Research Journal: Vol. 01.02

research journal

2009 / VOL 01.02

RESEARCH JOURNAL 2009 / VOL 01.02

Editors:

Ajla Aksamija, Ph.D., LEED® AP and Kalpana Kuttaiah, Assoc. AIA, LEED® AP

Journal Design & Layout:

Kalpana Kuttaiah, Assoc. AIA, LEED® AP

Cover Design:

Mimi Day, AIGA

Acknowledgements:

With much APPRECIATION to everyone who contributed in many ways to the research work and articles published in this journal.

We would like to extend our VERY SPECIAL THANKS to: Emily Gartland.

Perkins and Will is an interdisciplinary design practice offering services in the areas of Architecture, Interior Design, Branded Environments, Planning + Strategies and Urban Design.

Copyright 2009 Perkins and Will All rights reserved.

2009 / VOL 01.02

RESEARCH JOURNAL / VOL 01.02

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

JOURNAL OVERVIEW

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EDITORIAL

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01. A STUDY FOR CARBON NEUTRALITY: THE IMPACT OF DECISIONS, DESIGN AND ENERGY: Transforming Residence Life Dana Anderson, AIA, LEED® AP

Patrick Cunningham, LEED® AP David Damon, AIA, LEED® AP Yanel de Angel, AIA, LEED® AP ............................................................................. Page 7 02. SYSTEMS THINKING: Seven Reasons Why It Is Good For You And Everything Else Nandita Vyas, AIA, LEED® AP Nat Slaughter

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Page 37

03. AUTOMATING PRACTICE: Defining Use of Computation in the Architectural Design Workflow Michael Hodge, Associate AIA ............................................................................. Page 53 04. CLINICAL PROCESSES INFORMING THE DESIGN OF THE EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT

Richard Herring, AIA, LEED® AP Marvina Williams, RN ............................................................................. Page 74 05. TRANSCENDING PROJECT TYPE – PRINCIPLES FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE INTERIOR DESIGN: High Performance Interiors + Evidence-Based Design Joan Blumenfeld, FAIA, LEED® AP Carolyn BaRoss, ASID, IIDA, LEED® AP Sonya Dufner, ASID, LEED® AP ............................................................................

PEER REVIEWERS

Page 83

............................................................................. Page 107

AUTHORS .............................................................................

Page 108

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RESEARCH JOURNAL / VOL 01.02

JOURNAL OVERVIEW The Perkins and Will Research Journal is a peer-reviewed research journal, dedicated to documenting and presenting practice-related research associated with buildings and their environs. The aim of this journal is to capture and document research questions and methodologies that arise prior, during and after the design process. Original research articles, literature reviews, and case studies have been incorporated into this publication. The unique aspect of this journal is that it conveys practice-oriented research projects aimed at supporting our design teams.

This is the second issue of the Perkins and Will Research Journal. We welcome contributions for future issues.

RESEARCH AT PERKINS AND WILL Research is systematic investigation into existing knowledge in order to discover or revise facts or add to knowledge about a certain topic. In architectural design we take an existing condition and improve upon it with our design solutions. During that process we constantly gather and evaluate information from different sources and apply in novel ways to solve our design problems, thus creating new information and knowledge. An important part of the research process is documentation and communication. With this journal we are sharing combined efforts and findings of Perkins and Will researchers.

Perkins and Will undertakes the following areas of research: • Market-sector related research in healthcare and science+technology • Biomimicry and restoration of ecological systems • Sustainable design • Strategies for operational efficiency • Advanced building technology and performance • Design process benchmarking • Policy research • Carbon and energy analysis • Organizational behavior

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EDITORIAL The Perkins and Will Research Journal documents research relating to architectural and design practice.

Architectural design requires immense amounts of information for inspiration, creation, and construction of buildings. Although uniform sets of systems, materials and construction processes are considered during this process, every design is an answer to a set of unique questions and circumstances. Therefore, research becomes an integral part of the design and construction of buildings and environments, where inquiry into existing knowledge, study and adaptation to particular circumstances lead to the development of new knowledge.

This issue of Perkins and Will Research Journal includes five articles that focus on diverse topics, such as sustainable design and strategies for achieving carbon neutrality in higher-education facilities, integrated process for systems thinking, computational design in architecture, innovative ways to approach clinical processes that inform the design of healthcare facilities and strategies for designing high-performance interiors.

“A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy” focuses on the factors that impact the carbon footprint of a higher-education facility, particularly a residence hall. The article reviews definitions of carbon neutrality, and stresses the importance of the decision-making process during the design.

“Systems Thinking” covers theoretical groundwork for achieving integration and collaboration for forwardthinking professionals, focusing on sustainable and regenerative design strategies.

“Automating Practice: Defining Use of Computation in the Architectural Design Workflow” discusses computation in architectural design and advancements in digital tools available for exploration of forms and geometries. The article introduces a framework for using computational tools to accelerate and enhance the architectural design process, and reviews implementation of selected applications.

“Clinical Processes Informing the Design of the Emergency Department” examines the relationships between event planning and determination of functional and physical requirements for a healthcare facility.

“Transcending Project Type—Principles for High Performance Interior Design” reviews literature and research associated with characteristics of well-designed interiors for healthcare, commercial and educational market sectors, particularly focusing on strategies that improve productivity, health and well-being of occupants.

The themes illustrate diverse types of projects and inquiries undertaken at Perkins and Will, and capture research questions, methodologies, and results of these inquiries. Moreover, they reflect the forefront in architectural and design thinking, where considerations for sustainability, innovation and technology and highperforming designs, both from the perspective of buildings and occupants, lead the ways of our practice.

Ajla Aksamija, PhD, LEED® AP Kalpana Kuttaiah, Assoc. AIA, LEED® AP

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A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

01.

A STUDY FOR CARBON NEUTRALITY: THE IMPACT OF DECISIONS, DESIGN AND ENERGY: Transforming Residence Life Dana Anderson, AIA, LEED® AP, dana.anderson@perkinswill.com Patrick Cunningham, LEED® AP, patrick.cunningham@perkinswill.com David Damon, AIA, LEED® AP, david.damon@perkinswill.com Yanel de Angel, AIA, LEED® AP, yanel.deangel@perkinswill.com ABSTRACT This research focuses on the factors that impact the carbon footprint of a residence hall building, particularly the steps and considerations required to achieve carbon neutrality. Beginning with a definition of what it means to be carbon neutral, the study dispels misconceptions and stresses the importance of carbon-conscious decision making throughout the life of a project. The research explores a methodology dependent on multi-disciplinary collaboration involving the entire project team, in which all building components are continuously measured and analyzed for performance optimization. While this research provides technical and methodological insights for professionals well-versed in sustainable design principles, the study also serves to educate clients interested in the “how” and “why” of sustainable design. This study details the cause and effect of several possible interventions and provides a platform to test strategies, some regionally based and others applicable to other building types and geographical regions.

The case study reveals the need for a paradigm shift in building design to reduce the carbon footprint. This paradigm shift involves viewing the building as a holistic system where different mechanical and design aspects work together finding synergies for performance efficiency. Important and impactful factors include material selection and manufacturing processes, building assembly methods, construction, indoor climate conditions, building and site design, integration of active and passive systems, clean/renewable energy generation sources and building operations and maintenance. The building user also becomes instrumental in overall carbon reductions. The effort to achieve carbon neutrality must incorporate student behavioral patterns and the potential to change the wasteful behavior through educational programs.

KEYWORDS: carbon emission, carbon footprint, zero energy design DEFINITIONS: CO2e: “The universal unit of measurement used to indicate the global warming potential of each greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a naturally occurring gas that is a byproduct of burning fossil fuels and biomass, land-use changes and other industrial processes. CO2 emissions are reported in CO2e; the standard unit is MtCO2e or metric tons or tons of carbon dioxide equivalent.”1 Carbon Footprint: “The Carbon Footprint is a measure of the exclusive total amount of carbon dioxide emissions that is directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the life stages of a product.”2 Zero Energy Design: A Zero Energy Design is mainly concerned with the reduction of the operating energy requirements for a building, focusing on the operating use of zero fossil energy. By definition, a carbon neutral design incorporates Zero Energy Design strategies.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

What is Carbon Neutrality? Carbon neutrality is the equivalent of having a net zero (neutral) carbon dioxide (CO2) footprint, which requires balancing a measured amount of released carbon emissions with an equivalent amount of sequestered or offset carbon emissions.

A carbon-neutral building must mitigate the carbon emissions released in the materials fabrication, construction and continued operations of the building by generating more energy than it consumes over its lifespan through renewable resources. In a carbon neutral building, every step of the design process requires assessment of the resulting impact on the building’s carbon footprint. The most difficult value to calculate is the embodied energy associated with materials selected for construction. Embodied energy refers to the energy that was used to make a product. It entails the total energy for an entire product lifecycle, including raw material extraction, transport, manufacture, assembly, installation, disassembly, deconstruction and/or decomposition. Most of these materials have an initial embodied energy that comes from non-renewable energy consumed in the acquisition of raw materials, processing, manufacturing, transportation and construction. In fact,

the manufacturing of building materials accounts for most of a building’s carbon footprint. Even though the processing may have taken place years before the project is designed, this carbon impact must be included in the calculation of the building’s overall carbon footprint.

Therefore, careful material selection and measurements are critical in achieving carbon neutrality. Figure 1 illustrates this initial impact during the manufacturing and construction period. Once the building is built, the goal is to offset this initial impact and maintenance reinvestments by operating the building with design and energy strategies that mitigate the initial carbon emissions. In other words, carbon neutrality is not achieved the day the building opens but is achieved over the life of the building.

Why is carbon neutrality important? Without human activity, nature has a balanced carbon cycle (Figure 2). For instance, a growing tree absorbs CO2 and transforms it into oxygen by means of photosynthesis, a process that converts CO2 into organic compounds using sunlight energy. Trees help maintain normal levels of CO2 in the atmosphere by sequestering it and using it to build their trunk, roots and leaves. When a tree dies, it releases

Figure 1: Carbon-neutral building conceptual diagram: Red illustrates CO2 emitting activities and green illustrates design efficiency and energy production strategies to offset CO2 emitting activities.

CO2 balance

The ocean absorbs more CO2 than it releases

Trees absorb CO2 and transform it into Oxygen through Photosynthesis

CO2 surplus

CO2 balance

38% Building Industry

2

CO

Sustainable Materials & Products

Figure 2: Unbalanced and balanced carbon cycles: natural vs. anthropogenic.

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A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

the CO2 that was absorbed during its lifespan. Some of this CO2 gets released back into the atmosphere (to be absorbed by growing trees) and another portion is absorbed by the soil as nutrient for other plant life.

The health of the planet’s water is equally important.

For example, the ocean exchanges CO2 with the atmosphere, absorbing more than it releases and sequestering CO2. This balance, however, has shifted in recent history, perhaps more acutely since the Industrial Revolution. In the United States, the building industry accounts for 38% of all CO2 emissions released into the atmosphere3. Nature cannot keep up with these large amounts of emissions, thus resulting in high levels of pollution. Fossil fuel combustion currently used to power material processing and transportation plays a big role in this unbalanced cycle. Clean renewable energy sources are an alternative to fossil fuels and can begin to lower the percentage of CO2 emissions caused by the building industry, as well as other human activities. Land alteration, especially deforestation, also contributes to high levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. Responsible site selection therefore becomes an important component of sustainable design. Although reversing this unbalanced cycle is possible, the process will be gradual because the atmosphere tends to retain CO2, which means that carbon emission reductions will not be immediately reflected. Designing, constructing and operating carbon-neutral buildings are important steps in reducing CO2 emissions associated with the building industry.

Optimize

Various strategies can be implemented to create a carbon-neutral building. The design approach explored in this study suggests a paradigm shift, in which reduce, reuse and recycle are no longer the top decision drivers but rather are encompassed by larger planning concepts. An inverted pyramid diagram illustrates the process of decision making based on the constant assessment and measurement of the CO2 consequence, shown in Figure 3. The prevalence of each phase correlates to the level of impact that those decisions will have on the building’s carbon footprint. At the top of the diagram, the optimization phase has the greatest potential impact on the building’s carbon emissions and energy load. The decisions made in the optimization phase set the framework for the design team and will therefore influence the decisions made in each subsequent phase. For example, the less carbon emissions resulting from decisions made in the first three phases, the less energy must then be offset in the fourth phase.

