proposed techniques for building the simulator.

Ontology In building this simulator, we propose to use ontology of the pipeline construction simulation with the following classes: Product: This class defines the pipeline to be constructed with all associated permanent and temporary structures of the building process including the line pipes, sections, routes, impediments, and structures.

Process: This class defines all process related activities, project schedule, resources, and constraints.

Environment: This class defines geotechnical information and constraints, weather, calendar, camp locations, etc.

Simulator Architecture Simulations can be based in any of many modelling paradigms. For our purposes, we propose to use discrete event simulation (DES), where the states in the system change when activities take place, and the High Level Architecture (HLA; IEEE Standard 1516). The architecture of the simulator will be a twotier mapping of the ontology defined above to the DES and HLA. The first tier will consist of process simulation models of the different pipeline project logistical and construction activities using DES. Each of the process simulation models will represent in detail either a main construction activity (ROW, stringing, bending, welding, NDT, field joint coating, trenching, lowering, etc.) or a logistical process (mobilization, supply chain, camp operations, etc.). The second tier will furnish a distributed simulation infrastructure allowing the different process models of the first tier to assimilate into a fully integrated pipeline construction simulation model where the processes can run from different locations and communicate and interact seamlessly.

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The different data sources required for the simulator will have to be defined throughout the simulator development process and mapped to the different process models. The figure below is a sample conceptual simulation model of the different inputs from pipeline activities.

Simulator Outputs: A preliminary definition of the outputs to be delivered by the simulator to meet the above mentioned objectives along with an output analysis methodology are to be defined initially and continuously updated throughout the model development process.

Sample Conceptual HLA/DES Simulator Architecture

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Data Collection and Aggregation Historical data from previous pipeline projects is required for producing initial data trends to be used for populating simulator parameters. This will involve a comprehensive analysis of the proposed simulator parameters and definition of the sources of existing data required for input data modeling, analysis and distribution fitting. Fitted distributions will be used as stochastic parameters for productivities and process durations.

Proposed Technical Development Simulator development will structurally follow simulator architecture to deliver a High Level Architecture simulator composed of discrete event simulation models.

Discrete event simulation models will be used to simulate the process models of the different pipeline construction and logistical activities. Each process model will have its own user interface that allows input of parameters and monitoring of simulation progress and outputs during simulation running. The simulation engine would allow for the collection of various statistical data for each of the process models for analysis at the end of the simulation run.

Verification and Initial Validation Verification of a computer simulation model needs to be performed to ensure that the programming and implementation of the model is conceptually correct. For this simulation model, a purposefully built simulation language would be used in conjunction with Visual Basic or similar language for both the DES and the HLA tiers. This inherently decreases the possibility of errors when programming simulation models compared to using a regular high level programming language such as Visual Basic, Java or C++ alone. It is essential that the model be verified continuously by the development team while it is being developed.

Validation of the model is also a critical process as it involves ensuring that the model built does in fact mimic real life processes using the computer. Validation can be performed either by the development team or by an independent expert third party. The third party either performs a full independent verification and validation process, or an independent validation process in conjunction with a review of the verification process performed by the development team.

Pilot Application A specific project would be selected as an example application for the simulation model. This example application can be used for developing the model and subsequently running the simulator after initial verification and validation have been performed.

Way Forward The concepts introduced within this section are the first step towards building an efficient pipeline simulation model. Methodology presented herewith needs to be scoped, detailed further, and verified with pipeline construction specialists. Input parameters, simulator outputs, and interlinking relationships need to be standardized in association with actual construction processes as a prerequisite phase, succeeded by the employment of this technical approach to build a usable and advantageous model.

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7.3

Facing, Lining-up and Welding Skidless methodology

Introduction The FLUW group’s mission was to stimulate innovation in the area of Facing, Lining Up and Welding activities and deliver appropriate technologies and working practices to facilitate the overall goals of the Novel Construction Initiative.

The key goal of the group was to provide processes and equipment recommendation that can consistently deliver a close to zero repair rates in the full range of anticipated Environmental and Safety conditions with minimal human intervention and supervision.

The boundaries of the project included pipe between 30 and 56” diameter, cross-country hydrocarbon pipelines and existing international design codes and material standards.

Our activities included:

•

An analysis of existing processes and technologies for pipe handling, stringing, facing, bending and welding

• •

Identify technology gaps and areas for innovation Develop and demonstrate appropriate new technologies and working practice

Due to time constraints, the group focused on the development of a process and of the related equipment recommendations that would offer in many cases the possibility to eliminate the use of skids or at least considerably reduce it.

This new process called “Skidless” Methodology and its potential advantages will be presented in five steps: 7.3.1 Overall description of the new process 7.3.2 Description of the process on the ROW with illustrating Sketches 7.3.3 Description of the new equipment needed 7.3.4 Equipment preliminary technical specifications 7.3.5 Analysis of potential savings in terms of cycle time and productivity

7.3.1 Overall Description of the new Process This proposed new process favours work done at the pipe yard for as many operations as feasible, thus reducing drastically work done along the line. Work at the pipe yard is done in a single location allowing better and easier control resulting in better quality and lower safety and environmental risks.

Surveying and data collection was not part of FLUW’s charter but it will be needed to implement the Skidless Methodology.

Activities to perform at the Pipe yard The pipe yard is the pipe receiving and storing area.

• •

The first task to be performed is measuring and inspecting pipes for quality and dimensions (further to a discussion with pipe manufacturers, it appears that it is feasible to ship pipes from the mill with the same standard length) From the ROW surveying data, which needs to be available from the system, final positioning and bending requirements of each pipe is established and the bending is done at the pipe yard

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• •

Then beveling is performed with pipe ends protection Whenever site conditions allow it, pipes will be double jointed, UT controlled, and possibly field joint coated, then stored again, according to their respective positions on the line

Pipe stringing will be done in accordance with the work programme and each pipe will be delivered in sequence to its pre-established position.

Transportation On site transportation, depending on topography and ground conditions, can be a very challenging and costly operation. The study of new means of transportation which could include longer and pre-bent pipes would certainly be very useful.

Our current new process is based on traditional on site truck transportation.

Activities to be performed on the ROW Pipes are pre-positioned at their final location on the ROW. Pipe unloading is done by pipe layer or excavator equipped with vacuum lift attachment to avoid any damages to the pipe and the coating.

They will be supported by a few basic types of skids to avoid contact with the ground.

Besides the unloading equipment, the Skidless Methodology requires the following:

•

• •

One front end gang composed of: • 1 pipe layer to install the new pipe on the following stations: • 1 front end line up carrier (called “FEC”) • 1 back end line up and welding carrier (called “S1” for first station) Several stations for welding, UT, coating (called S2-1 for the first fill, S2-2 for the next one and so on...)

Some intermediate carriers (ISU) are proposed to temporarily support the line should the distance between two stations becomes too long. Any units (FEC, S1 and S2) must have the capacity to pull out should any station encounter a problem

When moving each station supports the pipe. In addition, each station has the capacity to hold the pipe or the section. An automatic system will prevent stations from moving should the pipe not be secured correctly by a sufficient number of stations.

All stations will have a cab offering the workers an enclosed working environment where heat, cold and dust will be fully controlled.

The welding supervisor can monitor actual welding production and parameters from the stations. All information will be downloaded using wireless connection.

7.3.2 Description of the process on the ROW with illustrating Sketches 1 To initiate a section (phase I), the pipelayer picks up the pipe, sets it on stations S1 and S2-1, S1 is aligned using precise geo-positioning system. S2-1 has the holding capability to prevent the pipes from moving during the lining up operation (lateral and longitudinal slopes).

2 The front end line up carrier (FEC) also using precise GPS system, is set ahead of S1, ready to support the second pipe to be welded (Phase II).

3 The second pipe is now set on S1 and FEC and line up operation is in process (S1 rollers and FEC rollers being operated by a single operator located within S1 cab). The pipelayer (equipped with a pipe rotator) has the capability to rotate the pipe for proper seam alignment and to orient bended pipes. S1 starts welding (phase III).

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4 When root and hot passes are completed, the clamp is moved ahead and S1 moves forward, supporting the pipe (phase IV). When S1 is close to the end of the second pipe (say by the middle of that second pipe), the front end carrier (FEC) is moved ahead to the front end location of the third pipe.

S1 then moves in its final position and holds the string so that S2-1 may be moved ahead, allowing S2-2 to enter the section ; cleaning operations on the clamp are proceeding.

5 A new pipe is positioned on FEC and S1 (phase V) Once all welding stations have completed their work, the following stations will operate in sequence: UT station S2-UT, S2-RP reaper, field coating, station S2- SB sandblasting, S2PH pre-heating and S-2JC coating, will take place, then the ready to go section of pipes is positioned on sand bags.

The last station is pulling a lay down stinger unit that will allow a smooth positioning of pipe on sand bags.

The following five sketches illustrate the above.

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PHASE I

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PHASE II

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PHASE III

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PHASE IV

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PHASE V

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7.3.3 Description of the new equipment needed Working stations S2: All stations (except S1 and FEC) are the same type. They include: One track-mounted self propelled platform, the tracks being on each side of the pipe.

The platform itself includes two sets of appropriate devices (probably rollers front/back) to give full support to the pipe. These devices will have to be adjustable in height and be able to clear welding guide rings when unit moves ahead. They also will have to be designed to carry maximum load imposed by the ROW irregularities.

All platforms will be equipped with a cab, which will be easily removable, welders and helpers will remain in the cab including during motion of the stations.

Each platform will be equipped with a power unit to provide either power for motion or for the welding or any other related equipment.

With this system, there are no parts exposed to damage such as umbilical cables or hoses.

All S2 type Stations are of modular design and each module can be removed out of the string for a quick exchange of the damaged components. In case of major problems, each of them can be removed from the string and replaced easily.

The carrying capacity of one station, when double jointed pipe are installed, should be approximately 2 pipes 24 m long each (56� diameter) allowing for some potential delay in one cabin operation.

However generally all stations should be a maximum of 24 m apart.

Each station has two sets of support rollers (front and rear), each set of rollers has sufficient capacity to support maximum load.

Each station is controlled by one onboard operator, however, each cab should allow up to 5 persons.

Obviously cabs will be air conditioning and heated.

A safety device will automatically stop the machine in case a person/an obstacle is on the travelling route or too close to.

Station S1 Station 1 is almost the same except its front rollers supporting the back end of the new pipe that offers the capacity to move up/down and left/right operations.

Rollers have holding capacity as described above.

Station S1 is positioned by a precise geo-positioning system.

All stations are the same as station 1 except for the lineup tool.

All stations have holding pads to hold the entire line (line-up, slopes). Automatic safety system forbids any station movements if line is not secured by other stations.

Front end carrier (FEC) FEC is a self-propelled track carrier remotely controlled by an operator located in S1 and precisely positioned by GPS. It is designed to carry one pipe.

FEC is fitted with holding pads, rollers that move up/down/right or left.

Unit has also a rotating bearing between undercarriage and support rollers in order to move pipe in line with preceding one.

A safety device automatically stops stations in case of obstacle or hazard.

Station has its own operating mode for loading/unloading into transport units.

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7.3.4 Equipment preliminary technical specifications The main technical specifications should include the following.

Stations Platform

Maximum width in transport mode less than 3.00 m Maximum height from the ground up: 3.50 m Necessary power 200 KVA. The power unit must be able to work from -30°C to + 50°C, in lateral slopes of +/-10% and longitudinal of max. +/- 30% Pipe bottom above ground 1.7 m Weight to be supported by the roller 30 tonnes Holding and lining up devices (S1) GPS system for station S1.

Possibility of lowering a roller for guiding rings Adjustable cab support Anti collision system and other safety devices

Cabin

Dimensions: L 3.50 m, width and height to meet main specs.

Adjustment “curtains” to enclosed the pipe Areas to accommodate generator, gas bottles, air distribution Heater and/AC units Cab floor for operators and helpers, at least 1 m above ground Adjustable floor to cope with slopes up to 30% Quick connection/disconnection devices The unit can be removed from the pipe side way

Front end carrier Maximum width transport mode 3 m Necessary power as required Weight to be supported by the rollers 15 tonnes Control system and GPS positioning Safety devices

Lay down stinger Last station on the line is pulling a non-propelled stinger to lay pipes on sand bags or equivalent devices.

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7.3.5 Potential savings in terms of cycle time and productivity Preliminary studies indicate that significant reductions of cycle time as well as savings in terms of manpower and equipment in the order of 10 to 30% can be expected Further, this new methodology will have a positive impact on: Safety

• • • • •

Elimination or at least strong reduction of skidding operations; this will decrease the number of workers on the ROW Less manpower on the ROW means fewer transportation requirements, consequently fewer risks of hazards and accidents Welders will no longer be on the ground but will work in an enclosed and clean environment even when moving to the next pipe Cabs are seating on a solid base and are no longer hanging on boom Cabs are dust controlled and air conditioned or heated for better working conditions

Quality

• • •

Line up and fit up processes are improved with consequences on productivity and quality As cabins are not any more hanging on booms, they can be adapted to sophisticated welding processes for better quality and productivity Fixed computerized cabins allow for latest technologies and pipes positioning

Environment • Decrease in air pollution due to a reduce number of operations (ROW) • New equipment will be of latest technology and meet all new air pollution requirements • As all operations will be conducted from an enclosed environment, collection of debris will be facilitated and more efficient

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7.4

Lowering & Laying: Functional Specifications of the Ideal Machine

7.4.1 Objectives 7.4.1.1 The initial objectives of the Lowering & Laying Working Group as defined in February 2007 were: Key Objective • Develop processes and equipment that match pipeline string design and conditions to ensure minimum installation stresses, minimum handling and zero pipe and coating damage when integrating with other innovations developed by other working groups of the Novel Construction Initiative for improved construction production rates Primary Objectives • To stimulate innovation in the area of pipe lower and lay processes to deliver appropriate technologies and working practices to facilitate the overall goals of the Novel Construction Initiative • In particular the key goal was to develop lower and lay processes and equipment which would integrate with the other Novel Construction processes and which would be engineered to match the pipeline string design and environmental/ terrain conditions to provide: • Minimum installation stresses • Minimum handling of the completed pipe string • Zero damage to pipe and external corrosion protection systems These objectives covered both the “Process” and the “Product” aspects of the Lowering and Laying operation in pipeline construction.

7.4.1.2 After analyzing the Lowering and Laying operation, the Group concluded that the “Process” aspect of this operation was directly connected with many other factors in pipeline construction, like: • Constructability and general layout of the pipeline • Processes and machinery used in the alignment, welding and coating phases of pipeline construction We could not therefore improve existing “Processes” or develop new ones in the Lowering and Laying operation, with the certainty that these new “processes” would be totally consistent with all other operations on the pipeline construction project.

The Working Group then decided to focus on the “Product” aspect of the Lowering and Laying operation, rather than on the “Process”.

Within the “Product” perspective, the Group identified and developed a workplan to address two targeted projects: 1. Develop functional specifications for the “Ideal” Sideboom.

2. Develop functional specifications for the “Ideal” Attachment.

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It was then decided to conduct a survey amongst IPLOCA Members, who are the Contractors actually using those machines. A questionnaire was developed and addressed as a survey to the Contractors through the IPLOCA website, with the support of the IPLOCA Secretariat and their web-site coordinator.

The Survey’s objective was to identify: • Current applications of sidebooms • Design weaknesses of current sidebooms • The features of the “Ideal” sideboom to perform lowering operations • The features which contractors would like to see on the “Ideal” attachment The specific questions were: • which features are “most liked”and which are “most disliked” • which features the Ideal Sideboom and Attachment “must have”, or would be “nice to have” Responses were received from over 20% of the contractors. The respondents included some of the major on-shore pipeline contractors, which gave a high degree of credibility and reliability to the results of the Survey.

The next phase of the project consisted in analysing the responses and comments, and in translating those into Functional Specifications for the “Ideal” Lowering & Laying Machine and Attachment. This work was performed during Summer 2008 and concluded at the Working Group’s meeting in Italy in July 2008.

One consideration which also came out of the Survey is that often some contractors asked for Features which are already existing on machines available on the market, and yet are not used, such as: • Factory-installed & certified Cabs, Roll Over Protective Structures (ROPS), seat belts, …

• GPS positioning systems (Product Link) • Electronic jobsite management (Accugrade) • Operator simulation training tool This prompted the question: Why is so much effort spent in developing new products and state-of-the-art features to improve the industry practices in terms of productivity, health and safety and environmental impact when – in the real world – machines which are 40 year old, have Tier Zero emissions engines, non-original ROPS or noncertified modifications are still accepted on jobsites ?

Section 7.4.3 below propose certain recommendations to progressively correct this situation.

7.4.1.3 Once they had developed the “Functional Specifications” of the “Ideal” Side boom, the Group realized that most of the Features identified could be extended to all types of machinery used on pipeline jobsites.

This actually represented the second shift in the Lowering & Laying Group objectives and deliverables. From analyzing the “Process” and the “Product” aspects of the Lowering and Laying operation in pipeline construction the scope was restricted to analyzing the “Product” aspects of this operation. Now, with the results of the Survey, it was broadened again and extended to the Functional Specifications which we had developed to “all Products”, i. e. all machines used on the pipeline construction jobsite, instead of limiting its application to just Sidebooms.

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The newly developed Functional Specifications are presented in the next section.

As for the “Ideal” Attachment Functional Specs, the Team has developed the concept of a tool which can be installed either on a Sideboom or on an excavator, and which can hold the pipe sections in any desired position, including rotation of the pipe section around its axis. This is under development by one of the manufacturers participating in the Team.

7.4.2 “Ideal Machine” Functional Specifications.

7.4.2.1 Transportability Due to the transient nature of pipeline construction and to the frequent need to move machinery around, transportation of the machine is the prime end-user selection consideration.

Machine Transportability can be further broken down into: Ease of Disassembly and Re-Assembly Machine dimensions Ease of Disassembly and Re-Assembly The Ideal Machine will have NO disassembly and reassembly operation.

Should this target not be met, then the goal for the machine design should permit easy disassembly and loading within one hour and without special tools or lifting devices.

Machine Dimensions It is highly desirable that the basic shipping dimensions of the machine be achieved or improved upon.

The overall machine size, weight criteria and transportation restrictions must be carefully considered.

Height The machine, loaded on a low bed trailer, should not exceed non-permit limitations in height with minimal disassembly, as follows: Location

Minimum Height Requirement (m)

North America

4.12

Europe

4.20

South America

4.40

Width The machine, loaded on a low bed trailer, should not exceed non-permit limitations in width with minimal disassembly, as follows: Location

Maximum Width Requirement (m)

North America

3.05

Europe

Category 1 – below 3.00 Category 2 – below 4.00 Category 3 – above 4.00

South America

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Weight The machine, loaded on a low bed trailer, should not exceed non-permit limitations in weight with minimal disassembly, as follows: Location

Maximum Weight Requirement (kg)

North America

54,500

Europe

42,000

South America

45,000

7.4.2.2 Safety The implementation of safety measures is a prime end-user selection consideration. How a machine performs in this area is of utmost importance.

Roll Over Protection System (ROPS) A roll over protection system (ROPS) should be implemented as standard on all machines capable of carrying a load. The ROPS device shall support the whole load (weight) of the machine in working configuration, in a rollover event, including to some extent the dynamic load associated to such event.

Safety belt should be compulsory.

Load Monitoring A load monitoring device should be implemented as standard on all machines capable of carrying a load.

In addition, the machine shall be equipped with a printed table with safe limits of operation in all situations as well as a table of the recommended steel cables to be used.

Slope indicator A slope indicator device should be implemented as standard on all machines capable of carrying a load. This should be useable both when the machine is under load and when it is not under load. Slope indicator should be lateral and longitudinal.

Visibility Functional visibility in all directions from the operator station is a requirement in critical areas as follows: 1. Forward and Side view of the left-hand track and ditch area.

2. Forward view over the front of each track.

3. Rearward for towing device and a towed load.

4. Drawworks.

5. Upwards to the tip of the boom.

Reduction of visibility with an enclosed cab should be minimal over a non enclosed ROPS. A separate Alarm signal is desirable for areas in “dead angles�.

7.4.2.3 Accessories and Comfort The implementation of operator comfort features should be taken into great consideration when designing a machine.

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Following are some of the features which should be considered.

Enclosed Operator Cab This will allow installation of air conditioning and/or heating. Extreme ambient temperatures should be considered, with attachments that would allow the machine to operate in ambient temperatures varying between +42 to –45ºC. Cab should be pressurized to avoid dust from penetrating the operator environment.

Controls Machine controls should require minimum operator effort and should consist of effort-assisted levers or joysticks which will allow to be operated with the maximum possible precision.

Controls shall have also an "anti-jolting" system and a blocking system to prevent sudden drop of boom/load.

Noise Level The reduction in noise exposure during machine operation should match or fall under the applicable requirements as required by law in the location.

7.4.2.4 Environmental Features The machine should be designed to meet the most advanced environmental requirements in areas such as: Low Engine Emissions Engine emissions should meet or fall under Tier IV requirements.

Fuel Efficiency The machine should have a proven fuel efficiency (gallons of fuel consumed per quantity of work produced).

Bio Fuels The Engine should be able to run with Biodegradable Fuels.

Bio Oils The machine should be able to run with Biodegradable Oils.

In addition, the machine should be equipped with leaking protection devices to prevent contamination of soil in the event of normal maintenance (oil changes) or of oil leakage.

Manufacturing process The machine should be manufactured in the most environmentally respectful manner. Use of remanufactured components would be a plus. Also, manufacturing processes and facilities should have a proven track record of environmental friendliness (low CO and GHG emissions, process for water recuperation and recycling, etc.).

Machine Recyclability The machine should be recyclable as much as possible.

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7.4.3 Recommendations to improve the existing quality of equipment used on existing pipeline projects The “Ideal Machine” Functional Specifications were then submitted to manufacturers of all type of machines used on on-shore pipeline projects (eg. Welding Tractors, Padding machines, Dozers, Excavators, Loaders, Dump-trucks, etc.) The manufacturers were asked to indicate which features of their current models already comply today with those “Ideal” Specifications, which features do not comply and which plans are in place for making the machine comply with the required “Ideal” Specifications.

The results of this survey are that Construction and Pipeline Machinery of major manufacturers does already meet today the majority of “Ideal” Functional Specifications.

However, it has to be noted that this result applies to machines which are new, ex-factory today, and not to old equipment which may still be used on pipeline jobsites. Manufacturers also highlight the fact that, although their appearance may be similar, current machinery is very different from old machinery, and that it is virtually impossible to upgrade old machines to the specifications of new ones.

To bring this work to a positive and concrete conclusion, the Working Group is proposing that Clients consider including contractual means in order to require and certify that a certain percentage of the machines used by contractors on the future jobsites actually comply with the “Ideal” Functional Specifications (or with a minimum requirements to be established by themselves, based on the “Ideal” Functional Specifications).

As an example Clients may want to require 10% (or any percentage to be determined by them at their discretion, as long as it drives increases in Safety, Productivity and Environmental Features) of the machines in the first year (2010), with a plan to increase by such percentage in each subsequent year.

We trust by having the Client drive such Best Practices, will result in improved efficiency, productivity, safety and environmental respect on the projects and jobsites.

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Appendices (see Volume Two) Table of Contents

Appendix 3.2.1: Recommendations for establishing the Project Execution Plan for the Construction Phase Appendix 3.2.2: A Dummies Guide to March Charts Appendix 3.4.4: Contract clauses that have a particular impact upon onshore pipeline projects Appendix 3.4.5: Project Cost Estimate and Contingencies Appendix 5.2.1: Examples of evaluation of time and cost impacts of full stoppages or of slowdowns to certain activities intervening at various stages of the construction process Appendix 6.1.1: Pipeline Selection Route Process Appendix 6.2.2: Earthworks – Pipeline Trench Design Appendix 6.2.3: Earthworks – Environment Control Measures Appendix 6.2.4: Earthworks - Health and Safety Hazard Control Measures Appendix 6.3.1: Comparison of Mainline External Anti-Corrosion Coatings Appendix 6.3.2: Field Joint Coating Selection Table Appendix 6.3.3: Supplementary Mechanical Protection Systems Selection Table Appendix 7.1.1: Conceptual Functional Specifications for a GIS-based Near-Real-Time Construction Monitoring Tool

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Bibliography Section 3.4 1.

ICE:

2.

ICE:

Conditions of Contract

The ICE Form of Contract - 7th Edition 1999. The Form creates a "Measure for Value" or "Re-Measurement" contract by which the Employer undertakes to pay for the actual quantities of work executed.

The Engineering and Construction Contract (Third Edition 2005) known as "NEC 3". "NEC 3" is a Suite of Contract Forms ranging from EPC Contract, with Main Options A-F Clauses, through Term Service Contract, Professional Services Contract, Subcontract and Short Subcontract, Short Contract, Framework Contract Service and Adjudication Agreements, published in twenty-nine books including tailored guidance notes, flow-charts and contract strategies.

Typically a NEC 3 Option "A" - Priced Contract with Activity Schedule, is a bound document composed of :

• • • • • • • • 3.

Schedule of Options; Core Clauses; Option A Clauses; Dispute Resolution Options W1 and W2; Secondary Options X1-7, X12-18, X20, Y(UK)2, Y(UK)3 and Z Clauses; Schedule of Cost Components; Shorter Schedule of Cost Components; Contract Data part one and part two proforma.

FIDIC: The FIDIC Suite of Contracts 1999 and the Gold Book 2008 The Four Principal Contract 1999 Forms are:

The Short Form of Contract 1st Ed (1999 Green Book); The Conditions of Contract for Construction (The 1999 Red Book) ***; The Conditions of Contract for Plant and Design-Build (The 1999 Yellow Book); The Conditions of Contract for EPC Turnkey Projects (The 1999 Silver Book).

Section 6.2

Earthworks

“Performance management for site restoration in rugged terrain”, by M Sweeney, A Gasca, RPC Morgan and J Clarke, in Int. Conf. on “Terrain and geohazard challenges facing onshore oil and gas pipelines”, London June 2004, pub Thomas Telford Ltd, p 687-700.

Geotechnical Aspects of Pipeline Design and Construction in Soft Very Sensitive Clay, J. Sarrailh and L.S. Brzezinski, June 1983.

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Section 6.3 External Pipeline Protection Systems • •

•

154

Various company coating manuals, construction specifications, engineering manuals and material specifications, material, equipment manufacturer and coating applicator websites Selected national, industry, and international standards, specifications and recommended practices: • CSA Z245.20-02/Z245.21 - External Fusion Bond Epoxy Coating for Steel Pipe - External Polyethylene Coating for Pipe • DVGW GW 15: 2007-01 - Protection from corrosion; coating of pipes, fittings and moulded parts • DVGW GW 340:1999-04 – FZM-Ummantelung zum mechanischem Schutz von Stahlrohren und –formstücken mit Polyolefinumhüllung – Anforderungen und Prüfung, Nachumhüllung und Reparatur, Hinweise zur Verlegung und zum Korrosionschutz • EN ISO 21809-1 (draft) - Petroleum and natural gas industries – External coatings for buried or submerged pipelines used in pipeline transportation systems - Part 1: Polyolefin coatings (3- layer PE and 3- layer PP) • EN ISO 21809-2 - Petroleum and natural gas industries - External coatings for buried or submerged pipelines used in pipeline transportation systems - Part 2: Fusion-bonded epoxy coatings (2007) • EN ISO 21809-3 - Petroleum and natural gas industries -- External coatings for buried or submerged pipelines used in pipeline transportation systems -- Part 3: Field joint coatings (2008) • EN ISO 21809-5 (draft) - Petroleum and natural gas industries -- External coatings for buried or submerged pipelines used in pipeline transportation systems -- Part 5: External concrete coatings Selected technical papers, books and reports: • Comparison Methodology of Pipe Protection Methods, CIMARRON Engineering Ltd, 2005 • Design and Coating Selection Considerations for Successful Completion of a Horizontal Directionally Drilled (HDD) Crossing, Williamson A.I., Jameson J.R. • Development of a Cost Effective Powder Coated Multi-Component Coating for Underground Pipelines, Singh P., Cox J. • Field joint developments and compatibility considerations, Tailor D., Hodgins W., Gritis N., BHR 15th International Conference on Pipeline Protection • High temperature pipeline coatings - field joint challenges in remote construction, Buchanan R., Hodgins W., BHR 16th International Conference on Pipeline Protection • The importance of hot water immersion testing for evaluating the long term performance of buried pipeline coatings, John R., Alaerts E., BHR 16th International Conference on Pipeline Protection • Long term performance - critical parameters in materials evaluation and process controls of FBE and 3LPO pipeline coatings – Guan S.W., Wong D.T., World Pipelines, 2008 • Mechanical Protection of Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coatings by Use of Fibre Reinforced Mortar, Schemberger D., BHRA, Nov 1985 • New developments in high performance coatings, Worthingham R., Cettiner M., Singh P., Haberer S., Gritis N., 2005 • Optimization of Pipeline Coating and Backfill Selection, Espiner R, Thompson I, Barnett J, NACE, 2003 • The Performance Capabilities of Advanced Pipeline Coatings, Singh P., Williamson A.I., Hancock J.R., Wilmott M.J.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1

• • • • • • • • •

Pipeline Coatings & Joint Protection: A Brief History, Conventional Thinking & New Technologies, Buchanan R., Rio Pipeline 2003 Pipeline Girth-Weld Joint Corrosion Protection: Remote Project Field Installation Challenges, Buchanan R., Dunn R., Gritis N., International Conference on Terrain and Geohazard Challenges Facing Onshore Oil and Gas Pipelines The Resistance of Advanced Pipeline Coatings to Penetration and Abrasion by Hard Rock, Williamson A.I., Singh P., Hancock J.R., October 2000 Rock Jacket – A Superior Pipe Protection System for Rocky Terrain, Bragagnolo P., NACE, Nov 1991 Simulation of Coating Behaviour in Buried Service, Andrenacci A, Wong D.T., NACE, 2007 Subsea Pipeline Engineering, Palmer, A.C., King R.A., 2004 Transmission Pipelines and Land Use: A Risk-Informed Approach – Special Report 281, US Transportation Research Board (TRB), 2004 Trends in Pipeline Field Joint Coatings, Buchanan R., Pipeline Coating Conference 2009, Vienna, Austria Vancouver Island Pipeline Project – Material Selection, Engineering Design and Construction Plan, Yamauchi H., NACE, Nov 1991

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Acknowledgements More than 100 persons and 45 companies participated in the preparation of this publication.

Each person’s name is mentioned in the main area of her/his participation as follows:

•

as a member of one, or more than one, of the six Working Groups

or

•

in the coordination and support functions

or

•

as having given editorial support to members of the Working Groups

or

•

•

as having attended one or more Plenary Sessions of the Novel Construction Initiative

This work is the outcome of six Working Groups: 1. Planning, Design & Control (PDC) Co-Chairmen: Mike King *(BP) & Zuhair Haddad (CCC) Participants: Yasser Hijazi* (CCC), John Truhe (Chevron), Paul Andrews* (Fluor), Cris Shipman (GIE), Paulo Montes (Petrobras), Tales Matos (Petrobras) 2. Contract Negotiating & Risk Sharing (CRS) Co-Chairmen: Barry Kaiser* (Chevron) & Bruno de La Roussière* (Entrepose) Participants: Sarah Boyle (Heerema), Barbara de Roo (Heerema), Paul Andrews* (Fluor), Frank Todd (Land & Marine), Jean Claude Van de Wiele (Spiecapag), Daniel Picard (Total) Consultant to IPLOCA and principal writer: Daniel Gasquet* 3. Pipeline Earthworks (EW) Co-Chairmen: Paul Andrews* (Fluor) & Bruno Pomaré (Spiecapag) Participants: Mike Sweeney (BP), Ray Wood (Fugro), Helen Dornan* (Serimax), Sue Sljivic* (RSK Group plc), Flavio Villa (Tesmec), Francesco Mastroianni (Tesmec), 4. Facing, Lining-Up & Welding (FLUW) Co-Chairmen: Frederic Burgy (Serimax) and Bernard Quereillahc* (Volvo) Participants: Zahi Ghantous (CCC), Jim Jackson (CRC-Evans), Marco Laurini (Laurini), Claudio Bresci (Petrobras), Derek Storey (Rosen) 5. External Corrosion Protection System (ECPS) Chairman: Sean Haberer* (Bredero Shaw) Participants: Dieter Schemberger (Akzo Nobel), Vlad Popovici* (Bredero Shaw), Nigel Goward (Canusa-CPS), Micheal Schad (Denso), Graham Duncan (Fluor), Damian Daykin (PIH) 6. Lowering & Laying (L&L) Chairman: Marco Jannuzzi* (Caterpillar) Participants: Zahi Ghantous (CCC), Kees Van Zandwijk (Heerema), Peter Salome (Heerema), Marco Laurini (Laurini), Claudio Bresci (Petrobras), Marcus Ruehlmann (Vietz), Lars-Inge Larsson (Volvo)

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โ ข

Overall Coordination and Support to the six Working Groups Coordination was carried out by Luc Henriod* (IPLOCA), Ian Neilson (BP) and Franรงois Pesme (BP), supported by the IPLOCA staff in Geneva who organised the plenary sessions, conference calls etc: Juan Arzuaga*, Caroline Green, Alain Hersent (IPLOCA Consultant), Sarah Junod and Liz Spalding.

Roberto Castelli (Bonatti) was in charge of coordinating with the Board of Directors of IPLOCA. *Names of the writing and editing team of the final document are designated in this Acknowledgement by an asterisk (*).

The following persons have given editorial support to members of the Working Groups or have showed their interest and support by attending some of the Plenary Sessions of our IPLOCA Novel Construction Initiative (in alphabetical order by company): Antonio Galetti (Bonatti), Andrea Piovesan (Bonatti), Barry Turner (Borealis), Bill Blosser (BP), Patrick Calvert (BP), Shaimaa Fawzy (BP) , Roger Howard (BP), Hikmet Islamov (BP), John McAlexander (BP), Colin Murdoch (BP), Geoff Vine (BP), Jean-Luc Bouliez (BS Coatings), Ray Paterson (BrederoShaw), Adrian Van Dalen (BS Coatings), Cortez Perotte (Caterpillar), Kurt Wrage (Caterpillar), Issam El-Absi (CCC), Joseph Farah (CCC), Hisham Kawash (CCC), Ramzi Labban (CCC), Fernando Granda (Chevron), Keith Griffiths (Chevron), Karlton Purdie (Chevron), Brad Stump (Chevron), C.S. Sood (CIT), Bo Wasilewski (Conoco-Phillips), Martin Kepplinger (deceased) - (CRC-Evans), Brian Laing (CRC-Evans), Gus Meijer (CRC-Evans), Bernhard Russheim (CRC-Evans), Oliver Zipffel (Denso), Peter Schwengler (E.ON Ruhrgas), Claudia Mense (Elmed), Carlo Spinelli (ENI), Paul Leyland (Entrepose), Jean-Pierre Jansen (Europipe), Daniel Delhaye (Fluor), Sub Parkash (Fluor), Conrado Serodio (GDK), Karl Trauner (HABAU), Marc Peters (Herrenknecht), Frank Muffels (Industrie Polieco MPB), Lorne Duncan (Integrated Project Services), Ed Merrow (IPA Global), Hudson Bell (ITI Energy), Nigel Wright (ITI Energy), Adam Wynne Hughes (Land and Marine), Tom Lassu (Ledcor), Boris Boehm (Maats), Jorge Baltazar (Petrobras), Sergio Borges (Petrobras), Paulo Correia (Petrobras), Ney Passos (Petrobras), Jimmie Powers (PRCI), Max Toch (PRCI), Jie-Wei Chen (Rosen), Mike Mason (RSK Group plc), David Williams (Serimax), Massimiliano Boscolo (Socotherm), Danillo Burin (Socotherm), Lotfi Housni (Somico), Remy Seuillot (Spiecapag), Luis Chad (Tenaris-Confab), Livia Giongo (Tesi), M. Lazzati (Tesmec) Francesco Mastroianni (Tesmec), John Welch (Tesmec), Andrea Zamboni (Tesmec), Paul Wiet (Total), Bart Decroos (Volvo), Jack Spurlock (Volvo).