As the inverted pyramid narrows, the interventions become less impactful and more costly. It is therefore essential that careful assessment precedes each decision throughout the design process. The following sections will discuss in greater detail how these strategies were explored, tested and applied through the residence hall building case study.

1.1 Impact of Materials: Comparative Study

Many manufacturing companies have been transforming their processes to incorporate more sustainable

Optimize Material Selection Building Size

Program

Building Sitting

Harvest Energy Through Passive & Active Strategies Site Strategies

Water Management

Ventilation

Solar Control Daylighting

re

asu

Me

Harvest

Surface Area / Volume Ratio

Orientation

ss sse

/A

Reclaim / Reduce

Offset

Reclaim / Reduce Material and Assemblies

Reliance on Municipal Infrastructure

Water Consumption

Offset Energy Usage with Sustainable Energy Production

Figure 3: Design approach diagram.

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practices. For instance, cradle to cradle programs are now common in many industries. Cradle to Cradle is a biomimetic approach to the design of systems modeled on nature’s processes. Materials are viewed as nutrients circulating in healthy, safe metabolisms. It is a holistic, economic, industrial, and social framework that seeks to create efficient and waste free systems.

Despite these efforts, the variety of materials necessary for building construction requires extensive manufacturing, which accounts for a significant spike in carbon

emissions at the beginning of a project. To understand the impact of various materials and construction assemblies, six different assemblies were investigated as part of this study. This initial investigation considered an institutional Residence Hall as building type and assumed a basic bar volume located in New York City with a 60 year lifespan. The footprint of the building was 520’-0” x 60’-0” with a regular bay system of 52’-0” and four levels of 11’-0” height floor to floor (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Building parameters used to investigate carbon footprint impact of six different construction assemblies. Top left: typical suite module, top right: building plan, bottom left: side elevations and bottom right: back and front elevations.

Residence Hall: A Comparative Carbon Footprint study of 6 different construction assemblies Case Study Name

Columns & Beams

Floors

Roof

Foundation

stl frame WF hollow conc

hollow conc

Walls Envelope concrete slab brick & 6" heavy ga. on grade steel studs

hollow conc

hollow conc

concrete slab brick & 6" heavy ga. on grade steel studs

4" light ga. steel studs

8" CMU

4" light ga. steel studs

lt. frame wd truss 1/2" plywd decking

lt. frame wd truss 1/2" plywd decking

concrete slab wood Cedar siding on grade 6" heavy ga. stl studs

4" light ga. steel studs

6" heavy ga. steel studs

4" light ga. steel studs

open web stl joist reinf conc topping

open web stl joist reinf conc topping

concrete slab wood Cedar siding on grade 6" heavy ga. stl studs

4" light ga. steel studs

6" heavy ga. steel studs

4" light ga. steel studs

conc frame

lt. frame wd truss 1/2" plywd decking

lt. frame wd truss 1/2" plywd decking

concrete slab wood Cedar siding on grade 2"X6" wood studs

2"X4" wood studs

2"X4" wood studs

2"X4" wood studs

Wd frame

lt. frame wd truss 1/2" plywd decking

lt. frame wd truss 1/2" plywd decking

concrete slab wood Cedar siding on grade 2"X6" wood studs

2"X4" wood studs

2"X4" wood studs

2"X4" wood studs

Long Int. Walls Short Int. Walls Bedrm Int. Walls 4" light ga.

4" light ga.

4" light ga. steel studs steel studs steel studs

Steel Frame/Masonry

Block and Plank conc frame Conc. Frame/Mtl.studs

Metal Framing

Conc. Frame / Wood

100% Wood

Figure 5: Comparative carbon footprint study for six construction assemblies.

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A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

The study first considered two typical construction assemblies used in residence halls: 1) Brick cavity walls with steel structure and 2) Block-and-plank floor system. Four additional assemblies also used in residential applications were studied as well: 3) Concrete frame structure with metal stud walls and wood envelope, 4) Metal framing structure with wood envelope, 5) Concrete frame with wood stud walls and envelope and 6) 100% wood frame with wood studs and envelope (Figure 5).

Some constants between these six assemblies remained: floors included a layer of gypsum wall board (GWB) and latex paint under them; roofs included membrane, vapor barrier, insulation and layer of GWB under; envelope walls included insulation, vapor barrier, GWB and latex paint; and all interior walls included a layer of GWB and latex paint on both sides. Comparison was performed using Athena Impact Estimator for Buildings, a computer modeling program developed by the Athena Institute. It considers the environmental impact of material manufacturing, including resources extraction and recycled content, related transportation, on-site construction, regional variation in energy use, transportation and other factors, building type and assume lifespan, maintenance, repair and replacement effects, demolition and disposal, and operating energy emissions and pre-combustion effects.

Comparative analysis was performed focusing specifically on the following criteria: • Embodied primary energy use • Global warming potential • Solid waste emissions • Air pollutants • Water pollutants • Weighted resource use

1,500,000,000 1,000,000,000

The comparative analysis revealed a series of important carbon emission statistics. The research showed that concrete floors had one of the highest pollutant potentials. Two factors likely yielded this result: first, obtaining cement is an energy intensive process and secondly, transportation has a profound impact if the precast concrete is shipped from Canada, as is often the case in New York State. The pollutant potential of concrete was shown to be higher than steel and timber. According to the United Kingdom’s National Green Specification, for every ton of cement produced, approximately 1 ton of CO2 is produced from chemical reaction and the burning of fossil fuel4. Additionally, cement production is responsible for about 7-10% of the world’s total CO2 emissions. While these staggering statistics are concerning, concrete manufacturers are investing in research to remediate concrete’s CO2 footprint5. There are cement substitutes available such as Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA), also known as ‘fly ash,’ that can replace up to 30% of regular Portland cement and Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS), which can replace up to 90% of Portland cement. Steel assemblies also have a high pollutant potential due to embodied energy in the manufacturing process despite the fact that the industry already incorporates reused scrap metal in its manufacturing. One of the comparative charts in the Athena Impact Estimator for Buildings program focuses on eutrophication. This is an increase in chemical nutrients—compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus—in an ecosystem, and may occur on land or in water. This excess of nutrients results in excessive plant growth and decay, which in turn reduces the amount of oxygen in the water and constitutes severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. When steel structure was included in the construction assembly, the eutrophication potential increased. It has been difficult to determine at this point what factors take place in the steel manufacturing process to yield this result. Another interesting result of the study is that wood and steel stud walls are comparable

100% Wood Concrete Frame / Wood Metal Framing

500,000,000

Concrete Frame / Metal studs Block and Plank

0 kg CO2 eq

Steel frame / Masonry

Figure 6: Carbon footprint impact of six construction assemblies.

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in pollution potential both in manufacturing and construction process. Steel studs already incorporate large percentages of recycled content, while wood studs might be considered in buildings with a long lifespan if carbon sequestration is intended.

The six construction assemblies studied were ranked for their carbon footprint (see Figure 6). The following chart illustrates how ‘Steel Frame/Masonry’ and ‘Block and Plank’ resulted in the most CO2 pollution. The analysis showed these two assemblies to be particularly polluting in the manufacturing and construction process categories. The assembly that incorporated 100% wood, ranked lowest in carbon footprint. This was expected as wood is a rapidly renewable material and also naturally sequesters CO2. The three assemblies that follow it are only a few degrees more polluting, with the main dif-

ferentiator being their structural material.

Many factors should be considered in the material selection process, including material performance, its use and location in the building, regional availability, durability given the intended exposure and use, indoor air quality safety, etc. When assessing construction assembly options, ability to act as thermal mass must also be considered. The key issues to understand in terms of materials’ carbon footprint are the extraction of raw materials, their processing and manufacture and transportation involved from extraction to construction site.

Furthermore, some materials produce more waste than others during the construction process. In some cases, this can be mitigated by specifying optimum sizes. The end-of-life of the material and its potential for reuse or recyclability should also be considered. If this potential Figure 7: Volumetric compositions: “Thin Tall Tower,” “Thin Low Bar,” “Cube with Atrium,” and “Village Grouping.” Energy model data courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

“Thin Tall Tower” 12,480 GSF/FLR 11 Floors, 350 Beds 64,320 SF Façade Area 12,480 SF Roof Area 76,800 SF Total Surface Area 1,497,600 CF Volume 137,280 GSF Program Area SA / V Ratio = .05 1,699,700 kWh Total Electric Consumption per Year

“Thin Low Tower” 34,320 GSF/FLR 4 Floors, 352 Beds 60,896 SF Façade Area 34,320 SF Roof Area 95,216 SF Total Surface Area 1,510,080 CF Volume 137,280 GSF Program Area SA / V Ratio = .06 1,717,900 kWh Total Electric Consumption per Year

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A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

exists, dismountable connections should be detailed.

Overall, optimization and reduction of materials should be part of a carbon footprint minimization plan.

1.2 Energy Optimization: Surface Area / Volume Ratio

The energy required for operating a building is directly related to its form and solar orientation. The surface area to volume ratio relationship is important because the skin of the building is the surface through which heat escapes. Controlling heat exchange, strategic sun exposure and shading and water retention and extraction are important parts of balancing energy requirements throughout the seasons. Four different volumetric configurations were analyzed for energy efficiency using eQUEST, a QUick Energy Simulation Tool, a free software available through the Department of Energy (DOE-2). It is a comprehensive hour-by-hour simula-

tion; daylighting and glare calculations integrate with hourly energy simulation. The data noted here was inputted into this energy model software. Each configuration assumed ideal solar orientation and incorporated forms typical of Residence Halls (see Figure 7). The energy model established a common denominator for all schemes: R-21 in roof, R-8 continuous insulation with R-13 batt insulation in walls, R-10 board perimeter insulation at floor slab for a distance of 2 feet, 30% glazing all around envelope surface, U-55 [imperial] glazing and SHGC - 0.40. The R value is a measure of thermal resistance in materials, which refers to the material’s ability to conduct heat. In the U.S.A., R-values are given in units of ft²•°F•h/Btu. The bigger the number, the better the building insulation’s effectiveness. Increasing the thickness of an insulating layer increases the thermal resistance. R-value is the reciprocal of U-value. The

“Cube with Atrium” 12,544 GSF/FLR 11 Floors, 350 Beds 62,920 SF Façade Area 16,900 SF Roof Area 79,820 SF Total Surface Area 2,028,000 CF Volume 137,984 GSF Program Area SA / V Ratio = .04 1,904,500 kWh Total Electric Consumption per Year

“Village Grouping” 7,100 x 3 GSF/FLR 3 Pavilions 7 Floors ea, 352 Beds 86,176 SF Façade Area 32,028 SF Roof Area 118,204 SF Total Surface Area 1,916,882 CF Volume 156,200 GSF Program Area SA / V Ratio = .06 2,342,500 kWh Total Electric Consumption per Year

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U-value (or U-factor), more correctly called the overall heat transfer coefficient, describes how well a building element conducts heat. The Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) measures how well a window blocks heat from sunlight. The SHGC is the fraction of the heat from the sun that enters through a window. SHGC is expressed as a percentage between 0 and 1. The lower a window’s SHGC, the less solar heat it transmits. For the purpose of this comparison, cooling loads and assumed shading was a constant denominator. The floor breakdown was also the same in all schemes: 75% suites 5% laundry 8% corridor 2% mechanical 5% lobby 5% lounge The initial hypothesis assumed the “Cube with Atrium” scheme was going to have the best performance given its compact shape. Instead, the analysis indicated a tighter volumetric composition that exposes the least amount of surface is most desirable for energy efficiency. The schemes “Thin Tall Tower” and “Thin Low Bar,” both with double loaded corridors, performed best, followed by “Cube with Atrium” which had single loaded corridors. The worst performer was the “Village Grouping” scheme where increased surface area and circulation cores contributed to inefficiency. Since this analysis was devoid of materiality, it allowed a focused look at energy performance given surface and volume ratios. However, surface to volume ratios are not the only indicator of energy performance. Efficient location of circulation cores, appropriate insulation, total square footage and efficient floor plate with adequate program fit outs are important too. In many situations, site constraints might have an impact in form efficiency and possible solar orientation. These initial volumetric studies were based on large residence hall programs. The case study section that follows below considered lessons learned from this explorations and adopted strategies for a smaller residence hall program.

2.0 CASE STUDY: RESIDENCE HALL AT ROGER WILLIAMS UNIVERSITY

In order to further test sustainable strategies for achieving carbon neutrality in a Residence Hall, a site was selected for a case study at Roger Williams University in Bristol, Rhode Island. The site was already designated as a district for future housing in the Residence Life Master Plan. The site is also adjacent to a 349bed Residence Hall that Perkins and Will (Boston Of-

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Figure 8: Residence master plan, proposed master plan revisions and campus model indicating site area.

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

fice) designed and completed in fall 2009. This existing building was designed to achieve LEED Silver certification, which led the design team to learn about regional conditions and the University’s commitment to sustainability. The University is promoting sustainability through educational programs for the campus community, teaching students how to incorporate sustainable strategies into their everyday lives. A group of students called Eco-Reps conduct new student orientations that educate on energy and water conservation and recycling.

The University has projected a future need of approximately 500 beds. This precinct would house 512 beds; 128 of which are included in the case study, with the remaining 384 beds to be housed in the future residential towers within the precinct. With this bed count and challenge to make the building carbon neutral, the case study considered a series of site passive and active strategies. An important factor in the controllability of systems is the students’ awareness of the systems and how they work. Students should be educated about the sustainable strategies included in the design and how to maximize the effects of those strategies through their own behavior and practices, such as operating the windows to control cross ventilation.

2.1 Site and Building: Passive and Active Strategies implemented Figure 9: Site precinct illustrating existing “U” shape residence hall, campus green connections, a “low bar” residence hall (subject of the case study), three future residential towers, tennis courts, an existing parking area and seasonal landscape.

Figure 10: Geothermal wells located in campus green and zoned to accomodate to future growth.

The University’s goal for the 2009/2010 academic year is to increase recycling in Residence Halls by 20%, as well as improve rates of water and power conservation.

The Residence Life Master Plan located future Residence Hall buildings north of the existing Residence Hall (Figure 8). The orientation of these proposed buildings followed a directionality established by the northern campus grid and created a green space connected to the existing Residence Hall. The case study proposed maintaining the established design composition, but proposed rotating the future residence halls to align with true South. This simple move retained the integrity of the original Residence Life Master Plan while capitalizing on a solar orientation that would maximize the inclusion of passive sustainable strategies.

Working from the University Master Plan, the case study also sought to minimize site disturbance and to create an appropriate density, shading with seasonal landscape that incorporates native plants, pervious pavement and zoning for future growth and geothermal wells (Figure 9).

Geothermal wells are located in the green space adjacent to the existing and new buildings (Figure 10).

Geothermal power is power extracted from heat stored in the earth. One way of reaching the heat source is by digging a well. A geothermal heat and cool pump is the central heating and/or cooling system that pumps heat to or from the ground. When the ground is considered a ‘finite’ heat source, the pump uses the earth as a heat source in the winter and as a heat sink in the summer.

This design takes advantage of the moderate temperatures in the ground to boost efficiency and reduce the operational costs of heating and cooling systems. When the ground heat is considered an ‘infinite’ heat source, it usually means that a constant flow of water runs through it replenishing the ground heat constantly. This design allows running the system in extracting mode only because it is not necessary to recharge the ground heat. The first phase requires 5 standing column wells, each 1,500 feet deep and spaced 60 feet on center.

Geothermal system selection should be based on geography. Standing column wells typically work well in New England and would work for this location. In other areas, such as the Midwest, the well system will most likely be closed loop which would include 50 wells 400 feet deep spaced 15 feet on center. The two possible scenarios for implementing ground source heat pump are discussed in detail in the following sections.

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have limited applicability. This scenario alleviates the need to balance the heating and cooling loads, so the system could theoretically be used solely in the heating mode. The “near field” ground temperature will still be affected by the system.

Water Management strategies considered at site scale include capturing storm water runoff in bio-swales (Figure 11). Bio-swales are a type of bio-filter or landscape swale drainage designed to remove silt and pollution from surface runoff water. They are filled with vegetation, compost, and/or riprap. As the water flows through them, pollutants and silt are trapped while at the same time the runoff is treated before releasing it to the watershed or storm sewer. Pervious paving would also allow water to infiltrate through the ground thus preventing storm water from escaping the site. At the building scale, a series of strategies were considered: rainwater harvesting, on-site graywater treatment, graywater reuse and low-flow showerheads, faucets and toilets. Benefits for capturing and reusing water would be difficult to calculate in analyzing the overall carbon emission reduction. For the purpose of the study, we explored water treatment and harvesting through passive strategies thereby reducing the energy used to treat water off-site.

Figure 11: Site water management captures storm water runoff in bio-swales. Strategies at a building scale are represented in the building section.

Scenario 1: “Finite” Heat Source This scenario assumes well water and ground are a finite heat source. This means that on an annual basis, there needs to be an overall balance in the extraction of heat. This balance is achieved by using the earth as a heat source in the winter and as a heat sink in the summer. During winter, heat from the ground is used to heat the building and for domestic water heating. During summer, heat is put into the ground as the building is cooled. If these heat flows are not balanced, the ground and well water will cool down (if too much heat is extracted), or heat up (if too much heat is rejected), reducing the efficiency of the system or resulting in system failure. In other words, in the “finite” heat source scenario, the system will be heating-dominant and a supplemental heat source would be required. This supplemental heat source can be fulfilled with solar thermal collectors and air to water heat exchangers.

Scenario 2: “Infinite” Heat Source This scenario assumes there is significant water migration through well field to model the well field as essentially an “infinite” heat source or sink. This represents an ideal scenario if no cooling loads are desired and will

16

Ventilation strategies considered seasonal prevailing winds. While spring winds prevail from northeast, northwest and south directions, fall winds come primarily from west and south. In the winter, prevailing winds are northwest (Figure 12). Evergreen trees on the north side mitigate winter winds (Figure 13). The siting of the buildings redirect winter winds towards the shared green space.

Southern summer winds are captured through operable windows in the lounges that allow the winds to permeate the building envelope (Figure 14). During humid days in the summer months, occupants can use ceiling fans to mitigate uncomfortable conditions. To over design a cooling system would be inefficient given the limited number of uncomfortably-hot days in the New England summer. Instead, occupants should be made aware that 3% to 5% of the time thermal comfort may not be achieved. Occupants should also be educated on how to operate the windows for efficient air flow. Buildings are sited in a staggered pattern to prevent wind flow blockage. A natural ventilation passive flow system redirects wind through the building (Figure 13). Deciduous trees shade the building’s South façade and heat chimneys assist in removing warm air from interior spaces.

An important advantage of using natural ventilation is that the building does not need to be mechanically

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

cooled, therefore, the energy load required for a cooling system is dismissed. In this case, the only energy load considered for cooling is the electricity to run ceiling fans during hot and humid summer days.

The building plan is organized in 8 suites, each shared by 4 students. Each floor has access to two stairs, an

elevator, a recycling room, a janitor’s closet and an internal corridor. The living room of each suite is located adjacent to the common lounges. This planning strategy not only creates a strong sense of community, but also allows for summer ventilation through operable windows (Figures 15 and 16). Students in each suite have the capacity to control cross ventilation through the unit by

Figure 12: Winter, Summer, Spring and Fall wind frequencies.

Figure 13: Winter and Summer winds.

17

RESEARCH JOURNAL / VOL 01.02

Figure 14: Section through lounges illustrate exterior and interior operable windows allowing wind to move through the space.

These common spaces are identifiable in the building volumetric composition as “four-season” porches. Heat chimneys flank the common lounges and serve to ventilate southern-exposed suites during summer months.

opening windows. Wetcores are detached and lowered from the ceiling to facilitate wind flow across the suite.

The depth and height of the living rooms and bedrooms were studied for passive air flow. The ceiling height of the spaces was set to 11’-0” in order to allow for a better cool-warm air cycle within spaces (Figure 17). In support of this strategy, an operable window was introduced above a 2’-0”-deep light shelf. Other considerations for passive air flow included offseting window openings to maximize air mixing and lifting furniture from the floor by six inches, while keeping it low from the ceiling to prevent air blocking. Also, living room windows were conceived as doors that could swing open to bring in air.

Solar angles were studied to minimize heat gain during the summer and capture heat during the winter. The

building is oriented primarily north-south with passive and active heat gain systems facing south. Shading is incorporated in the south façade to prevent heat gain during the summer. In the main skin of the building, this shading device is actually a photovoltaic panel system which sits on a frame that is attached to the façade and roof (Figures 18 and 19). The angles of the panels could be permanently fixed to a degree that captures the sun during the higher demand season. For this location, at latitude 41.6 degrees N, a fixed angle could be set at 60 degrees representing the highest demand season. Some manufacturers would recommend the fixed angle should equal the latitude. However, to achieve best performance of the photovoltaic panels, it would be best to use a system that could be angled differently every season. Various companies now offer

4-Bed Suite

4-Bed Suite

4-Bed Suite 4-Bed Suite

4-Bed Suite

4-Bed Suite

4-Bed Suite

4-Bed Suite

Figure 15: Building Plan illustrating summer winds crossing through lounges and how winds are directed into lounges from adjacent living rooms. The dashed lines represent the capacity to “zip-down” the building’s envelope through operable windows to allow cross ventilation.

18

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

these types of systems, an example being a louver system to which a photovoltaic film could be attached. The louver system can be programmed to respond automatically to the season’s solar position. In the lounges, solar shading is provided by cantilevered roof elements.

In winter, the lounges capture solar heat and retain that heat gain with thermal mass (Figure 20). The lounges, much like four-season porches, have a southern portion separated by glass. The outer glass has a lower performance, making more heat gain possible. This heat is transferred to the concrete floors and the masonry walls that define the lounges. The floors and walls then transfer the heat gained to the adjacent living rooms.

Heat is also captured in the heat chimneys which are

Living Room

Figure 16: Plan of corner suite illustrating summer cross ventilation and section through suite wetcore.

Figure 18: Solar angle study. Orange surfaces represent photovoltaic panels attached to the building’s south façade and roof.

enclosed by low-performing glass to control heat gain (Figure 21). Some of this heat is directly transferred into the suites. A basic solar collector concept works as follows: The amount of heat that a solar collector can capture is a function of the temperature of the air or water inside the collector. Although counterintuitive, the lower the temperature, the more heat it collects.

The solar chimney works as follows: outside air is introduced at the bottom of the chimney in the winter. Solar energy is absorbed by the chimney walls, heating this air as it moves up the chimney. It is then brought into a ventilation air unit, where it is heated further by the heat recovery wheel, which is a rotary heat exchanger that operates on the air-to-air principle of heat transfer.

Additional heating (if required), is produced by a hot water heating coil. The conditioned air is then distributed through the building. At the same time, exhaust air from other building systems is passed through the other side of the heat wheel, transferring its heat to the ventilation air. In the summer, outside air bypasses the chimney and windows inside the chimney can be opened from the suites to allow cross ventilation.

Other winter heating strategies are illustrated in Figure 22. The heart of the heating system is a water-to-water heat pump, which consists of all the major components found in any piece of cooling equipment (refrigerator, air conditioner, chiller, etc). The major components are the evaporator (cold coil), condenser (hot coil), compressor and expansion valve. The compressor (electric) does the work to absorb heat from the evaporator with refrigerant and transfers it to the condenser. The key to the system is a phase change of the refrigerant (liquid to vapor and back again), due to the pressure change created by the compressor and expansion valve. The

Figure 17: Cool/warm air cycle within bedroom.

19

RESEARCH JOURNAL / VOL 01.02

Figure 19: Section through bedrooms (left) illustrate a shading device that also acts as a photovoltaic panel system. South-facing bedrooms have light shelves to increase daylighting. Where possible, light tubes are incorporated in the top level of the building.

Section through lounges (right) indicate cantilevered roof components that provide summer shade.