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2

Onshore Pipelines

THE ROAD TO SUCCESS

An IPLOCA document – 1st edition September 2009

VOLUME TWO

APPENDICES

© Copyright IPLOCA 2009

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2

IPLOCA OBJECTIVES Objective 1 To promote, foster and develop the science and practice of constructing onshore and offshore pipelines, and associated works.

Objective 2 To make membership of the Association a reasonable assurance of the skill, integrity, performance, and good faith of its Members, and more generally to promote good faith and professional ethics in industry.

Objective 3 To maintain the standards of the contracting business for onshore and offshore pipelines and associated works at the highest professional level.

Objective 4 To promote safety and develop methods for the reduction and elimination of accidents and injuries to contractor’s employees in the industry, and all those engaged in, or affected by, operations and work.

Objective 5 To promote protection of the environment and contribute to social, cultural and environmental development programs, both in Switzerland and worldwide.

Objective 6 To promote good and co-operative relationships amongst membership of the Association as well as between contractors, owners, operators, statutory and other organisations and the general public.

Objective 7 To encourage efficiency amongst the Members, Associate Members and their employees.

Objective 8 To seek correction of injurious, discriminatory or unfair business methods practised by or against the industry contractors as a whole.

Objective 9 To follow the established Codes of Conduct set out by the industry and others with respect to working within a free and competitive market, and in doing so, to promote competition in the interests of a market economy based on liberal principle, both in Switzerland and worldwide.

Objective 10 To maintain and develop good relations with our Sister Associations as well as Associations allied to our industry and play a leading role in the World Federation of Pipeline Industry Associations.

Disclaimer In the preparation of THE ROAD TO SUCCESS, every effort has been made to present current, correct and clearly expressed information. However, the information in the text is intended to offer general information only and has neither been conceived as nor drafted as information upon which any person, whether corporate or physical, is entitled to rely, notably in connection with legally binding commitments. Neither its authors nor the persons mentioned herein nor the companies mentioned herein nor IPLOCA accept any liability whatsoever in relation to the use of this publication in whatsoever manner, including the information contained or otherwise referred to herein, nor for any errors or omissions contained herein. Readers are directed to consult systematically with their professional advisors for advice concerning specific matters before making any decision or undertaking any action.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2

Table of Contents Page

Appendix 3.2.1:

Recommendations for establishing the Project Execution Plan for the Construction Phase

163

Appendix 3.2.2:

A Dummies Guide to March Charts

169

Appendix 3.4.4:

Contract clauses that have a particular impact upon onshore pipeline projects

183

Appendix 3.4.5:

Project Cost Estimate and Contingency

187

Appendix 5.2.1:

Examples of evaluation of time and cost impacts of full stoppages or of slowdowns to certain activities intervening at various stages of the construction process

193

Appendix 6.1.1:

Pipeline Selection Route Process

199

Appendix 6.2.2:

Earthworks – Pipeline Trench Design

225

Appendix 6.2.3:

Earthworks – Environment Control Measures

263

Appendix 6.2.4:

Earthworks – Health and Safety Control Measures

273

Appendix 6.3.1:

Comparison of Mainline External Anti-Corrosion Coatings

313

Appendix 6.3.2:

Field Joint Coating Selection Table

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Appendix 6.3.3:

Supplementary Mechanical Protection Systems Selection Table

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Appendix 7.1.1:

Conceptual Functional Specifications for a GIS-based Near-Real-Time Construction Monitoring Tool

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Appendix 3.2.1 Recommendations for establishing the Project Execution Plan for the Construction Phase 1.

Introduction

The Project Execution Plan (PEP) is a substantial portion of a Pipeline Project development. In this document the selected Contractor has to explain the way he plans to execute the Project describing in detail the assumptions and all the considerations taken into account for such execution.

PEP is a tool that will help identify during project development all the strengths and weaknesses of the Plan which in the end will serve to define risk mitigation actions.

The Clients get through this document a very clear understanding of the extent of knowledge and evaluation done by the Contractor who shows how much familiarized he is with all the characteristics of the project and the site.

2.

Project Background or Baseline

This is a description of the findings that determine the baseline which will serve as a basis to define the strategy to execute the project. In order to have a detailed baseline the PEP has to describe: • The applicable legislations of the country where project has to be executed • The labor legislation and manpower availability • The evaluation made about suppliers and countries of origin for long lead items • Owner Organisation for the project including evaluation of the financial capacity • The applicable and required technologies including other to be considered • The basic terms of contract and its deadlines • The project site including evaluation of historic weather conditions registers and soil characteristics • The existing access facilities and transportation means in the area • The existing facilities to supply materials, tools and spare parts • The existing sources of food and available number of lodging facilities • The capacity of the existing fuel and grease facilities in the area • Customs conditions to import and export equipment and materials • Immigration conditions and language requirements to bring professionals and skilled HHRR • Health and safety requirements • Existing communication facilities

3.

Project Execution Organisation

In this section the Contractor Project Management Team will define the Organisation Chart that will be used to execute the Project. It is very important to early identify the name of the key personnel and make sure of their availability and commitment to remain in the Project from the beginning of the Project needs until the end of their assignment.

Special attention should also be given to the Organisation Chart that the Client intends to set up for project follow up and their location in the area. This is essential to keep a good communication at all project levels.

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The Organisation Chart should also depict the interface with the Headquarters and define the contractors representatives assigned to the Project in case of Joint Ventures.

Each of the following activities should be covered: a) Engineering: with clear definition of the group leaders, consultants and subcontractors. b) Main Supplies and Subcontract: special attention should be given to include the group who will execute the following activities, • • • • • • • • • •

Procurement of long lead items Lease or purchase of construction equipment Supplied materials Consumables Inspections at the supplier’s facilities Follow up and handling Import/Export of all needed elements Customs clearance Transportation logistics Material management

c) Construction The construction organisation should define the structure - up to supervisory line - for all phases of the Project. It should identify the number of crews being planned for all the different segments of the Project (i.e. Pumps stations, Pipeline, Terminals, Tank Farms, Scada, etc). e) Project Administration and Finance A list of the needed Accountants, Treasurers, Human Resources people and other related tasks should be detailed in this area. f) Logistics This area includes camps, transports, supplies, fuel distribution, warehouses, communication systems among other. In many remote Pipeline Projects this is a very critical activity that should be very well planned and detailed g) Project Control This group is in charge of the cost reports and progress payment reports. Many projects also include Progress control and Planning in this group h) Equipment administration and maintenance The planned resources for Line Maintenance, Repair Shops, Crew assistance, etc should be listed here based on the number of construction equipment to be used and the weather conditions.

i ) QA/QC A brief description of the QA/QC program and the resources to be deployed should be given in the section. j ) HSE A brief description of the HSE program and the resources to be deployed should be given in the section where the requirements of the Environmental Impact Study and the Environmental Management Plan should be taken into account.

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k) Technical Support This is an Office set up to act as an interface between the Engineering Group and the Construction people preparing work procedures to execute the activities in full compliance with the Technical requirements, the HSE and QA/QC provisions of the contract. This group of people also produces sketches and detailed as built surveys during construction. l) Contract Administration This group includes all needed resources to keep contractual communication with the Client’s Representatives, evaluate contract interferences, estimate scope changes m) Communications and systems A group of technicians to assist the systems needs of the Project should be considered and detailed in the chart.

4.

Key Personnel:

The Curriculum Vitae of this group of people should be part of the PEP so as to provide a detailed qualification of the proposed leaders of the project execution.

5.1 Engineering Execution Plan The Engineering Manager will define here his plans to: • • • • • • • •

Execute this task describing the subcontractors, consultants and advisors he is planning to use.

Set up the Software and Hardware tools needed for his group.

Identify the critical aspects and his plans to keep them under control.

Interface with other actors of the project like suppliers, owner representatives, construction people and the community.

Control the progress made in his area including the list of data sheets, drawings and specifications.

Execute his activities under a CPM program depicting all the interfaces of his area with others.

Assist the procurement group to place Supply Agreements for Long Lead Items in full alignment with the warranty and design conditions of the contract.

Test and commission all the facilities of the installation including HAZOP activities and design SCADA.

5.2 Procurement Execution Plan The Procurement Manager defines here the methodology he plans to follow to supply the project with all materials and equipment.

His plan should consider, • • • • • • • • • • •

Procurement of long lead items (defining also Warranty period).

Lease or purchase of construction equipment.

Special tools and materials Supplied materials and spare parts Spare parts for construction equipment Consumables Inspections at the supplier’s facilities.

Follow up and handling.

Import/Export of all needed elements.

Customs clearance.

Transportation logistics.

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• • • • •

Temporary housing.

Food and lodging subcontracts.

Pipe yards and Warehouses Material management system definition and set up Follow up information to be given to the Client

5.3 Administration and Finance Plan Here the Administration and Finance Manager defines how he plans to keep register of all the costs and revenues of the project, the accounting system and the information that he will be able to produce. In Joint Ventures it is very important to also define the Agreement that will conduct the Parties. The location of the bank accounts and advisors needed to carry out the activities in full compliance with the local law should be detailed as well. The financing lines, the cash flow and the insurance coverage for the project should be detailed in this paragraph. Type of guaranties to be issued for contract purposes should also be clearly defined to avoid last minute inconveniences

5.4 Construction Execution Plan The Construction Manager describes here the most important aspects of the project and the construction techniques he is planning to put in place. A split of activities is recommended in order to better describe each crew scope and needed resources with indication of the production expected for each one. It is extremely important to issue a Velocity Chart also called March Chart as described in section 3.2 and in Appendix 3.2.2. This chart allows the Client to understand better the position planned for each crew at each moment with details of the expected progress. The access plans and transportation requirements should be considered for each portion of the project. Camps strategy and food preparation and distribution must be detailed including subcontractors and owner’s representatives needs.

It is recommended to prepare for each crew: • List of personnel • List of equipment • Services and subcontracts needed • Scope of their work • List of challenges and plans to control them • Timing • Special methods or requirements • Procedures needed.

5.5 Health & Safety Plan The Health and Safety Manager for the project in coordination with the Corporate HSE Manager will adapt the Corporate Health and Safety Plan to the project needs and will describe his execution plan to induce all the HHRR involved in the project to a unified and leveled project plan. The target statistic figures for the project should be established here. Special attention has to be given to the existence of epidemics and generally to the health conditions of the site. The existence and location of first aid and hospital facilities in order to give full coverage to all the project workers and also protect the community should be carefully planned. It is very important to identify the number of H&S specialists that will act on each section of the project as well as the first aid facilities. Special attention should be given to all needed specific procedures, such as emergency evacuation, as described in the contract.

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5.6 Environmental Impact Plan The Management Plan to mitigate the Environment Impact of the Project has to be described here by the Environment Manager in coordination with the Corporate HSE Manager. The Environment Impact Study (EIS) for the project should be approved by the Financial Entities and/or the Client before the project site construction activities get started. These entities have to make sure that the EIS has been duly discussed at all stages of the government and also consulted with the most important ONG’s of the area so that everybody knows what is being planned in order thus reducing the risk of last minute disagreements and misunderstandings that are very negative for the project. The execution plan needs to define here all the mitigation plans to be used in the construction procedures to install the facilities and the restoration works. Indicating also which are part of the contract and those other that should be instructed by the Owner. This part of the PEP is essential in order to give clear definition of the scope of work and the construction methods that have been planned to execute the project. All last minute requirements for environmental protection measures demand a lot of resources that –if not planned in advance- may challenge the smooth execution of the project.

5.7 Project Planning and Control Plan This is another substantial part of the PEP since it defines the way resources have been planed to get the needed progress of all phases of the project so as to reach the milestone dates. The Project Resourced Programme should cover the entire project scope and also include sufficient detail to reflect the PEP. It is a document that ties together all elements of the PEP and provides the key basis to accurately evaluate the Cost Estimate. Additionally, all bill of quantities are shown here in order to give clear idea of the amount of work that has been considered for each portion of the work. This information will be essential to provide the baseline to discuss impact of scope changes, interferences, weather restrictions and influence along with other disruptions like stoppages or suspensions of the project activities.

The March Chart and CPM Resourced Programmes combined with the near real time project control system as described in detail in section 7.1, constitute the main tools to control the project execution.

This Plan has to list all the information that will be produced to track the project progress and costs to be reported on a regular basis as required by the contract. Milestones should be defined in order to provide a tool that will help to track completion of certain activities that otherwise could be 99% complete and would remain there since the last 1% generally takes tremendous time and effort to get completed. This is essential to give some warning signs to the project team. Therefore, it is extremely important to chose project milestones that identify completion of key activities. One important element to control progress is the weighted “S” curve which is developed giving the % of participation in the cost of the activity as estimated in the Cost Estimate to weight the % of physical progress.

5.8 Risk Analysis management plan.

The Project Team should get together to list and evaluate all project risks identified during the project study. The entire life cycle and scope of the project including the social aspects should be analyzed to identify the potential risks of the project. These risks have to be classified as operational, financial, legal, contractual, climatic, community, inland security risks, etc. It is also important to identify which are associated with internal factor which could be under Project Team control and those due to external factors that are out of the Project Team control.

A probability level has to be given to each risk and also the gravity of it occurrence should also be valued in order to set up a Matrix (Probability/Gravity) that will allow the project Team to properly weight the risks in order to develop a Mitigation Plan for each risk.

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5.9 Quality Plan The QA/QC Manager has to develop for the PEP a Quality Plan based on the Corporate Quality Plan and the contractual conditions under the supervision of the Corporate QA/QC Manager. This Plan has to identify the practices and the sequence of activities linked to the specific quality of the project. The plan has to define which processes are going to be controlled and also include the applicable procedures to be used as part of the Quality Plan. It very important to define the content and format of the information that will be included in the regular report to be issued by the QA/QC Manager to track the progress of the non compliance reports (NCR) and the actions taken to fix these NCR which otherwise could turn out to be an important barrier for project completion if not followed properly.

5.10 Community Relations plan.

Many pipeline projects face severe difficulties, delays and costs overruns due to disruptions in the approach to the communities. Many pipeline projects are executed in remote areas were the local people has never seen a big machine and from one day to the other they start seeing a lot of new equipment and people invading their territory. Hence uneasiness and opposition to the invader may build up quickly. In order to prevent the resulting difficulties it is extremely important to develop a community relations plan in coordination with the local authorities, the Client and the Contractor. Regularly the Client takes this risky item in his hands but, this plan has to be followed up and supported by the Contractor’s own forces.

Participation in all open meetings with the communities to explain the way the project will be executed and appointment of community relations team to keep a close contact with the local people are essential and need to be clearly described in the PEP. The local regulations and common practices followed by other projects in the area are also extremely important to define the Community Relations plan. In this regard the PEP should also establish the rules for hiring local labor and the expectations regarding the involvement of local suppliers and subcontractors.

5.11 Systems The Systems Manager has to define the strategy to link all the project camps with the project offices and the headquarter including also the owner’s representative offices. He will also identify -in coordination with the leaders of each project activities- the type of software that will be used for Engineering, Material, Procurement, Accounting and Control. The technical support will be also identified in order to give a clear understanding of the Systems Plan that is being considered to execute the project. It is extremely important to make sure that all systems to be used in the project will be able to interact with systems used by the Client, the suppliers, the subcontractors and the consultants that are being part of the process. This seems to be simple but, if it is not well defined at the beginning it could trigger a lot of delays in the project execution. Should the operational organisation of the Client (other than the construction organisation) require all the project as built done in a certain software that has not been used to do all the engineering, the risk of errors and loss of information and data would be very high.

Therefore, it is essential to analyze all the project scope, the contractual requirements and the full life cycle to define systems.

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Appendix 3.2.2 A Dummies Guide to March Charts Introduction Traditional scheduling software for the construction industry is dominated by: Primavera, Microsoft Project, Power Project and others. All of these solutions provide opportunities to develop a series of activities that are logically connected in a sequence from project start to finish. While these tools are very powerful, they are better designed for the construction of buildings and other facilities (power generating stations, refineries, etc.) and are not adequate for the constructability issues and demands of building linear project such as a pipeline, rail system or roadway. A linear project is defined as a series of crews moving in sequence along a ROW (right-of-way) during construction.

March charts (also known as Time-Distance charts) have been widely used in linear projects, particularly in Europe and the U.K. This methodology is newer to the Americas, but is rapidly gaining widespread acceptance. March charts are often hand drawn, prepared in Microsoft Excel or in a drawing program such as AutoCAD. Linear planning and scheduling software that automates development of the plan and progressing is relatively recent (approximately the last 15 years). Key advantages of march charts are that the schedule is connected to the geography of the ROW and any constructability issues that are important to the project. The intent of this “Dummies Guide to March Charts” is to provide an overview of how to interpret and use march charts with an emphasis on using a selection of the linear planning software tools that are currently available. A list of software is provided at the end of this appendix.

3.2.2.1 The Basics • Differences between gantt and march charts Gantt charts are familiar to anyone who has planned and scheduled a project. The planner creates a series of activities based on the project execution plan and then logically connects these activities (Finish-Start, Start-Start, Finish-Finish and Start-Finish). Resources can be added to each activity schedule and resource loading can be easily displayed. In order to maintain crew sequencing in a pipeline project, the planner ensures that each activity is connected to its successor by a Start-Start and a Finish-Finish relationship. A typical Gantt chart for a pipeline job is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Traditional Gantt Chart

This Gantt charts clearly shows each activity with its start and end date. Any progress is shown on the Gantt chart as the percent completed for each task. The problem with a traditional Gantt chart is that reporting that a bending crew is 45 % complete is quite meaningless because these traditional tools assume that progress is from start to finish and no connection exists between progress and the geography of the ROW. The ability to include crew moves, permitting delays, environmental restrictions and other construction issues is simply not possible.

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A march chart on the other hand displays the same crews as a series of lines moving along the ROW. Each crew is logically connected to its successor with Start-Start and/or Finish-Finish relationships.

Completed sections are easily identified with crew moves, crossings and environmental windows visible on the march chart. Using the same example, a march chart will clearly display what 45% of the ROW has been completed by the bending crew and how any moves or ROW access issues have impacted the progress.

A typical march chart (Fig. 3) in its most basic form shows each crew represented by a different line type. Usually distance along the ROW is horizontal and increases from the left to the right. Time is typically represented vertically, increasing from bottom to top (although it can just as easily be shown increasing top to bottom). It should be noted that the orientation of the time and distance axes is a matter of personal preference and can easily be switched in the software.

The advantage of march charts is immediately obvious as you can determine the location of each crew at any particular point in time. Any issues associated with crew productivity rates are also readily apparent. For example, the red arrow in Fig. 3 indicates that based on the productivity of each crew, the lower-in crew will overtake the ditching crew between KP 25+000 and 30+000, which was not obvious in the Gantt chart view (Fig. 1).

Fig. 3 Simple March Chart

In march charts the slope of the activity indicates the relative productivity rate for the crew. The steeper the slope, the slower the crew is moving (because more time is spent and less distance is completed).

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Non-work periods such as scheduled days off or work stoppages appear as vertical segments on the crew line. A vertical line indicates that time is passing but the crew is not moving. Fig. 5 shows an example where the grade crew is moving slower (468 m/day) than the Haul and String crew (600m/day) with each crew working a 6 day 10h shift rotation. The green bars across the march chart and the short vertical jumps in each crew, indicate the day off each week. This march chart shows that grading has to start 18 days ahead of hauling and stringing in order to keep these crews from overlapping. The productivity rates that are displayed are calculated automatically by the march chart software based on duration and length of each task.

For clarity and ease of explanation, all of the following examples in this guide will show only a few representative pipeline crews. Typically, each crew is assigned to a different layer of the march chart so that the planner can display one or many crews simultaneously, by activating the layers.

Fig. 5 Productivity Rates and Slope

3.2.2.2 Constructability Issues With a basic understanding of these march chart elements, a march chart can be further enhanced to display any other critical element of your project. These can include the ROW profile, crossings, environmental restrictions and land acquisitions. Other elements such as vegetation type, soil type and rainfall data can also be included on the march chart. The amount and type of information shown on a march chart is determined by the project team.

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ROW Profile The ROW profile is important in developing the hydro-test plan and to determine productivity rate changes based on elevation (discussed later in the speed profiles section). Most profile data (LIDAR or survey) is available in a spreadsheet format and can be easily imported into a profile diagram using the import function of the march chart software to generate the ROW profile as seen below in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Elevation Profile and Restricted ROW Access

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• Restricted ROW access Construction of pipelines may be hampered by periods when certain parts of the ROW are not accessible. This would include environmental windows for wildlife and rare plants, permitting issues or ROW acquisition delays.

Restricted access periods are easily represented graphically on march charts by rectangular shapes as shown in Fig. 8. Once the impact of a restriction has been evaluated, it may be necessary to modify the work plan to avoid working in restricted areas. This can be done by splitting the crews so that work which is impacted by restricted areas will be completed at a later date once the restriction period is over.

Fig. 8 illustrates a move for both the grade and string crew to avoid a restricted area. In this example, both crews skip the restricted area (1 day lag to allow for move) and continue to the end of the ROW at 30+000. Once this work is finished, and the environmental restriction has expired, both crews move back to the restricted area and complete it in a reverse lay. The red dashed lines indicate the logical links between each crew segment.

Fig. 8 Restricted Access Showing Move Around

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• Crossings Once the environmental or land restrictions have been established on your march chart, the next step is to identify crossings. Crossing types can include foreign utilities, roads, rail or water and are important features to locate on your march chart. The method of crossing will be dependent upon the type of crossing. Water crossings usually require an open cut (if permissible under the environmental guidelines) or will utilize a HDD (Horizontal Directional Drill). Most roads and rail crossings utilize some type of bore method while foreign utilities are exposed using a hydrovac. Each type of crossing can be color coded on the march chart for quick and easy identification.

Fig. 10 (below) shows a highway (at KP 1+793) shown in grey and a blue river crossing (KP 29+690) on the march chart.

Fig. 10 Road and River Crossings

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• Stockpile locations and Valve Sites Virtually any information that is considered important can be inserted into the march chart. The following example (Fig. 12) shows the stockpile location (KP 26+102) and the supply zone for this pipe (KP 0+000 to KP 29+655). It is interesting to note that non-linear structured tasks (such as mainline block valves) can also be shown on a march chart. The two valves shown in Fig. 12 are represented by a series of rectangular shapes indicating different stages of installation from civil to mechanical to instrumentation and telemetry. Other non-linear features that can be added to a march chart would include hot bends (with delivery dates) and detailed HDD activities. Pump stations can also be represented as rectangular activities that can be progressed as well. In this regard, a march chart is able to represent both linear and non-linear components, providing an overview of the entire project.

Fig. 12 Stockpile Sites and Valve Locations

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• Weather Risk Risk related to weather events such as precipitation amounts or temperature, are easily evaluated by overlaying meteorological data on the march chart. In Fig. 14, the different shades of blue represent average monthly rainfall amounts. The heaviest amounts of rain occur in the lower right of the march chart, represented by a darker blue. In this example, the planner has avoided working in this area during high rainfall thus reducing the risk of heavy rain impacting construction.

Fig. 14 March chart showing monthly average rainfall data.

3.2.2.3 Other Features • Spend Profiles and resource histograms Spend profiles and resource histograms are simple to create once costs are added to the labour, equipment and materials used in the march chart.

Fig. 16 illustrates an example where the weekly cost per crew and the total cumulative cost are presented in a histogram and table. It is also possible to display the resource histogram per week (month or day) to determine camp requirements. Spend profiles are a function of time and are therefore displayed parallel to the time axis of the march chart. It is also possible to create a spend profile parallel to the distance axis showing the cost per section of the pipeline. Any changes to the march chart (such as crew moves) automatically create a change to the spend profile.

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Fig. 16 Weekly Spend Profile (per crew with weekly and cumulative totals)

• Applying work and speed Profiles to crews Most estimates, schedules and march charts assume a consistent productivity (or work) rate for each pipeline crew along the ROW. This productivity factor is then applied for the entire length of the spread to determine the duration of each crew. Applying a constant productivity rate to a crew doesn’t account for changes in profile, soil, terrain (muskeg versus mineral soil conditions) or vegetation types.

For example, a logging crew that has a productivity rate of 2000 m/day would require 15 days to complete a 30 km ROW. While this provides a rough estimate it doesn’t account for productivity rates based on changes in vegetation types or whether there is logging required in certain areas (for example an old burn area that doesn’t have salvageable timber).

The following examples shown in Fig. 18 and Fig. 19, illustrate the difference when a vegetation classification system is used to define the productivity rates for logging and clearing crews in a Northern pipeline spread. In this example the vegetation data and productivity rates for both crews in a particular location were imported directly into the march chart from an Excel data file supplied by a survey.

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Fig. 18 Logging and Clearing Crews with constant productivity

In Fig. 18, we can see that both crews have very similar productivity rates with a duration of 25 and 26 days respectively for the logging and clearing crews.

The vegetation index in this example defines the amount of work (area in Ha) and work rate for each vegetation type along the ROW. Once this data is known and available in a spreadsheet format, it is easy to apply this index to each crew as shown in Fig. 19.

The first noticeable change is that the crews are not consistently progressing along the ROW. Each crew line now reflects a different productivity rate with each change in vegetation type. More importantly we can see that the duration for each crew has changed significantly.

Logging has decreased from 25 days to 16 days while the duration for clearing has increased from 26 days to 40 days!

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Fig. 19 Logging and Clearing optimized by vegetation index

This approach could easily be used in any other geographic location where a known variable impacts the work rate of crews along a ROW. The ability to define productivity in terms of the ROW conditions will enable you to create a more accurate project plan and spend profile when compared to simply applying an uniform rate to each crew. Progress can now be applied against the adjusted crew profiles.

Applying a speed profile to a crew, based on known changes in productivity, creates a more accurate picture of how the crew is moving along the pipeline ROW as seen in Fig. 21.

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Fig. 21 Crew Speed profile

3.2.2.4 Progressing March Charts Progressing crews on a march chart requires the start KP, end KP and the date range for each progress period (based on the inspector field reports) is applied. The exception to using linear meters for progress would be to count the number of welds, usually back end welds, or the number of UPI items, such as bag weights.

Fig. 23 shows progress for both the grade and the haul & string crews. Progressing is as simple as selecting a crew by clicking on it, right click and select enter progress. Enter the start and end date for the progress period and the start and end KP.

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Fig. 23 Progressing Crews in March Charts

The march chart software calculates the physical percent completed based upon the amount of work completed divided by the total length of the pipeline. In this example, grading is 61.02% and haul & stringing is 40.44% complete. It should be noted that the progress is for the segment starts at KP 0+000 and ends at restricted access area, it doesn’t include the other two segments for each of these crews. • Progress bar charts Progress can also be indicated in a bar chart format where each the progress of each crew is represented by a shaded bar chart. As progress is applied to a crew the bar chart view is automatically updated to reflect this progress. In Fig. 24, the direction of build is from KP 162+000) to KP 112+000.

In this example, the clearing, pioneering and grade crews have completed the entire length of the spread. haul and string are between 40% and 50% complete and the automatic welding crew has just kicked off.

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Fig. 24 Crew Progress Bar Chart

Conclusion The intent of this guide is to provide a comparison of traditional scheduling tools to march charts and to provide an overview of the how to interpret these charts. This overview described how to interpret march charts in the simplest form and then increased the complexity by adding constructability issues such as environmental restrictions and risk such as weather. The ability to represent non-linear activities (valves and pump stations) on a march chart makes this a very powerful solution that enables one to view the entire project on one march chart.

Also described was the ability to apply speed and work profiles to connect the productivity rates to soil, timber or any other factor that will have an impact. Progressing during project execution is dependent on the input of the crew inspector daily report. Typically the start and end KP for each crew is recorded daily for progressing the march chart. UPI items and welding may also be tracked as the number installed or completed.

It should be apparent that march charts are well suited for pipeline construction projects. We have seen that march charts connect the schedule to the geography and risks of a project in a manner that is not simply possible using traditional scheduling methods. Hopefully, this guide has helped you gain an understanding and appreciation of march charts and the potential that is possible.

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Appendix 3.4.4 Contract clauses that have a particular impact upon onshore pipeline projects Weather The Contract should identify the baseline weather conditions that the Contractor can expect to encounter along the route. This is usually obtained from publically available sources. The Contractor should be required to allow sufficient time and resources to deal with the anticipated weather conditions.

The Contract may require the Contractor to allow for slightly worse conditions than those anticipated by the weather data. The Contract should also require the Contractor to monitor actual weather conditions at identified locations along the pipeline route.

Should the weather conditions be worse than those indicated in the Contract then the Contract should provide a mechanism for identifying and valuing the effect on programme and resources. The Contract should then identify how and to which extent financial compensation and time extension should be established.

Environment/Archaeology Prior to commencement of pipeline construction environmental and archaeological surveys from publicly available sources will have been carried out as part of the FEL. This information will have identified a series of constraints that should be included within the Contract documentation and which the Contractor should allow for dealing with within the Contract Price. During the course of construction unanticipated environmental/archaeological issues are bound to arise. The Contract should clearly identify responsibility for dealing with and mitigating the effect of these issues and a mechanism for valuing the effect on programme and resources.

Site and Access The Site and Access to it needs clear definition within the contract. The easement width available to the Contractor for overland pipeline construction should be clearly stated-particularly if this varies throughout the route as a result of constraints. Additional land take required at each crossing should also be clearly identified together with land associated with valve stations/AGI’s etc. It is usual practise for the Client to obtain all permissions associated with securing pipeline route and installations.

Pipeline construction contracts should also clarify who is providing land for pipe dumps, construction yards, mobilization/demobilization yards, parking areas along the spread, office compounds, and accommodation compounds. The document should indicate the location and area of each piece of land to be provided by the Client and the general characteristics of the land i.e. is it virgin ground-is it built on-have any soils investigations been done-are there services available; how long is it available for etc.

It should be clearly stated in the Contract if the Contractor is to provide these facilities.

As part of FEL the Client should have determined suitable access routes to the site which should be identified in the Environmental Impact Study. These can vary from negotiating with the highway authorities which roads can be used for heavy/light traffic to constructing major temporary roads and bridges to access the easement. Responsibility for obtaining permissions to construct off easement accesses should be clearly set out in the contract. It is recommended to have the same Party dealing with ROW easements and accesses at the same time.

The Contract should also state when each portion of land, whether for pipeline construction, support facilities or off easement accesses are available to be used by the contractor.

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Programme The Contract should contain the programme of works for the completion of the pipeline including the activities and milestone dates in charge of the Contractor and the Client. For pipeline construction this is generally in the form of a fully resourced March Chart supplemented by CPM of special sections and crossings. These clearly identify the anticipated resources.

The impact of any changes, stoppage or slow down of production can be monitored via the contract programme and measures put in place to mitigate the effect of delays. The Contract will contain provisions as to the financial responsibility for specific types of stoppage/delay (for example it is usually the Client’s responsibility to pay for delays caused by lack of access and the Contractor would bear his own costs if the delays were due to inadequate resourcing). Once the delay has been monitored and mitigation measures put in place the consequences in terms of resourcing can be valued at a predetermined set of rates and allowances.

Third Parties Pipelines by their very nature pass through diverse geographical and political areas and touch on many people lives and environmentally sensitive areas along the way. Many of these people will have an interest in and impact upon pipeline construction. They may include: • Farmers • Land owners • Local inhabitants • Local businesses • Local authorities/municipalities • Police • Army • Insurgents • Protestors • Port/Railway/Highway authorities • Other Utilities • Customs authorities • Environmental agencies • Environmental pressure groups (NGO’s) • State/National Governments • Planning Authorities The responsibility for dealing with Third Parties, although best served by a joint Client/Contractor’s approach, should be under the leadership of the Client since it has to be initiated at a very early stage of FEL. It is extremely important to appoint people who understand the culture and the social aspects of the environment of the Project. These people should preferably remain throughout the duration of the FEL phases and the Construction of the Project in order to keep the same level of communication and commitments with the Third Parties. Many projects have encountered major problems when lacking a well planned Third Party Programme. When appointed the Contractor should jointly participate in this Programme in order to provide a unified response to all the Third Parties issues and the contract should be clear on how time and cost impact of any Third Party action should be addressed.

Materials Where materials are to be supplied by the Client the quantity and specification of the material should be included within the contract document. The delivery date(s) should also be included together with the location of the handover. The contractor usually has the duty to physically inspect the material to identify any obvious damage. Responsibility for any latent defect would remain with the Client. Any change in the delivery date or the handover location is usually the Client’s responsibility who should carry the financial impact.

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Ground Conditions Please also refer to section 6.2 Earthworks As in most civil engineering contracts understanding the nature of the ground and what the Contractor is required to construct in/on it is fundamental to the success of the project. During the FEL ground condition surveys/boreholes will have been taken along the proposed route with particular attention being paid to crossings. This information will have been utilized to select the optimum route. Particular attention will have been paid to crossings. The extent of survey information available can be extremely sparse and this creates huge risks for the project. This data will have been made available to the Contractor during the tender/negotiation process and should form part of the Contract. The Contractor will have used this information to determine resource levels and construction methods for both the trench and the crossings. If there is insufficient reliable data available the Client may be advised to instruct the Contractor to base his tender assessment on a set of assumptions. If during the construction process it is found that the actual ground conditions are at variance to those indicated in the surveys/boreholes or with the set of assumptions and that those differences have caused either stoppage/delay or increased resource levels then the responsibility for financial consequences should be addressed in the Contract. The Contractor should normally be expected to accommodate minor changes in ground conditions but anything that affects production beyond a minor amount should generally be borne by the Client.

Design The contact should clearly state who is responsible for which elements of the design.

When the Client is responsible for the design then any delay in issuing design information which causes additional costs should be the Client’s responsibility.

It is recommended that the Client always remains responsible for the accuracy and correctness of the information and data supplied at the time of tender or at any time thereafter.

When the Contractor is expected to endorse certain elements of the FEED, sufficient time (to be agreed) should be allowed to either identify errors or omissions or to request changes.

Fit for purpose clauses should be qualified as being in accordance with the Contract with a clear definition of the purpose.

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Appendix 3.4.5 Capital Costs and Contingency 3.4.5.1 The Development of a Project Estimate An estimate is developed by considering the scope of a given project and estimating the quantities of material and resources needed to successfully complete the project in a given schedule.

Any estimate carries risk. The allocation of allowances, escalation and contingency within an estimate and the assignment of an accuracy range to that estimate is a means by which a bidder endeavors to identify and manage the risks associated with any estimate. • Allowances Allowances cover incremental resources (for example, hours and money) included in estimates to cover expected but undefined requirements for individual accounts or sub-accounts. They cover design allowance for engineered equipment, bulk material take-off allowance, overbuy allowances, unrecoverable shipping damage allowance, provisional allowances for poorly defined items and freight allowance (equipment and materials). There are two main types of allowances, assumed (based on the bidders perception of the project requirements) and validated or historical (based on the bidders estimating database). • Escalation Escalation is a provision in actual or estimated costs for an increase in the costs of equipment, material, and labor from a set point in time and is due to a continuing price change over time until the completion of the project.