Figure 20: Thermal mass and thermal zones in the lounge and living room areas.

phase and pressure change result in significantly different temperatures in the evaporator and condenser. In a ground source heat pump, ground water is pumped from the ground to the evaporator and heat is extracted from the ground water and transferred to the condenser. A separate hot water loop absorbs heat from the condenser, where it is then pumped to heating coils to be used to heat the building and domestic water. The heat pump can also be used to create chilled water by reversing the refrigerant flow (through automatic valves in the unit) in the heat pump, taking heat from the chilled water loop and rejecting it to the ground water loop.

Supplemental heating can be provided with solar thermal collectors and a water-to-air heat exchanger.

Daylighting studies were modeled using Ecotect software for the suite’s living room and a typical bedroom (Figures 23 and 24). These models helped establish appropriate daylighting levels in both spaces, zone the building to meet general lighting needs and develop spatial proportions to optimize daylight for tasks. An interior 2’-0’”-deep light shelf bounces light through the spaces, optimizing daylight for tasks such as studying

20

in the bedrooms or socializing in the living area. The optimal opening for the living room is 50% glazing in the exterior wall with a horizontally oriented window opening. The overall living room dimensions varied slightly for northern and southern exposures. For the bedroom, 30% glazing in the exterior wall was more appropriate given the small size of the space and a vertically oriented window opening was more appropriate for the light levels needed.

2.2 Materials Selection and Assembly

In general, the study of material assemblies considered performance (including durability, strength and maintenance), the lifespan of the building (determined to be 80 years), materials’ end-of-life (potential for reuse, recyclability, deconstructability), availability of local reclaimed materials and the material’s inherent carbon footprint. A balance of all these concerns was essential in establishing the following selection: • Footings: 4” slab on grade concrete • Structure: Glued laminated columns and beams • Floors: Concrete slab on glued laminated wood structure

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

• Roof: Wood joist • Envelope Wall: Cedar wood siding, plywood, light weight plywood web, blown cellulose insulation, gypsum fibre board • Interior Walls: 4” Wood studs, gypsum fibre board and latex water based paint • Windows and Doors: FSC Wood / Glazing: Low-e T in Argon Filled Glazing, U (imperial units assembly, not the center of glass) = 0.29, SHGC = 0.27, VLT = 0.66 • Millwork: FSC Wood

Outside Air 0° F 70° F

50° F

85° F

65° F

Figure 21: Heat chimneys. Design of heat chimney and air to air system, courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

Air / Water Heat Exchanger

The use of these materials is represented in the lounge space illustrated in Figure 25. This communal space was seen as an opportunity to expose materials in a didactic way: The Forest Certified glue laminated wood sequesters CO2, the argon-filled glazing controls heat gain, reclaimed/salvaged bricks represent waste redirected from landfills and reduces need for newly-manufactured materials, the furniture contains high recycled

Solar Thermal Option

To chilled water coils Pump

Pump

To radiant floor heating and heating coils

Cross-over Valves (Heating - Cooling)

Pump Water to Water Heat Pump

Heat Exchanger

Pump Bypass

Wells and Well Pumps

Figure 22: Heat Pump Flow Diagram, courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

21

RESEARCH JOURNAL / VOL 01.02

content, the concrete contains high percentages of fly ash and local or modified aggregates, latex water-based paint throughout maintains air quality and dismountable detail connections allow for future material reuse.

Locally sourced reclaimed materials were researched in partnership with Planet ReUse, a brokerage company that locates, provides samples and secures reclaimed materials across the nation. Locally reclaimed materials usually come from buildings that are being demolished or renovated. Since these materials have already being manufactured and transported to the area, the main idea is to reuse them instead of taking them to landfills.

Figure 23: Living room daylighting study, Ecotect graphic generation.

The following is a partial list of locally-available materials: • Interior commercial solid wood/core doors • Exterior siding (cypress, cedar and other species) • Light fixtures (depending look/energy requirements): sconces, 2’x4’ and 2’x2’ fixtures both strip and direct/indirect • Structural steel (if structural steel framing is used) • Interior wood for built-in shelving, beds, etc.

• Rigid insulation in certain areas • Plastic laminate or solid surface tops/counters • Reclaimed carpet tile in carpeted areas • Exterior wall/face brick • Paver brick for sidewalks and courtyard paths.

Since prefabrication minimizes construction waste, energy use and design costs, the possibility of prefabricated modular construction was investigated at building scale, suite scale and on the scale of individual spaces such as the kitchen and bathroom. In partnership with Kullman, a prefabrication contractor from New Jersey, a steel frame prefabrication scenario was studied. A cost estimate in 2009 dollars was provided by Kullman at $185-200 per SF, including complete inside of building and envelope, mechanical systems, elevators, and stairs. This cost estimate was for a building of about 57,000 SF with 120 beds. At the scale of the overall building, the building could be divided into components that could ship in 14’ wide by 60’ long maximum modules (Figure 26). Because prefabrication minimizes construction time at the site, the estimated schedule was 120 working days for shop construction, 15 days for setting it in place and 30 days for finishing work if no major mechanical systems were to be incorporated.

The suite was designed to comply with the maximum dimensions for shipping prefabricated modules. The suite could ship in three modules (Figure 27) or in indivudual components such as the kitchen, central wetcore and bedroom units.

Figure 24: Bedroom daylighting study: to the left an Ecotect graphic generation and to the right, a perspective view of a typical bedroom illustraing the light shelf integrated with wood shelving. The orientation of the room diagram corresponds to the Ecotect image to the left.

22

The building’s envelope was conceived as a super-insulated skin, with R40 values in walls and R60 in the roof.

These higher R values moderate temperature changes, preventing extreme fluctuations. The building envelope consists of two types of glass. Low-performance glass used in the heat chimneys and south-facing four-season porches allows heat gain necessary to harvest solar energy inside the building. In this regard, these fourseason porches and the heat chimneys act as thermal mass intake portals that heat inner masonry walls and the concrete floor during the winter. High-performance glass located in the inner layer of the four-season porch

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

modulates heat transmission. Operable windows located in this inner layer modulate adequate ventilation.

The building’s walls and roof could share a similar assembly concept (Figure 28). A lightweight plywood web with laminated flange provides flexibility in widths to increase insulation as necessary. Without compromising structural stability, the cedar wood siding could be reclaimed and backed by Forest Stewardship CouncilCertified plywood. The interior blown cellulose has high recycled content and an R value of 3.70 per inch. Gypsum fiber board with a coat of water-based latex paint lines the interior spaces.

The materials’ embodied CO2 and energy was measured using ‘Athena Impact Estimator for Buildings’ in order to understand their impact and the resulting offset requirements. A “baseline” design was compared against the case study’s “CO2-neutral” design (Figure 29). The following numbers summarize the comparison. Unsurprisingly, the “baseline” design embodied far more CO2 than the “CO2-neutral” design. The greatest differentials are seen in the wall and beam and column assessments. The wall design of the “CO2-neutral” residence showed nearly a 50% reduction in embodied CO2 as compared to the “baseline” design. The wood structure also showed a significant reduction as compared to the steel structure of the standard design.

Figure 25: Typical lounge area, also referred to as a “four-season porch.”

As a first step, optimization allows the design team to limit the amount of material needed to construct a building. By simply using less, the carbon footprint is reduced. The next step is to assess each possible maNORMAL MODULE

VERTICAL MODULE

FLOOR / CEILING PANEL

11'-7"

12'-8 1/2"

19'-2 1/4"

50'-11 1/4"

50'-11 1/4"

19'-2 1/4"

12'-8 1/2"

11'-7"

12'-2"

11'-1 1/8"

7'-8"

31'-6"

10'-10 7/8" 11'-1 1/8"

6'-6"

27'-9"

30'-7"

11'-1 1/8"

10'-10 7/8"

8'-9" 12'-0" 12'-1"

38'-1"

31'-6"

12'-2"

12'-2"

12'-10 1/4"

6'-9"

31'-4"

31'-4"

6'-9"

12'-10 1/4"

Figure 26: Building plan divided into shippable prefabricated modules. Modular division strategy courtesy of Kullman.

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

23

RESEARCH JOURNAL / VOL 01.02

Figure 27: Suite could ship in three modules or in smaller components.

3/4” PLYWOOD R=0.94 BUILDING OR ROOFING PAPER (0.1 PERM)

5/8” GYPSUM FIBER BOARD R=0.56

VARIABLE VAPOR RETARDER (1 PERM MIN.)

3/4” CEDAR WOOD SIDING R=0.93 LIGHTWEIGHT 3/8” PLYWOOD WEB 2X3 LAMINATED FLANGE (CAN SPAN 20’-60’)

BLOWN CELLULOSE INSULATION R=3.7 X 10” = 37

NOTE: EXTERIOR AIR FILM = R 0.17 INTERIOR AIR FILM = R 0.68

Figure 28: Wall assembly. The roof could have a similar assembly but would have a wider area for insulation to increase the assembly’s R value from 40 to 60.

24

terial and make informed decisions based on the CO2 impact analysis. As shown in this study, the selection of one material instead of another can make a significant difference in the overall carbon footprint of a building.

3.0 MODEL CONCLUSIONS AND ENERGY PRODUCTION OPTIONS

Based on energy usage assessment and strategies defined for the residence hall, a series of scenarios were studied to assess energy production options. eQUEST (QUick Energy Simulation Tool) was used to model the energy requirements of the building. This is the same software used for the studies presented in section 1.2: Energy Optimization: Surface Area/Volume Ratio. These scenarios, illustrated in Figures 30 to 32, demonstrate how occupant comfort levels play a role in energy loads, the advantages of daylighting and the benefits of incorporating Energy Star appliances and equipment. There are variations in the energy loads assumed for the following components: heating through electric baseboards or electric radiant floors, thermostat degrees set, daylighting inclusion or exclusion and refrigerator loads inclusion or exclusion. Constant assumptions in all three scenarios were electric hot water use and the inclusion of Energy Star appliances/equipment. Other common assumptions include: a building of 48,162 GSF, 4 levels and a total of 128 beds. The breakdown of the electric consumption per month is listed in each scenario and a corresponding color chart illustrates the values by electric load.

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

Baseline

Brick Cavity Wall

Steel

CO2 Design

Baseline Design

Embodied CO2 = 1,562,093.15 kg CO2 eq/kg

Embodied Energy = 26,632,030.21 MJ CO2 Neutral Design

Embodied CO2 = 926,140.72 kg CO2 eq/kg

Embodied Energy = 14,008,460.83 MJ Figure 29: Comparison on materials’ embodied CO2 and energy: “Baseline” design vs. “CO2-Neutral” design.

In Scenario C, the refrigerator load was removed to understand the impact of the load in the overall calculation. It confirmed that the refrigerator is one of the biggest energy consumers. Therefore, an Energy Star refrigerator will significantly reduce energy load demands. The refrigerator accounted for 13.8% of the 20% reduction in miscellaneous loads that is achieved when all room appliances (including laundry equipment) are Energy Star.

The analysis of these scenarios highlights the importance of daylighting and its ability to reduce light fixture loads. When daylighting was accounted for, the area lights total energy consumption was reduced by 13%.

It should be noted that Energy Star light fixtures could also contribute significant load reductions. When heating equipment’s thermostats are reduced from 72 to 68 degrees, a decrease of 18% in space heat energy loads was achieved. This type of comparative analysis should be conducted throughout the design process in order to make the best decisions that will result in the most energy-efficient project possible.

3.1 Miscellaneous Equipment and Energy Usage

The case study carefully considered a list of miscellaneous equipment and appliances typically used by students and shared in a suite. Institutions could consider publishing a list of acceptable student-provided equipment that will minimize the building’s operational cost and serve to support sustainable awareness. Some shared equipment such as the refrigerator could be provided by the Institution. Housing officials could also educate new student residents about everyday strategies to reduce energy usage in residence hall rooms.

For instance, the residence hall might provide high quality-efficient overhead light fixtures, but students should be made aware of the most efficient light bulb type to be use in lamps they might bring with them.

The following is a typical equipment list per bedroom and suite which has been modified from a typical list for energy efficiency and represents the data assumed in the project’s energy model: Equipment in each bedroom: • Energy Star laptop computer • Energy Star all-in-one printer • Desk lamp • Alarm clock • IPod docking station • Hair dryer • Cell phone charger Equipment Shared per suite: • Energy Star refrigerator • Energy Star microwave • Energy Star TV • Game systems • Energy Star DVD An energy analysis was developed to compare energy consumption using standard equipment versus Energy Star equipment (Figure 33). Data for this equipment was taken from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Energy Star website, which list appliance’s and equipment’s kwh/yr energy consumption with assumed hours of use per day6. The website also provides savings calculators per equipment.

25

RESEARCH JOURNAL / VOL 01.02

Project/Run: Carbon Neutral - 6-24-09 - elec bsbrd-elec hw-Estar

Run Date/Time: 06/24/09 @ 17:59

Electric Consumption (kWh) (x000) 80

60

40

20

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Area Lighting Task Lighting Misc. Equipment

Exterior Usage Pumps & Aux. Ventilation Fans

Water Heating Ht Pump Supp.

Space Heating

Refrigeration Heat Rejection Space Cooling

Electric Consumption (kWh x000) Space Cool Heat Reject.

Refrigeration Space Heat HP Supp.

Hot Water Vent. Fans Pumps & Aux. Ext. Usage Misc. Equip.

Task Lights Area Lights Total

Jan

46.29 4.02 0.44 11.82 7.88 70.46

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total

36.83 3.83 0.40 10.70 7.13 58.89

25.82 4.26 0.44 11.87 7.91 50.30

10.09 4.02 0.43 11.49 7.66 33.69

0.84 3.71 0.44 11.82 7.88 24.70

0.03 3.16 0.43 11.49 7.66 22.77

0.00 2.87 0.44 11.87 7.90 23.08

0.00 2.65 0.44 11.84 7.90 22.83

0.08 2.56 0.43 11.48 7.65 22.20

3.93 2.88 0.44 11.84 7.90 26.99

17.67 3.13 0.43 11.45 7.62 40.29

41.65 3.65 0.44 11.87 7.90 65.51

183.24 40.73 5.19 139.56 92.99 461.71

Gas Consumption (Btu) Jan Space Cool Heat Reject.

Refrigeration Space Heat HP Supp.

Hot Water Vent. Fans Pumps & Aux. Ext. Usage Misc. Equip.

Task Lights Area Lights Total

• Electric baseboards set to 72 degrees • Electric hot water • No daylighting considered but reduced lighting loads applied • Energy Star appliances/equipment eQUEST 3.63.6500 Monthly Energy Consumption by Enduse • Total Yearly = 461,710 kWh Figure 30: Energy analysis scenario A. Courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

26

Page 1

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

Project/Run: Carbon Neutral - 6-24-09 - elRAdiant-elHW-Daylight-Estar

Run Date/Time: 06/24/09 @ 17:59

Electric Consumption (kWh) (x000) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Area Lighting Task Lighting Misc. Equipment

Exterior Usage Pumps & Aux. Ventilation Fans

Water Heating Ht Pump Supp.

Space Heating

Refrigeration Heat Rejection Space Cooling

Electric Consumption (kWh x000) Space Cool Heat Reject.

Refrigeration Space Heat HP Supp.

Hot Water Vent. Fans Pumps & Aux. Ext. Usage Misc. Equip.

Task Lights Area Lights Total

Jan

39.46 4.03 0.44 11.82 7.21 62.97

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total

30.96 3.84 0.40 10.70 6.39 52.30

19.63 4.27 0.44 11.87 6.93 43.15

5.90 4.04 0.43 11.49 6.52 28.38

0.34 3.71 0.44 11.82 6.50 22.81

0.00 3.16 0.43 11.49 6.24 21.32

0.00 2.87 0.44 11.87 6.47 21.65

0.00 2.65 0.44 11.84 6.63 21.56

0.01 2.57 0.43 11.48 6.63 21.12

1.39 2.89 0.44 11.84 7.04 23.61

11.75 3.14 0.43 11.45 6.91 33.68

34.94 3.67 0.44 11.87 7.27 58.19

144.40 40.85 5.19 139.56 80.75 410.74

Gas Consumption (Btu) Jan Space Cool Heat Reject.

Refrigeration Space Heat HP Supp.

Hot Water Vent. Fans Pumps & Aux. Ext. Usage Misc. Equip.

Task Lights Area Lights Total

• Electric radiant floors set to 68 degrees • Electric hot water • Daylighting controls / occupancy sensors considered = less lighting loads •eQUEST Energy3.63.6500 Star appliances/equipment Monthly Energy Consumption by Enduse • Total Yearly = 410,740 kWh

Page 1

Figure 31: Energy analysis scenario B. Courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

27

RESEARCH JOURNAL / VOL 01.02

Project/Run: Carbon Neutral - 6-24-09 - Rad Elec-elec HW-daylight-Estar-no refer

Run Date/Time: 06/24/09 @ 18:00

Electric Consumption (kWh) (x000) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Area Lighting Task Lighting Misc. Equipment

Exterior Usage Pumps & Aux. Ventilation Fans

Water Heating Ht Pump Supp.

Space Heating

Refrigeration Heat Rejection Space Cooling

Electric Consumption (kWh x000) Space Cool Heat Reject.

Refrigeration Space Heat HP Supp.

Hot Water Vent. Fans Pumps & Aux. Ext. Usage Misc. Equip.

Task Lights Area Lights Total

Jan

40.67 4.03 0.44 10.60 7.21 62.95

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total

32.02 3.84 0.40 9.59 6.39 52.25

20.75 4.28 0.44 10.64 6.93 43.04

6.56 4.04 0.43 10.31 6.52 27.86

0.36 3.71 0.44 10.60 6.50 21.62

0.00 3.16 0.43 10.31 6.24 20.13

0.00 2.87 0.44 10.64 6.47 20.42

0.00 2.65 0.44 10.61 6.63 20.34

0.01 2.57 0.43 10.29 6.63 19.93

1.70 2.89 0.44 10.62 7.04 22.70

12.73 3.14 0.43 10.27 6.91 33.48

36.11 3.67 0.44 10.64 7.27 58.14

150.93 40.86 5.19 125.12 80.75 402.85

Gas Consumption (Btu) Jan Space Cool Heat Reject.

Refrigeration Space Heat HP Supp.

Hot Water Vent. Fans Pumps & Aux. Ext. Usage Misc. Equip.

Task Lights Area Lights Total

• Electric radiant floors set to 68 degrees • Electric hot water • Daylighting controls / occupancy sensors considered = less lighting loads •eQUEST Energy3.63.6500 Star appliances/equipment Monthly Energy Consumption by Enduse • Refrigerator load removed = -10% of load • Total Yearly = 402,850 kWh Figure 32: Energy analysis scenario C. Courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

28

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A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

Based on the data collected per equipment, the standard consump tion per suite was 846 kwh/yr vs. the Energy Star Consumption which was 559 kwh/yr. The Energy Star total energy consumption represents a 66% reduction in energy consumption. The load percentages of both options are illustrated in Figure 34 by equipment/appliance use. In this illustration, the change in circumference reflects a 66% reduction in energy consumption. This analysis helped visualize the impact of including Energy Star equipment. Since computers and refrigerators are the biggest energy consumers, incorporating Energy Star versions would be more impactful.

In actuality, the accumulative reduction of the overall load of equipment is what makes a noticeable difference in a building.

3.2 Energy Reduction Technologies

A series of existing and emerging technologies were studied as energy reduction strategies for bedrooms and shared suites. These included a magnetic card operated intelligent lock system, a universal no-waste charging station and green power strip. Traditional magnetic card systems can be replaced by Intelligent Hotel Card System, specially designed to meet the needs of modern hotels. These systems provide maximum security and individual style at low operational cost. Systems specifics vary by manufacturer but are universally designed to cut power to all equipment once the occupant leaves the bedroom. Some manufacturers produce a four-part system consisting of door locks, encoder for keycard, keycards and management software. This type

of system can be programmed to cut power to all equipment in the room, or to specific items that are usually left on by occupants. It could also be programmed to change room temperature depending on time of day and occupancy. Many residence halls already use intelligent cards for security. Borrowing from the hotel card system, the residence hall card could also monitor occupancy and cut power to unused equipment that would otherwise be idle or wasting energy.

Another energy-saving technology is the universal nowaste charging station that allows different equipment to be recharged using the same platform. Ideal systems charge handheld electronics such as cell phones and iPods and cut power to each item once it is fully charged. The universal no-waste charging station might become obsolete in the future if the industry moves toward the production of an all-in-one device, such as the iPhone.

An existing product commonly known as the Green Power Strip is programmed to cut power to all equipment that is served by the same power strip once the computer is turned off. This product is most useful when all computer-related equipment is plugged into the same strip and is not used independent of the computer.

The universal no-waste charging station and the Green Power Strip are cost effective measures that could be

Annual Energy Consumption per person (kwh) for Miscellaneous loads Miscellaneous Equipment

Standard kwh/yr

Laptop Computer & Printer DVD TV Ceiling Fan

E Star %

kwh/yr

Note %

293.601 11.42478 76.35695628 37.25568

34.69 1.35 9.02 4.4

66.044 7.39458 63.32953067 34.0524

11.8 1.32 11.32 6.09

1 1 1 5

per person for 4 people for 4 people fans for 4 people

12 48 90 48

1.42 5.67 10.63 5.67

10 46 90 48

1.79 8.22 16.08 8.58

1 1 1 1

30 154.75 45

3.54 18.28 5.32

28 123.75 43

5 22.12 7.68

1 for 4 people 1 for 4 people 1 for 4 people

846.3884163

99.99

559.5705107

100

(1per bedroom, 1in common area)

Alarm Clock Ipod docking station Hair Dryer Cell Phone Stereo Refrigerator Microwave Total

per per per per

person person person person

Figure 33: Comparative analysis of standard energy consumption vs. Energy Star consumption by kilowatt hour per year and by percentage. Data courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

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Standard Energy Consumption

suggested as part of the student’s equipment list or could be provided by institutions.

The intelligent lock systems would have to be specifically designed to fit the institution’s needs and monitored for efficiency.

3.3 Energy Analysis: Offsetting CO2 Footprint

66% Energy Reduction

Energy Star Consumption

Figure 34: Comparative analysis of standard energy consumption vs. Energy Star consumption. Change in circumference size illustrates a reduction of 66% in energy consumption by using Energy Star equipment and appliances.

Data courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

30

According to the energy model and analysis, the case study residence hall will produce a total of 922,734.16 kg of CO2 over the life-span of the building. To offset these emissions with clean energy production, it is necessary to produce 25,631.50 kwh/Year of positive energy. Since the total building energy use is 454,280.00 kwh/Year, when this amount is added to the amount of necessary positive energy production, the total amount of required energy that the building needs to generate is 479,911.50 kwh/year. Figure 35 illustrates these calculations in greater detail and also highlights two interesting facts; the first is that the total local energy production required per square foot is 9.96 KWh/Year, which makes tangible the importance of optimization and reduction strategies in relation to building size. The second is that the total local energy production required per student is 3,749.31 KWh/Year, which underlines the importance of each student’s participation in energy-saving initiatives.

The importance of measuring and assessing all design decisions and sustainable strategies incorporated throughout the project’s development was discussed earlier. A final comparison of lifetime carbon footprint of a baseline design vs. the carbon-neutral design illustrates the impact of each strategic decision that leads to the creation of a carbon-neutral building. Figure 36 indicates carbon emissions in red and clean energy production in green. In the baseline design, carbon emissions are produced throughout the building’s lifetime, while the carbon-neutral design only exhibits these emissions during the manufacturing and construction process. The remaining stages of the carbon-neutral design show only green, representative of the electric loads offset by clean energy production.

For clean power generation, two methods were considered: photovoltaic (PV) panels and wind turbines.

These methods were further explored through three different options. The engineers of the study developed interactive charts with adjustable data in order to understand what percentages of energy production that best fitted the project needs. For the photovoltaic array calculations, optimal panel tilt considered the site’s latitude. Given the project’s location and the amount of

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

solar energy available, if a PV array system was used, it was determined that it could generate as much as 35% of the energy required (Figure 37). This percentage also considered the amount of area available in the building to support the photovoltaic array and different tilt angles, which included both roof and south faรงade.