Escalation does not cover Hyper escalation, that is escalation which is outside what is expected from published indices, Hyper escalation should be covered by contingency and allocated based on the perceived risk. • Contingency A bidder will typically include three main types of contingency in an estimate, estimate contingency, event contingency and Management Reserve.

Estimate Contingency is defined as a special monetary provision in the project budget to cover uncertainties or unforeseeable elements of time/cost in the estimate associated with the normal execution of a project, for example, labor rates and design development. Estimate Contingency is calculated using a risk model with input from a knowledgeable team.

Event Contingency is defined as a monetary provision in the project budget to cover the costs associated with the occurrence of one or more specific risks, for example incurring liquidated damages or impacts from severe weather or hyper escalation.

Management Reserve is a further contingency included based on Bidders Management Perception of the overall likelihood of the project cost and associated risks.

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3.4.5.2 What Contingency is not meant to cover Contingency is not meant to replace the development of an accurate estimate commensurate with the stage of the project and the associated definition at that stage.

It is not meant to cover project scope change for example a change in pipeline throughput or terminal storage volume.

It does not cover for design allowance which should form part of the normal project estimate basis.

Contingency does not cover for management reserve or profit. These areas will also be discussed.

3.4.5.3 Development of Allowances, Escalation and Contingency • Pipeline Materials Most of the material qualities can be relatively easily quantified following the FEL process, the number and size of valves will be set, the location and specification of pig-traps will be defined. The associated allowances will be set based on historical data and escalation will be set based on the appropriate published indices. These do not cover the full estimate risks. The supply price that is the price at the time of purchase from the supplier is still likely to be subject to change as this often cannot be fixed until some months after the bid has been made to the developer. The risks associated with this will need to be assessed and appropriate Contingency allocated.

• Other Materials Other materials are likely to be subject to more significant quantity variations. For example, the allowances for weight coating will cover some repair and damage and additional usage as part of the overbuy allowance. However, contingency may also be included in the estimate to allow for potential local rerouting which might be required to solve problem and undefined ground issues.

• Construction Labour The construction manpower estimate has many more variables. It starts with an assessment of the volume of work to perform, how many welds, how much ditch to dig etc.

Following assessing the volume of work the construction schedule is developed to meet the requirements of the bid, as described in the March chart section of the “The Road”. Resourcing by activity is then developed to achieve the required speed of production.

In generating the construction estimate many assumptions will have to be made for example how easy the soil is to dig, how much of the soil can be reused in the ditch; will the ditch stand up without batter or stepping? How well the Right of Way (ROW) will stand up to multiple heavy traffic movements. All of these will be captured in the Estimate Basis.

An assumption is made of Construction labour productivity and equipment availability rate. The weather in the construction season is reviewed and the impact on progress evaluated. Many more risks are also inherent in this estimate. (A review of the risk register will demonstrate the issues confronting the bidder.)

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All elements of the buildup of the Construction Labour in the estimate will be reviewed and appropriate allowances, escalation and contingency included and defined in the Bidders Estimate Basis. The determination of these figures can be complicated as for example, the productivity/quality of the Construction labour will not just influence the number of hours and therefore the number of people required to execute a project, it will also influence the loss and damage of materials due to poor installation or handling. • General As the various areas of the estimate are developed the variability and risk in each is different. However the estimate cannot assume that all the potential problems associated with the construction will occur on the same job, his bid price would not be competitive. Similarly it would be unwise to assume that everything was going to go without mishap. A Monte Carlo analysis, or similar statistical analyses, will determine the overall level of contingency that will be required to bid a project at a level of risk that is acceptable to the bidder.

3.4.5.4 What is the Estimate Range?

The range of an estimate is defined as the difference between the lowest and highest probable values of the estimate.

In single-point estimating, the estimator assigns a single cost value to the estimate. But picking a single point is equivalent to stating the project WILL cost this much and clearly does not take into account that this is an estimate with surrounding uncertainty. The single point tends to be the most likely cost in the estimator’s view, the probability of achieving this cost is not fully evaluated.

Three-point estimating allows for uncertainty around the estimated cost. To help establish the most likely value of the estimate many approaches can be used. One such approach is a risk based assessment using Monte Carlo techniques. It is normal to represent each area of the estimate as a triangular distribution.

In the example above 20 individual costs could be found for the cost of a commodity . However the estimator can idealize the cost by knowing just three points as follows

minimum = $2,000 likely = $5,000 maximum = $11,000

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Using a simulation and allowing the cost to vary between the high and low values in a random way described by the shape of the triangular distribution results in a total project cost distribution as shown in the diagram below. In this example the most likely cost (mean) or the 50/50 estimate P50 is $74.5 million. This contrasts with the base case estimate of $70.9 which was found by adding only the most likely figures together.

The above graphic represents the output of a real estimate the distribution is slightly squewed. For the purposes of the ongoing discussion this distribution will be represented by a smooth Normal Distribution as follows.

Normal Distribution

Median, Mode, and Mean are aligned

In a normal distribution without skew the mean median and mode are aligned and has the same value, all equal the 50/50 or P50 probability.

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A good estimate from a developer’s perspective should have equal probability of overrun and under run (i.e., a 50% probability). This is a risk neutral approach, the assumption being that some projects will overrun while others will under run and, in the long run, they will balance out.

The more conservative, risk-averse attitude used by companies that need to ensure each project returns a profit to their company (true for Contracting organisations) normally specifies a probability of 80% or higher that the project will not overrun. This is a safer route but by specifying a high probability the required contingency (or contingency and management reserve) will increase and with it the project cost to the developer.

This results in a sub-optimal use of funds. Large contingencies on projects in the developer organisation’s project portfolio will sequester monies that could otherwise be put to productive use (e.g., funding additional projects, beefing up R&D, investing in product improvement, new equipment). This is a key reason why reduction of Risk to the Bidder by the provision of a good FEL and by equitable allocation of Risk, as discussed in “The Road “, is beneficial to the Developer. The excessive contingency is removed and the funds remain with the developer for his use. Contingency added to the bid by a Bidder, due to poor project scope definition, becomes part of his bid and lost to the developer.

Contingency is released or consumed by the project team as each of the Risks is passed. It must be noted that the contingency which is determined in the development of the estimate is total required contingency. It does not reflect what is sometimes called "management reserve," a discretionary amount which is added to the estimate for possible scope changes or unknown future events which cannot be anticipated by the project team. Addition of this reserve increases in proportion to the lack of project definition and to the history the bidder has of the way in which the client manages change.

At the final management review of the estimate past project metrics are commonly used to gauge the result and to provide a sense check.

Some special risks also impact the assessment of the final project contingency. These include commercial terms of contract, for example, Liquidated Damages. Whilst these can play a part in a contract with well developed conditions and FEL they are often applied without full consideration of the impact on schedule and as such when the bidder performs his risk analysis they are found to result in significant risk and a high probability of occurrence. In such cases the bidder adds the risk based impact of these items to his final estimate expecting that they will be paid in full or in part. The developer has just unwittingly increased his cost for the project development.

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3.4.5.5 Estimate Accuracy What does a stated estimate accuracy of 10% mean?

Any discussion of accuracy must be related to a specified confidence interval.

In the next figure the median/mean/mode cost is $100 million. The 80% confidence interval in this example (i.e., the confidence that the actual cost will fall within this range 80 times out of 100) corresponds to costs between $90 and $110 million. The difference between $100 million and $90 or $110 million, is 10% hence in this example the estimate has a +10% and -10% accuracy with 80 % confidence.

3.4.5.6 How do we set Contingency?

Contingency is only meant to cover the project development as it has been described in the scope and basis of design which at the current state of project definition cannot be accurately quantified, but which history and experience however shows will be necessary to achieve the given project scope.

There is a tendency for those not involved or unfamiliar with estimate development to view contingency as evidence that the estimator is inflating or "sand bagging" the estimate to improve the chance of bringing in a successful project i.e. one that achieves its budgetary goals. In an effort to reduce the projected cost of a project, Clients and those unfamiliar with the process often try to limit contingency to a fixed percentage of the base estimate or in some cases delete it entirely.

So Contingency forms an important and integral part of the estimate; it is not potential profit and as we will discuss later should be expected to be spent in the development of the project.

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Appendix 5.2.1 Examples of evaluation of time and cost impacts of full stoppages or of slowdowns to certain activities 1.

Examples of evaluation of the time impact of Stoppages – full stoppages or slowdowns

For the purpose of this exercise we consider an extract of a project March Chart ranging over a length of 60 km and over a period of 100 days as shown below.

Extract of the Baseline Construction Programme

a0, b0, c0, d0, e0 being the minimum time lag between activities The six activities shown above follow each other with the minimum time lag a0 to e0 described in section 3.2. It means that should two activities follow each other with this minimum time lag in the actual construction progress, any stoppage or slowdown of the preceding activity will, sooner or later in the absence of any mitigation measure, have an equal effect on the following activities.

Different scenarios are presented below with the assumption that no mitigation measure is implemented.

1.1

Event stopping completely one or more activity

1.1.1 If during the actual construction in that area, all activities do progress with the minimum time lag between them, a stoppage of D days of one activity will induce sooner or later the same delay of D days for all the subsequent activities as shown on the simplified diagram 1.a. below: indeed the delay D may not occur exactly at km 20 for all the subsequent activities but it will definitely happen either at an earlier stage or at a later stage for all of them.

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1.a. Progress of all activities with the minimum time lag between activities

All activities will be delayed by the same delay “D” even if the event having caused the delay disappears before all activities have gone through.

1.1.2 If during the actual construction some activities are ahead of the following activities by more than the minimum time lag a0 to e0, the effect of stoppages are shown on the two diagrams 1.b. and 1.c. below which assume that the ROW and the Stringing activities are ahead by b0 + ∆ from the following activities.

- If ∆ < D : the delay impact on the following activities will be (D - ∆) - If ∆ ≥ D : there will be no impact on the following activities 1.b. With ∆ < D

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1.c. With â&#x2C6;&#x2020; > D

1.2

Event slowing down one or more activities

1.2.1 As per the situation described in 1.1.1 above if all activities progress with the minimum time lag between them, a slowdown lasting D days for one activity, resulting in a delay of D1 = D (1-P1/P0) as shown on the diagram 2.b. below will induce sooner or later a delay D1 for all subsequent activities as shown on diagram 2.a.. This delay may not occur exactly between km 20 and km 30 but it will happen either earlier or later for all subsequent activities.

2.a. Progress of all activities with the minimum time lag between activities

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2.b. Comparison with full stoppages

P0 = progress of the activity before stoppage/slow down P1 = progress of the activity during slow down D1 = D (1-P1/P0)

1.2.2 Should a similar slowdown occur in the situations illustrated by diagrams 1.b. and 1.c., whereby some activities are ahead of the following activities by more than the minimum time lag, i.e. b + ∆, then: - If ∆ < D1 : the delay impact on the following activities will be (D1-∆) - If ∆ ≥ D1 : there will be no delay to the following activities

1.3

Activities running slower or faster than planned

This is the most common situation in many phases of the projects.

Actual progress Pa (expressed in km/day) is slower than the planned progress P0 (refer to diagram 3.a.) b) Actual progress Pb is faster than the planned progress P0 (refer to diagram 3.b.) a)

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Delay impact for the case a) is

D1 = D (1 – P1/Pa)

Delay impact for the case b) is

D2 = D (1 – P1/Pb)

Since Pa < Pb

D1 < D2

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3.a. Progress of the activity slower than programmed

Pa = progress before slowdown but slower than the planned progress P0 P1 = progress of the activity during slow down

3.b. Progress of the activity faster than programmed

Pb = progress before slowdown but faster than the planned progress P0 P1 = progress of the activity during slow down

Therefore the March Chart helps to quantify the obvious: a slowdown leading to the same progress rate during the period of slowdown D affects more severely activities progressing faster than programmed than activities progressing slower.

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The previous evaluations of delays do not imply that compensation is due. This will depend on the causes of stoppages/slowdowns and on how the agreement between the parties intend to deal with activities running slower or faster than plan… which is the most common situation in real life.

2.

Evaluation of the cost impact of Stoppages

Assuming that compensation is due as per agreement between the parties, there are quite a number of methods in contract literature to evaluate costs.

However experience show that in the case of lump sum contracts one can hardly find the mechanisms to promptly assess costs of delays D or D1 calculated in chapter 1 above.

Hence the suggestion in section 3.3 of THE ROAD TO SUCCESS (Volume one) to breakdown the lump sum contract price highlighting the time related weekly (or daily) costs of the main working crews in operation. In parallel the stand-by weekly (or daily) costs of the same crews should be indicated. The breakdown should also cover the weekly (or daily) costs of the various site installations and of the site management. It would however exclude costs of incorporated materials which are quantity related and not time related.

In the following paragraphs weekly costs would also mean “weekly or daily” costs.

Those would represent some 10 to 15 items of weekly costs for the crews of each spread as well as for the weekly costs of the installations and of the site management and any other type of agreed overheads. That would not exceed 50 items of time related weekly costs for a major project with two spreads.

As an example the weekly costs of one of the crews shown on the diagrams of chapter 1, when in operation, would comprise: • The all in cost of all the personnel of the crew plus the cost of food, lodging and PPE as well as the cost of transport to and from the site (the weekly cost of the camp management and of the security should be included in the camp weekly costs as part of the installations time related costs).

• The cost of construction plant and equipment comprising depreciation and/or hiring costs/maintenance costs (spare parts and consumables)/the consumable tools (chains, bucket teeth,..)/the fuel and lubricants The weekly cost of the same crew in stand-by would comprise the same items except that there would be among other items: • a significant reduction of fuel and lubricant consumption for the construction plant • a reduction of the maintenance costs • a reduction of the transport cost of the personnel

When delays of the type D or D1 have been assessed, the application of the appropriate time related weekly costs of all the crews affected would promptly allow the evaluation of the overall cost impact.

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Appendix 6.1.1 Pipeline Route Selection Process

Table Of Contents Page

6.1.1

Route Selection Process General Basis for Engineering Primary Selection Factors Corridor Selection in Project Key Stages Routing Activities within Project Phases 6.1.1.5.1 Route Corridor options [FEL 1, Appraise] 6.1.1.5.2 Route selection [FEL 2, Select] 6.1.1.5.3 Route investigation and consultation [FEL 3, DEFINE , FEED] 6.1.1.5.4 Design and approval of final route [Project Execution phase, detailed design] 6.1.1.6 Key Routing Principles and Influencing Factors 6.1.1.7 Public safety, content of the pipeline, operating conditions and location class 6.1.1.8 Pipeline Above Ground Installations (AGIs) 6.1.1.9 Environmental and Regulatory Steps 6.1.1.10 Terrain, subterranean conditions, geotechnical and hydrographical conditions 6.1.1.11 Geohazards 6.1.1.11.1 Types of Geo-hazards 6.1.1.11.2 Geotechnical Investigations 6.1.1.11.3 Geo-Hazard Pipeline Routing 6.1.1.12 Selection Criteria 6.1.1.13 Existing and future land use 6.1.1.14 Permanent access 6.1.1.15 Transport facilities and utility services 6.1.1.16 Construction , hydrotesting, operation and maintenance 6.1.1.17 Security 6.1.1.18 Risk/Threat Assessment 6.1.1.19 Data Collection and Management 6.1.1.20 Graphical Information System 6.1.1.20.1 General 6.1.1.20.2 GIS Routing Optimization Methodology 6.1.1.20.3 Identification of Factors Affecting the Route 6.1.1.20.4 GIS Data and Data Sources 6.1.1.20.5 GIS Data Processing and Analysis 6.1.1.20.6 GIS Suitability Map Generation 6.1.1.21 Light Detection and Ranging - LiDAR

6.1.1.1 6.1.1.2 6.1.1.3 6.1.1.4 6.1.1.5

200 200 200 200 201 204 204 204 204 206 206 207 207 207 209 210 210 211 212 213 216 217 217 217 218 218 218 220 220 221 221 222 222 222 223

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6.1.1 Route Selection Process 6.1.1.1

General

The route selection process described below is a typical approach of routing a pipeline between the known start and end points and any intermediate offtake points. A description covering all potential eventualities would be impossible since no one pipeline routing selection process is similar to any other because of differences in location, land use, terrain, infrastructure, local permits and regulations, environmental, and archeology. Furthermore, each phase of route selection will depend on the project schedule. Each terrain will have its own issues. It is entirely conceivable to complete and approve the final route in the Project Planning (FEED, define) phase, whilst other projects may not do so until the Project Execution (detailed design) phase.

Pipelines are routed to connect between a start point, intermediate take off points and an end point.

The final route selected must be: • • • •

Safe Environmentally acceptable Economical Practical

No one routing process can be applied for all pipelines. This is because different factors, such as product to be transported, pipeline size, pipeline material, location, land use, crossings required, land ownership, terrain, infrastructure, local permits and regulations, environmental and archeology, have to be considered for different pipelines.

Such factors will be key to defining when the route will be finalized and approved. For some projects the route can be finalized and approved in the Project Planning (FEED, define) phase, whilst other projects may not do so until the Project Execution (detailed design) phase.

6.1.1.2

Basis for Engineering

A pipeline route is a pivotal piece of information around which the pipeline engineering is built upon. The route will define the pipeline size, terrain, soils, and engineering analysis requirements. Engineering assessment based upon an agreed alignment selection criteria is an important part of a linear project. To be able to reach the best construction line and optimize its components, the phases namely — Corridor, Route, Alignment, and Construction line selection — should be studied in the given order.

6.1.1.3

Primary Selection Factors

The detailed pipeline route selection is preceded by defining a broad area of search between the two fixed start and end points. That is, possible pipeline corridors. The route can then be filtered with consideration of public safety, pipeline integrity, environmental impact, consequences of escape of fluid, and based on social, economic, technical environmental grounds, constructability, land ownership, access, regulatory requirements and cost.

Economic, technical, environmental and safety considerations should be the primary factors governing the choice of pipeline routes. The shortest route might not be the most suitable, and physical obstacles, environmental constraints and other factors, such as locations of intermediate offtake points to end users along the pipeline route should be considered. Offtake points may dictate mainline routing so as to minimise the need or impact of the offtake lines or spurs.

Many route constraints will have technical solutions (e.g. routing through flood plains), and each will have an associated cost.

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6.1.1.4

Corridor Selection in Project Key Stages

Pipeline routing is an iterative process, which starts with a wide ‘corridor of interest’ and then narrows down to a more defined route at each design stage as more data is acquired, to a final ‘right of way’ (ROW). Initially, a number of alternative corridors with width which can be 10 km wide are reviewed.

Typically the route alignment steps can be described as shown below (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Each project will have its own specific corridor narrowing process depending on project size and location.

Pipeline corridors should initially be selected to avoid key constraints. The route can then be further refined through an iterative process, involving consultation with stakeholders and landowners and a review of the EIA criteria, to avoid additional identified constraints. The ultimate aim is to achieve an economically and environmentally feasible route for construction.

Fig. 1 – Narrowing Down Of Pipeline Corridor During Project Stages

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Table 1 - Narrowing Down Of Pipeline Corridor During Project Stages: Key Descriptions STAGE

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FRONT END LOADING FEL 1 BUSINESS PLANNING (APPRAISE)

FEL 2 FACILITY PLANNING (SELECT)

FEL 3 PROJECT PLANNING (DEFINE)

PROJECT EXECUTION (EXECUTE)

START UP AND OPERATIONS (OPERATE)

Cost Estimate Accuracy

Order of Magnitude

+/-30%

+/-15%

+/-5%

Complete

Process

Appraisal

Feasibility

Selection/ Definition

Approvals/ Execute/ Construction

Operation

Activity

Desktop Route Route corridor Corridor options selection, and identification of alternative route alignment options

Route selection, route investigation and consultation, site survey, negotiations

Detailed alignment, Maintain Easement approval of final route/construction line, finalise negotiation, acquire land

Corridor Width

500 m – 1 km 10 km-20 km wide corridor of wide preferred interest route corridor (large scale maps)

100 m – 200 m wide specified corridor’ (more detailed maps)

20 m – 36 m wide construction corridor

Imagery

Maps of either 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 scale can be used depending on complexity of the terrain.

Map sheets of Plans for 1:2,500 scale can landowner be used. agreements should normally be based Alignment sheets on 1:2,500 scale, Aerial can be prepared or smaller. photographs from maps or with a resolution aerial imagery of of 250 mm or 1:2,500 scale. better, overlaid with coordinates Special crossings at scales of should be 1:10,000 can detailed : scale also be typically between produced and 1:250 and 1:25 used depending on the complexity of the crossing.

Maps of either 1:10,000 or 1:25,000 scale can be used.

8m wide easement ‘permanent corridor’ for ongoing inspection, and required maintenance As-built plans (to the same scale as the original plans) should be issued to all original recipients on completion of the work. These plans should include all details of any site alterations or deviations

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Table 1 - Narrowing Down Of Pipeline Corridor During Project Stages: Key Descriptions (cont.)

STAGE

FRONT END LOADING FEL 1 BUSINESS PLANNING (APPRAISE)

FEL 2 FACILITY PLANNING (SELECT)

Imagery

Maps of either 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 scale can be used depending on complexity of the terrain.

Maps of either 1:10,000 or 1:25,000 scale can be used.

Output

Preliminary routing plans

Route using Route Maps with scale 1:50,000

1: 100,000 route maps

FEL 3 PROJECT PLANNING (DEFINE)

PROJECT EXECUTION (EXECUTE)

Map sheets of Plans for 1:2,500 scale can landowner be used. agreements should normally be based Alignment sheets on 1:2,500 scale, Aerial can be prepared or smaller. photographs from maps or with a resolution aerial imagery of of 250 mm or 1:2,500 scale. better, overlaid with coordinates Special crossings at scales of should be 1:10,000 can detailed : scale also be typically between produced and 1:250 and 1:25 used depending on the complexity of the crossing.

Detailed routing : 1:5,000 to 1:10,000 maps

START UP AND OPERATIONS (OPERATE)

As-built plans (to the same scale as the original plans) should be issued to all original recipients on completion of the work. These plans should include all details of any site alterations or deviations

Finalised Alignment As-built plans sheets

Plans for Land Acquisition/ landowner Wayleave agreements/ drawings permits/approvals Field etc reconnaissance plans Final field survey Land purchase plans Detailed crossing Alignment Sheets drawings Strip plans Crossing drawings

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6.1.1.5

Routing Activities within Project Phases

6.1.1.5.1

Route Corridor options [FEL 1, Appraise]

This phase involves the initial desk-top studies to identify route corridor options taking into account known key environmental and cultural sensitivities. It is to develop key pipeline routing information from available topographical and geological maps, aerial photography and/or satellite imagery, and the public domain available literature, such as town planning data. The information is used to identify corridor options, key routing constraints visible from the maps and publications, and key engineering data such as length and profile for use in costing and scheduling.

6.1.1.5.2

Route selection [FEL 2, Select]

A corridor should be selected by performing a key issues study, whilst ensuring as far as possible that the corridor selected is suitable and is not likely to create significant problems at a later stage. The desk study and visual appraisal, making use of all information available within the public domain, should precede the adoption of a provisional route within the selected route corridor. Information regarding geological, archaeological and environmental features should, in the first instance, be obtained from published sources to establish the route prior to discussions with the relevant institutions.

The geographic limits within which pipeline route selection is to take place should be defined by identification of the starting point of the pipeline and any intermediate fixed points. These points should be marked on suitably scaled plans covering the area.

The route of interest should then be straddled across these points so that key issues and constraints affecting the selection of the route can be plotted and assessed. The width of the corridor will depend upon the nature of terrain traversed, current and likely future population and degree of complexity expected with regard to environmental, constructability and archaeological aspects. Where practicable, this corridor should be selected to avoid urban areas, major road, rail and water crossings and environmentally sensitive areas.

Existing and planned constraints to route selection occurring within the area of interest should be identified to assist the selection of route options. The constraints identified should take into account the complexity of terrain and information gathered. Key constraints and obstructions should be avoided as much as possible A preferred route should then be selected, taking into account all the technical, environmental and safety-related factors that might be significant during installation and operation of the pipeline system.

The selection should follow a comparative study.

Consideration should be given to setting up and utilizing a geographical information system (GIS), as described below, to record and manage the data collected, at this phase of the project. Delaying such a decision to a later phase will require extensive data catch up.

6.1.1.5.3

Route investigation and consultation [FEL 3, DEFINE, FEED]

This stage involves gathering more detailed information, highlighting and mapping constraints within the route corridor so as to assist in the selection of a preferred final route. This allows the project to proceed into the next stage of negotiations. All the constraints and potential planning problems that could affect the pipeline (e.g. timing or method of construction) should now be addressed and recorded. A traffic management plan should be produced.

A QRA, risk or threat assessment exercise allows for the comparison of pipeline routing alternatives based on the likelihood of occurrence of hazardous event and the associated consequences of the events along each route.

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A detailed investigation of the route and the environment in which the pipeline is to be constructed should be made. Topographical, geotechnical, and soil resistivity field surveys comprised of a pipeline engineer, geotechnical engineers, environmental scientists, archaeologists, anthropologists, with appropriate approvals from landowners, should be carried out. Access roads, construction camps, facility sites, cathodic protection sites and main line valve sites should also be surveyed during this stage.

The data collected is also fed into the design and engineering of the pipeline.

Refinements to the pipeline corridor and locations for above ground facilities should be made while in the field to avoid environmentally and culturally sensitive areas.

The appropriate authorities and any third parties should be contacted to obtain details of any known or expected development or encroachment along the route, the location of underground obstructions, pipelines, services and structures and all other pertinent data.

Consultations should be held as early as possible during route finalisation with the planning and statutory authorities (including local planning authorities, and government safety departments) and any other appropriate organisations, landowners, third parties, etc.

Reviews of the preferred route should be carried out in the field. These should initially be based on the desktop study.

Accompanied by the relevant landowner/occupier and the land agent, the proposed route should be examined in more detail, in particular those areas that might have been difficult to determine from maps and public rights of way during desk studies.

Consideration should be given to negotiations for use of access roads for construction or maintenance purposes.

Land and environmental surveys should be made that cover sufficient width and depth around the provisional route and have sufficient accuracy to identify all features that could adversely influence installation and operation of the pipeline. This should be accompanied by further detailed consultation with all affected third parties. Third-party activities along the pipeline route and related safety aspects should be investigated.

Obtaining stakeholder, local jurisdiction and national government approval in accordance with statutory requirements.

A complete set of data relevant to design, construction and the safe and reliable operation of the pipeline should be compiled from records, maps and physical surveys.

The selected route should be recorded on alignment sheets of an appropriate scale. The coordinates of all significant points, such as target points, crossings points, bend starting and end points, should be indicated. Contour lines should be recorded at intervals sufficient for design purposes, particularly with regard to the installation and operational phases, and consideration should be given to the need for a vertical profile of the route.

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6.1.1.5.4

Design and approval of final route [Project Execution phase, detailed design]

This is the final phase to define the best line and its components. Local planning authority and statutory approvals, and landowner/tenant agreements, should now be finalized.

The route of the pipeline should be identified by a locating system such as markers placed along the route.

Valve locations, AGI locations, river crossings, and geo-hazardous area crossings should be investigated in detail, and readied for construction The physical building and commissioning of the pipeline should now be able to commence in accordance with the design criteria

6.1.1.6

Key Routing Principles and Influencing Factors

The key principles to take into account when performing route selection are : a) Safety of the public and personnel - the route must provide a safe and secure environment for the pipeline during construction and over its operational life and ideally be routed away from populated areas b) Economic – the route should meet economic objectives of the project, without compromising safety and environment and minimizing local economy impact on communities that the pipeline passes through, and have the smallest footprint feasible (ideally the shortest distance between pipeline start and end points). c) Land ownership related factors e.g. the number of landowners, anticipated ease and cost to obtain/purchase consents d) Easement width e) Contents of the pipeline and operating conditions. E.g. consideration of leakage of a high vapour pressure liquids. f) Environmental impact – the route must have a minimum negative impact on the environment and minimum land use g) Terrain and subterranean conditions, including geotechnical, hydrographical, and meteorological conditions. This includes ground stability, including other land uses which may create instability (e.g. mine subsidence, land development/excavation) h) Cultural heritage sites i) Existing and future land plan usage. This can be determined by research of public records and consultation with land planning agencies which should identify: • third-party activities • agricultural practice • existing facilities and services • future developments j) Existing and planned transport facilities and buried/above ground utility services k) Construction, testing, operation and maintenance - the pipeline must be installable along the route l) Permanent access – the pipeline must ideally be accessible for inspection and maintenance all year round over its operational life m) Security – The pipeline system should be routed to minimise security concerns, particularly due to trespass and sabotage, during both construction and operation. n) Other hazards o) Follow existing linear disturbances where possible (roads). Utilisation of existing linear routes (e.g. roads or power-lines) may avoid or reduce impact to sensitive areas. Although utilising routes occupied by other infrastructure may affect safety and corrosion potential from for example electrical interference.

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6.1.1.7

Public safety, content of the pipeline, operating conditions and location class

The main operating conditions in pipelines that can affect route selection are: • • • •

the internal fluid operational envelope location pipeline material, diameter and thickness

Various codes categorise fluid as to their hazard potential, and the most hazardous flammable and toxic fluid should, where practicable, avoid built-up areas or areas with frequent human activity. Consideration should be given to routing that minimises the possibility of external damage in these areas.

The route of the pipeline should be an appropriate distance from buildings in accordance with the codes being used. Codes also use a system of area or location classification based on population densities or number of buildings. Design factors are stipulated relevant to the classification levels.

Pipeline material, diameter and content, affect the probability of failure and associated consequences: • • • •

pipe fracture maximum rate of release of contents change of state of the fluid under atmospheric conditions total volume that can escape under emergency conditions

The consequential impact of the above should be considered in the routing process, and ensuing QRA and risk and pipeline threat assessments .

6.1.1.8

Pipeline Above Ground Installations (AGIs)

Similar to the pipeline route, the location of above ground installations (AGI’s) installed on the pipeline in-line must also be selected with care and attention. The selection of these locations involve consideration and balancing of a number of factors, including pipeline hydraulics, safety and environmental risk, site conditions, site access, existing power infrastructure, proximity to residences/population.

6.1.1.9

Environmental and Regulatory Steps

The pipeline route, and its impact on the environment, will need to be considered, justified and approved by regulators, the general public and land owners. Hence, consultation is a key part of routing.

Key environmental and regulatory steps are illustrated below.

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Detailed assessments should be undertaken to ascertain the impact of the pipeline on environmentally sensitive areas. When selecting the route and in-line station locations, care should be taken to identify and minimise any possible effects on typically the following : c) Ramsar sites (These are wetlands of international importance, designated under the Ramsar Convention) b) sites of special scientific interest (SSSIs) c) national parks and country parks d) nature reserves e) flora and fauna f) forests/tree preservation orders g) heritage sites/coasts h) special areas of conservation i) special protection areas j) areas of outstanding natural beauty (AONBs) k) ancient monuments, archaeological and ornamental sites l) natural resources, such as catchment areas and forests m) mineral resources n) indigenous population sites o) groundwater protection areas The following should be attained, as far as practicable: 1) location of AGI’s (valve stations, metering stations, scraper trap stations) are such so as not to be noise nuisance to local population, particularly during relief operations, valve operation; blow-offs; 2) avoid contamination of ground water and watercourses; 3) minimise the volume of traffic; 4) minimise the number of trees to be removed.

An environmental noise survey should be carried out where pipeline construction and permanent facilities may give rise to noise complaints before the pipeline route is established, so that prior noise assessment can be made and the route or the construction method changed if necessary to minimise disruption.

Relevant planning and approval authorities should be contacted at an early stage to determine the requirements and the extent/coverage of an environmental impact assessment (EIA) will be required for a pipeline and its associated above-ground installations. If required, an EIA should cover the effect of pipeline works on local amenities and take recognition of future developments.

Regulatory requirements will normally dictate that an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is prepared.

The EIS will normally address: • • • • • • • • • • •

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Flora Specially protected (threatened) fauna Surface water and groundwater Soil and geology erosion Rehabilitation Construction pollution issues Risk and hazards Culture and heritage Archaeology Ecology (terrestrial and marine) Landscape and Visual Impact

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• • • • • • • • • • • •

Land use and Agriculture Hydrology Hydrogeology Traffic/Access Noise/Vibration Air quality Site stability Site contamination Lighting Tourism and Leisure Socio-Economic factors Safety

The output from the EIS should be used within the route selection process against the criteria outlined below.

6.1.1.10 Terrain, subterranean conditions, geotechnical and hydrographical conditions The geography of the terrain traversed can generally be divided into surface topography and subterranean geology. Both natural and man-made geographical features can be considered under these two headings.

The principal geographical features which are likely to be encountered and should be taken into account include: Surface crops, livestock, woodlands natural beauty, archaeological, ornamental rivers, mountains

water catchment areas, forestry

population, communications, services contouring, soil or rock type, water, soil corrosivity designated areas, protected habitats, flora and fauna

Subterranean earthquake zone geological features infill land and waste disposal sites, including those contaminated by disease, radioactivity or chemicals the proximity of past, present and future mineral extractions, including uncharted workings, pipelines and underground services areas of geological instability, including faults, fissuring and earthquake zones existing or potential areas of land slippage, subsidence and differential settlement Tunnels ground water hydrology, including flood plains

Adverse geotechnical and hydrographic, and meteorological conditions should be identified and mitigating measures defined Authorities, geological institutions and mining experts should be consulted on general geological conditions, slippage areas, tunnelling and other possible adverse ground conditions. Where there is a possibility that any of these conditions might arise during the lifetime of a pipeline, monitoring of the conditions should be incorporated in the regular inspection and maintenance procedures adopted. This can include measurement of local ground movements, fluctuation in water table levels and indicative changes in pipeline stresses.

Each terrain, such as desert, mountain, forest, arctic, will have its own routing consideration requirements and constraints.

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6.1.1.11 Geohazards A geo-hazard is identified as a geological, hydro-geological or geomorphological event or process that poses an immediate or potential risk that may lead to damage or uncontrolled risk. The type, nature, magnitude, extent and rate of geological processes and hazards directly influence pipeline route selection. Therefore, the process of early stage terrain evaluation and the identification and assessment of geo-hazards and ground conditions are important as they can lead to extensive cost and time savings in the design and construction of a pipeline. The process enables the routing of the pipeline through the most suitable terrain, problem areas are identified, serious geo-hazards are avoided, where possible, and risks are minimised and mitigated. In addition, terrain evaluation is undertaken so that the need for expensive remedial measures or site restoration works in limited or prevented and the operability of the pipeline is safeguarded through a proper appreciation of the terrain conditions. By minimizing the risk of damage to the pipeline the risk to the human safety is reduced.

Terrain evaluation along the pipeline corridor can be achieved using a variety of low-cost techniques and include satellite imagery and aerial photography interpretation, surface mapping and various other remote sensing techniques (i.e. LiDAR surveys â&#x20AC;&#x201C; see below). This data can be incorporated, together with historical data on seismic events, geological features, meteorological processes and hydrological data, within a Geographic Information System ((GIS) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; see below) and detailed terrain and hazard models developed.

Terrain evaluation supports the anticipation, identification and assessment of the physical hazards and constraints within and outside of the pipeline corridor. It is essential that features outside the corridor be evaluated as hazardous event features outside of the corridor may be triggered by construction activity within the corridor and the resultant event may impact upon the pipeline.

The risks associated with geo-hazards or the likelihood of an event occurring and its consequences can be qualitatively and quantitatively assessed using a scoring system or by a Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA).

Safety of the pipeline is paramount in the routing selection. The extreme effect of a geological hazard on the pipeline is a rupture and it is this event that terrain evaluation and risk analysis and seeks to avoid by improving the decision making progress used in selecting the most appropriate route for the pipeline.

6.1.1.11.1 Types of Geo-hazards Geo-hazards are widespread phenomena that are influenced by geological and environmental conditions and which involve both long-term and short-term processes. They range in size, magnitude and effect. Many geo-hazards are naturally occurring features and processes but there are also many geo-hazards that are caused by anthropogenic processes and these too need to be taken into account during the pipeline routing exercise. See table 2 for some examples of geo-hazards.

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Table 2 – Types of Geo-Hazards

6.1.1.11.2 Geotechnical Investigations Geotechnical investigations and site specific surveys aim to undercover the ‘good’ ground in which to install the pipeline. The definition of ‘good’ ground can be considered to be ground with low gradients that is devoid of landslides, cliffs, hard ground, rock outcrops, aggressive soils, difficult river crossings, deep gullies, scour, meta-stable materials and spanning.

Conventional geotechnical site surveys used for civil engineering projects are not always appropriate for major pipelines that may span hundreds or even thousands of kilometers. The terrain may vary significantly along the narrow pipeline corridor and this variance needs to be identified so that potential and existing geo-hazards are avoided.

Pipeline corridor selection, route definition and refinement procedures will seek to ensure that the majority of the pipeline is installed in ground that, as far as is possible, avoids identified and/or predicted locations of geo-hazards. Focused geotechnical investigations are required where unavoidable hazards are identified so that appropriate geotechnical mitigation strategies may be planned.

Predicting the probability of a hazardous event occurring is a science that draws on a number of approaches to derive an informed probability estimate. In particular, historical records of the frequency of the particular event, an understanding of the events and the causes of the events, expert judgement and probability stability analysis is used. However, the estimates are by no means a guarantee of the occurrence or non-occurrence of a particular event. For this reason the estimates are termed “fit for purpose” and support the need for an extensive risk assessment in the pipeline routing process.

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6.1.1.11.3 Geo-Hazard Pipeline Routing As far as is possible all geo-hazards should be avoided by a pipeline route. This is rarely possible, therefore the following guidelines are applicable with respect to geo-hazards (to be avoided where practical): Table 3 – Pipeline Geohazards Geo-Hazard

212

Description

Routing Mitigation

Landslides

• Avoid if possible Ground displacement and movement of a mass of rock, earth or debris down • Minimise sidelong routing across the landslide, route parallel along the axis a slope of ground movement

Gullying, Soil Erosion & Fluvial Erosion

Removal of soils by water, wind or ice action or by down-slope scree

• Avoid areas of active erosion if possible • Minimise sidelong routing parallel to erosion area, cross at 90°

Mobile Sand Dunes

Fragile desert habitat that maybe damaged or blown away by wind.

• Avoid if possible • Minimise crossing length

Earthquakes & Fault Lines

A fracture in the continuity of a rock • Avoid if possible formation caused by a shifting or • Special design considerations (e.g. dislodging of the earth's crust, in which finite element analysis) will be required adjacent surfaces are displaced relative if un-avoidable to one another and parallel to the plane • Special/Engineered backfill techniques likely to prevent pipe of fracture. damage during an earthquake (such designs are common in areas like Japan) • Special trench design (deepening)

Volcanoes

The vent and the conical mountain left by the overflow of erupted lava, rock and ash.

Soft soils

Soils that may not be able to support a • Methods to cross soft soils include support anchors screwed into hard pipeline (swamp, peat, bog) soil below the soft soil; support mattresses under the pipeline to reduce bearing pressure; neutral buoyancy to ensure that pipe neither sinks or floats after installation. It may also be possible to remove weak soil and replace with engineered backfill.

• Avoid • Avoid existing flow canals

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Table 3 – Pipeline Geohazards (cont.)

Geo-Hazard

Description

Routing Mitigation • Avoid if possible • Methods to design for and cross underground cavities are possible.

These include pumping concrete into the underground mines (subject to size and volume), the whole mine need not be filled in, but sufficient to limit settlement; use thicker wall pipe acceptable for estimated settlements.

Underground cavities

Areas of coal mining, caves, caverns, subsidence areas

River Channel Migration

• Feasible to estimate river meander River banks erosion leading to river and river bed erosion, and design for. meander, and river bed erosion leading This will generally include sufficient to bed channels of varying depth burial in river bed, and sufficient deeper burial extent from river banks.

• River bank erosion prevention methods can also be used.

• Minimise crossing length

Aggressive Soils

Contaminated soils

• Avoidance will depend on type of contamination, and if disturbed the safety impact on local population and works: environmental impact; and disposal issues.

• Minimise crossing length

6.1.1.12 Selection Criteria Selection criteria should be developed following local codes and standards, national regulatory and local regulation requirements and detailed consultation with, and input from, the local community.

Typical pipeline codes and standards include: • ASME B31.8 – Gas Transmission And Distribution Piping Systems (US/International Standard) • ASME B31.4 – Pipeline Transportation Systems For Liquid Hydrocarbon Pipelines (US/International Standard) • CSA Z662 – Oil And Gas Pipeline Systems (Canadian Standards Association) • NEN 3650 – Requirements For Pipeline Systems (Dutch Standard) • AS 2885.1 – Pipelines—Gas And Liquid Petroleum Part 1: Design And Construction (Australian Standard) • SNiP 2.05.06-85* Trunk Pipelines (Russia, Developed By Vniist) • VSN 51-3-85 Design Of Steel Field Pipelines (Russia, Developed By Vniigaz) • Bs En 1594 - Gas Supply Systems _ Pipelines For Maximum Operating Pressure Over 16bar Functional Requirements • IGE-TD/1 Edition 4 - Recommendation On Transmission And Distribution Practice – Steel Pipelines For High Pressure Gas Transmission, May 2001 • BSI PD 8010 - Code Of Practice For Pipelines • ISO 13623/En 14161 - Petroleum And Natural Gas Industries — Pipeline Transportation Systems

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Each country will have their own regulatory, permitting, and safety requirements and local constraints and environmental issues meeting the indigenous population and local environment for routing pipelines.

The routing engineer should be fully conversant with the local requirements, as any lack of understanding could alienate populations or authorities the route passes meaning that approvals and permits require extensive and detailed and protracted negotiations leading to schedule delays, and may even be denied. Local issues should be clearly understood before any routes are selected and before any external discussions take place. It is not uncommon that a permit rejection of just a small section of the route through a local region can hold up the whole pipeline routing and construction.

Corridor, route, alignment and construction line selection phases have vital importance in linear engineering structure projects such as pipelines. Each possible route should be assessed at every stage with against selection criteria. Large-scale geo-hazardous areas have to be avoided during the first two phases.

Technical assessment of the alternatives at each stage is crucial. Assessment at every phase provides significant contribution in terms of timing, environment, safety, and cost. As evidenced in several international projects, precaution is much better than remedial work. Failing to apply adequate route assessment criteria, and the basic phases to select the best construction line, can lead to increased costs, sometimes up to 500%. In some cases, it is possible to have environmental destruction beyond the acceptable limits. E.g. pipeline located through farm fields and major active faults.

Table 4 below lists possible selection criteria. Such criteria should be ordered, reviewed for relevance, ordered, ranked and then applied within routing evaluation. These criteria are also in line with best practice for infrastructural and pipeline projects.

Table 4 - Key Route Selection Criteria Community Criteria

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Environmental Criteria

Technical Criteria/Project Requirements

Minimise impacts on people

Minimise impacts on wildlife and their habitat

Minimise pipeline length. Shorter routes may offer significant economic, environmental, social and logistical benefits.

Minimise community disturbance and land use conflicts.

Avoid impacts on archaeology/cultural heritage

Minimise major terrain constraints. Unduly steep or rugged mountain ranges, extensive areas of rock, large number of major river crossings, etc each tend to increase the difficulty and cost of construction and influence the scale of potential environmental impact.

Minimise disturbance to third party infrastructure.

Minimise visual impacts

Minimise construction costs and difficulty - The route should consider all construction aspects and impacts.

Minimise Proximity to dwellings/public centres.

Avoid protected areas and areas of high ecological value.

Minimise areas where construction is difficult, such as steep slopes, unstable surficial materials, and high water tables.

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Community Criteria

Environmental Criteria

Technical Criteria/Project Requirements

Minimise impact on Planning/land use.

Minimise disturbance to sensitive or unstable landforms.

Minimise areas of geohazards (fault crossing, fault zone)

Minimise impacts on mining, agricultural, urban and infrastructure areas.

Minimise disturbance to riparian areas. (watercourse crossings).

Avoids rocky ground and unstable soils, thereby minimising the risk of subsequent soil erosion from rain and wind leading to pipe exposure.

Account for public opinion and safety

Areas of conservation significance. Minor deviations may avoid impact on regional ecosystems.

Avoid severe physical constraints such as granite outcrops, erosion gullies and very steep slopes (both longitudinal and transversal);

Avoid of residences and other sensitive land uses; maintain a safe separation distance from all residences

Minimise environmental disturbance

Avoids landmines

Avoidance of potential Native Title and heritage conflicts;

Minimise clearing in forested/woodland Minimise topographic changes (avoid areas highly constrained topography, eg high elevation/steep terrain)

Avoid crossing property

Minimise overall project footprint

Avoid crossing agricultural land

Minimise excavations Minimise landscape impacts by avoiding crossings of ridges and mesas (elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs)

Avoid crossing forested land

Avoidance of remnant vegetation, nature reserves and other environmentally sensitive features

Minimise Crossings (road, rail, river, pipeline, buried services, power cables, overhead cables). (Consider trenchless technology)

Minimise impacts on native vegetation

Minimise areas subject to liquefaction (any extracted groundwater will need careful disposal)

Avoid World heritage/RAMSAR

Minimise areas in landslide

Avoid coal mining/subsidence areas/underground features such as caves, caverns

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Community Criteria

Environmental Criteria

Technical Criteria/Project Requirements

Avoid Protected areas

Minimise crossing floodplains

Avoid contaminated land (any extracted groundwater/soils will need careful disposal)

Avoid running parallel with high-voltage lines wherever possible and provide sufficient clearance for possible maintenance

Minimise project footprint In parcels of meadow and agricultural land, follow boundaries as much as possible; cross watercourses as seldom as possible; disturb drainage systems as little as possible; cause as little crop damage as possible

6.1.1.13 Existing and future land use The possibility of future development works should be taken into account to minimise the need for diversions or alternative works at a later date. Information on future developments should be obtained from local authorities that the route traverses through. Existing areas of development should be avoided as far as possible. Where this is unavoidable, the safe distance proximity of pipelines to buildings and structures should be related to design parameters for the particular fluid transported as stated in the appropriate codes, which categorise fluid as to their hazard potential, and the most hazardous flammable and toxic fluid should, where practicable, avoid built-up areas or areas with frequent human activity.

Permanent above-ground equipment, located on or adjacent to the line of pipelines, should be sited with the agreement of the landowners and occupiers concerned to minimise future obstruction, noise, vibration, interference, and security.

Pipelines containing substances that could cause contamination of underground water supplies, rivers, streams should, where possible, avoid crossing exposed aquifers or land immediately upstream of waterworks intakes or reservoirs. Where avoidance is not possible, statutory water suppliers and private groundwater extractors can require additional precautions to be taken. This is particularly important in countries where local population rely on ground water extraction as sole means of water for daily use in drinking and cooking.

Water authorities should be consulted about all watercourse crossings, particularly in relation to future widening and deepening. The larger watercourses are classed as â&#x20AC;&#x153;main riversâ&#x20AC;? and are likely to be directly controlled by water authorities; lesser watercourses draining low-level areas might come within the control of local authorities, landowners, and farmers. In other cases owners and occupiers should be consulted. The jurisdiction of water authorities includes river embankments, sea and tidal defences and secondary works to reduce the spread of floodwater. Where pipelines cross or are laid adjacent to any such embankments, the relevant water authority should be consulted.

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Pipelines should be located to produce minimum disturbance to established agricultural practice.

Any potential third-party activities along the route should be identified and should be evaluated in consultation with these parties. A control zone should be established to control all third-party activities in order to safeguard and secure the pipeline against external interference as well as to protect the safety of the parties involved.

The probability of third-party interference to the pipeline will decrease as the depth of cover is increased.

Pipeline protection analysis will need to consider the cost of protection vs. the threats posed vs. safety vs. reputation.

6.1.1.14 Permanent access The selected pipeline route should permit all year round 24-hr unhindered and adequate access to the pipeline, and associated above ground installations, from the public highways for the equipment and materials necessary to carry out planned inspections, maintenance and emergency repairs. This may require the building of new roads, and ongoing maintenance of access tracks.

Permanent access requirements should be taken into account at the time pipeline routing is being negotiated with landowners and occupiers. Access rights may also have to be negotiated with parties other than those through whose land pipelines will be laid.

Access facilities should be determined by the frequency of use, the testing and repair equipment likely to be required, and the anticipated urgency of repairs.

6.1.1.15 Transport facilities and utility services Particular regard should be given to the layout and levels of existing transport facilities and utility services, and enquiries made regarding their foreseeable development. Local authorities that the pipeline passes through can impose special conditions for pipeline routes. All relevant authorities should be approached in good time, requesting details of their facilities and services.

Ideally pipelines should be routed to minimise disruption to existing facilities and services. The number and lengths of crossings under or over transport facilities should be minimised, and the recommendations of the relevant transport authorities should be taken into account.

6.1.1.16 Construction, hydrotesting, operation and maintenance The route should permit the necessary access and working width for the construction, testing, operation and maintenance (including any replacement) of the pipeline. The availability of utilities necessary for construction, operation and maintenance should be analysed. Areas will be required to store materials, and set up construction camps, all requiring highly demanding area re-instatement to the original found condition when the work finishes. All these will affect local populations and environments, and unless adequately thought out and thoroughly planned could lead to local area route rejection, and jeopardize the whole project.

For remote locations issues such as material logistics, material storage, labour camps and associated environmental issues (sewage, drainage) need careful consideration and detailed planning.

Availability and suitability of water for hydrostatic test purposes and its subsequent discharge will need early consideration. Trucking water in and out will be expensive. Water Authorities may not allow water to be used from nearby rivers, nor its disposal back into streams due to internal pipe debris and chemicals that may have been used to treat the water prior to hydrotesting.

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6.1.1.17 Security The pipeline system should be routed to minimise security concerns, particularly due to trespass and sabotage, during both construction and operation. Typical issues that should be taken into account include : • • • • •

construction site access restriction (pipeline and facilities) personnel and equipment security during construction associated pipeline facilities during operation access restriction sabotage to buried operating pipeline, and associated above-ground pipework and facilities; mitigation to reduce likelihood of interference from third-party activity

6.1.1.18 Risk/Threat Assessment A QRA, risk or threat assessment exercise allows for identifying the likelihood of occurrence of hazardous event and the associated consequences of the events along the route.

• • • • • •

A risk assessment considers: The hazard – what can go wrong?

The probability of the hazardous event?

The consequences of the event?

The relative importance of the event?

The mitigating activities that are required to managed the risk

Risk assessment methods are by no means guaranteed to provide a reliable estimate of the probability of hazardous event occurring but they do provide estimates that guide the route selection process and allow a pipeline route to be declared “fit for purpose”. Risk evaluation and risk management are an essential input into the route selection process as they provide judgments on the significances of the identified risks and they help to determine the most appropriate course for the pipeline at a risk level that is deemed to be as low as is reasonably practical (the ALARP principle).

6.1.1.19 Data Collection and Management Table 5 below summarises typical key data required for each route selection phase.

Table 5 – Typical Data Requirements FRONT END LOADING FEL 1 BUSINESS PLANNING (APPRAISE) Maps Satellite imagery Air photos high quality digital imagery of the terrain

218

FEL 2 FACILITY PLANNING (SELECT) Initial reconnaissance survey Key constraints identified from initial consultations

FEL 3 PROJECT PLANNING (DEFINE)

PROJECT EXECUTION (EXECUTE)

Site Surveys

Final Site Surveys

• Topographic • Geotechnical (soil type and composition) • CP/resistivity survey

Helicopter Surveys

START UP AND OPERATIONS (OPERATE)

Final constructed route shown on asbuilt drawings and on GIS.

LiDAR Ongoing land based ROW/ easement surveys

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FRONT END LOADING FEL 1 BUSINESS PLANNING (APPRAISE) information available in the public domain

FEL 2 FACILITY PLANNING (SELECT) Set up GIS to collate and document available data.

FEL 3 PROJECT PLANNING (DEFINE) • Land survey (heights of land and location of existing infrastructure) • Environmental surveys for flora and fauna

PROJECT EXECUTION (EXECUTE)

START UP AND OPERATIONS (OPERATE)

LiDAR surveys Helicopter Surveys

EIS – Environmental Impact Statement.

GIS to collect/collate/sort field data. Slope threshold, slope criteria, cut and fill operations.

Constraint mapping Ongoing Reconnaissance surveys Helicopter Surveys LiDAR Information available from existing adjacent pipeline systems.

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6.1.1.20 Graphical Information System 6.1.1.20.1 General Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are scientific and technological tools that enable the integration of data from different sources into a centralized database from which the data to be modeled and analyzed based on its spatial component. GIS based tools and processes have been extensively used to address the challenges of optimizing pipeline route selections and route networks based on the collection, processing and analysis of spatial data such as topography, vegetation, soil type, land use, geology and landslide areas.

Traditional manual pipeline routing uses available paper maps, drawings, aerial photographs, surveys and engineer experience. GIS techniques combine all of these sources of data in a convenient computer-based information system. The key to the GIS is that it has advantages in terms of speed of data processing and analytical capability.

Fig. 2 is a simplified representation of how data is combined and processed in a GIS to produced models and required outputs. Data, such as well locations, surface topography, land use activities, soil conditions and infrastructure features, are combined based on their spatial component this enables the engineer to test real-world scenarios within the spatial models.

Fig. 2: Process To Optimize Pipeline Routes

GIS represents an innovative approach to pipeline routing that is both systematic and effective.

Optimizing a pipeline route is essentially an optimization between costs of the material and the costs of the construction. Natural and man-made terrain obstructions cause spatial variations in construction cost due to changing features like types of soils, intervals of slope. GIS allows the engineer the use of dynamic spatial models to aid in selecting an optimized pipeline route(s). The GIS software and data enables the processing of a large amount of location based information to find a Least Cost Path (LCP) between two locations by taking into account natural and manmade obstructions and features.

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6.1.1.20.2 GIS Routing Optimization Methodology The GIS approach to pipeline routing optimization is based on relative rankings and weights assigned to project specific factors that may affect the potential route(s). The result of this process is a Least Cost Path (LCP) which represents that most economic path between the origin and the destination points of the pipeline.

Fig. 3 is a representation of the methodology flow used to determine the LCP Fig. 3: Pipeline Optimization Methodology

6.1.1.20.3 Identification of Factors Affecting the Route As mentioned in the previous section on Selection Criteria the identification of project specific factors that may constrain or impact on the pipeline is an important step and a vital input to the GIS. Several factors such as geo-hazards, social issues and construction costs impact on the route and need to be taken into account. At this stage a set of rules are determined that will be used in the routing exercise.

Input from experienced engineers is required to ensure that the appropriate features are identified and the correct rules established. The accuracy of the subsequent analysis is dependent on the factors being correctly identified as the analysis is only as good as the inputted data. Examples of some factors and rules include: Factor/Feature Roads Railway Lines Rivers Urban Areas Terrain/Topography

Rule • • • • • • • •

avoid road crossings proximity to roads is important avoid railway line crossings avoid river crossings avoid built up/populated areas avoid future development areas avoid steep slopes use flat terrain where possible

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Factor/Feature Environmental Areas Wetlands Water Bodies Surface Geology

Rule • • • • •

avoid highly sensitive areas avoid wetland crossings avoid water bodies avoid surface/sub-surface rock stable soils are important

6.1.1.20.4 GIS Data and Data Sources Satellite imagery, maps, aerial photography, existing GIS data, LiDAR surveys and traditional geotechnical and topographical surveys are all sources of data that should be gathered and incorporated into the project GIS. The maps, satellite imagery and remote sensed data are scanned and geo-referenced and are then used to derive spatial features such as roads, rivers, urban areas and geological boundaries which are form the GIS data to be used in the routing process.

6.1.1.20.5 GIS Data Processing and Analysis Once the data has been captured it needs to be processed and converted into raster data. The raster data is used to calculate the feature distance cost for each feature, this is the weighted cost as one moves away from a feature. For example rivers are given a high cost and the further you move away from the river the lower the feature distance cost becomes.

The significance of the effect of a single feature on the pipeline route varies for each feature. For example, it is more important to avoid a deep valley crossing or a volcano than it is to avoid a road crossing, however it is more important to avoid a road crossing than it is to avoid. The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is one of the structured methods that can be employed to quantitatively rank each of the identified factors. Each factor is assigned a cost value which is benchmarked with typical constructions costs. The input from experienced engineers is vital when it comes to ranking and assigning weights to each layer.

6.1.1.20.6 GIS Suitability Map Generation After the feature layers have been ranked the data layers are combined together into one single layer based on the numerical value factor derived from the weighting process. The resultant layer is referred to as the suitability layer and this layer forms the basis for the GIS analytical work.

The suitability map is used to create cost maps which related to relative construction costs. The highest costs are in steep mountainous terrain, urban areas, roads and large bodies of water. Moderate costs are associated with wetlands, forests and high slope areas. The lowest costs are to be found in areas of relatively flat bare ground, agricultural land or less dense native vegetation. See Fig. 4 for an example of a cost map.

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Fig. 4: Discrete Cost Map

The Least Cost Path is the product of the GIS analysis and represents the path of least resistance from the origin of the pipeline along a surface to the destination point.

The strength of the GIS is that re-routes can quickly be incorporated into the system and the implications of the reroutes or alternative routes can be quickly assessed.

The combination of the data layers allows the engineer to test multiple pipeline network design and selection scenarios easily and efficiently. The GIS automatic calculates the lengths of new pipelines or pipeline networks. This allows for rapid total cost calculations and the running of multiple ‘what if’ scenarios to see the effect of changes to the pipeline design.

A GIS can produce a number of outputs quickly and efficiently in relation to pipeline routing: • • • • • •

Survey Request Area Delimination Drawings Land Allocation/Permitting Drawings Pipeline Routing Drawings Alignment Sheets (See Fig. 5) Tabular Outputs (i.e. MTO’s) Pipeline Coordinates

6.1.1.21 Light Detection and Ranging - LiDAR LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) can measure the height of the ground surface and other features during an airborne survey. It can provide models of the land surface at meter and sub-meter resolution, depending on ground cover conditions, e.g. in forested and woodland areas.

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The system comprises a scanning and ranging laser to produce topographic maps. Implementation involves flight planning, data acquisition, and the generation of digital terrain models.

The basic components are a laser scanner, a Global Positioning System (GPS), and an Inertial Navigation System. The laser scanner is mounted within an aircraft and emits infrared laser beams at a high frequency. The scanner records the difference in time between the emission of the laser signal and the reception of the reflection. A mirror that is mounted in front of the laser rotates and causes the laser pulses to sweep at an angle, back and forth along a line. The position and orientation of the aircraft is determined using GPS. GPS systems are located in the aircraft and at several ground stations within the survey area.

The round trip travel time of the laser signals from the aircraft to the ground are measured and recorded, along with the position and orientation of the aircraft at the time of the transmission of each pulse. After the flight, the data from the aircraft to the ground are combined with the aircraft position at the time of each measurement and the three dimensional XYZ coordinates of each ground point are computed and combined.

Post-flight processing integration of the data points produces a horizontal position and vertical elevation for each laser signal. Each data point can be identified by type, i.e. ground, vegetation, building, power line or other object. Once correlated, it is simple to manipulate data, remove layers of data points and create digital terrain models (DTM) for GIS.

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Appendix 6.2.2 Earthworks: Pipeline Trench Design

Follow up from section 6.2.2 in volume 1: Earthworks Design

Table of Contents Page

6.2.2.3 6.2.2.4 6.2.2.5 6.2.2.6 6.2.2.7 6.2.2.8

Pipeline Trench Design

219

Trench Depth

224

Trench Integrity

234

Installation

237

Dewatering

245

Backfilling

248

6.2.2.3

Pipeline Trench Design

6.2.2.3.1

General

Many types of trench exist, suited to different purposes and soil conditions. Trench shape and width are discussed in this section. Trench depth is studied in section 6.2.2.4 and modifications to the trench shape to guarantee its integrity are detailed in section 6.2.2.5.

Geotechnical aspects of pipeline trench design include:

• • •

Trench wall stability • Influence of spoil pile • Influence of equipment track pressure Minimum required width of right of way arising from trench depth, width and spoil heap Trench width

Fig. 5 illustrates a typical V-shaped trench design suited for most soil types. Other trench shapes can be better suited to specific soil types: examples are illustrated for rocky, sandy and cohesive grounds in the following Fig. 6 to Fig. 8.

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Fig. 5 Typical trench cross-section (general soils).

Fig. 6 Typical trench cross-section (rocky ground).

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Fig. 7 Typical Trench cross-section (sand) with berm. The same trench design is used without a berm.

Fig. 8 Typical cross-section (cohesive soil).

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Asymmetric designs can be used to lock the pipeline in horizontal bends. In such case, the trench extends on the outer side of the bend, as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9 Asymmetric trench designs. Dimensions in mm.

6.2.2.3.2

Trench Wall Stability

The main factors influencing trench side slope stability include: 1. soil undrained shear strength, or soil angle of friction 2. trench depth and side slope inclination 3. distance between toe of the spoil pile to the top edge of the trench and the height (or surcharge) of the spoil 4. equipment track pressure together with the distance from the track to the trench 5. dynamic vibration impact from equipment 6. season that work is being carried out in (wet, dry, frozen ground, summer, winter) Based on clay soils as an example, for a clay soil with an average undrained shear strength of about 12 kPa, unstable conditions may occur unless the trench has a slope inclination of greater than 45ยบ, and if the spoil is located approximately 1 m away from the edge of the trench. For clay with an average undrained shear strength greater than 20 kPa, stable trench conditions are likely for vertical trench walls and the spoil placed at the edge of the trench.

The angle of the spoil pile also needs to be adequately designed and specified to ensure that spoil does not collapse towards the trench thus comprising the trench itself. The spoil/topsoil height should be limited to about 2 m, and the inclination be about 40ยบ or lower. These are just a general guides, and will be affected by trench depth and soil properties.

Equipment track pressure will affect the trench stability. Based on two track pressures, 90 kPa and 140 kPa, typical guidelines for a 2 m trench depth include trench slope to be 40ยบ to 60ยบ, and provision that the track set-back be at least 2 m from the edge of the trench. Unless adequately designed for, repeated passage of heavy equipment can lead to remoulding and deep ruts in the soil, thus slowing down the construction, and potentially even equipment sliding into the trench. Fig. 10 shows typical interaction between clay soil strength, trench slope and equipment track pressure.

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Fig. 10 Soil Strength vs Trench Slope for Equipment Track Pressure

6.2.2.3.3

Right of Way (ROW) Width

The right of way (ROW) width is of prime importance to ensure adequate working conditions whilst minimising cost and environmental impact. The ROW is divided into two parts: the spoil side and the working side. The soil side width is affected by trench design, spoil pile stability and spoil swelling factors (which could be up to 30%). The working side is affected by trench inclination and set-back of the equipment from trench edge, together with construction considerations such as pipe supports, side booms, traffic lane and storage.

6.2.2.3.4

Trench Width

The trench width is influenced by a number of factors, namely: safety, soil characteristics, pipe outside diameter, trench depth, minimum available width of excavator bucket, type of crossings, and any special purpose requirements. In turn, the trench width affects the loading on the pipe.

The width at the trench bottom is dependent on the overall pipe diameter, the coating, the number of pipes in the same trench, and any other services placed in the same trench. The distance between the pipe end and the edge of trench bottom can vary from 150 mm – 300 mm. The trench bottom width must be sufficient to allow for compaction of the soil at the haunches and on the sides. The width at the trench top will depend on the soil that the trench has been cut into and safety requirements. The side slope angle could be as shallow as 10º – 30º, leading to very wide top of trench widths. Trench safety is of paramount importance to ensure that those working in the trench are safe and protected from trench collapse and trench flooding. This is discussed in more detail in section 6.2.2.5.

Crossing of roads and tracks often requires minimum intervention and construction on a short schedule.

Consequently, the trench width design at road crossings needs careful consideration, with options of shoring the trench considered (see section 6.2.2.5.3).

Together with the trench depth and characteristics of the fill over the pipe, the trench width will produce the load which must be supported by the pipe and its bedding. Generally speaking, the wider the trench, the greater the load on the pipe. Beyond a certain point this effect stops and widening the trench further does not impact the loading on the pipeline anymore.

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6.2.2.4 6.2.2.4.1

Trench Depth General

Pipelines are often buried under locations where human activity is intense. Vehicle crossing in particular can potentially impose important concentrated loads to a buried pipe and damage it. In areas where vehicle crossing is likely or certain (under a road or track, or under farm land), it can be necessary to bury the pipe at an increased depth. The typical depth range is the following, depending on soil conditions and land use : Main Roads and Light Roads: Fields:

- 1.2 m to 8.0 m - 0.6 m to 8.0 m

The crossing of other buried pipelines also sometimes makes it necessary to bury pipes at greater depth, if only on a limited pipeline length.

6.2.2.4.2

Ground use

Depending on the land use, pipelines have to be buried at a minimal depth to avoid likely damage from third-parties. For example, under farmland, pipelines may have to be buried deep in order to avoid damage from soil pressure caused by heavy equipment and from earthwork required by cultivation (see Fig. 11). In cities, pipelines should avoid running under private land where landowner might conduct earthworks that could result in pipeline damage.

Fig. 11 Deep burial of pipelines is sometimes necessary under farmland. a) Gravel mole plough. b) Plough shown out of the ground.

(a)

(b)

The American codes ASME B31.4 and ASME B31.8 provides a range of cover depths for various types of land and its use. These are summarised for information in Fig. 12. These burial depth requirements can be overridden by local regulations, sometimes by Company codes, and sometimes by the landowner during negotiations.

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Fig. 12 Burial depth Vs land use.

Where required minimum cover depths cannot be met, the pipe can be encased, bridged, or designed to withstand any anticipated external loads. The cover depths shown are minimum requirements for guidance only, and actual cover depth requirements will need to take into account actual local conditions, deep ploughing, and any local erosion issues.

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6.2.2.4.3

External loading

The load exerted on the pipeline by the soil cover can be beneficial for the pipeline system as it can be used to lock the pipe into place and mitigate adverse pressure and temperature effects. The load on a buried pipe is created by the weight of the soil lying above it as well as the above-ground loading.

Increasing the trench depth increases the soil load but reduces the traffic load, as illustrated in Fig. 13.

An optimum cover depth can therefore be found to minimise the pipeline loading. Road crossings are covered in more detail in the next section.

Fig. 13 Soil and traffic loading pressure Vs cover depth to Top of Pipe.

6.2.2.4.4

Road and railroad crossings

Discussion and research on the cased/uncased approach to pipeline crossings of roads and railroad have been underway since the late 1950s and 1960s. For example, American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) Bulletin #738 provides an extensive review for pipeline crossings of railroads.

Where buried piping is subjected to frequent overhead traffic or occasional heavy loads, consideration shall be given to providing the pipe with an external protective sleeve or casing, which is typically made of steel, concrete or plastic. In the past, the use of casing was mandatory for constructing jointed pipelines under all obstacles that could not be constructed by an open-cut method, particularly transportation arteries. Today it is generally considered that an adequate design will provide structural integrity for either cased or uncased crossings. Fig. 14 shows typical cased and uncased crossings for roads and railways.

The decision to case a pipeline crossing of a highway or railroad involves the following considerations.

• • • • • 232

Existing regulations by local, state, and federal agencies Site conditions (soil, water table, traffic, population density, and potential future construction activities) Economic considerations Pipeline function and commodity transported Carrier pipe material

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In recent years, the increasing trend is to install crossings and to change existing regulations to permit such an option. For adequately designed carrier pipe, alternatives to casing include concrete-coated pipe or concrete slabs over the pipeline through the road or the railroad Right Of Way. Advantages of pipeline casings are listed below.

• • • • •

Mechanical protection for pipe from external live and dead loads Easy and cheap future removal or replacement of pipe Frost-line insulation from transported commodity in temperature sensitive soils.

Sub-base and crossing protection in the event of a pipe leak Protection from third-party damage

However casings also have disadvantages, which are listed hereafter.

• • • •

Higher cost to owner due to the following requirements: larger bore-hole for casing, two installations, insulators and spacers between pipe and casing, end seals, and annular space grouting.

Potential shielding of the pipeline cathodic protection system Potential shorting of the pipeline cathodic protection system Potential exposure of carrier pipe to corrosive condensation inside the casing

Fig. 14 Typical crossings.

Cased crossings

6.2.2.4.5

Uncased crossings

Waterway Crossings

The installation of underwater crossings is a challenging undertaking. Revisions to the pipeline profile and joint design may be required depending on the installation method. For pipelines pulled along the channel bottom, special pull heads, lugs, sleds and flotation tanks are normally required on the leading end of the pipeline. It may even be necessary to modify the original design if conditions change during construction.

Laying from a barge, or floating the pipe into position and sinking requires divers and expensive marine equipment, both of which have limited operational hours. Design and installation of ballast weights, concrete jackets, and flotation devices required for these methods also require special consideration.

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Because of the difficulty associated with repairs, waterway crossings should be hydrotested immediately upon installation completion and prior to connecting to adjacent sections of land piping. The line should then be backfilled by dumping or chuting the backfill material. In certain cases, it is possible to allow natural backfill of the pipeline by water course sediment.

River banks and river beds will change with time. Specialist studies should be conducted to determine the pipeline end-of-life condition of the river banks and river bed to ensure that the pipe has sufficient cover to take into account bed erosion, and that the pipe has sufficient burial depth across the width of the crossing to account for any river bank meander (Fig. 15). Additionally, the use of the river should be taken into account for determining the design burial depth.

Fig. 15 Evolving meanders of a river

6.2.2.4.6

Third party protection

Generally speaking, increasing the depth of cover will lead to a decreased probability of third party damage incident. Fig. 16 shows the percentage of damage incidents as a function of the depth of cover.

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Fig. 16 Probability of damage Vs Cover Depth.

6.2.2.4.7

Restraint/upheaval resistance

In operation, the pressure and temperature of the fluid induces stresses in the pipeline. On one hand the internal pressure, which is normally higher than the atmospheric pressure, creates both â&#x20AC;&#x153;hoopâ&#x20AC;? and longitudinal stress in the pipeline. This will lead to a tendency for the pipe to straighten ati bends due to the Bourdon effect. This movement can be compounded by the temperature of the fluid which will cause thermal expansion (or contraction) of the pipe. Should the soil not provide enough longitudinal restraint by friction, the pipe will tend to move along its axis.