Data to select and calculate PV panels was based on PVWATTS v.1, a performance calculator for grid-connected PV Systems available via internet (Figure 38)7.

This calculator assumes energy production values for crystalline silicon PV systems. The financial metric represented in Figure 37 indicates a total installed cost of $951,486.18 that would be recuperated in a 37.76 year payback. Since the optimal percentage of PV panels that the project could support was 35%, wind turbine power generation contributed the remaining 65% of energy production, accomplished with a 1,000 kW wind turbine (Figure 39). This split of 35% PV panels and 65% wind power is illustrated as Option 3 of power generation in Figure 40.

To explore other energy generation possibilities, other options were explored (Figure 40). These options illustrate energy production of different size wind turbines and various amounts of photovoltaic panels. Option 1 is 100% photovoltaic panels, which would take 2/3 area of a football stadium. This option might be a good scenario if the project was located in an area of the country where solar energy was stronger or if the site could have supported such a large expanse of PV array.

Building Parameters Building Area Students Building Floors Floor Area per Student Roof Area per Student Building Life Cycle

48,162.00 128.00 4.00 376.27 94.07 80.00

SF Students Floors Floor SF/Student Roof SF/Student Years

Building Construction Carbon Footprint Original Construction CO2 Generated Required Offset per Year CO2 Generated per kWh Required Positive kWh per year Required Positive kWh per SF- Year Required Positive kWh per Student -Year

922,734.16 11,534.18 0.45 25,631.50 0.53 200.25

kg CO2 kg CO2 kg CO2 kWh/Year kWh/SF-Year kWh/Student - Year

413,530.00 40,750.00 454,280.00 9.43 3,549.06

KWh/Year KWh/Year KWh/Year kWH/Year- SF kWH/Year - Student

25,631.50 454,280.00 479,911.50

KWh/Year KWh/Year KWh/Year

Building Energy Use Building Energy Use Electric & heat Building Energy Use DHW Total Building Energy Use Building Energy Use Per Square Foot Building Energy Use / Student

Total Required Energy Original Construction Offset Building Energy Use Total

Total Local Energy Production Required per SF:

9.96

Total Local Energy Production Required per Student:

3,749.31

KWh/Year - SF

KWh/Year - Student

Figure 35: Energy required to offset building CO2 footprint.

Data courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

Comparative Life Cycle Carbon Footprint

Baseline

CO2 Design

Offset Electric Loads

CO2 Design: Offset Electric Loads by Green Power Generation

CO2 Design

Figure 36: Comparative life cycle carbon footprint of a baseline design vs. a carbon-neutral design.

Data courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

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Photovoltaic Local Power Generation January February March April May June July August September October November December

Providence-41.7

Providence - 0

335 387 466 476 481 467 498 495 395 415 300 275

171 238 368 448 511 522 543 481 337 275 163 133

333 360 340 269 220 185 208 258 259 347 279 275

Total

4,990

4,190

3,333

kWh/SF of Panel - Year

13.24

11.11

8.84

% Energy Generation from PV

% PV Derrived from Optimal Tilt % PV Derrived from Horizontal % PV Derrived from Vertical (South) Total PV

Photovoltaic Panel Cost 12,600sf Area of Panel Required Total Area of Panel Required per Student Area of Panel per SF Building Roof Financial Metrics Installed Cost / watt Pannel watts / SF Installed Cost / Panel SF Rebate Earned / Panel SF Total Installed Cost Installed Cost / Building SF Installed Cost / Student Electric Cost Revenue (and avoided cost) per Year Payback (Years)

35%

100% 0% 0% 100%

Total For Carbon Nuetral Building

Total to Support Annual Operation

12,686.48 99.11 1.05

12,008.91 93.82 1.00

$7.50 10 $75.00 $0.00 $951,486.18 $19.76 $7,433.49 $0.15 $25,195.35 37.76

$7.50 10 $75.00 $0.00 $900,668.43 $18.70 $7,036.47 $0.15 $23,849.70 37.76

Figure 37: Photovoltaic Panel energy generation chart. Data courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

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Providence - 90

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

PV Energy Watts AC Energy & Cost Savings PV Watts AC & Cost Savings Station Identification Station Identification City State Latitude Longitude Elevation

City State Latitude Longitude Elevation

ProvidenceProvidence Rhode Island Rhode Island 41.73°N 41.73°N 71.43°W 71.43°W 19m 19m

PV System Specifications PV System Specifications DC Rateing DC Rateing DC to AC Derate Factor 4.0 kW 0.77 DC to AC Derate Factor AC Rating AC Rating Array Type 3.1 kW Array Type Array Tilt Fixed Tilt Array Tilt Array Azimuth 41.7°N Array Azimuth 180.0°

4.0 kW 0.77 3.1 kW Fixed Tilt 41.7°N 180.0°

Energy Specifications Energy Specifications Cost of Electricity Cost of Electricity

ResultsResults Solar Radiation AC EnergyEnergyEnergy ValueValue Solar Radiation AC Energy (kWh/m²/day) (kWh) (kWh) Month Month(kWh/m²/day) ($) ($) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Year

Year

3.37 4.31 4.87 5.26 5.35 5.57 5.85 5.76 4.68 4.54 3.27 2.82 4.64

3.37 4.31 4.87 5.26 5.35 5.57 5.85 5.76 4.68 4.54 3.27 2.82 4.64

335 387 466 476 481 467 498 495 395 415 300 275 4990

335 387 466 476 481 467 498 495 395 415 300 275 4990

40.8740.87 47.2147.21 56.85 56.85 58.07 58.07 58.68 58.68 56.97 56.97 60.76 60.7660.39 60.3948.19 48.1950.63 50.63 36.6 36.6 33.55 33.55 608.78 608.78

.122 $/kWh .122 $/kWh

Figure 38: This chart illustrates data used to select and calculate PV panels. This data was generated by PVWATTS v.1, a performance calculator for grid-connected PV Systems.

Wind Turbine Local Power Generation Turbine size 2,000 1,500 1,000 10 3

Annual Production Providence RI 5,174,000 3,749,000 1,995,000 14,000 5,000

% Energy Generation from Wind

65%

% % % % %

0% 0% 65% 0% 0% 0%

Wind Derrived from Wind Derrived from Wind Derrived from Wind Derrived from Wind Derrived from Total From Wind

Wind Turbine Cost Number of Turbines Installed Cost / watt Rebate Earned

2,000 kW 1,500 kW 1,000 kW 10 KW 2.5 KW

Hub Height

Total For Carbon Neutral Building

Rotor Diameter 270 330 270 60

252 275 177 23 14

Total to Support Annual Operation

0.2 $1.00

0.2 $1.00

Figure 39: Wind turbine energy generation chart. Data courtesy of Cosentini Associates.

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Option 1

Option 2

Option 3

100% - PV Array 36,247 sf (2/3 area of football stadium)

100% - .2x1000 kW Turbine (160ft) (will power 4 buildings on campus)

65% - 1x250 kW Turbine (100ft) 35% - PV Array 12,686 sf

Figure 40: Exploration of Energy Production Options.

Option 2 is 100% wind power with a 1,000 kW turbine, which could actually power 4 buildings on campus. Option 3, already discussed above, is 65% wind turbine powered by a 250 kW turbine and 35% PV array, corresponding to the available surface area of 12,686 SF. In conclusion, green power generation solutions are largely based on what the region and the site can support and what is right for the project and institution’s needs.

Furthermore, some solutions, such as wind turbines, would need to be accepted by the institution and adjacent neighborhood, as visual access to the large scale turbines will change the aspect of the environment and landscape.

In the energy tests and analysis executed, expected outcomes included the fact that refrigerators are the biggest energy consumers in the suites. Other energy analyses yielded unexpected results. For instance, storing energy on site was considered in the early stages as an off-the grid approach. It became evident, however, that the building was better served by access to the grid during peak times to balance energy demands. The final energy model and analysis showed a 20,000 kWh/ Year of energy surplus, which equals $4,000 yearly potential revenue for energy sold back to the grid. This potential revenue, coupled with the fact that Roger Williams University currently does not have on-site energy storage capacity, means that a connection to the grid would serve them best at the moment. This approach does not inhibit the possibility of future on-site energy storage if the University decides to explore synergies between buildings or districts within the campus.

The most important energy conclusion in regard to carbon neutrality is that the total energy production required to offset the lifetime CO2 impact of the building, including the construction and manufacturing of materials, operations and building end-of-life, is a total of 25,631.50 kWh/Year. The architectural and energy design of the case study implemented strategies to support this objective.

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4.0 CONCLUSIONS

The main objective of this study was to understand the implications, explore options and define strategies for designing a CO2-neutral building. Strategies were developed with the premise that a CO2-neutral building must mitigate the carbon emissions released in the materials fabrication, construction and continued operations of the building by generating more energy than it consumes over its lifespan through renewable resources.

Given these parameters, special attention was given to modeling, analyzing and measuring material selection and energy consumption. Materials selected were studied for initial embodied energy and carbon footprint in order to determine the level of carbon emissions offset necessary. The energy model focused on power consumption reduction strategies and measurement of energy loads with the goal of offsetting the initial carbon footprint impact.

Design and sustainable strategies incorporated in the case study followed the methodology established in the inverted triangle diagram (Figure 3), where the most impactful decisions are those made at the beginning of the design process. Furthermore, the design of the physical space – from the overall project size, site orientation, building form and massing, to building assembly and interior space distribution – considered a holistic integration of passive and active strategies.

Passive strategies included: • Optimization of surface and volume ratios that consider efficient building shape, solar orientation, efficient location of circulation cores, total square footage and efficient floor plate with adequate program fit outs.

• Thermal mass that uses masonry walls and concrete floors to moderate extreme temperature fluctuations by retaining and distributing heat.

• Natural ventilation that creates an efficient path for air flow and eliminates the need for air conditioning.

• Four-season porches and heat chimneys that assist in removing warm air from interior spaces.

A Study for Carbon Neutrality: The Impact of Decisions, Design and Energy

• Daylight optimization that considers space proportions for appropriate daylight levels, integrating light shelves at the exterior windows to capture light deep into the space.

• Material selection that considers materials’ embodied carbon footprint during the manufacturing process, optimization and reduction of material use, the overall health of the material and its effects on occupants, materials’ quality and durability performance, regional availability and the end-of-life of the materials.

Active strategies included: • Super-insulated building envelope achieving R40 walls and R60 roofs with attention to air leakage in assembly details.

• Geothermal wells for heating the building (radiant floors) and for domestic hot water.

• 75% lighting load reductions with efficient light fixtures.

• Daylighting controls/occupancy card system/green power strip to reduce energy waste.

• Energy Star appliances that further reduce energy consumption and could become part of the institution’s acceptable student-provided equipment.

Even with the inclusion of the sustainable strategies described above, a successful CO2-neutral building requires a monitoring system that facilitates an efficient operation and optimal building performance. Each institution’s commitment to sustainability also plays an important part in assuring these strategies are executed successfully and make sense in the context of their campus. Educational programs for users focused on building performance could further enhance the building’s sustainable design and lead to a higher rate of user accountability.

In summary, a CO2-neutral building design is a regionally based product. Explorations and strategies uncovered in this study, although particular to a specific residence hall program and site, offer insight into the challenges in designing a CO2-neutral building. Data measurement and verification along with building and energy models are essential components in the methodology. Collaboration between team members from the outset of the project is also important to fine-tune sustainable decisions, synthesizing all strategies into a cohesive and integrated design solution.

Acknowledgments

This study was done in partnership with Cosentini Associates, Inc. (Cambridge, MA office), a consulting engineering firm who provided energy optimization, generation and reduction strategies, analysis and calculations.

The authors acknowledge Robert Leber, PE, LEED AP, Senior Vice President and Michael Williamson, PE, LEED AP, Director Building Performance, for offering countless recommendations and solutions incorporated in this paper.

The authors also acknowledge the support and enthusiasm from Roger Williams University, in the form of specific and insightful recommendations from Tony Montefusco, Executive Director of University Housing Operations and Planning.