Comprehensive analysis of the restraint, movement and the resulting stresses within the pipeline is required to ensure that pipeline stresses will be within acceptable limits. Analysis often shows high levels of movement at bends and at the ends of a pipeline, where the pipeline comes above ground.

Movement can be controlled by additional soil loads or the incorporation of anchors. Alternatively, expansion loops or bends can be incorporated to allow movement without unacceptable stresses.

Movement can also result in upheaval buckling. This can occur at an overbend or a vertical imperfection in the bottom profile of a trench and can result in the pipeline coming out of the ground (see Fig. 17) and possibly pipeline buckling. If the pipeline upstream and down stream of the overbend or imperfection is locked in position and expansion of the pipeline occurs from these fixed points then the pipeline relies upon the soil overburden to keep it in place. If this overburden is insufficient then the pipeline could move vertically and the more it moves vertically then the lower the soil overburden becomes, hence allowing even greater movement.

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Fig. 17 Pipeline upheaval buckling

The greater the burial depth, the greater the restraint on a pipe will be both in the axial and radial directions. This is, however, only true up to a point where the soil load does not increase anymore with soil cover. Fig. 18 illustrates the evolution of soil resistance with the cover height and the pipe diameter.

Soil Resistance [kN]

Soil Resistance [kN]

Fig. 18 Soil resistance as a function of cover and of the outer pipe diameter.

In addition to burial depth, backfill resistance is also a function of several soil parameters, including soil density, resistance to shearing, and specific cover geometry. Soil properties used to determine the backfill resistance should be taken as lower bound values for the upheaval buckling analysis. The pipesoil resistance will depend on the nature of the backfilling process (see section 6.2.2.8) and to all the uncertainties related to the backfill behaviour.

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Ratcheting Where below ground pipeline movement occurs, at locations such as bends, the effects of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;ratchetingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; have to be considered. This is where a pipeline moves, eg due to thermal expansion, but does not return to its original location on cooling and then expands from its revised cold location to a new point.

That is, the pipeline moves on each pipeline thermal cycle from a different start point. This movement can be caused or compounded or caused by soil falling in the void left by the pipeline when it moves thus removing the space for the pipeline to contract into upon pipeline cooling.

Movement at horizontal bends As previously mentioned, thermal expansion force tend to localise in bends, generating a lateral force on the soil which could then fail. Additional restraint might therefore be needed on the outside of the bend, as shown in Fig. 19.

Fig. 19 Restraint on outside of bend to restrict horizontal movement.

Force

6.2.2.4.8

Geohazards

Burying a pipeline is also a means of protecting it from geohazards such as adverse weather (lightning, heavy wind, ice showers) but also floods, top-soil landslides, forest fires and erosion of the supporting soil. Burial also acts as a buffer against steep over-ground temperature changes during the day-night cycle but also the seasonal cycles.

It is important to take into account the impact of fault lines and earthquake in the design process. Trench depth, design and backfill compaction can improve a pipelineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s response behaviour to fault line movement, or an earthquake.

6.2.2.4.9

Insulation/heat retention

Pipeline burial provides thermal insulation of the pipeline and therefore allows the effects of above ground ambient temperatures to be reduced and allows heat loss or gain to the transported fluid to be reduced.

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Fig. 20-a shows the evolution of temperatures over a year in Ottawa, Canada, at different depth (â&#x20AC;&#x153;trumpet curveâ&#x20AC;?). The temperature of the ground surface remains almost in phase with the air temperature. Below the surface, the soil temperature follows the same trend, albeit with a delay as it takes time for heat to be conducted through the soil. The time lag increases linearly with depth. At a depth of 5 to 6 m the maximum ground temperature occurs about 6 months later than the average maximum temperature of the surface in summer.

Fig. 20-b shows the corresponding temperature variation amplitude change with depth. The amplitude of a temperature variation at the soil surface is normally about equal to that of the corresponding one for air. The amplitude decreases exponentially with distance from the surface at a rate dictated by the time necessary for one complete cycle. For depths below 5 to 6 m, ground temperatures are essentially constant throughout the year. The average annual ground temperature is practically constant with depth, increasing about 1ÂşC per 50 m depth due to geothermal heat flow from the centre of the earth to the surface.

Fig. 20 Heat insulation from soil cover in Ottawa, Canada: (a) Annual variation of soil temperatures.

(b) Depth dependence of the annual range of ground temperatures.

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In addition to an annual cycle, the ground temperature undergoes both a daily cycle and fluctuations associated with changes in the weather. These variations are confined to the near surface region, daily cycles penetrating about 0.5 m and weather cycles about 1 m below the surface. The "penetration depth" is defined as the depth at which the amplitude of a temperature variation is reduced to 0.01 of its amplitude at the surface. In addition to the nature of the soil, moisture has a significant impact on the penetration depth.

Almost every man-made change in terrain modifies both surface and sub-surface ground temperatures, although in most cases such modifications are not made for the express purpose of changing the ground thermal regime. Situations can arise, however, where it may be desirable to modify ground temperatures deliberately, for example, to reduce the rate of heat loss from a pipeline. It should be appreciated that these temperatures can be modified only to a limited extent because man has no appreciable control over climate, which determines values on a regional basis. In general, ground temperatures can be modified by changing either surface conditions or ground thermal properties.

The most obvious method of changing surface condition is to place an insulating layer near or at the surface to reduce frost penetration. Increasing the snow cover by the use of snow fences is another example. The thermal capacity of the ground can best be altered by changing its moisture content, for example, by flooding.

The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (OHTC) characterises the heat retention capacity of a pipe-soil system: the lower the OHTC the better the insulation of the pipe. Looking at Fig. 21, increasing cover depth decreases the OHTC and can provide insulation properties in the right soil conditions. However, below the water line heat transfer suddenly increases.

Fig. 21 Heat transfer coefficient Vs Depth of Cover

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6.2.2.5

Trench Integrity

6.2.2.5.1

General

Guaranteeing the trench integrity is essential for the safety of the workers around and in the trench as well as necessary to allow pipeline construction to be completed. Trench design is key to trench integrity and needs to be considered early within pipeline construction projects, so that adequate costs and schedule are allowed for pipeline construction.

Where ground conditions are such that trench walls will not remain vertical, the contractor may elect to use sloping side walls or to use solid sheeting to support the trench walls. In all cases, the critical dimension is the trench width measured at the top of the pipe. Fig. 22 shows the different factors affecting trench stability.

Fig. 22 Factors affecting trench stability.

6.2.2.5.2

Access/safety

Like all construction activities, pipeline construction can potentially be dangerous to workers. However, very high safety standards can prevent most accidents and result in a very safe working environment.

Safety statistics from the Australian Pipelines Industry Association are shown below in Table 1.

Table 1 Safety statistics of pipelines construction from the Australian Pipelines Industry Association.

Month Sept 2006 Dec 2006 Mar 2007 Jun 2007 Sept 2007 Dec 2007 Mar 2008 Jun 2008

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Total man hours Medical Lost time injuries in quarter treatment injury (inc fatalities) 2 1 0 2 1 3 1 2

4 12 4 9 11 15 4 11

461,097 980,097 480,342 447,454 327,654 1,477,182 555,345 1,279.358

LTIF Rate 2.17 1.02 0 4.47 3.05 2.03 1.8 1.56

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Sloping and Stepping Not all work is done outside of the trench: activities such as inspection, joint coating, and welding often require workers to go down in the trench. Workers should not enter a trench with vertical walls over 1.2 m deep as the trench could collapse and pose a safety threat. Above that height, shoring, sloping, or stepping is required to improve the stability of the trench (its “stand-up” time which is a function of the ratio between depth and width). t-shaped Sloping and stepping drastically increases the width of the trench at ground level as the depth of the trench increases, as shown in Fig. 23.

Fig. 23 Sloping and stepping.

6.2.2.5.3

Use of shoring, sheeting and trench boxes

Different soil types, depending on the condition of the soil at the time of excavation, behave differently.

Typical collapsing behaviours are shown in Fig. 24 for different types of soft soils. Sandy soil will tend to collapse straight down, wet clays and loams tend to slab off the side of the lower trench. Firm, fairly dry clay tends to crack some distance from the trench wall. Wet sands and gravels tend to slide into the excavation at about a 45-degree angle.

Fig. 24 Collapsing of trench walls in soft soil.

Wet clays and loams “slab off”

Firm dry clays and loams crack

Wet sands and gravel slide

Sandy soil collapses straight down

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In excavations where the open ditch method (sloped walls) is not sufficient, trench walls likely to collapse must be supported by proper shoring to mitigate the risk of cave-in. Shoring jacks, with or without sheeting are a quick and efficient shoring system because the excavator can work continuously (Fig. 25).

For deep trenches and unstable ground, the trench box is the best shoring system (Fig. 26): itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a large mobile box with enough strength to withstand the side pressure of deep excavations. The primary concern is for safety, and all applicable regulations should be strictly observed.

Fig. 25 Shoring methods.

Fig. 26 Typical trench box

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6.2.2.5.4

Trench bottom preparation

Trench load design for all pipes is based upon stable bedding and firm foundations. It is essential, therefore, that the trench bottom remains stable during backfilling and under all subsequent trench operations. Any departure from a stable foundation can nullify the efforts of both the designer and contractor because it can result in localized pipe stress concentrations which may cause structural failure.

When unstable or rocky trench bottoms are encountered, it will be necessary to over excavate and restore the trench bottom to a stable uniform foundation with selected materials capable of properly supporting the pipe. Select native materials, crushed stone, gravel, slag, coral or other granular materials are commonly used for this purpose. The amount of granular material necessary to stabilize the trench bottom will vary according to the field conditions encountered. Adequate compaction must be applied to guarantee a stable reformed pipe bed.

Any material that might damage the pipe coating should be removed from the trench bottom, including rubbish left by the construction workers. Organic materials (“biodegradable”) should also be removed as their decomposition could lead to damage to the coating and pipe.

The pipe may be laid on a flat or shaped trench bottom of suitable undisturbed native material or, in the case of over-excavating, on a restored flat bedding base. It is important to achieve a smooth trench bottom before laying the pipe to ensure that the entire pipe barrel shall has a continuous and uniform line bearing support. The curvature of the soil should be controlled to ensure that the pipe does not deform excessively under its own weight and the backfill load.

As given above, upheaval bucking can be initiated by imperfections in bottom of trench locations. Hence a further reason to ensure correct trench bottom preparation. A trench bottom imperfection may cause the pipeline to form an overbend by elastic bending when installed and upheaval bucking could occur at such a points in operations, if the pipeline is locked in position upstream and downstream of the imperfections. Pipeline expansion, coupled with insufficient local overburden, can cause the pipeline to move upwards, potentially driving the pipeline locally out of the ground. Expansion to cause upheaval buckling is normally associated with pipeline operating temperatures at least 50 degrees centigrade above the pipelines temperature at backfilling.

6.2.2.6 6.2.2.6.1

Installation Right of way

The Right Of Way (ROW) is the actual width of land, usually purchased as an “easement” rather than a fee, required to safely maintain and operate the pipeline and protect it from future development.

In order to perform pipeline installation safely and efficiently, a corridor of 20-30 m is typically required (see Fig. 27) for a single line. Once the pipeline has been installed, the permanent ROW is typically only 8 m-10 m wide. At river crossings, the ROW during construction is typically significantly larger (typically 30 m-50 m). The installation of twin lines would also require a larger ROW.

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Fig. 27 Construction and permanent ROW.

Fig. 28 shows a typical ROW during pipeline installation in agricultural areas. Excavated material is separated in two heaps: the topsoil one is obtained from scraping the area on top and on both sides of the trench (see â&#x20AC;&#x153;Topsoil strip widthâ&#x20AC;? in Fig.28 ). The subsoil heap is made of material excavated exclusively from the trench. This separation is important in non desertic area to ensure future vegetation growth on the ROW after reinstatement. To prevent decomposition of the organic material into compost, the topsoil heap should not exceed 2 m in height. Developing nearby tree roots are a potential danger to pipelines, thus the felling of trees close to the ROW might be required, not only during construction but also during the life of the pipeline.

Fig. 28 Typical cross-section of a Right Of Way in agricultural areas.

The ROW is often not owned by the pipeline operator and it is therefore necessary to have an agreement with the landowners in place regarding the temporary use of their land; the potential degradation of the topsoil over the pipeline; and future abandonment and re-instatement requirements.

Fig. 30 shows a typical ROW cut through a forest.

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Fig. 29 Typical cross-section of a Right Of Way in desert areas.

Fig. 29 shows a typical ROW during pipeline installation in desert, and wasteland areas. Two spoil heaps are not required in this instance.

Fig. 30 Right Of Way through the forest

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6.2.2.6.2

Spoil Management

Construction operations produce large volumes of material to store and also surplus excavated materials that will be disposed or re-used elsewhere. The types of spoil generated will depend on location, depth, and method (eg, digging, Horizontal Directional Drilling, boring etc). It can comprise soil or rocks. The stored material needs to be handles with care to allow re-use, with the subsoil stored separately from the topsoil. The handling and disposal of the surplus subsoil also needs careful disposal, or re-use if possible. Spoil that cannot be managed on site will need to be removed.

Increased costs on projects in recent years has led to increasing pressure and incentive to minimise the amount of construction spoil sent to landfill sites, but to do so depends on being able to reduce, recycle and reuse more of it. That, in turn, calls for reliable information about how construction sites handle wastes, and spoil from ground engineering operations Traffic generated by poor spoil management plans will lead to construction delays. Geotechnical surveys will need to define areas of contamination and the type of contaminant early in the design to allow appropriate management strategies to be developed. Contaminated spoils will require carefully engineered management plans, not to mention the health and safety risks on the site employees.

Reduction, reuse or recycling of spoil can be a viable option only if considered early in the design, operation and management of the works taken as a whole and not as separate activity at a discrete later stage, i.e. planned in detail at the design stage.

Some examples are given below for spoil management in rugged mountain terrain areas where the excess spoil is used for site restoration or erosion control.

Erosion control can only be practiced once the bulk earthworks and major drainage work has been completed. In steep terrain this is not routine, and the key to providing a stable platform for erosion control is the spoil management strategy. It is convenient to review practices in 4 categories, these are illustrated in Fig. 31, and described more fully in Table 2, in roughly historical sequence: Traditional - The traditional approach, as also used on many low cost roads and railways, is simple downslope disposal or side tipping. This has a high visual impact, plus risks of ensuing soil instability, loss of natural vegetation, and sediment contaminating streams and rivers. This is now considered environmentally unacceptable in most situations.

Stabilised Traditional - This is a development of downslope disposal, with a supplementary stabilisation of the tipped spoil by revegetation and erosion control techniques. This approach is difficult, and usually works out to be an expensive option.

Full contour restoration - The full replacement of soil on steep mountain slopes is environmentally attractive, but very difficult to achieve in practice.

Engineered spoil tips - Even in severe terrain there will often be stable embayment areas at intervals on or close to the right of way that can be used for engineered disposal, with appropriate compaction, drainage, erosion control and revegetation. This leaves â&#x20AC;&#x153;smoothedâ&#x20AC;? contours along the right of way. This approach appears to be the best environmental option overall. From experience, and unexpectedly, this appears to be the minimum cost option in many situations.

A good modern alignment will minimise the extent of sidelong cut and associated spoil volumes.

The pipelines industry has tended to look at terrain in 2 dimensions, but rugged terrain requires the 3 dimensional approaches of the roads industry, and careful planning of earthworks. The engineered spoil tip approach that we have come to favour requires the advance location, sizing and licensing of stable engineered tip sites, as part of this planning.

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Fig. 31 Earthworks Management – Examples of spoil management strategies

Extracts from “Performance management for site restoration in rugged terrain”, by M Sweeney, A Gasca, RPC Morgan and J Clarke, in Int. Conf. on “Terrain and geohazard challenges facing onshore oil and gas pipelines”, London June 2004, pub Thomas Telford Ltd, p 687-700.

Table 2 Earthworks on Mountain pipelines Spoil Management Strategies

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6.2.2.6.3

Trafficability

As part of the ROW design, it is necessary to consider the ability of construction vehicles to travel and operate on the Right Of Way. When the ground is soft, vehicle “trafficability” can be reduced or prevented completely. This problem is of prime importance as it can affect dramatically the construction cost and schedule or even lead to a change of pipeline route.

Special equipment might be needed (e.g. low ground pressure vehicles, mats) and special requirements (e.g. time of construction, drainage of groundwater) might need to be considered. For example, in tropical countries, it might be necessary to build the pipeline during the dry season when rainfall is the lowest, and the soil is the hardest. On the contrary, in permafrost, it might be necessary to construct during the winter when the ground is frozen and has a higher bearing capacity.

Construction vehicles can get immobilised on soft terrain in different ways. First, a vehicle can simply sink in the ground at rest if the soil bearing capacity is too low, i.e. the soil simply does not provide sufficient vertical resistance (Fig. 32-a). Once the wheels or tracks of a vehicle are sunk, the vehicle has to climb a very steep local slope and will often be stuck since the soil often won’t provide enough traction resistance. Second, insufficient horizontal resistance leads to a reduced or nil mobility (Fig. 32b). Enough traction resistance should be available to overcome the combined resistance of the following.

• • • •

soil slope vegetation obstacles

Third, slipping of the wheels or tracks as the vehicle moves causes the so-called slip-sinkage effect which causes a vehicle so sink gradually as it advances (Fig. 32-c). However tires running in an existing rut can benefit from the pre-compaction of the soil which reduces the slip-sinkage. This is known as the multipass effect (Fig. 32-d).

Fig. 32 Tire-soil interaction. (a) Sinkage at rest. (b) Horizontal resistance. (c) Slip-sinkage. (d) Multipass effect

(a)

(b)

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(c)

(d)

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Adhesion of soil between ruts can also lead to a dramatic decrease in traction resistance and should therefore be assessed whenever the soil exhibits high cohesion.

The mobility of construction vehicles has to be assessed both on the original pristine ground but also after remoulding by traffic which can dramatically reduce trafficability. Hence it might be possible for vehicles to cross a patch of terrain a “few” times but not more. The sensitivity of the soil to remoulding is often expressed as the ratio of the undisturbed and remoulded compressive strengths:

q St = q

undisturbed remoulded

Besides the ability to perform earthworks for the pipeline construction at hand, care should be taken to minimise the environmental impact and avoid damage to nearby buried pipelines which might not be able to bear the pressure of construction vehicles. Notable methods for estimating trafficability are listed below.

• • •

Methods based on Bekker’s work rely on the plasticity theory and soil friction and cohesion factors. It is complex but nevertheless empirical. They are proven to work well and are often used to develop new vehicles or elaborate new soil models.

Newtonian methods are relatively new, hence not proven in the field. They are the subject of modern research but are not yet used in practice.

WES methods were developed by the US Army Waterways Experiment Station and are based on soil penetration resistance and wheel numeric. They provide a simple “go” or “no-go” verdict using a single field measurement: the Cone Index (CI). Like Bekker’s, the WES method is extensively field-proven.

The original WES method is exposed in the NATO Reference Mobility Model (NRMM) which was developed by the US Army during World War II. The full model makes use of the following parameters to assess soil trafficability.

• • • •

Cone Index Soil Type Stickiness, slipperiness Vehicle characteristics

The full model also allows to calculate an estimate of a vehicle “speed made good” and of its power efficiency. A simplified version of the NRMM is often used to produce only a go/no-go verdict. It makes use of the Cone Index (CI), the Remoulding Index (RI) which characterises the behaviour of the soil after remoulding by traffic, and the Vehicle Cone Index (VCI) which has to be determined for every type of vehicle. Reference documents listing the VCI of typical construction vehicles are widely spread.

Assessment of trafficability should make use of a proven technique but also of sensible engineering judgement regarding parameters like slipperiness (snow, ice), slopes, obstacles, vegetation, etc. Other factors also have to be taken into account, e.g. damage to the environment, damage to adjacent pipelines, building foundations, overhead power lines, etc.

The ROW trafficability conditions should be examined before the ROW route is finalised. Complex tiresoil interaction (e.g. multipass effect, slip-sinkage) can sometimes determine whether vehicles will be operable or not on soft ground, hence a detailed trafficability analysis is essential whenever conditions seem critical (Fig. 33).

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Fig. 33 Soil trafficability

(a) Pipeline laying in wet soil

(b) Sunk excavators due to poor soil conditions.

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6.2.2.7 6.2.2.7.1

Dewatering General

Removal of ground water in the trench is required for different reasons. First dewatering is necessary to be able to excavate a flat, smooth, and stable bottom to lay the pipe. Furthermore, a dry soil during installation is needed to ensure a firm stable foundation. Groundwater movement can also cause material to run-off from under the pipe, which could then bend under its own weight as could be unevenly supported. Groundwater removal is also necessary to allow safe and convenient access to the workers who will often perform various tasks in the trench such as inspecting, welding, coating, or repairing. Pipeline buoyancy can also be a problem if water accumulates at the bottom of the trench (Fig. 34).

Migration of fine materials in or out of the pipe zone can result in loss of pipe support and must be prevented. This can be accomplished through the use of waterstops or geofabrics.

Water should be removed from the trench before final grading of the bedding. The trench should be kept dry during all phases of pipe installation. This can be done in several ways:

• •

•

Over-excavate the trench bottom and fill with crushed stone or other angular material to provide a French drain under the pipe. This drain will carry the water to interceptor sumps where it can be pumped away The groundwater table can also be lowered with well points wherever soil conditions permit.

They should be located at intervals dictated by soil properties and placed reasonably close to the trench walls. They should be sunk to a depth below the elevation of the trench bottom.

Several well points can be joined together to be handled by one pump In some cases the trench dewatering system may consist of a geotextile in addition to open graded crushed rock. Fine sands in a fluctuating water table environment are vulnerable to foundation problems and may require a geotextile encapsulation of the drain

Depending on the nature of the soil, the water might contain a lot of silt. Special measures have to be taken in that case such as the use of specialised pumps or filter sumps.

Removing the water from the trench is only half of the problem: the water has to be carried and disposed of. For this, permits from authorities may have to be obtained. It is also necessary to perform an analysis of the extracted water to ensure it will not contaminate its disposal area.

Fig. 34 Groundwater in pipeline trench.

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6.2.2.7.2

Wellpointing

Sub-ground dewatering or wellpointing is a method of controlling or lowering the level of sub ground water.

When faced with having to excavate below the existing sub ground water level the simplest and most cost effective method would be to deploy a Wellpoint system. In modern practice wellpointing is considered most suitable for relatively shallow excavations up to 6.5 metres deep in stratified soils, especially where the water table must be lowered very near to an underlying bed of clay or impermeable rock.

Wellpoint systems typically consist of the following (Fig. 35):

•

A small diameter pipe known as (riser pipe) fitted with a fine filter (wellpoint filter) this filter prevents fines entering into the system and being removed from the ground in the pumped water

•

This riser pipe would be connected above ground to a flexible pipe via a control valve to the header pipe which in turn connects to the suction connection of a specialist vacuum wellpoint pump

•

The discharge side of the wellpoint pump is connected via the discharge pipe to a settlement tank which further collects any fines and then on through the discharge pipe to the discharge point

•

Once the pump is switched on it creates vacuum and pulls water out of the ground thus lowering the sub ground water level and pumps the water to the designated discharge point

•

The wellpoints are jetted into the ground using a high pressure water pump (jetting pump) delivering water down a steel tube (jetting tube) to a maximum working depth of 6.5 metres

•

The wellpoint filter and riser pipe are installed along with a granular filter pack to aid drainage and then connected to the system Wellpoint systems are very effective in a wide range of soils from fine silty sand to coarse gravels. Single stage wellpoint systems are used to a maximum depth of 6.5 metres. For deeper excavations twin stage wellpoint systems can be deployed.

The equipment used falls into two categories the above ground equipment which can be re used and is usually hired or rented and the equipment below ground (risers and filters) which are normally regarded as disposable items and as such are sold to the customer. The pumps that are required for wellpointing duties are critical to the efficiency of the system and must have excellent air handling and air separation capabilities as such they are regarded as specialised units.

If well pointing is implemented, a location to dispose of the water must be found and appropriate permits must be obtained.

Fig. 35 Wellpointing

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6.2.2.7.3

Water run-off control

Installing an interceptor drain (Fig. 36-left) allows water flow and prevents material from running-off from under the pipe. It is a gravel trench that is excavated into a relatively impermeable soil layer and installed to collect and remove groundwater as it flows across the impermeable layer. The trench is typically placed across a contour of a slight to moderate sloping area to intercept groundwater prior to influencing slope stability. Generally, trenches are constructed 2 to 3 feet wide and are lined with a quality geotextile that does not clog. There is a one to two foot overlap of the geotextile above the gravel and below the backfill in the trench. Alternatively, a French drain (Fig. 26 right) can be installed. It is a ditch covered with gravel or rock that redirects surface and groundwater away from an area.

In order to prevent rainwater to run-off in slopes during construction and create the same problems as groundwater (See Section 6.2.2.7.1), some measures should be taken in regions where such problem could arise. Fig. 37 shows trench breakers placed at regular intervals in a slope.

Fig. 36 Interceptor drain (left) and French drain (right).

Fig. 37 Water run-off control with trench breakers.

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6.2.2.7.4

Buoyancy

During construction, the pipe is filled with air and if the wall thickness to pipe diameter ratio is low (typically for large diameters). The pipeline can be lighter than water and therefore float, making the pipe laying impossible. If dewatering is not possible, buoyancy control is achieved by adding weight to the pipe (concrete, sandbags, slabs) or by anchoring the pipe to the ground at regular intervals.

6.2.2.8

Backfilling

6.2.2.8.1

General

Once the trench has been excavated and water has been extracted, backfilling can commence as proper bedding needs to be put in place before the pipe can be laid. The terminology for various parts of a trench is shown in Fig. 38. Once the bedding is in place, the pipeline is installed. The upper bedding and the sidefill can then be installed by workers. Finally the main backfill can by applied in lifts with minimal direct workers intervention. The layers can be made of different materials and the main backfill itself can be composed of several layers of different materials. This would allow, for example, using fine soil close to the pipe not to damage it, and coarser soil on top with a higher density.

It is crucial for all the backfill layers close to the pipe to be carefully installed as the soil settlement caused by the load of the main backfill could lead to excessive pressure on the pipe, which would then deform and become oval. Excavators often have to observe a maximum soil drop height to avoid damaging the pipe.

Fig. 38 Pipe trench installation terminology.

6.2.2.8.2

Backfill material

If the in-situ soil is not suited for the backfilling operation, it might then be necessary to import soil. For this, permits have to be obtained from the relevant authorities and a location has to be found to dispose of the excavated soil. In-situ material can sometimes be crushed and screened to then be used as backfill.

The selection of a suitable backfill material are the following is made according to the following criteria.

• • • •

254

Nature of the soil (cohesion, permeability) Granulometry (presence of rocks, clods, or boulders and abrasion properties) Density Suitability to compaction by normal methods

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The financial, environmental, social and logistical problems associated with the importation of selective bedding and backfill materials has contributed to the drive to introduce coatings which minimise the use of imported materials. Examples of the problems associated with the importation of selective bedding and backfill materials are

• • • • • •

The high material costs The cost of removing excess spoil from site Aggregate taxes Damage to roads and the environment Local disruption and adverse public relations Inaccessibility

The alternative to importing backfill is to employ crushing and screening equipment to process indigenous spoils. This alternative has become common on many construction projects and has overcome many of the problems associated with laying pipe in difficult ground conditions and the expense of removing excess spoil from site.

6.2.2.8.3

Coating interaction

In some cases, the type of pipe coating has to be matched to the selected type of backfill material to avoid damage to the coating due to rock penetration or excessive abrasion. Additional protective measures can be used to protect the pipe such as using geotextiles (see Section 6.2.2.8.9) to separate a layer of fine material around the pipe from a layer of coarser material on top (generally denser and/or cheaper).

A conservative approach is often taken in the selection of bedding and backfill materials used to create the pipelines habitat, particularly in a predominantly rock outcrop or containing a high percentage of flint.

A detailed assessment of the interaction between the coating system and the backfill can lead to a relaxation of the bedding and backfilling requirement hence decreasing the costs.

On one hand, processing of spoils on site, or the importation of selective materials to create a suitable habitat around the pipe is extremely expensive and can be impractical in the more remote locations of the world. On the other hand, multilayer (3-layer polyethylene) coating systems that may limit the use of processed or imported materials are more expensive than their thin film (Fusion Bonded Epoxy) counterparts. Cost savings may accrue if the higher cost of the coating system is counterbalanced by the savings associated with the following:

• • •

A reduction in the amount of coating damage sustained during transportation, handling and construction A reduced requirement for imported or site-processed bedding and backfill to create the pipelines habitat A reduction in the amount of indigenous material requiring removal from site due to importation of selective material

Early consideration of geotechnical conditions in coating selection and backfill design can prove beneficial technically, environmentally and economically as illustrated in the figures below. Fig. 39(a) compares the cost of importing bedding and backfill (and removing spoil from site) for varying percentages of a 100 km, 610 mm diameter pipeline, and hence the potential cost saving associated with reducing the amount of imported material employed. Fig. 39(b) shows the same comparison but for processed bedding and padding in the case of the FBE coating. It has been assumed in this assessment that an FBE coating would always require imported or processed material for bedding and backfilling in adverse ground conditions, and that the 3-layer PE coating would be capable of being bedded and backfilled in indigenous spoil.

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Fig. 39 Cost associated with bedding and padding

(a) Cost associated with using imported materials for bedding and padding for a 24â&#x20AC;? 100 km pipeline.

(b) Cost associated with using site-processed materials The economic viability of a more expensive coating depends on being able to recover the increased application costs through a reduction in the amount of imported or site-processed bedding and backfill required to prepare the pipeline habitat. An early study is therefore essential to optimize the technical solution as well as minimise the costs.

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6.2.2.8.4

Rock excavation

When it is necessary to dig a trench in a rocky soil, two solutions exist: rock trenching using specialised equipment and blasting with explosives (Fig. 40). Blasting is commonly used because of its cheap cost and speed of operation but the excavated trench is irregularly sloped and requires greater excavation efforts. Furthermore, irregular trench walls resist compaction. Specialised rock trencher machinery is available and produces high quality trenches albeit at a greater cost.

Fig. 40 Rock blasting

6.2.2.8.5

Types of bedding

When an imported bedding material is used, the bottom of the trench should be over-excavated. The proper amount of bedding material is then added to achieve final grade. The bedding material may be crushed stone or other angular material placed on the trench bottom or by using the natural material providing it is properly compacted. The depth of the material should be at least one-eighth of the pipe diameter but in no case less than 4 inches. The bottom of the excavated trench must be firm, even, and stable to provide uniform support.

6.2.2.8.6

Trench foundation

When the bottom of the trench is not sufficiently stable, or firm, to prevent vertical or lateral displacement of the pipe after installation, the first step is to develop a non-yielding supplementary foundation for the pipe, irrespective of other bedding requirements. Supplementary foundations may be of various types to provide an adequate and non-yielding base (e.g. made of concrete).

6.2.2.8.7

Initial backfill/coating damage

Initial backfilling takes place after the pipe has been installed according to the engineering specifications.

The initial backfill extends from the bedding material, up the sides of the pipe, to a level approximately 12 inches over the top of the pipe. The initial backfill should be carefully placed as soon as possible to maintain proper pipe alignment and to protect the pipe. This material should free from large stones or clods. The bedding or initial backfill should be sliced under the "haunches" of the pipe to fill the voids and consolidate the material in this area. This assures uniform support of the pipe. (Fig. 41). Backfilling in lifts should be done when the bedding material is no higher than about one-fourth of the pipe diameter if it is to be effective.

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Multi-layer pipeline coatings such as dual powder systems and 3-layer HDPE have been shown to provide superior resistance to damage, both accidental damage during handling and transportation and resistance to the increased loads arising from the use of larger trench backfill.

Fig. 41 Pipe bedding

6.2.2.8.8

Final backfill

The final backfill extends from the initial backfill to the top of the trench. Final backfill shall be placed in lifts of typically 12 inches. No rocks or stones should be present in the final backfill within 3 feet of the top of the pipe. Selected backfill material may be required for the top foot or more as specified by the engineer. Usually a front end loader or a bulldozer is used to push the spoil bank into the trench at an angle so that impact on the pipe zone is minimized.

6.2.2.8.9

Geotextiles

Crushed rock or other coarse aggregate is recommended and used as a bedding material to improve the load bearing capacity of pipe. Deeper layers of these materials have been employed to stabilize the base of the trench. Loss of pipe support can occur when open-graded materials are used on sites having fine to medium sands at the base of the trench and a water table which fluctuates rapidly in the pipe zone. This is caused by water moving rapidly through the fine to the coarse material and carrying the fine sands with it. To prevent movement of the fine sands into the voids of the open-graded bedding material, the material can be encapsulated in a geotextile material. Geotextiles are also used to prevent damage to the pipe from pebbles or rocks which might migrate form another layer of the backfill (Fig. 42).

Fig. 42 Controlling migration of bedding material with geofabri

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6.2.2.8.10 Compaction Soil compaction can be required for different reasons. To prevent soil settlement due to over-ground traffic, a high level of compaction is needed, especially at road crossings. Compaction also increases the pipeline restraint and is therefore often necessary to avoid burying the pipeline too deep, especially in side- and over-bends where the restraint needs to be highest.

When it is necessary to achieve a high degree of compaction, it may be advisable for the design engineer or contractor to consult a geotechnical engineer. Success in the mechanical compaction of backfills is entirely dependent upon the control exercised during this operation. The selection and use of suitable compaction equipment must be made with care so that the pipe will not be disturbed or damaged. Pneumatic tampers, vibratory pads (hand-held and walk-behind) and self propelled trench compactors are specifically designed for this work. Extreme care should be taken when using heavy mechanical equipment such as sheepsfoot rollers, dozers and loaders. Most soil materials may be compacted by mechanical means in lifts. However, it is necessary to determine if the field moisture content is in the optimum moisture range in order to obtain the desired compaction with normal compactive effort. If the soil permits, adequate compaction may be obtained by careful water flooding as discussed in the following section.

Proctor tests provide curves like the one shown in Fig. 43. They allow quantifying the maximum density of a soil as a function of water content. Achieving a 100% Proctor compaction level would equate to being on the line shown in Fig. 43. It is not uncommon to require 90-95% proctor density for sensitive pipelines prone to upheaval, or when design requires a fully restrained system.

Fig. 43 Maximum compaction Vs. water content.

Poor compaction and weight of soil on pipe can cause the pipe to ovalise over time due to poor side support, and introduce ovalisation bending stresses in the pipe. A typical percentage pipe deflection over time for a range of compaction densities is shown in Fig. 44.

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Fig. 44 Deflection of pipe due to compaction

6.2.2.8.11 Water compaction The water method of compaction, known as flooding or jetting, when conducted in lifts, produces super saturation of the backfill material, which, for any given soil, will produce a degree of consolidation that can be predicted with reasonable accuracy. The desired range of compaction can be obtained with water in native granular or sandy materials which would include most sandy and silty soils and even those with some clay content. However, materials which are predominantly clay cannot be satisfactorily compacted by super saturation because of cohesion and low impermeability of the soil. Water jetting should not be allowed to disturb the initial backfill or the bedding which can result in pipe displacement or damage.

6.2.2.8.12 Compaction abuse The selection and use of suitable compaction equipment must be made with care so that the pipe will not be disturbed or damaged. A falling weight "stomper" or drop hammer, should never be used for compacting even with a substantial cover over the pipe. These impact devices can damage the pipe and/or force it out of alignment.

6.2.2.8.13 Compaction measurement Compaction is typically calculated by comparing the measured soil density to the maximum soil density for a given level of moisture content. The most reliable method to measure density and water content is to extract a sample and carry it to a laboratory. A Nuclear Density Gauge (Fig. 45) provides an alternative which has the advantage of providing immediate readings, albeit of a lower precision.

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Fig. 45 Nuclear Density Gauge to measure soil density.

6.2.2.8.14 Berming Two reasons motivate the building of a berm on a Right of Way. On one hand, it provides an easy way of locating the exact pipeline location for maintenance and/or repair purposes, and helps reduce accidental third party damage by providing a clear indication of the pipelines location. A typical bermed pipeline is shown in Fig. 46. On the other hand, a berm can be used as additional cover to restrain the pipeline.

Fig. 46 Berm on a pipeline ROW.

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Fig. 47 Lateral pressure at bends

Looking at Fig. 47, a berm can be placed on the outside of a bend to strengthen the soil in the direction of the slip surface and increase lateral restraint. Capping (typically 300 mm thick) is normally applied to avoid erosion from wind and rain.

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Appendix 6.2.3 Earthworks: Environmental Control Measures

263

264 Trench plugs or shuttering can be installed along certain intervals of the trench vulnerable to erosion to help support the sides of the open trench, allowing the free flow of people/traffic along the adjacent running track. If soil erosion is likely to lead to trench collapse during the lower and lay exercise then trench boxes must be installed at vulnerable locations to prevent this happening.

Installation of trench plugs and in-trench drainage on slopes as erosion can continue after backfilling if the trench becomes a preferred path for groundwater or seepage leading to tunnelling, cavitations and collapse of backfill.

There is the potential for erosion within the trench leading to trench collapse.

There is the potential for mixing and contamination of alien/invasive species through soil excavation and top soil stripping.

Soil erosion within trench slope

Weeds/Alien/inva sive species and contaminated soils.

Where there are known invasive species, they should be dealt with according to industry best practice and disposed of as set out in any statutory guidelines. Contaminated soils must be stored separately from any uncontaminated soil, and stored prior to disposal or treatment on an impervious membrane to prevent mixing or leaching in the host area.

Minimise the time for topsoil storage Weed control should be considered where alien species are identified or weeds are likely to create a problem in adjacent areas (to be used in accordance with instructions) Separate and store topsoil adjacent to spread for reinstatement Post construction monitoring to ensure reinstatement is successful and control excessive weed growth.

Top and sub soil must be stored separately to preserve the seed bank for reinstatement purposes.

If the soils are to be stored for a long period of time, they must be re-seeded or protected by silt fencing or stock pile berms and geo-jute matting to aid reinstatement and prevent any soil erosion/loss.

The topsoil, normally stored on the right of the running track, must not exceed 2m in height this will prevent degradation of the soil structure. Subsoil, comprising the excavated trench material are stored separate from the topsoil to preserve the integrity of the soil structures and ensure successful reinstatement of the pipeline spread.

Soil strataâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s should be kept separate to avoid cross contamination and loss of the seed bank for reinstatement purposes.

Soils stored for long periods of time may also be subject to erosion.

Erosion of stored soils by wind/water must be minimised

All Habitats

Mitigation

Justification

Environmental Considerations

Conditions of Excavation

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.3

Contractors must ensure that they adhere to and comply with the legal requirements for the protection of wildlife and habitats. Particular attention must be made to those commitments detailed in the Environmental Statement/Impact Assessments and approved Method Statements, applicable Planning Conditions and/or Licence Conditions.

A policy of no hunting/fishing/gathering to be implemented and rigorously enforced.

New access roads may provide access to previously inaccessible protected areas and precautions should be put in place to prevent unauthorised persons using the access roads (e.g. install security posts or locked gates).

Construction activities have the potential to impact/destroy habitats and the associated flora & fauna. Disturbance to nesting birds and breeding wildlife at certain times of the year or impact of areas of ecological importance.

Water may build up in the trench in heavy rainfall or from ingress of groundwater from surrounding water table.

Statutory designated areas/Protected species/ Vulnerable habitats

Drainage

All relevant consents must be obtained from appropriate agencies before any trench de-watering is carried out.

The use of sediment traps or water treatment/filtering methodologies should be used to ensure that there is no pollution of water bodies. Where practicable and with the consent of the owners discharge to neighbouring fields via silt buster and filtered through a series of sediment traps. All severed land drains to be re-connected across the pipeline spread.

Particular attention should be given to the individual landowner biosphere. Soils from within animal disease affected areas must be stored separately from uncontaminated areas/fields and must not be moved from one area/field to another.

Advice should be sought from local agricultural and vetinary specialists.

Wheel washing and protective clothing may be required in some areas Care to be taken with construction workforce hygiene to avoid spread of plant and animal diseases

Potential for air, soil and other vector transmitted pests and diseases being transmitted along the pipeline route

Pests and diseases

All Habitats

Mitigation

Justification

Environmental Considerations

Conditions of Excavation

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266

Noise

All Habitats

Machinery should be checked to ensure it is working efficiently and working hours agreed with local Environmental Health Officers (or equivalent) so as not to cause unnecessary disturbance.

Where there are statutory guidelines for the control of noise on construction sites these must be adhered to. Ambient noise levels should be recorded at noise sensitive locations prior to commencement of the pipeline construction works and again as various construction activities likely to cause a problem take place.

Noise can be a nuisance to local populations and cause disturbance to wildlife.

Consultation should be held with relevant landowner, land users and local communities to agree a diversions or alternative access points.

Fencing or suitable arrangements should be made where animals are kept in adjacent land.

Vehicles/machinery should not be re-fuelled with specified distances of any watercourses, wells or source protection zones.

Fuel and chemicals to be stored outside the specified distances of any watercourses, wells or source protection zones [thinking of bentonite/polymers here].

Route all right of way drainage away from watercourses and ensure adequate means of sediment settling and filtration prior to discharge near watercourses.

Schedule open cut crossings of rivers at time of lowest sensitivity (i.e. outside of breeding/spawning periods) impose time limits on construction of sensitive river crossings and maintain river flow across the construction area.

Such as neighbouring land, access tracks etc

Nearby watercourses have the potential to be contaminated by fuel or chemical spills.

Increased turbidity due to run-off from right of way can pollute rivers.

Temporary obstruction of other land users

Protection of watercourses from pollution.

Fuel tanks and oils stored on site should be bunded and stored away from sensitive areas. Spill kits should be readily available throughout the construction area carried by vehicles, and particularly where mobile plant is located and employees trained in their use and application.

Mitigation

Justification

Possible soil/watercourse Storage of fuels/oil, refuelling contamination from fuel/oil leakages. of vehicles and plant.

Environmental Considerations

Conditions of Excavation

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Bog mats (a series of connected wide sleepers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; sourced from sustainable hardwoods) temporary roads or trackway can be used on soft ground e.g. areas of peat/tree roots.

Standard reinstatement procedures include sub-soiling or ripping to remove the compaction of the working width prior to reinstatement.

Minimise access along the spread (use muster points and buses for moving staff to working areas).

Prevent driving off the right off way by ensuring an adequate number and suitable location of access points and maintaining the right of way access roads (including the road along the ROW).

Policies relating to reuse, recycling and minimisation of the use of natural resources should be implemented.

Consideration to be given to alternative use of materials in locations ot minimise waste, transport and use of natural materials (such skids, collection of stone for slope stabilisation, translocation of vegetation, crushing excavated material for pipeline padding etc).

Local recycling programmes (i.e. timber).

Maintenance of machinery to ensure efficient running.

Use of local supply chain/employment where possible.

Soil can become compacted through machinery tracking.

Protection of local resources

Compaction

Energy efficiency and protection of natural resources

All Habitats

Mitigation

Justification

Environmental Considerations

Conditions of Excavation

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268 Route surveys and preconstruction record of conditions should be undertaken.

Reinstatement should endeavour to return the areas affected by pipeline construction to their original condition.

Reinstatement of sensitive ecological areas should be in accordance with agreements with relevant authorities, the environmental statement. Conflicts with landowner’s requests for’ improvements’ in these areas should be carefully controlled.

Post construction monitoring should be undertaken for a minimum of 2 years.

Operation of the pipeline should include land liaison and remediation specialists.

Translocation, seed collection, use of locally provenance plant material, temporary plant nurseries and seed suppliers to be in accordance with EIA, landowner and regulatory authorities requirements.

Replacement of subsoil and topsoil should match adjacent contours.

Installation of erosion control measures where required, such as geojute erosion control matting, to enhance reinstatement on slopes or highly erodible soils.

Clear demarcation as to contractor and client responsibilities Provision of liaison personnel to ensure that local communities, landowners and land users understand how the construction activities will affect them.

Agreement of mitigation measures and methods to be used for community liaison.

Engage local employees in the local community liaison process where possible.

Bog mats (a series of connected wide sleepers – sourced from sustainable hardwoods) can be used on soft ground e.g. areas of peat/tree roots.

Standard reinstatement procedures include removal of the bog mats followed by sub-soiling or ripping to remove the compaction of the working width.

In extreme wet conditions sections of the pipeline spread can be temporarily closed to prevent compaction by vehicle movements along the running track, and re-opened once the surface has dried out.

Prevent driving off the right off way by ensuring an adequate number and suitable location of access points and maintaining the right of way access roads (including the road along the ROW).

Reinstatement should endeavour to return the pipeline working width to its original condition

Engage in local liaison during construction to advise on construction activity

Soil can become compacted through machinery, people, natural processes, e.g. rain where bare ground is left for long periods of time.

Reinstatement

Community liaison

Soft Soil

Compaction

All Habitats

Mitigation

Justification

Environmental Considerations

Conditions of Excavation

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Mitigation

If a definite separate strata has been identified and logged this should be stored separately to preserve the seed bank (if there is any present, particularly in stable dune valleys) for reinstatement purposes. Because of the potential mobility of the excavated material it should not be stockpiled for long periods, and the trench backfilled as soon as is practical after the lower and lay operation.

Tie-in locations should always be guarded with trench boxes to prevent trench wall collapse.

Pipeline routing should identify areas subject to potential flash flooding.

Construction in areas identified should be undertaken at times of low risk.

Equipment and pipe should not be stored in risk areas for longer than absolutely necessary Dust generation should be kept to a minimum by restricting the movements of all vehicles along the running track and strict speed restrictions for through site traffic. That traffic engaged with the direct construction activities such as spread preparation, excavation, lower and lay should not generate too much dust in calm conditions.

Recontour sand dune areas to as close as original contours as practicable, reinstating original drainage and watercourses.

Consider sand stabilisation techniques during reinstatement such as erosion control materials.

Appropriate water quality management plan and erosion control measures shall be adopted for discharge water. Erosion protection may include water discharge flow dissipaters such as rock riprap, geo textiles or straw bales.

Manage the discharge of silty water appropriately and provide filtration methods.

Justification

Depending on the type of sand dune environment strata may need to be kept separate to avoid cross contamination and loss of the species mix for reinstatement purposes. Stored material will be subject to wind erosion.

Flash floods can wash pipe, personnel and equipment away

Dust from the sand dunes/desert has the potential to impact on construction activities.

Potentially sand is highly mobile and is difficult to reinstate.

Potential to unbalance the integrity of the peat area by dewatering isolated sections.

Flash flooding

Dust generation

Reinstatement

Environmental Considerations

Peat Area

Dewatering of trench

Sand Dune Area Separation of strata

Conditions of Excavation

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270 Pipeline is laid within a stone road, provide support and a stable platform from which the machinery can excavate the trench. It also reduces erosion and compaction. Road Removal of vegetation (which stabilises the underlying peat) should be minimised (ie pipe trench only). Consideration should be given to removal of turves and laying temporary roads over existing vegetation (timely removal of the road is vital for successful reinstatement).

Turfs must be watered if they are being stored for considerable periods to avoid shrinkage, turfs should not be stacked so as to avoid compaction and destruction of the seed bank.

Reinstate subsoil layers in original order when backfilling. Minimise amount of material imported into the peat bog during backfilling or reinstatement.

Turfs should not be stored above a maximum height away from flooding areas and should have gaps in to allow the free flow of water.

Bog mats (a series of connected wide sleepers – sourced from sustainable hardwoods) can be used on soft ground e.g. areas of peat/tree roots. Keep vehicle movement to a minimum and use low pressure ground vehicles where possible. Fencing can be put in place to prevent encroachment and damage to bog outside working width, ensure an adequate number and suitable locations of access points and maintain the right of way access roads (including the road along the ROW).

Use of the ‘Stone Road’ method.

Removal and replacement of vegetation

Turfs stored in a flood plain have the potential to re-direct or block water flow during a flood event.

Turfs can become compacted through machinery tracking

There is the potential for erosion within the trench and on the slope.

Erosion

Reinstatement

Turfs stored in flood plain.

Compaction

Erosion/Soil creep

Trench plugs that prevent erosion can be installed along certain intervals of the trench, that allow the free flow of people/traffic and the exit of wildlife should it become trapped. The slope should be graded to avoid soil slip/creep and maximise the use of existing planting to aid slope stabilisation.

Adequate compaction of backfill material during trench infilling.

Install in-trench drainage on slopes.

Inert plugs can be placed at specified intervals along the trench to prevent poor drainage.

Potential for pipeline to function as a field drain and alter ecology of bog.

Drainage

Peat Area

Side Slope

Mitigation

Justification

Environmental Considerations

Conditions of Excavation

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All relevant consents must be obtained from appropriate agencies before any trench de-watering is carried out.

The use of sediment traps or water treatment/filtering methodologies will be used to ensure that there is no pollution of water bodies.

A relevant consent/licence must be sought in order to continue works.

Water may build up in the trench in heavy rainfall events.

Trenching may affect ground water locations previously unknown.

Drainage

Effect on ground water sites.

Forested Areas

Contractors should ensure that they adhere to method statements outlined as part of the EIA on working within designated areas.

Disposal of wood arising from vegetation clearance should be in accordance with land agreements.

Canopy bridges to be considered in forestry areas where animal communities may not be able to access feeding areas.

Construction activities have the potential to disturb nesting or breeding wildlife at certain times of the year or impact of areas of ecological importance.

Access for pipeline operations and inspection often require easement to remain free of trees.

Protected species/ woodland restrictions/ requirements

Reinstatement

Woodland topsoil to be stored replaced following construction in accordance with agreements and environmental requirements.

Careful routing to avoid opening up permanent access routes through forests and minimise long term visual effects.

A reduced working width to minimise damage to surround trees/ roots will be required. Machinery must be compact enough to work within reduced spaces without being unsafe. General rule of thumb that the roots extend to the edge of the canopy.

Where roots are cut there should be equivalent crown reduction to prevent water stress and long term damage.

Consider additional space requirements for deep trenches or crossings where additional excavated material may need to be stored.

Reduced working Working width is reduced to minimise impact on width any trees, roots or overhang

Swampy Areas

Mitigation

Justification

Environmental Considerations

Conditions of Excavation

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Tundra

Reinstatement to original contours may not be possible.

Seasonal restrictions to Working in permafrost zones working

Reinstatement

Reduced working Narrow ridges require reduced working width width and lack of space for effective storage of excavated material

Ridge

Thorough borehole investigation of pipeline route and a full assessment of the depth and extent of permafrost pre construction to determine the most effective construction period, construction and reinstatement methods.

Modelling of permafrost effect on pipeline route and pipeline route on permafrost areas (e.g. increased thaw as a result of heat generated from pipeline).

Consider chilling of oil/gas to minimise thaw.

Carefully consider the location of pump and compressor stations as they can alter the temperature of the oil/gas being transported.

Reinstate subsoil layers in original order when backfilling, especially in wetland areas.

Ensure sufficient trench padding around pipe and consider the use of pipe supports within the trench (i.e. sandbags).

Insulate areas/slopes that are unstable if thawed quickly with woodchips or other suitable materials.

Install geotechnical monitoring at locations that become unstable when thawed.

Install monitoring for pipeline movement (i.e. heave).

Consider weighting pipe in permafrost areas where land heave may occur.

Reinstate as close as practicable to original contours.

Consider recontouring adjacent land on the ROW to minimise visual impact.

Install adequate drainage on cut side slopes to minimise erosion due to run-off and surface water.

Provision for storage and replacement of excavated material needs to e carefully planned, side casting can have large scale visual effects.

Restrictions to access to be implemented to prevent unauthorised logging, hunting, diseases etc being introduced to remote locations.

Opening up cleared routes through forests creates access

Access

Forested Areas

Mitigation

Justification

Environmental Considerations

Conditions of Excavation

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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Appendix 6.2.4 Earthworks: Health and Safety Control Measures

273

Soft Soil Hazard

Hazard description

Adverse weather

Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. very hot, very cold, high winds etc and protection from the elements is limited.

Soil becoming unstable if very wet or very dry and people/equipment being in direct contact with this.

Cranes lifting during high winds.

Ambient temperature

Extremes of temperature and the affect that it will have on personnel in work area, Additionally the effect that it may have on the soil structure and stock piling and the likelihood of the soil becoming unstable.

Ground conditions

Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet, which would equally applies to people in the work area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces. The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is unsupported and likely to move.

Potential of the trench walls becoming dislodged or eroding

Confined space

The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work within or near to the trench.

Heavy load

Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area Contact between the pipe handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in the area may be made if uncontrolled. Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled either side of the trench and work area must be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife

Illumination

Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night time activities may impact on operational requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators not able to see signallers/slingers instructions.

Lifting

Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess soil, pipe movement from flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations.

The infilling process of the trench with backfill and topsoil and the interface between people, materials and equipment

Noise

Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working closely to equipment there hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be impacted depending on soundproofing of the cab.

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Control measures Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temps. Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles. Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue.

Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temps. Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles. Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when carrying loads; Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting ops.. Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being utilised for lifting heavy loads. Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas. Appropriate compaction of trench walls or shuttering to be put in place to prevent collapse of walls onto persons in area Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers. Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available. Appropriate rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.

Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment. Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench are sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight. Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area. Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size .e.g. have a wide enough base and not too high that would promote unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiles materials or walk/work too close to the base.

Ensure that adequate lighting in put in place if working in hours or dusk or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate. Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them. Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area. Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by 3rd party (as per in country requirements) and have appropriate certification available. Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (inclusive of reporting any defects). Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and utilised. Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle. Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent personnel prior to lifting. Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy. All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by Slinger/signaller. Appropriate communications system to be in place between Slinger/signaller, machine ops and any other relevant personnel. Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the SWL should be identified on the equipment Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound proof booths/cabins.

Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required against local legislative requirements or best practice. Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc. All equipment to be inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.

275

Soft Soil Hazard

Hazard description

Pipe movement

Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area becoming susceptible to being trapped or struck by the pipe joint.

Working at height

Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching a machines etc, positioning pipe etc

Work equipment

Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, compressors etc. All must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts, being appropriate for the job/task and being used correctly.

Hazardous materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; personal exposure

Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations Exposure to dust when infilling the trench

Emergency response

The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance

Impact with local community/area

Wildlife

Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel) Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel Any soil at the top or edges the trench shall be compacted and free from lose areas/materials Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as surface may be slippery and pipe may shift unexpectedly Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench Fall arrest equipment to be utilised when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.

All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any defects should be reported All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and available.

Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators and periodically by 3rd party inspectors Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.

Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. water bowser RPE to be used if necessary Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain available in the event of an emergency situation Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and to be aware of time it takes to reach there Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedures to be updated to reflect findings Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date Repatriation of IP to suitable location â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedure to be in place and tested See noise above Restricted access/egress points or safe walk routes etc to be identified Consider agricultural works in area and how pollution and contamination can affect the local businesses.

If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and consider the potential animal attacks.

277

Sand Dune Area Hazard

Hazard description

Adverse weather

Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. very hot, cold at night, high winds etc and protection from the elements is limited Sand becoming unstable if very dry and people/equipment being in direct contact with this.

Cranes lifting during high winds.

Ambient temperature

Extremes of temperature and the affect that it will have on personnel in work area.

Additionally the effect that it may have on the sand structure and stock piling and the likelihood of the sand becoming unstable and shifting.

Ground conditions

Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet, which would equally applies to people in the work area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces.

The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is unsupported and likely to move.

Confined space

The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work within or near to the trench.

Heavy load

Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area Contact between the pipe handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in the area may result if uncontrolled.

Sand and backfilling material which is stockpiled either side of the trench and work area must be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife

Illumination

Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night time activities may impact on operational requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators not able to see signallers/slingers instructions Not being able to see due to the brightness of natural light

Lifting

Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess sand, pipe movement from flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations, The infilling process of the trench with backfill and sand and the interface between people, materials and equipment

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in cold and non-iced water in high temps. Restricted areas or access identified Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue. Suitable PPE to be made available for the weather type to protect the employee from the elements e.g. sun umbrellas etc Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in cold and non-iced water in high temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the sand is likely to be unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/sand dunes.

Restricted areas or access identified if the sand becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/sand stockpiles. Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when carrying loads; Cranes to use outriggers with appropriate ground support underneath during all lifting ops. Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being utilised for lifting heavy loads and appropriate ground coverings to be put in place prior to accessing area. Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any sand slippage areas or areas of potential encasement.

Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers. Use appropriate CSE equipment as deemed necessary. Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available Appropriate rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.

Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench are sufficiently supported to withstand additional weight. Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area. Have a “ready to lift” warning siren or similar in place. Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and sand are appropriate in size .e.g. have a wide enough base and not too high that would promote unnecessary slippage of sand – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiles materials or walk/work too close to the base. Cover if appropriate.

Also see “confined space” above Ensure that adequate lighting in put in place if working in hours or dusk or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate. Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them. Ensure that appropriate eye protection is worn in the even of excessive natural light to prevent being dazzled and burning to the eye. Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc.

All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by 3rd party (as per in country requirements) and have appropriate certification available. Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (inclusive of reporting any defects). Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and utilised. Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle. Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent personnel prior to lifting. Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy. All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by slinger/signaller. Appropriate communications system to be in place between slinger/signaller, machine ops and any other relevant personnel Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the SWL should be identified on the equipment.

Always use appropriate lifting tackle for the task

279

Sand Dune Area Hazard

Hazard description

Noise

Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working closely to equipment there hearing may be affected as a result causing tinitus.

Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be impacted depending on soundproofing of the cab.

Pipe movement

Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area becoming susceptible to being trapped or struck by the pipe joint.

Working at height

Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching a machines etc, positioning pipe etc

Work equipment

Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, compressors etc. All must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts, being appropriate for the job/task and being used correctly.

Hazardous materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; personal exposure

Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations Exposure to sand being blown, potential for eye damage

Emergency response

The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance

Wildlife

Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound proof booths/cabins.

Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required against local legislative requirements or best practice. Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc. All equipment to be inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.

Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities. Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel?). Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, sand with appropriate ground supports etc. Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel Any sand at the top or edges the trench shall be cordoned and appropriate shuttering installed and free from lose areas/materials. Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs. Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders. Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as surface may be slippery and pipe may shift unexpectedly. Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary. Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench Fall arrest equipment to be utilised when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.. Have a suitable method of retrieving personnel from the trench in the event of an incident or being engulfed in sand.

All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any defects should be reported. All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and available. Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators and periodically by 3rd party inspectors. Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept. Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals. Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc. Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.

Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE (safety glasses or goggles) and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals. Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers. Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags. Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage. If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. water bowser RPE to be used if necessary Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain available in the event of an emergency situation Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and to be aware of time it takes to reach there Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedures to be updated to reflect findings Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date Repatriation of IP to suitable location/country â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedure to be in place and tested.

If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and consider the potential animal attacks

281

Peat Area Hazard

Hazard description

Adverse weather

Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. high winds, heavy rain etc and protection from the elements is limited Soil becoming unstable if very wet and people/equipment being in direct contact with this.

Cranes lifting during high winds.

Trenches being waterlogged and machine/personnel access to this

Ground conditions

Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet, which would equally applies to people in the work area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces.

The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is unsupported and likely to move.

Confined space

The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work within or near to the trench.

Heavy load

Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area Contact between the pipe handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in the area may be made if uncontrolled.

Peats/turfs stacks may be stacked too high increasing the likelihood of the stack falling, thus coming into contact with personnel and/or equipment work area must be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife.

Illumination

Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night time activities may impact on operational requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators not able to see signallers/slingers instructions.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue.

Trenches to be drained of excess water Earth to have appropriate erosion protection in place to prevent unplanned movement of trench walls.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when carrying loads; Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting ops.

Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being utilised for lifting heavy loads Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas.

Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers.

Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available Appropriate rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.

Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench are sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight Bog mats to be used for access/egress to the work area by all vehicles to improve stability of vehicles/machines and to help prevent tipping Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.

Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size .e.g. have a wide enough base and not too high that would promote unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiles materials or walk/work too close to the base.

Ensure that adequate lighting in put in place if working in hours or dust or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc Ensure that any excessively boggy areas are marked appropriately to avoid contact in dull or dark conditions

283

Peat Area Hazard

Hazard description

Lifting

Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess turfs, pipe movement from flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations, The infilling process of the trench with peat turfs and the interface between people, materials and equipment Additionally the potential of the machines/cranes becoming unbalanced, and their loads dislodging due to soft ground conditions.

Noise

Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working closely to equipment there hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be impacted depending on soundproofing of the cab.

Pipe movement

Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area becoming susceptible to being trapped or struck by the pipe joint.

Mud on road effecting trucks delivering pipe â&#x20AC;&#x201C; may slide/slip if excess mud on road surface.

Working at height

Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching a machines etc, positioning pipe etc.

Work equipment

Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, compressors etc. All must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts, being appropriate for the job/task and being used correctly.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by 3rd party (as per in country requirements) and have appropriate certification available Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (inclusive of reporting any defects) Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and utilised Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent personnel prior to lifting Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by slinger/signaller Appropriate communications system to be in place between slinger/signaller, machine ops and any other relevant personnel Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the SWL should be identified on the equipment “stone road” or other suitable platform to be in place to provide suitable ground support for machines/vehicles.

Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound proof booths/cabins.

Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required against local legislative requirements or best practice.

Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc All equipment to be inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.

Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel) Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel Put in place appropriate wheel wash stations for all vehicles to utilise prior to accessing public roads The edges of the trench shall be free from lose areas/materials and appropriate “stone road” or similar be in place to aid stability and prevent unnecessary erosion Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as surface may be slippery and pipe may shift unexpectedly Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench Fall arrest equipment to be utilised when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.

All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any defects should be reported All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and available.

Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators and periodically by 3rd party inspectors Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.

285

Peat Area Hazard

Hazard description

Hazardous materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; personal exposure

Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations.

Emergency response

The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance.

Impact with local community/area

See noise above Unauthorised access to working are by local community Potential pollution and contamination of agricultural crops which may enter the food chain

Wildlife

Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc

Side Slope Hazard

Hazard description

Adverse weather

Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. dry, high winds or excessive rain etc and protection from the elements is limited Soil becoming unstable if very wet or very dry and people/equipment being in direct contact with this. May cause land slides.

Cranes lifting during high winds.

Ambient temperature

Extremes of temperature and the affect that it will have on personnel in work area, Additionally the effect that it may have on the soil structure and stock piling and the likelihood of the soil becoming unstable.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage.

Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain available in the event of an emergency situation Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and to be aware of time it takes to reach there Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls – procedures to be updated to reflect findings Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date Repatriation of IP to suitable location – procedure to be in place and tested.

See noise above Restricted access/egress points or safe walk routes etc to be identified Consider agricultural works in area and how pollution and contamination can affect the local businesses.

If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and consider the potential animal attacks

Control measures Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue.

Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles

287

Side Slope Hazard

Hazard description

Ground conditions

Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet, which would equally applies to people in the work area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces.

The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is unsupported and likely to move.

Dust likely to be generated in dry conditions causing slip hazards for machines and potential damage to health May also be the remnants of tree roots etc which could be a trip hazard to personnel or a collision point for vehicles/machines.

Confined space

The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work within or near to the trench.

Heavy load

Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area Contact between the pipe handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in the area may be made if uncontrolled.

Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled must be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife, it may slip from its stored position

Illumination

Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night time activities may impact on operational requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators not able to see signallers/slingers instructions.

Lifting

Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess soil, pipe movement from flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations, The infilling process of the trench with backfill and topsoil and the interface between people, materials and equipment.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Appropriate ground support (bog mats) to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when carrying loads; Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting ops.

Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being utilised for lifting heavy loads Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas.

Appropriate use of PPE/RPE (respirators, goggles/glasses) All tree roots above the surface should be clearly identified through hazard tape/barriers etc or removed where possible.

Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers.

Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available Appropriate rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.

Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment.

Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench are sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.

Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size .e.g. have a wide enough base and not too high that would promote unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiles materials or walk/work too close to the base.

Ensure that adequate lighting in put in place if working in hours or dust or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc.

All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by 3rd party (as per in country requirements) and have appropriate certification available Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (inclusive of reporting any defects) Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and utilised Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent personnel prior to lifting Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by slinger/signaller Appropriate communications system to be in place between slinger/signaller, machine ops and any other relevant personnel Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the SWL should be identified on the equipment.

289

Side Slope Hazard

Hazard description

Noise

Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working closely to equipment there hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be impacted depending on soundproofing of the cab.

Pipe movement

Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area becoming susceptible to being trapped or struck by the pipe joint.

Working at height

Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching a machines etc, positioning pipe etc Also will include personnel working towards top of the work area and the potential for slipping/sliding to lower level.

Work equipment

Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, compressors etc. All must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts, being appropriate for the job/task and being used correctly.

Hazardous materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; personal exposure

Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations Exposure to dust when infilling the trench

Emergency response

The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound proof booths/cabins.

Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required against local legislative requirements or best practice.

Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc All equipment to be inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.

Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel) Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel Any soil at the top or edges the trench shall be compacted and free from lose areas/materials Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as surface may be slippery and pipe may shift unexpectedly Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench Fall arrest equipment to be utilised when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.

All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any defects should be reported All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and available.

Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators and periodically by 3rd party inspectors Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.

Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. water bowser RPE to be used if necessary Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain available in the event of an emergency situation Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and to be aware of time it takes to reach there Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedures to be updated to reflect findings Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date Repatriation of IP to suitable location â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedure to be in place and tested.

291

Side Slope Hazard

Hazard description

Impact with local community/area

See noise on previous table Unauthorised access to working are by local community Potential pollution and contamination of agricultural crops which may enter the food chain

Wildlife

Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc

Swampy Area Hazard

Hazard description

Adverse weather

Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. very hot, very cold, high winds, humidity etc and protection from the elements is limited Land becoming unstable if very wet/flooded and people/equipment being in direct contact with this.

Cranes lifting during high winds.

Ambient temperature

Extremes of temperature and the affect that it will have on personnel in work area, Additionally the effect that it may have on the soil structure and stock piling and the likelihood of the soil becoming unstable.

Higher risk of biting, disease ridden insects.

Ground conditions

Unstable conditions if very wet, which would equally applies to people in the work area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces.

The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is unsupported and likely to move/equipment able to sink.

Excess water build up in trench area causing access concerns and emergency concerns should anyone fall in.

Confined space

The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work within or near to the trench.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures See noise on previous table Restricted access/egress points or safe walk routes etc to be identified Consider agricultural works in area and how pollution and contamination can affect the local businesses.

If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and consider the potential animal attacks

Control measures Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate â&#x20AC;&#x201C; warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue.

Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate â&#x20AC;&#x201C; warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Appropriate insect based information, instruction and training to be given on appropriate behaviour, repellent, clothing colour, vaccinations, treatment etc Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Appropriate ground support (bog mats) to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when carrying loads; Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting ops.

Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being utilised for lifting heavy loads Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas.

Suitable drainage system/water removal system to be put in place to remove or control excess water within trench area. Personnel may benefit from wearing life vests if working in close contact with deep or fast running water.

Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers.

Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available Appropriate rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.

293

Swampy Area Hazard

Hazard description

Heavy load

Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area Contact between the pipe handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in the area may be made if uncontrolled.

Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled either side of the trench and work area must be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife Large capacity of water being removed from the trench is also a heavy load which may impact or affect personnel in work area or area of discharge.

Illumination

Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night time activities may impact on operational requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators not able to see signallers/slingers instructions.

Lifting

Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess soil, pipe movement from flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations, The infilling process of the trench with materials and the interface between people, materials and equipment.

Noise

Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working closely to equipment there hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be impacted depending on soundproofing of the cab.

Pipe movement

Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area becoming susceptible to being trapped or struck by the pipe joint.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench are sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.

Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size .e.g. have a wide enough base and not too high that would promote unnecessary slippage of soil/materials – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiles materials or walk/work too close to the base.

Ensure that personnel are kept away from excess water levels through barriers and acceptable process of waste water removal and storage Ensure that adequate lighting in put in place if working in hours or dust or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc.

All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by 3rd party (as per in country requirements) and have appropriate certification available Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (inclusive of reporting any defects) Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and utilised Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent personnel prior to lifting Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by slinger/signaller Appropriate communications system to be in place between slinger/signaller, machine ops and any other relevant personnel Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the SWL should be identified on the equipment.

Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound proof booths/cabins.

Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required against local legislative requirements or best practice.

Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc All equipment to be inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.

Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel) Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel

295

Swampy Area Hazard

Hazard description

Working at height

Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching a machines etc, positioning pipe etc.

Work equipment

Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, compressors etc. All must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts, being appropriate for the job/task and being used correctly.

Hazardous materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; personal exposure

Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations Exposure to dust when infilling the trench.

Emergency response

The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance.

Impact with local community/area

See noise above Unauthorised access to working are by local community Potential pollution and contamination of agricultural crops which may enter the food chain

Wildlife

Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Any soil at the top or edges the trench shall be compacted and free from lose areas/materials Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as surface may be slippery and pipe may shift unexpectedly Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench Fall arrest equipment to be utilised when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.

All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any defects should be reported All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and available.

Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators and periodically by 3rd party inspectors Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.

Appropriate tracks must be in place that can manoeuvre across swampy terrain without getting stuck.

Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. water bowser RPE to be used if necessary.

Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain available in the event of an emergency situation Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and to be aware of time it takes to reach there Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedures to be updated to reflect findings Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date â&#x20AC;&#x201C; particular attention should be paid to waterborne diseases, insect bites and water based injuries e.g. drowning Repatriation of IP to suitable location â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedure to be in place and tested.

See noise above Restricted access/egress points or safe walk routes etc to be identified Consider agricultural works in area and how pollution and contamination can affect the local businesses.

If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and consider the potential animal attacks

297

Forested Area Hazard

Hazard description

Adverse weather

Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. high winds etc and protection from the elements is limited Cranes lifting during high winds.

Ground conditions

Unstable conditions if very dry, very wet, and potentially not be free from obstruction e.g. tree roots which would equally applies to people in the work area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces.

The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is unsupported and likely to move.

Excess mud being transferred to the public highway and causing slip hazards for work vehicles and general public.

Confined space

The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work within or near to the trench.

Also relates in the wider sense of the word to the available work area being restricted due to impact being made to the forest being minimised.

Heavy load

Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area Contact between the pipe handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in the area may be made if uncontrolled.

Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled either side of the trench and work area must be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife Potential of trees to fall if dislodged during work activities or weakened coming into contact with people, plant, equipment etc.

Illumination

Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night time activities may impact on operational requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators not able to see signallers/slingers instructions.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles, damaged trees Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Removal of any surplus tree roots which will not further damage the forest area Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when carrying loads; Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting ops.

Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being utilised for lifting heavy loads Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas.

Suitable wheel wash station to be put in place to remove any excess mud/materials from wheels or area or appropriate diversion to be put in place.

Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers.

Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available Appropriate rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.

Machines to be of an appropriate size (compact) so as not to cause further or unnecessary damage to the forest or adversely impact personnel sharing the work area.

Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench are sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.

Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size .e.g. have a wide enough base and not too high that would promote unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiles materials or walk/work too close to the base.

All trees in the surrounding work area to be monitored and checked to ensure they are of strong standing and rule out the likelihood of falling unexpectedly Ensure that adequate lighting in put in place if working in hours or dust or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc.

299

Forested Area Hazard

Hazard description

Lifting

Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess soil, pipe movement from flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations, The infilling process of the trench with backfill and topsoil and the interface between people, materials and equipment.

Noise

Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working closely to equipment there hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be impacted depending on soundproofing of the cab.

Pipe movement

Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area becoming susceptible to being trapped or struck by the pipe joint.

Working at height

Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching a machines etc, positioning pipe etc Tree felling at the preparation stage.

Work equipment

Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, compressors etc. All must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts, being appropriate for the job/task and being used correctly.

Confined work area which will increase the potential of impact between machines/personnel and trench works.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by 3rd party (as per in country requirements) and have appropriate certification available Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (inclusive of reporting any defects) Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and utilised Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent personnel prior to lifting Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by slinger/signaller Appropriate communications system to be in place between slinger/signaller, machine ops and any other relevant personnel Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the load â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the SWL should be identified on the equipment.

Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound proof booths/cabins.

Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required against local legislative requirements or best practice.

Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc All equipment to be inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.

Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel) Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel.

Any soil at the top or edges the trench shall be compacted and free from lose areas/materials Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as surface may be slippery and pipe may shift unexpectedly Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench Fall arrest equipment to be utilised when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.

All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any defects should be reported All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and available.

Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators and periodically by 3rd party inspectors Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.

Appropriate equipment to be selected to suite the size of the work area but also the scope of activities.

301

Forested Area Hazard

Hazard description

Hazardous materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; personal exposure

Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations Exposure to dust when infilling the trench.

Emergency response

The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance.

Impact with local community/area

See noise above Unauthorised access to working are by local community Potential pollution and contamination of agricultural crops which may enter the food chain

Wildlife

Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc

Ridge Hazard

Hazard description

Adverse weather

Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions due to the open nature of the surroundings with limited protection e.g. high winds, torrential rain etc and protection from the elements is limited Soil becoming unstable if very wet or very dry and people/equipment being in direct contact with this.

Cranes lifting during high winds.

Ground conditions

Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet resulting is potential landslide situation, which equally applies to people in the work area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces.

The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the access track is narrow, has little space for vehicle manoeuvring Tree roots and other items may cause uneven ground conditions for people and vehicles.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. RPE to be used if necessary.

Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain available in the event of an emergency situation Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and to be aware of time it takes to reach there Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls – procedures to be updated to reflect findings Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date Repatriation of IP to suitable location – procedure to be in place and tested.

See noise above Restricted access/egress points or safe walk routes etc to be identified Consider agricultural works in area and how pollution and contamination can affect the local businesses.

If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and consider the potential animal attacks

Control measures Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reach 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when carrying loads; Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting ops.

Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being utilised for lifting heavy loads Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas. Any tree roots/trunks to be removed where possible or clearly identified if no alternative Appropriate support mechanisms to be in place prior to any vehicular or personnel access to support the ridge sides and reduce slide potential and ground to be suitably compacted – this equally applies to backfill material and having appropriate barriers in place to prevent slippage of materials

303

Ridge Hazard

Hazard description

Confined space

The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work within or near to the trench.

Heavy load

Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area Contact between the pipe handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in the area may be made if uncontrolled.

Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled either side of the trench and work area must be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife Potential impact on neighbours, other vehicles and personnel in work area if for example, a pipe is dropped from the ridge area.

Illumination

Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night time activities may impact on operational requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators not able to see signallers/slingers instructions.

Lifting

Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess soil, pipe movement from flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations, The infilling process of the trench with backfill and topsoil and the interface between people, materials and equipment.

Noise

Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working closely to equipment there hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be impacted depending on soundproofing of the cab.

Pipe movement

Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area becoming susceptible to being trapped or struck by the pipe joint.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers.

Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available Appropriate rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.

Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment.

Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench are sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.

Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size .e.g. have a wide enough base and not too high that would promote unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiles materials or walk/work too close to the base.

Work area to be restricted access in order to minimise impact should any materials or equipment go over the edge of the ridge.

Ensure that adequate lighting in put in place if working in hours or dust or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them.

Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc.

All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by 3rd party (as per in country requirements) and have appropriate certification available Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (inclusive of reporting any defects) Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and utilised Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent personnel prior to lifting Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by slinger/signaller Appropriate communications system to be in place between slinger/signaller, machine ops and any other relevant personnel Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the SWL should be identified on the equipment.

Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound proof booths/cabins.

Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required against local legislative requirements or best practice.

Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc All equipment to be inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.

Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel) Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel

305

Ridge Hazard

Hazard description

Working at height

Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching a machines, working at the edge of the ridge etc, positioning pipe etc.

Work equipment

Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, compressors etc. All must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts, being appropriate for the job/task and being used correctly.

Hazardous materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; personal exposure

Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations.

Emergency response

The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance.

Wildlife

Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc

Tundra Hazard

Hazard description

Adverse weather

Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. very cold (-50C), high winds etc and protection from the elements is limited Winter sees permafrost on ground so solid underfoot, summer top layer of permafrost melts which can make the ground soggy/slippery and people/equipment being in direct contact with this.

Cranes lifting during high winds

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Any soil at the top or edges the trench and ridge shall be compacted and free from lose areas/materials Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as surface may be slippery and pipe may shift unexpectedly Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench Fall arrest equipment to be utilised when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.

All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any defects should be reported All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and available.

Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators and periodically by 3rd party inspectors Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.

Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage.

Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain available in the event of an emergency situation Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and to be aware of time it takes to reach there Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedures to be updated to reflect findings Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date Repatriation of IP to suitable location â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedure to be in place and tested.

If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and consider the potential animal attacks

Control measures Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate â&#x20AC;&#x201C; warm water recommended in extreme cold temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable during Summer time, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reach 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue.

307

Ridge Hazard

Hazard description

Working at height

Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching a machines, working at the edge of the ridge etc, positioning pipe etc.

Work equipment

Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, compressors etc. All must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts, being appropriate for the job/task and being used correctly.

Hazardous materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; personal exposure

Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations.

Emergency response

The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance.

Wildlife

Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc

Tundra Hazard

Hazard description

Adverse weather

Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. very cold (-50C), high winds etc and protection from the elements is limited Winter sees permafrost on ground so solid underfoot, summer top layer of permafrost melts which can make the ground soggy/slippery and people/equipment being in direct contact with this.

Cranes lifting during high winds

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Any soil at the top or edges the trench and ridge shall be compacted and free from lose areas/materials Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as surface may be slippery and pipe may shift unexpectedly Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench Fall arrest equipment to be utilised when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.

All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any defects should be reported All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and available.

Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators and periodically by 3rd party inspectors Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.

Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage.

Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain available in the event of an emergency situation Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and to be aware of time it takes to reach there Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedures to be updated to reflect findings Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date Repatriation of IP to suitable location â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedure to be in place and tested.

If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and consider the potential animal attacks

Control measures Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate heating facilities Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate â&#x20AC;&#x201C; warm water recommended in extreme cold temps.

Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable during Summer time, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reach 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue.

309

Tundra Hazard

.............................Hazard description

Noise

Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working closely to equipment there hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be impacted depending on soundproofing of the cab.

Pipe movement

Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area becoming susceptible to being trapped or struck by the pipe joint.

Working at height

Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching a machines etc, positioning pipe etc.

Work equipment

Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, compressors etc. All must be considered for any potential defects such asoil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts, being appropriate for the job/task and being used correctly.

Hazardous materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; personal exposure

Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations Exposure to dust when infilling the trench Increased levels of carbon dioxide being released into atmosphere is common in the arctic tundra, during the summer months, when permafrost melts â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the levels would not be expected to be a hazard to personnel.

Emergency response

The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance.

Impact with local community/area

See noise above Unauthorised access to working are by local community Potential pollution and contamination of agricultural crops which may enter the food cha

Wildlife

Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc.

in.

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.2.4

Control measures Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound proof booths/cabins.

Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required against local legislative requirements or best practice. Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/ generators etc. All equipment to be inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.

Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities. Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel). Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc.

Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel. Any soil at the top or edges the trench shall be compacted and free from lose areas/materials. Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs. Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as surface may be slippery and pipe may shift unexpectedly. Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary. Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench. Fall arrest equipment to be utilised when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.

All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any defects should be reported. All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and available. Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators and periodically by 3rd party inspectors. Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept. Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals. Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc. Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.

Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc to prevent contact from chemicals. Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers. Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment. Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags. Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage. If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. water bowser. RPE to be used if necessary. Atmospheric testing to be completed periodically to test CO2 levels â&#x20AC;&#x201C; appropriate RPE to be put in place as deemed necessary.

Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain available in the event of an emergency situation. Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available. Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and to be aware of time it takes to reach there. Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times. ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedures to be updated to reflect findings. Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date Repatriation of IP to suitable location â&#x20AC;&#x201C; procedure to be in place and tested.

See noise above Restricted access/egress points or safe walk routes etc to be identified Consider agricultural works in area and how pollution and contamination can affect the local businesses.

If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and consider the potential animal attacks.

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312

1

• Low flexibility • Sensitive to steel surface preparation and condition • High moisture absorption and permeation especially at high temperatures • Affected by UV during storage

• Depending on the topcoat selection, very good abrasion and damage resistance – ideal for special applications such as HDD – or very good performance in high operating temperatures environments • Excellent corrosion protection

• Excellent handling • Superior low temperature flexibility and impact resistance • Excellent corrosion resistance • Excellent moisture resistance

• CSA Z245.20

• DIN 30670 • NFA 49 711 • CSA Z245.21 • EN ISO 21809-1 (draft)

Dual-Layer Fusion-Bonded Epoxy

3-Layer Polyethylene (3LPE)

Adapted after New developments in high performance coatings, Worthingham R., Cettiner M., Singh P., Haberer S., Gritis N., 2005

• Prone to thinning across raised weld seams • Side extrusion prone to delaminations and voids • Sensitive to steel surface preparation and condition • Minimum thickness constraints

• Low impact resistance results in considerable damage during pipe handling, storage, transportation and installation • High moisture absorption and permeation especially at high temperatures • Affected by UV during storage

• Excellent corrosion resistance • Do not shield CP system • High adhesion limits damaged areas

• CSA Z245.20 • EN ISO 21809-2

Weaknesses

Single-layer Fusion-Bonded Epoxy (FBE)

Strengths

National/International Standard

Coating System

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.3.1

Appendix 6.3.1

Comparison of Mainline External Anti-Corrosion Coatings1

313

314

Tape Coatings

• Good corrosion resistance • Good impact resistance

• Prone to delaminations and voids • Protection is dependent on the quality of the installation crew (if installed in the field)

• Thickness constraints • Sensitive to steel surface preparation and condition

• Excellent handling • Excellent corrosion resistance • Excellent low temperature impact resistance and flexibility • Excellent moisture resistance • Excellent raised weld coverage

• CSA Z245.21 • EN ISO 21809-1 (draft)

3-Layer Composite Coatings • DIN 30670

• Prone to thinning across raised weld seams • Side extrusion prone to delaminations and voids • Sensitive to steel surface preparation and condition • Minimum thickness constraints

• Excellent handling • Excellent impact resistance • Excellent corrosion resistance • Excellent moisture resistance

• DIN 30670 • NFA 49 711 • EN ISO 21809-1 (draft)

Weaknesses

3-Layer Polypropylene (3LPP)

Strengths

National/International Standard

Coating System

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.3.1

Most Common Field Joint Systems

2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 12 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12

2-Component liquid epoxy (2CLE) Adhesive tape systems (CAT)

• 2-Layer polyethylene heat-shrinkable sleeve (2LPE HSS) • 3-Layer polyethylene heat-shrinkable sleeve (3LPE HSS)

Flame-sprayed powder (FSPE)

1, 4, 7, 9, 11, 12

1, 4, 7, 9, 12

1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12

1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12

3-Layer heat-shrinkable sleeve (3L HSS)

• Injection-moulded polypropylene (IMPP) • Flame-sprayed powder (FSPP)

Relevant Standards and Specifications*

Alternate Field Joint Systems

* Standards and Specifications: 1. ISO/FDIS 21809-3:2008(E) Petroleum and natural gas industries — External coatings for buried or submerged pipelines used in pipeline transportation systems — Part 3: Field Joint Coatings 2. CSA Z245.20, External fusion bond epoxy coating for steel pipe 3. CSA Z245.21, External polyethylene coating for pipe 4. EN 12068 Cathodic Protection - External Organic Coatings for the Corrosion Protection of Buried or Immersed Steel Pipelines Used in Conjunction with Cathodic Protection - Tapes and Shrinkable Materials 5. NFA 49-710, Steel tubes. External coating with three polyethylene based coating. Application through extrusion.

6. NFA 49-711, Steel tubes. External coating with three polypropylene layers coating. Application by extrusion.

7. DNV-RP-F102 Pipeline Field Joint Coating and Field Repair of Linepipe Coating 8. NACE RP0105-2005, Liquid-Epoxy Coatings for External Repair, Rehabilitation, and Weld Joints on Buried Steel Pipelines 9. NACE RP0303-2003, Field-Applied Heat-Shrinkable Sleeves for Pipelines: Application, Performance, and Quality Control 10. NACE RP0402-2002, Field-Applied Fusion-Bonded Epoxy (FBE) Pipe Coating Systems for Girth Weld Joints: Application, Performance, and Quality Control 11. AWWA C209 Cold-Applied Tape Coatings for the Exterior of Special Sections, Connections, and Fittings for Steel Water Pipelines 12. AWWW C216, Standard for Heat-Shrinkable Cross-Linked Polyolefin Coatings for the Exterior of Special Sections, Connections, and Fittings for Steel Water Pipelines

• Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) • 2-Component liquid epoxy (2CLE) • 2-Layer fusion-bonded epoxy (2L FBE) Dual-layer FBE (2L FBE) • 3-Layer heat-shrinkable-sleeve (3L HSS) 3-Layer polyethylene (3LPE) • <50ºC - 2-Layer heat-shrinkable-sleeve (2L HSS) • >50ºC - 3-Layer heat-shrinkable-sleeve (3L HSS) • 3-Layer polypropylene heat-shrinkable-sleeve 3-Layer polypropylene (3LPP) (3LPP HSS) • 3-Layer polypropylene tape (3LPP Tape) 3-Layer polyethylene heat-shrinkable sleeve (3LPE 3-Layer composite HSS) • <30” diameter - adhesive tape systems (CAT) Tape >30” diameter - 2-layer polyethylene heat-shrinkable sleeve (2LPE HSS)

Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE)

Mainline Coating

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.3.2

Appendix 6.3.2

Field Joint Coating Selection Table

315

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316

Criteria Description

Bendable Concrete Coatings

Non-bendable Concrete Coatings

No damage during transportation

Pipe coating and pipe Pipe coating and/or pipe are not Pipe coating and pipe damaged through impact and/or are protected during are not protected during transportation if concrete penetration during transportation transportation is poured by the ROW to the ROW Pipe coating and pipe Pipe coating and/or pipe are not Pipe coating and pipe No handling are protected during damage are not fully protected damaged through impact and/or handling during handling if penetration during handling at the concrete is poured by ROW or storage the ROW Pipe coating and/or pipe are not Pipe coating and pipe No stringing are protected during Pipe coating and pipe damaged through impact and/or damage stringing are protected during penetration during pipe stringing at stringing the ROW No damage No damage Pipe coating and/or pipe are not No lower-in damaged through impact during damage pipe lower-in The system withstands during Impact resistance normal backfilling operations the - Trench material impact of the specific trench size material size without any damage to the external anti-corrosion coating (holidays) and the pipe yes yes < 10 cm yes yes 10-20 cm no no >20 cm Needs even trench The system withstands during and Needs even trench Bottom trench bottom, but small bottom, but small Penetration after normal backfilling operations resistance the penetration from trench bottom outcrops could be left outcrops could be left in in the trench if point the trench if point outcrops without any damage to loading parameters loading parameters the external anti-corrosion coating provided by supplier provided by supplier are (holidays)and the pipe are satisfied satisfied yes no Pipe cold bending Protected pipe is bendable according to industry standards (1.5 degree per pipe diameter) No shielding No shielding No CP shielding The system does not have a negative impact on the cathodic protection of the pipe Long term stability Long term stability The system will offer protection Guaranteed pipeline service life during the entire service life of the pipeline integrity

TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

Criteria

Pipe coating and pipe are not protected during transportation Pipe coating and pipe are not protected during handling Pipe coating and pipe are not protected during stringing No damage

Select Backfill (Mechanical Padding)

Pipe coating and pipe are not protected during transportation Pipe coating and pipe are not protected during handling Pipe coating and pipe are not protected during stringing No damage

Rock Shield/ Non-Woven Geotextiles

Sand can be washed out

No shielding

Fine grade backfill can be washed out

No shielding

Could shield CP if close-cell or very thick material Material can falloff if not installed well or even be washed out

yes yes yes yes no yes yes no yes Needs even Needs even Needs even trench bottom, trench bottom, trench bottom, but small no outcrops but small outcrops could be outcrops could be left in the trench if left in the trench if not in contact not in contact with the pipe with the pipe yes yes yes

Pipe coating and pipe are not protected during transportation Pipe coating and pipe are not protected during handling Pipe coating and pipe are not protected during stringing No damage

Sand Padding

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.3.3

Appendix 6.3.3

Supplementary Mechanical Protection Systems Selection Table

317

318

The systems does not increase No additional the risk for the main contractor equipment or additional equipment/manpower, manpower does construction delays, etc not slow down the construction process

No increased contractor risk

Low impact on the ROW environment

Minimized vegetation loss, reduced volumes of excavated and landfilled materials, reduced long-term erosion potential, reduced flora and fauna disturbance

The system delivers the same performance with standard vs. reduced ROW allowances and easy vs. limited/no ROW access

No ROW access and allowance limitations

ENVIRONMENT CRITERIA

The system delivers the same performance in any climatic conditions

No climatic limitations

Reduced impact (only during installation)

No limitations

No limitations

No limitations

The system delivers the same performance in any terrain configuration (flat terrain, steep slopes, etc)

No terrain configuration limitations

No limitations

Bendable Concrete Coatings

The system delivers the same performance with any trench material type

Criteria Description

No trench material-type limitations

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION CRITERIA

Criteria

Difficult application in cold temperatures and wet environments - sand freezes or gets wet

Can be washed out on steep slopes

No limitations

Sand Padding

Additional equipment needed - sand trucks, padding machines + a bedding crew and a padding crew slows down the pipeline construction

Reduced impact (only Foreign material (sand) is brought in, trench spoil during installation) material has to be removed from the ROW and potentially landfilled long-term erosion danger (washouts)

Slow if done by the ROW through form and pour, needs molds + specialized operators can slow down the pipeline construction

Could need access for Needs access for sand trucks and padding pouring the concrete machines, space for sand (molds, other temporary storage areas equipment, crew)

No limitations

No limitations

No limitations

Non-bendable Concrete Coatings Rock Shield/ Non-Woven Geotextiles

No limitations

Need access for dedicated installation crew(s)

Long-term erosion danger (washouts)

Reduced impact (only during installation)

Additional equipment Slow needed - padding installation that machines + machine slows down operators the pipeline construction additional installation team needed

Needs access for mechanical padding machines

Difficult application in No limitations cold temperatures and wet environments - fine material freezes or gets wet

Not practical on steep slopes

Does not work well in No limitations clays, silty trenches

Select Backfill (Mechanical Padding)

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 6.3.3

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 7.1.1

Appendix 7.1.1 Conceptual Functional Specifications for a GIS-based Near-Real-Time Construction Monitoring Tool Table Of Contents Foreword Purpose Scope

Potential Benefits Efficiency Quality Safety Environment

Features Electronic Data Interface/Interchange Flags And Notifications Reporting Techniques And Technologies

Data Groups Material Management Manpower Equipment Planning And Progress HSE And Social Engineering Data

Material Management Pipe Shipments Pipe Yards Stores Information

Manpower The Accommodation Information Manpower Data

Equipment And Vehicles Pmv Stores Locations Emergency Equipment Equipment Tracking Information Vehicles Tracking Information

Planning And Progress Daily Pipeline Progress Activities Pipeline Planning/Scheduling Activities

HSE And Social Points Of Interest (Hospitals, Medical Centers, Police Stations, Etc.) Accidents And Incidents Grievances And Complaints Areas Of Special Status

Engineering Data Crossings Access Roads

321 321 321 322 322 322 322 322 323 323 323 323 324 325 326 326 326 326 326 326 327 327 329 331 333 333 335 338 338 340 342 344 347 347 349 351 351 352 354 356 358 358 360

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Marker Points Pipeline Routes Aboveground Installations (AGIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s) Tie-In Points Fiber Optic Cables Additional Features, Geotechnical And Cathodic Protection Data

Recommended Technical Specifications Gis Software Connectivity To Data Sources Web Mapping Of Pipeline Data

Glossary

320

362 363 364 366 367 369 371 371 371 371 373

Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 2 Appendix 7.1.1

Foreword Purpose The purpose of this document is to recommend the basic functional specifications for developing a "near-real-time (near-live) monitoring tool”, a comprehensive project controls tool with a GIS-based interface, which can be utilized during the life-cycle of the pipeline construction project. This preliminary phase would be succeeded by detailed technical specifications and subsequently actual development of the NRT.

Scope The NRT aims at presenting an accurate outlook on the major aspects of the construction cycle as well as other significant events, as soon as they occur or can be recorded, and in a visual geographical interface. Updated feedback would be inclusive of: • Construction Progress Reporting • Project Information and Documentation • Assets and Resources Management • Material Control and Traceability Information • Quality Control Data These recordings set the foundation for an Integrated GIS-based Pipeline Construction Management System that comprises data-rich feeds of information and dynamic reporting, and enhances the proactive involvement of senior project staff for an improved decision making process.

To this extent, this document profiles the major relevant data groups, with specifics on what and how to acquire the details for each group. It also presents some recommendations for technical tools selection.

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Potential Benefits In line with the primary IPLOCA NC objectives, the development of this tool stimulates innovation in the processes of controlling the pipeline construction, and invokes improved technology techniques, market software, and R&D on new concepts to achieve this step forward. The results would have positive repercussions on the construction phase of the project, specifically in the aspects of efficiency, quality, safety, and environment.

Efficiency A successfully operational monitoring tool would instigate an overall improvement in efficiency of project control tasks, and in effect all related construction activities. An elaborate and well-rounded NRT would be a useful project management tool to: • Monitor site activities • Retrieve up-to-date progress reports • Foresee possible hiccups • Take immediate action

Quality The NRT would serve as near-live information storage and sharing container, with an interface to be used at different levels of Project Management, Engineers, Construction Crew Leaders, and Project Partners. Such a medium would have a positive effect on the quality of work done at supervisory level, and drill down to the direct manpower level.

Safety Adopting this tool would potentially enhance safety by: • Providing immediate alerts on safety and security threats and concerns that would otherwise escalate without prompt action.

• Assisting management in better planning for safer activities related to manpower, including accommodation, transportation, and emergency plans by providing a multilevel view of the project different locations and facilities.

• Cutting down site visits by supervisory personnel by providing remote access to most of the information required for improved decision making.

Environment Environmental awareness is promoted through the utilization of this tool by: • Better control and maintenance of project equipment with early notifications of breakdowns and spills, and in essence better control of emissions.

• Identification of environmentally sensitive issues and zones, and propagating this knowledge to the different levels of project staff.

• Decreasing the carbon footprint created by the project supervisory personnel by reducing the necessity for direct site visits, hence promoting “Green Construction Culture”.

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Features The development of this platform must encapsulate state-of-the-art features and workflows built on the concepts of a GIS interface, web accessibility, and shared data repositories. The tool would be empowered by: • Links to existing project controls and logistics systems.

• Business features such as EDI development, flags, notifications, flexible reporting tools, and improved procedures.

• Modern technologies and practices in systems development.

• State-of-the-art market tools.

• R&D on new concepts with innovation potentials.

Additionally, it is envisioned – for improved performance – that a central database would serve as the main information container for collection of extracted data, in addition to direct links to the existing systems.

Electronic Data Interface/Interchange For each of the data groups defined hereafter, an EDI with the related systems to which the NRT will link or extract information from, will need to be put together. An EDI is generally defined as a standardised or structured method of transmission of data between two media, and in this context the EDI will govern what information will be collected for each data group, its format, in addition to how, when, and by whom it shall be acquired. Properly characterized and implemented EDI’s are integral in the successful design and operation of the NRT.

Flags and Notifications Flags and notification are conceived as essential features of the NRT. The idea is to have intelligent reminders or prompts that are automatically generated to highlight anomalies, arising points of concern, or cues for further considerations, and that require action (flags) or raise awareness (notifications).

Whereas the trigger for these flags and notifications would be based on the data processed from various data groups, their design and scope needs to be based on a well-founded knowledge of the construction workflows, and the different roles of the project players who would need to interpret these flags and take consequent actions. A flag section is referenced as a guideline within each data group where applicable.

Flags and notifications would take on different formats, including RSS feeds, SMS, multimedia messages, emails, or even image and video feeds, with access through the NRT interface. The accessibility to these flags would be linked to different roles on the project, for example equipment notifications would be directed mainly to plant managers and engineers whereas material shortages would be displayed for material personnel and control managers. The format for these notifications should allow for an adequate level of flexibility to meet different needs and work practices by different players, for instance the ability to subscribe to specific RSS feeds upon demand and secure limited access to sensitive feeds.

Reporting The ability to extract various formats of progress, statistical, analytical, and listing reports from the NRT interface is one feature of substantial benefit to managers. While formal reports can be accessed through links to the EDMS, the NRT must accommodate more interactive reporting techniques including pivot tables, dashboard queries, data mining, and visual charts.

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Techniques and Technologies The concept of NRT inherently implies the incorporation of latest innovations to achieve the near-realtime handling of information. Whereas potential - current and future - solutions would be welcome additions for incorporation into the development of the tool, the following are some suggestive samples that can be effectively employed for data production, capturing, or processing, and that have been used within one setting in pipeline construction.

Modern Communication technologies The field of IT and communication is always on the move, and designing the NRT entails making use of the availability of innovations in this field. Connectivity examples include Satellite connectivity, WiMAX and WiFi technologies, GPRS, and GSM.

Improved Business Procedures Construction workflows are continually nourishing on advancement in electronics and communications, and in turn the digital aspects of many procedures have improved significantly. Although the decision on the construction procedures is not within the scope of the NRT, the use of techniques that allow for capturing digital data on the double would be a major advantage. Examples of such technologies include computerized NDT, AUT, automatic welding, and GPS surveying.

Engineering and Construction Control Software Improvement in business procedures has been accompanied by development of data control software that tackles the related workflows. The more the NRT makes use of such systems, the better the quality of available data. These control software comprise such categories as: • Pipeline Design Software • Document Management Systems: e.g. VBC™, Documentum™, etc.

• Material Management Systems: e.g. Talisman™, Marian™, etc.

• Quality Control Systems • GIS Systems (refer to technical specifications section) • Vehicle Tracking Systems

Hand-Held Machines Handheld machines or PDA’s are significant tools to speed the control aspects of construction activities.

Handheld forms can be used to replace traditional hardcopy documentation to record/register the progress of construction activities like stringing, bending, pipe cutting, welding, and others. The benefits of such-developed solutions would be apparent in the time saved on multiple processing of the data, the minimization of handling errors, and the speed the data can be availed at. Alternative handheld machines would have a GPS capability for taking location, direction, and digital images of relevance.

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Data Groups Thorough functional specifications for the NRT defined above would address the different domains of the construction phase of the pipeline project. Fig. 1 below is an indicative schematic of the information associated with the data groups identified in this document.

Fig. 1 Functional Specs - Data Groups Relations

The data groups will be illustrated in the following sections by identifying the detailed information required in each group, the source and methods of obtaining them, the format, the frequency of update, and the responsibility of collection. The following data groups will form the basic functional specifications for the NRT tool inputs.

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Material Management • Pipe Shipments • Pipe Yards • Stores Information

Manpower • Accommodation Information • Manpower Data

Equipment • Plant Machinery and Vehicles Stores • Emergency Equipment • Equipment Tracking Information • Vehicles Tracking Information

Planning and Progress • Construction Progress of Activities • Planning/Scheduling of Activities

HSE and Social • Points of Interest (hospitals, medical centers, police stations, etc.)

• Accidents and Incidents • Grievances and Complaints • Areas of Special Status

Engineering Data • Crossings • Access Roads • Marker Points • Pipeline Routes • AGI’s • Tie-in Points • Fiber Optic Cables • Geotechnical and Cathodic Protection Data

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Material Management This main group comprises the following data group classes: • Pipe Shipments • Pipe Yards • Stores Information

Pipe Shipments Description This data group covers pipe shipment data and related features such as port(s)/harbor(s) locations. The main purpose of this section is to avail all information related to the delivery of line pipe to sites for expediting purposes.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool The EDMS and expediting/shipment tracking (ExTr) systems are the main sources of information for this data group. The NRT must be dynamically linked and/or integrated with the relevant systems to ensure live GIS-based update of the line pipe shipments information.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data Harbor(s) location: The harbor(s) location refers to the area(s) of the main entry of line pipes to the country. This would be a representation of the geographical data, in this case the location features and boundaries.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data for this group are: Contact Information: This includes the main contact details of the person who is responsible for logistics related to the pipes shipments at the harbor. EDMS contact module (CMod) will be used to store this information and EDI’s will be used to extract required information to the NRT data containers.

Expediting/Tracking Information: This includes shipment details such as the reference number, expected arrival date, status, actual arrival date, total number of pipes, and the total number of pipes expected to be received at that harbor per type. These data will be extracted from the ExTr system via a live link and EDI. The shipment reference number(s) will act as the key link(s) between the two media.

Expediting Documents: These include shipment expediting and logistics documents, which are normally stored in the EDMS. The link between the NRT and the EDMS will be the shipment reference number. Once the link is activated, a query is sent to the EDMS to display documents/drawings related to the shipment in focus, on the NRT interface.

Digital Photos: Digital photos will be taken periodically and geo-referenced for the harbor(s), and will be stored in the EDMS; a link between the NRT and the EDMS will be established. The linking query based on the harbor in focus will extract all related photos for display.

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Data Details/GIS Attributes

Flags/Notifications Within this data group, flags/notifications are related to shipment statuses and pipe deliveries times.

Their purpose is to provide early alerts about events that would potentially affect pipe shipments and delay subsequent construction activities or cause resources to be idle. Sample alerts include:

1 Connection type refers to the way the data is accessed from the original source.

2 Extract refers to the process of importing the data from the original source at the defined frequency update interval to the central storage database of the NRT. 3 Link refers to the process of directly accessing the data from the original source and displaying them on the NRT GIS Based interface on demand.

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Pipe Shipment Data - Workflow & EDI's

Pipe Yards Description This data group covers pipe yards locations in addition to line pipe management and control data. It is intended to assist material and logistics teams in handling line pipes efficiently.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool EDMS and MMS are the main sources of information for this data group. The NRT tool must be dynamically linked or integrated with the relevant systems to ensure live GIS-based update of the pipe yards information.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data Pipe yard location is the geographic information for this data group. Spatial data are mainly the external boundaries of the pipe yard, or just a simple point presentation in case there are no engineering drawings available for the pipe yards. An EDI is to be deployed to capture the graphical information from the CAD system to the GIS interface automatically. To achieve this task, all pipe yards drawings must be properly created and geographically projected.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data for the GIS are divided into three sets: Contact Information: This includes the main contact details for the person who is responsible for all logistics related to the pipe yard, the pipe yard superintendent. EDMS contact module will be used to store this information and EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s will be used to extract this information to the GIS.

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Pipe Material Management Information: This includes number of pipes available, total number of pipes expected to be stored at the pipe yard, the date the last update was done to the pipe yard material management information, and the kilometers of the project that will be covered by this pipe yard capacity. All this information will be extracted from the material management system via live link and/or EDI to the NRT. The pipe yard name will act as the main link between the two systems. This link will be used as well to retrieve detailed reports from the Material Management system about each and every single pipe in the yard.

Digital Photos: Digital photos will be taken frequently for the pipe yards where pipes are stored. These photos will be kept in the EDMS where a link, the pipe yard name, between the NRT and the EDMS would be established. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all photos related to the pipe yard in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

Flags/Notifications

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Pipe Yards Data - Workflow & EDI's

Stores Information Description This data group handles store(s) locations in addition to the data related to material management (other than line pipe material). Its main purpose is to help material personnel maintain a better control of the local material required for project execution by availing updated inventories.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool EDMS and MMS are the main sources of information for this data group. The NRT must be dynamically linked or integrated with the relevant systems to ensure live GIS-based update of the stores information.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The store location is the geographic information for this data group. Spatial data are mainly the external boundaries of the storage area, or just a simple point presentation in case there are no engineering drawings available for the stores. An EDI is to be deployed to capture the graphical information from the CAD system to the NRT directly. To achieve this, all stores drawings must be properly created and geographically projected.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data for the GIS is mainly divided in three sets: Contact Information: This includes the main contact details for the store material superintendent, the person who is charge for the store and for all logistic issues related to the store. EDMS contact module will be used to store this information and EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s will be used to extract this information to the NRT.

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Stores Material Management Information: This includes a link to some queries and dynamic reports extracted from the Material Management system to reflect the material status, material balances, material shortages, and material take-off reports in addition to the kilometers of the project that will be covered by this store. All this information will be extracted from the material management system via a live link/EDI to the NRT. The store name will act as the main link between the two systems.

Digital Photos: Digital photos will be taken frequently for the stores. These photos will be kept in the EDMS where a link, the store name, between the NRT and the EDMS is established. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all photos related to the store in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

Flags/Notifications Alerts related to stores would include:

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Stores Data - Workflow & EDI's

Manpower â&#x20AC;˘ Accommodation Information â&#x20AC;˘ Manpower Data

The Accommodation Information Description This data group refers to camps locations, layouts, accommodation details such as capacity and vacancies, and any other related information. Its main purpose is to assist in controlling mobilization/demobilization activities, and make sure logistics arrangements are in place to handle manpower needs.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool EDMS, Camps Control System (CCS) and the project schedules are the main sources of information for this data group. The NRT must be dynamically linked or integrated with them to ensure live update of the camps information.

General Information

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Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data Spatial camp information mainly refers to the external boundaries of the camp. To eliminate the redundant work of retracing the camp layout in the NRT, EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s need to be developed to capture the graphical information from the CAD system directly. To achieve this, all camp drawings must be properly created and geographically projected.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial camp data is mainly divided into the following sets: Contact information: EDMS Contacts module will be used to store contact information for the camp key contact. The camp name will be the reference to extract the contacts data from the EDMS CMod to the NRT. Planning/Progress Information: This includes the camp construction date, the progress of construction, and camp demobilization date. All this information would be extracted from the scheduling system via a live link or EDI to the NRT. This link between the construction schedule and the camp data is typically established using four fields to identify different schedule activities related to the Camp. While one field might be sufficient, additional fields provide more accurate depiction of progress.

Camp Accommodation Information: This will include the number of camp residents, their statuses, the vacancies per type of room, camp facilities, and related details. This information will be extracted from the camp control system via a live link or EDI to the NRT. The camp name is the linking property.

Engineering/Logistics Information: Logistics documents include approvals, permissions, and agreements among others, whereas engineering documents include camp design and construction layouts/drawings. The link between the NRT and the EDMS will be the camp name. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all documents and drawings related to the camp in focus.