Acknowledgements are necessary for Perkins and Will support designers, architects and staff who contributed at many levels to the success and completion of the study: Tim Marsters, Managing Principal, for supporting the vision; Jeff Lewis, Technical Director, for questioning design strategies and offering solutions; Terry Tungjunyatham, designer, for creating illustrative images; Kim Kelly, Interior Designer, for interior recommendations and formatting charts; Andrew Grote, Project Architect, for insightful critiques; Alan Estabrook, Architect, for offering ideas on energy saving strategies; and Mollie Decktor, Marketing, for editing and crafting text to provide clarity to our arguments.

Final acknowledgements are due to the peer reviewers, whose constructive criticism and important questions refined and polished this paper’s content and to the professionals involved in the selection process and final production of the Perkins and Will Research Journal.

REFERENCES

[1] AIA Carbon Neutral Design Curriculum Materials Project, Society of Building Science Educators, (2009).

“Why Carbon Neutral?”, Retrieved on 08/01/2009 from http://www.architecture.uwaterloo.ca/faculty_projects/ terri/carbon-aia/carbon_definition.html.

[2] Wiedmann, T. and Minx, J. (2007). “A Definition of Carbon Footprint”, ISAUK Research & Consulting, Retrieved on 11/17/2009 from http://www.censa.org.uk/ docs/ISA-UK_Report_07-01_carbon_footprint.pdf.

[3] U.S. Green Building Council (2009). Retrieved on 10/01/2009 from http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage. aspx?CMSPageID=1718.

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[4] United Kingdom National Green Specification, (2009). “The problem with Portland Cement�, Report, Retrieved on 08/01/2009 from http://www.greenspec. co.uk/html/materials/cementsub.html.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Environmental Protection Agency, Energy Star Program (2009), Retrieved on 11/17/2009 http://www. energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=bulk_purchasing.bus_purchasing.

[7] National Renewable Energy Laboratory, (2009). Retrieved on 11/17/2009 from http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/ codes_algs/PVWATTS/version1/.

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Systems Thinking

02.

SYSTEMS THINKING:

Seven Reasons Why It Is Good For You And Everything Else

Nandita Vyas, AIA, LEEDÂŽ AP, nandita.vyas@perkinswill.com Nat Slaughter, nat.slaughter@perkinswill.com ABSTRACT Concerns over the effects of climate change affect not only the architectural design world, but the larger web of society as a whole. As such, the solutions developed need to address the complexity of factors leading to current atmospheric carbon levels. Moving forward, new ways to work, collaborate and structure fees need to be considered in order to allow for the integrated, multidisciplinary approaches to work that are called for by forward-thinking professionals. This paper explores seven topics that discuss systems from the conceptual to the natural to the man-made that start to suggest how changes could be made to help get to a more integrated way of working. In doing so, these explorations will ideally instigate conversations on ways in which to further erase the traditional boundaries that limit our scope and potential. We present no one solution, as such an act would be unsustainable. The enclosed discussion should rather be used to engender thought on regenerative processes.

KEYWORDS: systems thinking, morphology, natural systems, environment, infrastructure, regenerative design, decentralization, geography, GIS, design, urban design, architecture, culture, blurring

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Climate change is the major issue that pervades conversation not only in the design world, but in almost every profession. It is arguably the largest issue of our time and deserves an equally large scope for discussion.

Buildings in particular represent 38.9% of U.S. primary energy use (includes fuel input for production), account for 38% of all CO2 emissions in the U.S. and represent 72% of U.S. electricity consumption. Recently, several

38%

38% 38%

Figure 1: USA CO2 emissions from buildings.

scientists have agreed that CO2 concentrations must be scaled back to below 350 parts per million. Currently, CO2 levels in the atmosphere are anywhere from 385 to 390 parts per million and are rising about 2 parts per million a year. The primary cause of increasing CO2 levels is our dependence on fossil fuels. Burning nonrenewable resources such as coal and oil for energy fills the air with excess carbon, which results in unhealthy atmospheric levels.

72%

72%72%

Figure 2: USA electricity consumption from buildings.

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Climate change and rising CO2 levels are a new concern for the design profession. Historically, such issues were not explicitly taught, discussed or theorized over studio drafting tables. Designers find themselves in the unique situation of being in a critical position to influence one of the largest contributors to climate change—buildings. Being in this situation forces the designer to rethink the system in which the profession functions and solves problems. Richard Farson refers to this shift in paradigm as the coming of age of the “meta-professional.” Farson describes the “meta-professional” as one who understands the changing role of his or her profession and has the foresight, intuition and creativity to redesign the system in which that profession is traditionally practiced. In order to solve the large problems that are faced today, we will have to rethink the scope of what and how we design. Systems thinking will rightly lead us further away from the traditional project delivery methods and scopes of services.

Currently, the designer’s focus remains on the single building, or perhaps campus-scale, project. Given the scale of change that is necessary, this focus seems rather inefficient at times. Ideally, a sustainable project is approached through an integrated design process.

This process has been put into play by the “meta-professional” due to an understanding for the need of a

more collaborative and multidisciplinary project delivery method. This thinking also needs to extend to ways in which the project scope can be redefined. Sustainable design for the single building leads to the occasional green island in vast seas of inefficiency. What does it mean for there to be one high-performance building among hundreds of inefficient ones? Does that one building have a moral obligation to help the others out if it can? Should it be designed to be able to? Or, more likely, should the systems off which all these buildings feed, both natural and man-made, be designed to allow for that kind of symbiosis?

LEED® is the preeminent green building rating system most recognized as a standard for measuring the sustainable legitimacy of buildings. There are currently almost 2,000 LEED certified buildings. The stock of inefficiently designed new and, more problematic, existing buildings that exists far outweighs the benefit of these sustainably designed projects. An added concern is the ongoing operations and maintenance of these supposedly sustainable buildings. The profession has wisely begun to see opportunities in consulting on existing building retrofits, operation and maintenance training and planning and overall sustainable strategy planning for buildings, campuses and even corporate policies.

20 09 ace 387 CO ppm 2

1000 ace 285 CO ppm 2

Figure 3: 1,000 years of CO2 parts per million.

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the industr ial revo lution

Systems Thinking

2.0 METHODOLOGY APPROACH

As self-titled ‘multi-disciplinary non-experts’, we are interested in how the observational design implementation of ‘systems thinking’ can render more regenerative, innovative and sustainable design strategies that are critical to symbiotic earth/human relationships.

The process output is less of a traditional research paper, which rigorously investigates a specific condition that draws clear and logical conclusions. Systems thinking informed a broader investigation of many design processes, various concepts regarding regenerative design and several analytical methods used in architectural and infrastructural design. Not only did the process involve researching a broad spectrum of material, but required an evaluation of the interconnectivity of everything, from which seemingly discrete topics such as geography and leaf arrays became variables of a complex web.

Within nature, there is an intricate choreography of energy and material that determines the morphology of living forms, their relations to each other and which drives the self-organization of populations and ecological systems. All living forms must acquire energy and materials from their environment and transform this matter and energy within their bodies to construct their tissues, to grow, to reproduce and to survive. These needs are met with a series of systems that maintain organisms throughout the duration of their lifespan.

This ambient quality informed the paper organization: stand-alone vignettes exploring some of these web variables that when combined or juxtaposed, bring into relief the infinite connections of the web. In a way, there is no beginning or end to this paper; only a mesh of points from which one can enter the paper at any one, and begin to make connections. Because of this, the project rejects the idea of a ‘conclusion’ as we do not know what the conclusions are.We are more interested in how large and complex the web is and suggest an open discussion regarding these issues.

2.1 Natural Energy Systems

Throughout history, form has been a theoretic topic within design communities, with permutations of form generating various philosophies, aesthetic criteria and physical manifestations. The argument of ‘form versus function’ has been a heated topic in architecture specifically; some designers pushing for the importance of physical beauty and other designers pushing for functional efficiency. Recently, the architectural community has been highlighting the importance of sustainable functionality and setting goals like the 2030 challenge to reduce and delete the need for fossil fuels. Although these goals are necessary to set, and there is little argument that humans should not collectively try and solve our energy problems, can this set of new design challenges offer innovations into a new way of design thinking?

Figure 4: The transportation network for fluids and the structural support for the organism have evolved as a fully integrated morphology.

These systems typically have a symbiotic relationship to their environment. Autotrophs (bacteria and plants) self generate their material form through energy from the sun, water, carbon dioxide and minerals. Heterotrophs feed off of autotrophs and other heterotrophs to sustain their energy needs, implying a complex, expanding ecosystem with relationships.

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Within these systems, there are direct connections between the morphology (form) and metabolism (function). At various plant scales, the transportation network for fluids and the structural support for the organism have evolved as a fully integrated morphology. The xylem and phloem are branching networks found within plants and have functionary roles of the movement of water and carbohydrates respectively. These networks not only serve primary roles in the survival of the plant, but simultaneously structure the plant. The patterns found within leaves are both the structure and the necessary function of the release of water to stomata.

buildings and cities, and new concepts and geometries of building surface arrays.

The arrangement of leaves, Phillotaxis or leaf ordering, is related to the avoidance of self-shading. Leaves emerge from a stem generally at the same angle, but in different array methods such as alternating, whorling or spiraling. These methods are also influenced by other variables involved such as branch circumference, and arrays are generated in similar algorithms to Fibonacci structures.

Regenerative Design can be defined as a systems thinking approach that is process-oriented, rather than goal-oriented. The result is a system in which people and nature mutually benefit. Whereas traditional goals of sustainable design aim to create without doing harm, regenerative design attempts to not only avoid harm, but rather actually create good. Rather than simply maintaining the status quo, regenerative design creates an output process that is greater than what previously existed in a potentially healing way. The idea is to create a situation in which human and non-human species can coexist and continue to thrive. Given our aggressive atmospheric carbon reduction goals, new processes for aggressive exploration of design solutions need to be developed.

These systems of morphology and metabolism also adapt to the specific geographic and climatic variations of their environment. Within autotrophs the sequential process of photosynthesis occurs as carbon dioxide is converted into oxygen, with the assistance of light frequency energies and output through the stomata and pores of leaves and stems. Plants on the earth’s surface have uniquely designed this process based on specific needs within a specific geographic condition. Plants in hotter climates will leave the stomata open for shorter durations, attenuating the amount of moisture released from the system. Plants like cacti and succulents, which grow in extremely hot, dry climates, typically open their stomata at night, minimizing evaporation, and close them during the day.

The proliferation of a symbiotic design that will inform towns and cities, one that begins to implement sustainable strategies existing with the natural world, has barely begun. Yet it is clear that the intellectual history of these ideas is very long, and that the climatic, cultural and economic pressures that are changing the world are very great.

2.2 Regenerative Design

REGENERATIVE SYSTEMS

REGENERATIVE

RESTORATIVE

SUSTAINING MORE ENERGY

Autotrophs and heterotrophs have a symbiotic relationship that unfolds within a sustainable system. Humans have designed habitation systems that rely on finite energy sources that run through inefficient conduits. If a city is also one of these living forms, it too must acquire energy and do so within symbiotic and sustainable parameters not unlike all other natural systems. The organization and morphology of natural world energy systems provide a set of models that can be observed and influence current and future cities to mirror natural energy systems. The study of these systems suggests the means of developing a design that is strongly correlated to the organizations and systems of the natural world.

The logic of photosynthetic and ectothermic metabolisms can be extended to develop material systems for

40

LESS ENERGY

‘GREEN’

CONVENTIONAL

DEGENERATIVE DEGENERATIVE SYSTEMS

Figure 5: A field of design practice.

At present, the building process remains a process of consumption. Materials, time, labor are consumed and sent into a dead-end void, never to be retrieved. Truly

Systems Thinking

regenerative ideas begin to emerge when the extraction of the energy put into the process is also considered. In other words, how do we use energy and then return it to its source?

Although certain design ideas start to hint at principles of regenerative design, such as self-healing materials, carbon-eating cement and piezoelectric energy-generating tiles, building- and city-scale projects will need to tie into existing human and natural infrastructures to truly create a holistic regenerative design approach.