Digital Photos: The construction team would be required to submit for each camp two sets of photos, one set for the camp sites status before construction and the other set after construction. Those photos will be stored in EDMS where a link with the NRT is established. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS (Web Client) to extract all photos related to the camp in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

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Flags/Notifications Alerts related to accommodation/camps are primarily targeted at providing early feedback of issues related to manpower accommodation, assisting decision makers in the administration of manpower logistics activities, and addressing any related safety or security concerns. These would include:

Accommodation/Camps Data - Workflow & EDI's

Manpower Data Description This data group refers to construction site locations with available human resources in each by skill type.

Its main aim is to provide management with a quantitative tool to audit and control manpower distribution, and assess the need for any changes that would improve productivity.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool EDMS, daily progress reports, organisation charts, and daily time sheets are the main sources of information for this data group. The NRT must be dynamically linked or integrated with the relevant systems to ensure live update of the manpower information.

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General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The actual locations of the construction sites or the actual spread where the construction team is operating, act as the geographic information for this data group. This information will be updated daily and dynamically using an EDI from the daily progress reports. This EDI will translate the actual site location (surveying coordinates) or spread (from/to Km) into linear objects reflecting the actual geographic location of the construction.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial manpower data is mainly divided into three sets: Contact information: EDMS Contacts module will be used to store contact information for each site construction team supervisor. The team reference code will be used as the unique identifier for the contacts and the link between the EDMS and the NRT. Manpower: This includes the number of staff available at the construction site per category. This information will be extracted from the daily progress report, the organisation chart, and the daily time sheets. The link between these systems and the NRT will be the construction team reference code.

Typical categories are: • Management • Senior engineers • Junior engineers • Pipeline Welders • Surveyors • Skilled Labors (Other than Welders) • Non-Skilled Labors • Crane operators • Machine operators (Other than cranes) • Drivers Manning Schedules: These include the detailed schedules of manpower resources for each construction spread. This report is generated from the timesheet system and is linked to the NRT using the construction team reference code. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to timesheet system to extract all related information for the period in focus.

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Data Details/GIS Attributes

Flags/Notifications

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Manpower Data - Workflow & EDI's

Equipment and Vehicles • Plant Machinery and Vehicles (PMV) Stores • Emergency Equipment • Equipment Tracking Information • Vehicles Tracking Information

PMV Stores Locations Description This data group covers project local stores for equipment and vehicles (Plant Machinery and Vehicles stores) and all relevant information. The main purpose of this group is to avail and control spares required for the operation and maintenance of project equipment, and to ensure there are no construction delays due to shortage.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool All data related to the location and details of the equipment stores will be collected directly from the PMV control system. A unique identifier for each equipment store will be given as per the project standards.

This identifier will be used to link the NRT with the PMV system and EDMS.

General Information

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Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data PMV storesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; geographical locations are the spatial information for this data group. This would be the external boundaries of the storage area, or just a simple point presentation in case there are no drawings available for the PMV stores. An EDI is to be deployed to capture the geographical information from the CAD system to the NRT directly. To achieve this, all drawings developed for stores must be properly created and geographically projected.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data is mainly divided into these sets: Contact Information: This includes the main contact details for the PMV store superintendent, the person who is charge for the store and related logistical issues. The EDMS contact module will be used to store this information and EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s would be deployed to extract this information to the NRT. PMV Stores Spare Parts List: An inventory report for the spare parts that are available in the PMV store per each equipment/vehicle category will be retrieved from the PMV system to the NRT interface, via a live link or EDI where the store name and the equipment/vehicle category will act as the link.

Digital Photos: Digital photos will be taken frequently for the PMV stores. These photos will be saved in the EDMS where a link - the PMV store name - between the NRT and the EDMS is established. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all photos related to the PMV store in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

Flags/Notifications

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Equipment Stores - Workflow & EDI's

Emergency Equipment Description This data group refers to locations of emergency equipment and facilities. Its purpose is to avail detailed information regarding emergency equipment for ease of locating in case of an emergency.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool EDMS, the Emergency Equipment HSE report, HSE system, or PMV System would serve as the main sources of information for this data group. The HSE department must maintain the database related to emergency equipment up to date reflecting the latest status, details and availability.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The locations of the Emergency facilities â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the X and Y coordinates â&#x20AC;&#x201C; serve as the geographical presentation of the Emergency Equipment data group in the NRT interface.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial Emergency Equipment data are mainly divided into two sets: Contact information: EDMS Contacts module will be used to store the contact details concerning each person responsible for any Emergency Facility in each site or location along the pipeline route. Each Emergency Facility will be given a unique identifier which will be used as a link to EDMS contacts module.

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Emergency Equipment Details: This includes the type of the Emergency depot and its details. This information can be available in the HSE system or as an HSE report loaded in the EDMS or in an equipment inventory system (PMV system). In all cases, the emergency facility reference number will be used to link to the relevant system and extract the required details for that facility.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

Flags/Notifications

Emergency Equipment - Workflow & EDI's

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Equipment Tracking Information Description This data group covers the locations and status of operational equipment along the pipeline route and related vital information. The concept behind equipment traceability is the capability of acquiring the actual location of any equipment at any given time. This will provide the management with powerful and effective tools for controlling, reporting and studying the equipment operations closely, so that proper measures are taken to improve the construction operations, productivity rates, risk management, and rescue requests responses. The equipment traceability system consists of four major components: • A GPS-based tracking device installed on the equipment; this device will record and send, at minimum, the location and operation status of the equipment.

• A Server with the proper hardware to receive the data transmitted periodically from each tracking device.

• Software to process the tracking information and save it within the database.

• Communications Infrastructure (GPRS or GSM), which will serve as the media for data transmission.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool EDMS, the Equipment Tracking System, and the PMV system are the main sources of information.

These systems will collect reference and active (live) information about the equipment in focus.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The location of the equipment – the X and Y coordinates – is the geographical presentation for the Equipment Tracking data group. These data will be extracted from the Equipment Tracking System periodically and automatically, typically through an embedded device that transmits relevant location status information for processing. Each equipment will be given a unique reference number, which will act as the link between the NRT and relevant systems.

A sample basic format for this number is: TTT-NNNN where: • TTT is a three letter identifying the equipment type (e.g. EXC for Excavator, CRN for Crane) • NNNN is a sequential number per equipment Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial Equipment Tracking data is mainly divided into four sets: Contact Information: EDMS Contacts module will be used to store the contact details for each person responsible for operational equipment in each location along the pipeline route. The equipment reference number will be used as a link to EDMS contacts module.

Equipment List: This includes a list of the available major equipment per category and their locations.

The list includes categories involved in the pipeline construction operations such as: • Earth-moving including excavators, trenchers, bulldozers, loaders, scrapers, graders, and rollers.

• Pipe Handling (Lifting and Loading) including cranes, side booms, fork lifts.

• Pipe Bending Machines.

• Pipe Welding Machines.

• Trailers and Pipe Carriers

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Equipment Details: For each of the above types, a detailed list of reports will be available showing additional information, such as manufacturer, capacity, part suppliers, fuel type, power, and maintenance schedule for every equipment within the selected category. This information will be extracted from the PMV system via a live link or EDI with the NRT. These data will be shown on the NRT interface once the link to the PMV system is activated, using the equipment reference number.

Active Information: The equipment type and operation status (idle or operating, static or moving) are the major information to be shown. These data will be extracted from the Equipment Tracking System periodically and automatically via a live link or EDI. The reference number will be used to link the NRT with the Equipment tracking system.

Digital Photos: Digital photos will be taken frequently for equipment to show the equipment visually, and will be saved in the EDMS. A link, the equipment reference number, is established between the NRT and EDMS. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract photos related to the Equipment in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

Flags/Notifications

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Equipment Tracking - Workflow & EDI's

Vehicles Tracking Information Description This data group refers to the locations of project operational vehicles along the pipeline route with related vital information. This is almost similar to the previous group, the Equipment Tracking data group, except that it covers moving passenger vehicles, such as cars and buses, and any operation that includes distance movement like material transport. This will provide the management with several powerful and effective tools for controlling and reporting the use of vehicles in the project, so that proper measures are taken to improve the utilization of these vehicles, manage risks, and respond to rescue requests.

The Vehicle traceability system consists of four major components: • A GPS-based tracking device to be installed on each equipment; this device will record and send, at minimum, the location and status of the equipment.

• A Server with the proper hardware to receive the data being transmitted periodically from each tracking device.

• Software to get the tracking information and save it in a database.

• Communications Infrastructure (GPRS or GSM), which will serve as the media for data transmission.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool EDMS, the Vehicle Tracking System, the Journey Management System (JMS), and the PMV system are the main sources of information for this data group.

General Information

Data Specifics

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Spatial (Geographical) Data The location of the equipment – the X and Y coordinates – is the geographical presentation for the Vehicles Tracking data group. These data will be extracted from the embedded unit of the Vehicle Tracking System periodically and automatically. Each Vehicle will be given a unique reference number, which will act as the link between the NRT tool and the relevant systems.

A simple format for this number is: TTT-NNNN where: • TTT is a three letter identifying the vehicle type (e.g. BUS for Busses, 4WD for Four-wheel drive cars) • NNNN is a sequential number per vehicle Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial Vehicle Tracking data is mainly divided into four sets: Contact Information: EDMS Contacts module will be used to store the contact details for each person responsible for operational vehicles in each location along the pipeline route. The vehicle reference number will be used as a link to the EDMS contacts module.

Vehicles List: This includes a list of the available vehicles per category such as: • Trucks • Buses • Four-Wheel Cars • Salon Cars Vehicles Details: For each of the above types, a detailed list of reports will be available showing additional information, such as brand, manufacturer, capacity, part supplier, fuel type, power, and maintenance schedule about each vehicle within the selected category. This information will be extracted from the PMV system via a live link or EDI with the NRT. The vehicle reference number will act as the link between the two systems.

Active Information: The vehicle type and operational status (static or moving) are the major data to be shown on the NRT interface. These data will be extracted from the Vehicle Tracking System and Journey Management System periodically and automatically via a live link or EDI. The operational vehicle reference number will be used to link the NRT with these systems.

Digital Photos: Digital photos will be taken frequently for each Vehicle to show the vehicle visually, and will be saved in the EDMS. A link, the Vehicle reference number, between the NRT and the EDMS is established. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all photos related to the Vehicle in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

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Flags/Notifications

Vehicle Tracking - Workflow & EDI's

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Planning And Progress This data group comprises the following two classes: • Construction Progress of Activities • Planning/Scheduling of Activities The contents of each section represent different stages of the construction, namely on-site activities versus planned schedule. The flags and notifications will be considered within the context of the two classes.

Daily Pipeline Progress Activities Description The daily progress of the pipeline main construction activities in kilometer ranges are shown and projected in the NRT interface on a near-real-time basis (a maximum delay of one day). The main activities of pipeline construction operations are: • Route Clearance (Clearance, de-bushing, demining, etc.)

• Route Survey • ROW (Right of Way) Preparation (Top soil removal, grading, etc.)

• Stringing • Bending • Welding (End face preparation, joint welding, NDT, field joint coating) • Trenching (Excavation, bedding, padding, etc.)

• Lowering and Laying • Backfilling • Hydrotesting • Cleaning and Gauging • ROW Reinstatement • Any other project specific activity Each one of these activities will be treated as a separate data group for ease of viewing and manipulation of data by the end user.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool Daily progress reports, progress measuring and monitoring systems, and EDMS are the main sources of information for these data groups. To ensure daily update of the progress data groups, the NRT must be dynamically linked and integrated with the relevant information sources via EDI’s. This will reduce redundant data entry efforts needed for updating the progress statuses.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The progress achievement of each activity per day in kilometers, from the start Km to the end Km, is the geographic information for this data group. An EDI is to be deployed to capture the geographical information from the daily progress report and project it directly to the NRT interface.

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Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data are mainly divided into two sets: Daily Progress Information: This includes the progress report reference number, the report date, and the progress achievement (Distance in Km). This information will be extracted from the daily progress report or the progress measurement system via a live link or EDI. Additionally, this daily progress report will be kept in the EDMS, where it can be retrieved via a dynamic link using the report number as a reference.

Digital Photos: Digital photos are to be taken for the daily progress activities. These photos are to be kept in the EDMS where a link, the report reference number, is established between the NRT and the EDMS. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all progress photos related to the specific pipeline construction activity for any specific period.

Data Details/GIS Attributes (For Each Pipeline Construction Activity) A similar data group is to be developed for each construction activity in the above list. This would include the information required for building the pipebook handover document, specifically related to welding, NDT, line pipe, and as-built survey data.

Progress Activities - Workflow & EDI's

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Pipeline Planning/Scheduling Activities Description This data group class refers to the construction schedule of the major activities on the pipeline. The NRT will reflect the planned dates for the main construction works in kilometers. These activities include: • Route Clearance (Clearance, de-bushing, demining, etc.)

• Route Survey • ROW (Right of Way) Preparation (Top soil removal, grading, etc.)

• Stringing • Bending • Welding (End face preparation, joint welding, NDT, field joint coating) • Trenching (Excavation, bedding, padding, etc.)

• Lowering and Laying • Backfilling • Hydrotesting • Cleaning and Gauging • ROW Reinstatement • Any other project specific activity Those activities must be identical to the way progress is measured, such that at any point of time a comparison can be made of planned versus achieved. Similarly, each one of these activities will be treated as a separate data group for ease of viewing by the end user.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool The planning/scheduling system is the main source of information for these data groups. The NRT tool must be dynamically linked or integrated with the planning/scheduling system via EDI’s to ensure automatic update of modifications in the plan.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The planned route coverage of any activity in kilometers, from the start Km to the End Km, is the geographic spatial information for this data group. An EDI is to be deployed to capture the graphical information from the scheduling system and project it directly in the NRT tool interface.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data are: Planning and Scheduling Information: This includes the activity code, activity description, expected early start and finish dates, expected late start and finish dates, total float and the portion of the pipeline that is planned under this activity. All this information will be extracted from the planning/scheduling system via a live link or EDI to the NRT. The activity code would act as the reference link between the systems.

Data Details/GIS Attributes (For Each Pipeline Construction Activity) A similar data group is to be developed for each construction activity in the above list.

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Flags/Notifications

Planning/Scheduling Activities - Workflow & EDI's

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HSE and Social • Points of interest (hospitals, medical centers, police stations, etc.)

• Accidents and Incidents • Grievances and Complaints • Areas of Special Status

Points of Interest (Hospitals, Medical Centers, Police Stations, etc.)

Description This data group covers the location of hospitals, medical facilities, police stations, and any other points of interest with their contact details. Its main purpose is to provide fast access to key information for project stakeholders.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool All data related to the location and details of point of interest will be collected directly by the HSE team and stored in the HSE system or database if available. EDMS will be used to capture this information. A unique identifier for each facility or point of interest will be given, based on a defined naming convention such as TTT_NNNN where: • TTT is a three-character code describing the type of facility (e.g. HOS for hospital, POL for police station) • NNNN is a four-digit sequential number for each point of interest.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The location of the point of interest – the GPS X and Y – is the main geographical information in this data group.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial point of interest data are mainly divided into three sets: Contact information: EDMS Contacts module will be used to store contact information for each point of interest captured into the NRT. The reference code for each facility will be the unique identifier and the link to the EDMS contacts module.

Other Information: This includes the name, type, and the location description of the facility. This information can be entered directly into the NRT or extracted from the HSE system or database via a link, being the unique identifier of the facility.

Digital Photos: Digital photos taken for the points of interest will be saved in the EDMS where a link, the reference number, between the NRT and the EDMS is established. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract photos related to the point of interest in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

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Points of Interest - Workflow & EDI's

Accidents and Incidents Description Pipeline construction accidents/incidents, their locations, details, categories, and related reports are all covered and presented under this data group. Any incident (or accident) whether fatal, minor, or a near miss is to be recorded and presented on the NRT. The availability of such crucial information will expose the safety status of the construction operations on a daily basis for decision makers, giving them an early indication of the potential areas for improving the construction operations and staff behaviors to become more safety alert and conscious, and eventually achieve the target of zero fatalities.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool The EDMS incident recording module acts as the main source of information for this data group.

To ensure daily update of the incident data group, the NRT must be dynamically linked or integrated with the incidents recording module via an EDI. The incident reports are kept in EDMS, whereas the incidents recording module will provide all the attributes required to register the occurrence of this incident and its vital information. A better approach would be the automation of the incident reporting process, for instance using handheld devices equipped with GPS and a camera and carried by Safety officers.

The officer will record all related information on the handheld so that an incident report can be generated automatically and fed into EDMS and the incident recording module. The information recorded on the handheld will constitute the attributes for that incident report and digital photos will be linked as well.

An EDI will transfer all this information automatically to the NRT.

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General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The incident location - X and Y coordinates that are recorded as part of the incident report â&#x20AC;&#x201C; is the geographic information for this data group. An EDI is to be deployed to capture the graphical information from EDMS incident recording module, and project it directly to the NRT. Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data include: Incident Report Details: These include the incident report number, the report date, the incident type, the incident category, and the incident description. This information will be extracted from the EDMS system on a daily basis via an EDI. The incident report reference number will act as the main link between the NRT and the EDMS. Additionally, the actual incident report will be kept in the EDMS where it can be retrieved through the NRT interface via a dynamic link using the report reference number.

Digital Photos: Digital photos taken for the incident are to be kept in the EDMS where a link, the incident report reference number, is established between the NRT and the EDMS. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract photos related to the incident in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

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Accidents/Incidents Information - Workflow & EDI's

Flags/Notifications

Grievances And Complaints Description With the increased significance of social interaction especially in pipelines passing through populated areas, grievances and complaints that are recorded against the project should be available for reference within the NRT, to assist management in taking corrective actions and plan activities with increased social awareness.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool Grievance reports are the main source of information for this data group. Therefore, the Interface Management department, logistics department, or equivalent entity would record any grievance or complaint that arises during construction. Among others, GIS team must be duly informed for proper registration within the NRT. This is achieved by adding the GIS team to the project distribution matrix for such issues.

General Information

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Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The location where the complaint occurs - the GPS X and Y coordinates â&#x20AC;&#x201C; will be registered as attributes for the report in EDMS. An EDI is to be used to upload the graphical location into the NRT from EDMS attributes.

Non-Spatial Data The main non spatial data include: Grievance Report Details: This includes the type and description of the grievance or complaint.

These values will be saved as EDMS attributes for the reports, and the Interface Management departmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s EDMS user will be responsible for inputting these data. An EDI is be used to extract these data into the NRT. The Grievances report reference number will act as the main link between the systems. Additionally, the actual report will be kept in the EDMS where it can be retrieved through the NRT interface via a dynamic link (report reference number).

Digital Photos: Digital photos taken related to the grievance or complaint are kept in the EDMS where a link, the report reference number, is established between the NRT and the EDMS. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all photos related to the grievance report in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

Grievances and Complaints - Workflow & EDI's

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Areas of Special Status Description This data group includes all areas of specific environmental, safety, or security concerns which might affect the pipeline operations. The system should spot these areas and display any significant information on the NRT interface to be reviewed as needed by key personnel for decisive action when construction operations are within the proximity. Contaminated sites, water sources, natural reserves, waste emission sites, historical zones, and archeological sites are samples of environmentally sensitive areas covered by this data group. Access restricted areas and military zones are samples of special security areas whereas mine fields, unstable explosives zones, and socially unsafe areas are samples of special safety areas.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool HSE reports and surveys provide the main source of data for this group. The HSE team will ensure that all related findings are properly distributed to concerned project teams, including the GIS team who can thus have access to any report or survey related to any area classified as of special status.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical) Data The outmost boundaries of the special area represent the geographic information for this data group. If available, an EDI should be developed to upload the geographical location into the NRT from electronic HSE reports/surveys. Alternatively, standard GIS functions would be used to create these features for the NRT system, based on surveying reports.

Non-spatial data The non-spatial data for this group are mainly divided into three sets: Contact information: EDMS Contacts module will be used to store contact information for persons responsible for these areas. A unique reference number will be given for each site, and this will link the EDMS with the NRT. Other Information: This includes the category of the site (e.g. environmental, safety, security), the type of the special area (water source, contaminated site, restricted area, nuclear area, military area, etc.), in addition to details and description for this site. These values will be stored in the EDMS as properties for the HSE/Surveying report. An EDI will be used to extract these values from EDMS to the NRT. The special site reference number will be used as the link between the systems.

Photos, documents and reports: Digital photos and reports related to the special area will be kept in the EDMS, where a link (the special area reference number) between the NRT and the EDMS is established.

Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all documents and photos related to the special area in focus.

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Data Details/GIS Attributes

Areas of Special Status - Workflow & EDI's

Flags/Notifications

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Engineering Data The NRT should also capture information about essential activities other than those directly linked to the construction of the line pipe itself. The key purpose of these data groups is to avail relevant information for the project stakeholders to consider in planning on-site activities for pipeline and observe the progress of additional supporting activities. The main source of information would be the engineering and design documents, and they would fall under one of the following categories: • Accessibility • Crossings • Access Roads • Marker Points • Design • Pipeline Routes • AGI’s • Tie-in Points • Fiber Optic Cables Non-Pipeline Features: Geotechnical Data and Cathodic Protection Data • • These include boreholes, soil resistivity information, cathodic test points, rectifiers, ground beds, galvanic anodes, bond leads, etc.

• Any Additional Project Specific Data Groups

Crossings Description This data group refers to all crossing types along the pipeline route such as gas pipes, oil pipes, fences, electric lines, telephone lines, water pipes, roads, railways, rivers, canals and ditches. Prompt access to accurate information about crossings would assist construction personnel in better preparing for construction activities by highlighting what permits need to be prepared and what special construction methods need to be considered.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool Alignment sheets, crossing drawings and the crossing register are the main sources of information for this group. These documents are maintained within the EDMS, and EDI’s are to be developed to capture their data from the relevant engineering documents directly to the NRT. Each crossing will be given a unique identifier as per the project standards. This unique reference will act as the link between the NRT and the EDMS or any other data container that might carry valuable information related to the crossings.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical Data) Spatial Crossing information is mainly the centerline of the Crossings and the width of the Crossing at its beginning and end. To eliminate the redundant work of retracing the Crossings layout in the NRT, EDI’s should be developed to capture the geographical information directly. To achieve this task, all alignment sheets and crossing drawings must be properly created and geographically projected. Moreover, crossings features that are required should be created on separate layers and according to proper CAD standards.

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Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial crossing data for NRT are mainly divided into the following sets: Contact information: EDMS Contacts module will be used to store contact information for each Crossing. The Crossing unique name will be used as the unique identifier for the contacts. An EDI will be adopted to capture contact data from EDMS to the NRT. Others: This includes the Crossing identifier, crossing type, crossing category, and reference to site surveys. EDI is utilized to capture these data from the Crossing register or EDMS to the NRT. All documents related to a specific crossing whether drawings or site surveys, would be stored in EDMS with properties holding the crossing identifier that would act as a link between the EDMS and NRT. Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all drawings or documents related to the crossing in focus.

Digital Photos: The construction team is to submit for each crossing two sets of photos, one set taken before construction and the other set showing the status after construction. Those photos are kept in the EDMS where a link, the crossing reference number, between the NRT and the EDMS is established.

Once the link is activated, a query will be sent to the EDMS to extract all photos related to the crossing in focus.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

4

Crossing Type per Crossing Category

5

Additional Properties

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Crossings - Workflow & EDI's

Access Roads Description This data group refers to the project existing and to-be-constructed access roads along the pipeline route, with all relevant information. It is intended to assist management in logistics and construction support functions by displaying accessibility options at different project locations.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool Access road drawings are the main source of information. The GIS team must be updated on any changes on the access road drawings issued to have updated information within the NRT.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical Data) Spatial access road information is mainly the centerline of the access road. To eliminate the redundant work of retracing the access roads layout in the GIS interface, EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s need to be developed to capture the geographical information to the NRT directly. To achieve this task, all access road drawings must be properly created and geographically projected. Moreover, access road features that are required should be created on separate layers and according to proper CAD standards.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial access road data for GIS are divided into the following sets: Contact information: EDMS Contacts module will be used to store contact information for each access road. The access road name will be used as the unique identifier to extract the contacts details.

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Others: This includes the access road identifier, the name of the facility serviced, road type, and description. This information is typically available on the access road drawings. The EDMS operator will be responsible for inputting the drawings with attributes into the EDMS, and the unique access road identifier would link the EDMS and NRT, to extract the drawings and data on demand.

Digital Photos: The construction team is to submit for each access road two sets of photos, one set is for the access road status before construction and the other set is for the status after construction.

Those photos would be kept in the EDMS and linked by the unique access road reference number to the NRT for extraction on call.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

Access Road Data - Workflow & EDI's

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Marker Points Description This data group refers to the different types of markers for the constructed pipeline, such as aerial and ground markers; this information would assist in tracing the pipeline design and as-built routes.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool Alignment sheets and as-built data are the main sources of information for this data group.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical Data) Spatial information for this shape file is mainly marker locations along the pipeline route. To eliminate the redundant work of retracing the Marker points in the NRT, EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s will be developed to capture the point locations of the pipeline marker directly. To achieve this task, all Alignment sheets must be properly created and geographically projected, and marker points created on separate layers and according to proper CAD standards.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data for the Markers shape files is mainly the name and type of markers, which are typically available in the alignment sheets as block attributes. EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s will be developed to extract the required values for use in the NRT. Data Details/GIS Attributes

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Marker Points - Workflow & EDI's

Pipeline Routes Description This specific data group refers the pipeline routes considered at the different stages of the project, including at the design and as-built stages. Its purpose is to provide a geographical display of the pipeline centerlines in comparison with the other features shown on the NRT interface in order to assist in better visual planning.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool Alignment sheets, route surveys, and other reference drawings maintained within the EDMS are the main sources of information for this data group. The GIS team should be informed of any relevant updates to maintain the latest accurate display of the route centerline within the NRT.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical Data) Spatial pipeline route information refers mainly to the properly projected pipeline centerline at engineering (and later as-built) stage. To eliminate the redundant work of retracing this information for the NRT, EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s need to be developed to capture the geographical information to the NRT directly from alignment sheets and survey data. To achieve this task, all relevant drawings must be properly created and geographically projected.

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Non-Spatial Data These include a route unique identifier with descriptive details of the route. Survey reports and reference drawings will be maintained in the EDMS with proper attributes referencing the pipeline route. An EDMS query/EDI will use the route identifier value to extract all documents or drawings related to a specific route.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

Pipeline Routes Data - Workflow & EDI's

Aboveground Installations (Agi’s) Description This data group refers to AGI information along with the basic outline of the AGI’s. These include facilities such as block valves, check valves, pigging stations, pump stations, pressure boosting stations, and metering stations. The information within this group helps present a visual clarified scope of the AGI from within the NRT interface.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool AGI’s drawings are the main source of information for this shape file. The GIS team should be informed of any AGI drawings issued to update the NRT promptly.

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General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical Data) Spatial AGI information is mainly the outline fence of the facility, the track leading to the facility and the main AGI point location. To eliminate the redundant work of retracing this information for the NRT, EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s need to be developed to capture the geographical information directly. All AGI drawings must be properly created and geographically projected, and related AGI features created on separate layers according to proper CAD standards.

Non-Spatial Data This includes the AGI unique identifier, AGI type and references to all AGI reports. The first two are typically available on the AGI design drawing title block. EDMS will be used to capture these values as attributes for the AGI drawing. The EDMS operator will be responsible to input these data in EDMS. All AGI reports will be given an attribute that will hold the unique name of the AGI, and an EDMS query/EDI will use this value to extract all documents assigned for a specific AGI with all relevant attributes.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

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AGI's Data - Workflow & EDI's

Tie-In Points Description This data group refers to points where the pipeline ties in to external facilities outside the main scope of work such as gas lines, electric lines, water pipes, and other utilities. It is intended to provide a visual scope of the expected interaction with external players for management and other key players to assist in the coordination efforts.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool Alignment sheets and any tie-in schedules available as a part of the tender or engineering documentation are the main sources of information. The EDMS operator shall ensure that these documents are readily available and up-to-date within the EDMS, and any changes informed to the GIS Team to incorporate within the NRT.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical Data) Spatial information for this shape file is mainly the location of the tie-in points. To eliminate redundant data-entry work, EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s should be developed to capture the location of the tie-in points to the NRT directly. To achieve this task, all alignment sheets must be properly created and geographically projected. Tie-in points should be created on separate layers and according to proper CAD standards.

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Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data for the tie-in points include the type of the facility that the project ties in, and any special reports or construction references (e.g. before/after photos) that need to be considered in the tying-in process. It also includes contact information of personnel involved with this facility. A unique tiein reference will be used to identify each tie-in point, and EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s should be developed to extract the tie-in information to the NRT. Data Details/GIS Attributes

Tie-in Points - Workflow & EDI's

Fiber Optic Cables Description This data group refers to the routes of the fiber optic cables, the cable pulpits, and the termination points. Its purpose is to provide the FOC scope in visual display on the NRT to assist in planning related activities.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool Fiber optic design drawings and related cable schedules are the main sources of information for this data group. This information should be readily updated within the EDMS, and availed to the GIS team who will be responsible for displaying these data on the NRT interface.

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General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical Data) Spatial information for this shape file is mainly the cable route, and locations of the pulpit and termination points. To eliminate the redundant data-entry work, EDI’s should be developed to capture this information to the NRT directly. All fiber optic cable general arrangement drawings must be properly created and geographically projected, and related features should be created on separate layers and according to proper CAD standards.

Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial fiber optic cable data are mainly divided in two sets: Progress Data: The construction progress for the Optic cable will be measured per KP’s (kilometer points). This information would be available in the progress monitoring system or the daily construction reports. An EDI should be developed to capture this information to the NRT directly.

Other Information: This includes the tag numbers for the optic cables, the pulpits and termination points in addition to references for the faults reports and the test results. The Tag numbers are typically available on the design drawings as block attributes. EDI’s should be developed to extract the required tags and assign them to the relevant feature in the NRT. These references to fault reports and test results are static values for the same section of the optical cable, and should be available in the EDMS for extraction into the NRT. Data Details/GIS Attributes

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Fiber Optic Cables - Workflow & EDI's

Additional Features, Geotechnical And Cathodic Protection Data Description This data group comprises information related to additional features of the pipeline not included under any of the previous sections, and of significant value to key personnel during the construction phase.

This includes activities and reports such as boreholes, soil resistivity information, cathodic test pointsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; data, rectifiers, ground beds, galvanic anodes, and bond leads. Data related to the design and installation locations, and the attributes of each feature are the main constituents of this group.

Data Delivery to the NRT Tool Design documents/drawings, alignment sheets, test reports such as cathodic protection and resistivity tests, and construction progress reports are the main sources of information for this data group. The EDMS team is responsible for ensuring that the EDMS is timely populated with the latest updates of these data, so that the GIS team has access to the related information for displaying in the NRT.

General Information

Data Specifics Spatial (Geographical Data) Main spatial information for this data group is the feature location. Wherever possible, EDIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s should be developed to capture the location points to the NRT directly. All alignment sheets and reference drawings must be properly created and geographically projected, and related features created in separate layers as per proper CAD standards.

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Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data for these features are mainly the reference id and attributes. The reference id’s can be obtained from the design documents. EDI’s should be developed to extract the required attribute values and assign them to the relevant feature in NRT. Reference reports and static values would be available in EDMS and would be retrieved to the NRT by linking the unique reference id.

Data Details/GIS Attributes

Additional Features – Workflow & EDI's Workflows are dependent on the specific feature to be displayed on the NRT, and what type of information is extracted versus linked from the EDMS. Whereas spatial and any contact data would be extracted to the NRT database, reference documents, photos, and other non-spatial data would be linked via a query/EDI connecting on the unique identifier of the feature in focus.

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Recommended Technical Specifications This section presents general recommendations for the selection of technical tools to be used in the development of the NRT. It is intended as a guideline during the detailed system design phase, specifically for areas of technical significance related to building the GIS-based interface, acquiring data from system repositories, and the display of this information.

These recommendations are derived from market studies of available open source and commercial software, historical information, programming tools, common practices, modern technologies, standardized formats, and other relevant research items. The results recorded herewith are intended to highlight key technical features to be considered to meet the conceptual functional specifications requirements.

GIS Software The GIS-based interface is one of the core concepts of the NRT. Careful selection of the GIS software to be used is hence of vital importance. The selected software should: • Have the capability to work with vector and raster data, so as the combinations between satellite images and pipeline objects are possible.

• Run under different platforms and operating systems, such as MS Windows, Linux, and UNIX. • Have interoperability with other GIS software, as GIS data from different sources and with different formats might have to be readable.

• Be able to manage topology and 3D representations. This allows the user to have 3D outlooks on the pipeline project for improved analyses.

• Produce good quality cartographic representations. The additional advantage of preparing detailed project layouts is a very useful tool for construction teams.

• Allow for developments with known languages like VB and C++, so that users can add and manipulate scripts for more efficient use.

• Work with large data structures, as the pipeline project would entail a huge amount of data.

• Have advanced spatial analyses of vector data and raster data, and simultaneously if possible.

• Allow for multilingual interfaces.

Connectivity To Data Sources With a wide scope of information to handle, the NRT would have to not only extract but also link to existing databases, to make use of data in existing control systems. Finding the right connectivity tools is a critical factor in ensuring the data is not only availed promptly, but also accurately.

Based on our review of common connectivity techniques, including Microsoft ActiveX Data Objects (ADO), Object Linking and Embedding Database (OLE DB), and Open Database Connectivity (ODBC), the better choice for our NRT is the one that can: • Work with different operating systems.

• Handle both relational and non-relational databases.

• Connect to multiple databases simultaneously.

Web Mapping Of Pipeline Data There are two main ways to publish GIS information on Web. Creating a specific website is one, and exporting the data and maps to existing websites is the other. The recommended technical specifications for web mapping of pipeline projects depend on the selection made. In the case of creating a new web site, it is useful to have a website that can: • Be dynamic.

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• Visualize maps with advanced functionalities.

• Use vector and raster data.

• Have good compatibility with different navigators, programming languages, and database formats.

In the case of exporting data to existing web sites, the selection should be a web site that is: • A known geographic website with a simple data format.

• Compatible with different programming software formats.

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Glossary The following definitions and abbreviations apply in the context of this Appendix unless otherwise mentioned: IPLOCA NC PDC NRT PMV HSE GIS GPS WiMAX WiFi GPRS GSM SMS RSS PDA CAD EDMS CMod MMS ExTr CCS JMS R&D EDI AGI FOC CP WPS NDT UT AUT

International Pipeline and Offshore Contractors Association IPLOCA Novel Construction Initiative IPLOCA NC Planning, Design, and Control Workgroup Near-Real-Time Tool Plant Machinery and Vehicles Health, Safety, and Environment Geographical Information System Global Positioning System Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access Technology Wireless Networking Technology General Packet Radio Service Global System for Mobile Short Message Service Really Simple Syndication, a web feed format for publishing updated works Personal Digital Assistant Computer Aided Design Electronic Document Management System EDMS Contacts Module Material Management System Expediting and Shipment Tracking System Camp Control System Journey Management System Research and Development Electronic Data Interface/Interchange Aboveground Installations Fiber Optic Cables Cathodic Protection Welding Procedure Specifications Non-Destructive Testing Ultrasonic Testing Automated Ultrasonic Testing

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