The answer will reveal itself in systems that aggregate, rather than isolate. For example, consider the energy input required in manufacturing, transporting and installing a wind turbine in a mediocre location for wind compared with the energy output. This scenario benefits the owner perhaps in public relations appearances, however, the balance of energy input versus output is not as optimized as if a regional wind energy plan is put into place in which a wind farm in an optimal location generates energy for the general grid. Regenerative design will take to new directions not only what we design, but how we design.

Moving towards a regenerative design paradigm will require the “meta-professional” to rethink the designer’s scope, much like a systems thinking approach. In order to create more good, it may be required to have access to existing electrical grids, food distribution systems or waterways. These are things that are generally not in the designer’s scope to influence. New partnerships and understandings will need to be approached in the spirit of true integrated design in order to reach the full regenerative design potential.

2.3 Inside Outside Blurring

One of Modernism’s ambitions was to create utopic interior environs, which was at times solved by severing the inside of the building from the outside. This was to produce an environment, insulated with modern materials, conditioned and controlled by technological advancement and comprised of state-of-the-art gad-

INTERIOR

INTERIOR

Figure 6: Binary threshold.

EXTERIOR

EXTERIOR

gets that make life easier (and more exciting). These technological innovations often made life more difficult, as seen in one of Jaques Tati’s films, and the isolated innards of buildings often produced an abnormally secluded feeling of confusion. Besides the absurdity of it all, there was a mass embracement during the 20th century in modernizing countries to conceal buildings and condition them with technology. This has now been established as unsustainable due to the energy needs and our inability to produce these needs on large scales without the use of fossil fuels.

One of the leading standard designers for sustainable design, USGBC, requires all LEED projects to be interior spaces, even if the majority or all of the habitable and programmable space is outside. This highlights one of the inefficiencies of creating standards of sustainability with little geographical and climatic specificity and also disregards the positive potentials of passive systems.

The goals pursued are the reduction of thermal gain/ loss through increasing amounts of thermal insulation, electrical equipment regulation of interior environs and the reduction of energy consumption. Although reduction of consumption is a worthy goal, this impervious approach consequentially reinforces the strict dichotomy between interior and exterior that came hand in hand with the emergence of these devices in the first place.

We have inherited a solipsistic spatial paradigm that is dictated by and, in turn, dictates the way we think about the homogenous modulation of hermetic (and hermitic) interior environments.

Some historical context might be of use for our utilitarian environmental consciousness. The mashrabiya in Islamic architecture and jali in Mogul architecture are screened vertical planes allowing ventilation, modulating external light and providing privacy. The badgirs in Persian architecture are wind catchers that function as a natural ventilation cooling system, funneling exterior air inside and pushing hot air out. The porch found in the traditional architecture of the United States’ southeast, provides a continuous shading device protecting from slanting sun and blowing rain.

INTERIOR

INTERIOR

EXTERIOR

EXTERIOR

Figure 7: Gradient threshold.

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Figure 8: A cold climate condition: daytime activities along the south.

Figure 9: A hot climate condition: daytime activities in a central, ventilated and shaded spaces.

These devices can create in-between spaces that are both inside and outside, providing more heterogeneity to the spatial catalogue of a place.

with each other and with other systems, rather than in isolation.

Adding more to the richness and diversity of interior spaces, the porosity and thickness of walls are variables when manipulated, create a variety of microclimates that work with the dynamic needs of building habitation. Certain climatic conditions work with certain programs; depending on the time of day or season, conditions might shift or other conditions might emerge if needed. In cold climates, daytime activities might occur along the south façade to maximize solar gain and nighttime activities shift inward to an insulated space.

In hot climates, the use of inner-courtyards provides shading and ventilation during the day and nighttime activities disperse outwards.

The synergy between material arrangements, microclimatic conditions of space and interrelated migratory activities is a dynamic relationship rarely seen in the age of the air-conditioner. Operable windows, arcades and porches have mostly disappeared from contemporary architecture due to the strict division between interior and exterior and this division is rewarded as being sustainable. As new spaces begin to require regenerative designs, a migration back to older ideas and uses of space could provide not only symbiotic relationships between buildings and the earth, but also more dynamic and interesting spatial conditions.

2.4 Systems Thinking

‘Systems thinking’ is an observational design strategy that promotes the awareness of larger organizations and flows and is based on the belief that seemingly discrete units are in fact interconnected components of a larger framework. It purposes that system components are optimally understood in the context of relationships

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Contrary to ‘scientific reductionism,’ which believes a complex thing is nothing but the sum of its parts and can be understood by isolating these parts, ‘systems thinking’ emphasizes the importance of the relationships and inter-connectivity of these parts. Instead of isolating further into specificity, its view is to take into account larger numbers of interactions. It promotes a more holistic approach to the understanding of complex things by examining the interactions and linkages between the parts that compose the whole.

Figure 10: A field of discrete points.

Figure 11: A mesh of connectivity.

‘Systems thinking’ can be used both outwardly and inwardly: to observe how local actions influence global and universal networks and to observe how larger systems can inform local decisions to promote harmony and balance within a system.

As design opportunities become more dynamic and complex, ‘systems thinking’ can provide a more holistic and flexible structure for innovative architectural

Systems Thinking

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 12: A: individual scale B: family scale C: community scale D: national (governmental) scale E: living organism scale F: universal scale.

Figure 13: Infrastructural synergies.

strategies. Practices like agriculture, biology and urban design have at its core a fundamental awareness of systems thinking. It is necessary for design practices with an inward focus, like architecture, to be aware of how design is integrated into a connective mesh, how sites are a part of larger sites, how buildings can be connected, and basically, think of the larger picture.

nal boundaries that are vague, adjustable according to functional need and rarely regular. These examples use natural systems to their advantage, solving environmental control within the existing parameters instead of isolating homogenous space that requires new, foreign energy.

There are existing site systems—wind systems, water systems and energy systems—that are typically ignored within the realm of contemporary architecture. Interior environments are designed by sealing out the exterior, protecting from these systems and providing optimal control. ‘Systems thinking’ could suggest an embracement of these existing systems, as seen in cultures with nomadic histories. These nomadic structures are grouped around a central focus, typically one of these environmental systems, and their spaces have exter-

This could inform a larger site and connect an individual structure to an organization of structures and energies.

The way sustainable architecture is conducted, islands of ‘greenness’ are created. One building may have been designed to the highest levels of efficiency, while the one next door is designed to the lowest—the beautiful arrogance of an ‘off the grid’ mentality. Site expansion can incorporate infrastructural linkage and buildings can begin to regeneratively perform—buildings feeding buildings feeding buildings feeding buildings. With the ‘greening’ of city building policies where rating system

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certification levels are being mandated, larger systems thinking begins to make political sense as well.

These ideas begin to suggest that architectural solutions need to occur at local scales and also at infrastructural scales. Similarly, infrastructural systems such as energy, transportation and agriculture perform local actions that affect the larger system and local points throughout it. Centralized systems can be paralyzed because of this, such as an outage in Michigan can cause blackouts up and down the Atlantic coast. These systems need to be more webbed in form, decentralized, and consist of multiple sources and two way flows.

Companies like Xcel Energy and Duke Energy are not only implementing real-time consumer monitoring, but the ability to monitor on-site energy harvesting and input back into the grid. If energy companies began to pay increased prices for this energy at peak consumption times, the potential of creating a web of energy harvesting and trade becomes more sustainable, reliable and economically viable.

Infrastructural systems are often broken into regional segments, which are managed by different companies.

The companies are beginning to generate software to spot inefficiencies and problems, but are reluctant to share this information with their competitors. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory persuaded thirty utility

companies to share real-time data in exchange for a grid visualization tool that helps all thirty companies.

‘Verde’ (Visualizing Energy Resources Dynamically on Earth) tracks grid assets nation-wide, where users can see where inclement weather is developing that might threaten transmission lines.

This idea of ‘sharing’ is common in systems thinking, because of the awareness that we are connected and our collective intelligence will make us stronger and more efficient. In transportation infrastructures, the emergence of mesh networks like ‘zipcar’ and ‘goloco’, designed by Robin Chase, are providing shared technologies to enable informal and flexible transportation.

Zipcar is a network of locations where publicly shared cars reside. These cars can be used at any time and dropped off at any Zipcar location. Individuals will happily pay for individual devices like Zipcar to perform a specific service, but in doing so build a transportation infrastructure. Goloco is turning social networks into transportation networks, alerting members when chances to travel both locally and nationally occur.

On a professional scale, specializations are often isolated based on performance assumptions and projects are observed in a linear series of discrete moments and exercises. ‘Systems thinking’ can suggest that a project is a complex choreography of participants within

A^

B_

Figure 14: An integrated process.

A^

Figure 15: Iterative process (diagram by Jeff Williams/Perkins and Will).

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B_

Systems Thinking

an integrated and iterative framework. Within a project system, points of decision can affect the project output productively or negatively, depending on the project team’s awareness of the interconnectivity of the collaborative process. There is an increasing awareness that project members’ involvement is necessary throughout the entire project evolution, where once before their involvement was isolated to a fragmented phase.

Perkins and Will as a corporate whole has pursued interest in exploring the power of integrated design. Many individuals within the firm are aware of its efficacies and find it to be a natural and intuitive work method. Integrated project delivery manuals have been generated to educate employees on the benefits of an integrated process and even go so far as to offer steps to implementation. Several of the firm’s initiatives also advocate integrated design and research how it promotes more successful and more sustainable design. This embracement of integrated processes points to a larger need of adaptation that is necessary to survive in a community of designers. This need to adapt suggests quick and fluid means to transition to an integrated design office culture. It suggests studio atmosphere of collective working and potential sub-firm organizations that work exclusively together. It suggests promoting project teams with chemistry, not so unlike a sports team or jazz band that is carefully balanced and has years of experience together. These efforts are necessary within the firm in order to start working towards a more integrated process model. In the future, it will be necessary to continue to explore ways in which to facilitate more collaborative work processes with parties outside of the design profession as well.

Figure 16: Centralized.

2.5 Decentralization

Decentralization is the occurrence of dispersing power from an authoritative relationship between two or more parts of unequal power, to a lateral interface where parts share equal power. The more decentralized a system becomes, the more it relies on itself—on interconnected relationships—and less reliant on commanding forces. Similar to ‘systems thinking,’ decentralization is sometimes defined as the study of interfaces between parts of a system.

Looking at how food systems currently work, the agriculture industry is a series of large, hub/spoke systems that produce enormous quantities of food. These systems often use chemicals and steroids, pollute land and water environments and provide food to the country disregarding regional and seasonal food balances.

The decentralization of these systems could provide more regional control and local participation, potentially performing in more sustainable methods and providing fresher and cleaner foods.

The symbiotic reinforcement of systems thinking and regenerative design finds strength in the synergy of a generation network, dispersal network and collection network.

Observed were abandoned areas around metro Atlanta that could host small farms and greenhouses. A series of potential inhibitors were factored into this mapping and the result was a network of potential intervention sites. The second investigation was mapping close proximity open spaces—brownfields, existing parks and parking lots— to provide market spaces if needed.

Figure 17: Decentralized.

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2.6 Geography

While searching for more effective ways to achieve the sustainability goals we have set for ourselves, it is difficult to avoid the fact that geography plays a role in almost every one. Geography determines the cost, source and type of energy; the quality, quantity and source of water; and the types and abundance of natural resources. The idea of having a sustainable, and even regenerative, project is intrinsically connected to that project’s place.

The study of geography is primarily an exercise in describing the Earth. The profession is typically divided into physical and human geography, effectively excluding observation on the impacts of one on the other. The area of environmental geography is emerging as a response to this gap, which describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world.

Figure 18: Generator and dispersal sites.

generation

collection

dispersal

Ray Cole discusses the importance of this connection of the natural and physical world in his work on regenerative design. Designers should understand geography as a description of both the physical and human characteristics of a certain place, realizing that the buildings that they design are essentially human interventions on the physical space. The tendency has been to build regardless of the current human geography, or to try and overcome the current physical geography. Designers are beginning to relearn the importance of working with physical geography in terms of harnessing daylight and energy from natural systems. These considerations are manifested in building site and orientation studies, solar and wind energy analyses and stormwater management strategies. Further attention needs to be given to exploring how human geography can also work with the added human intervention that is the building. The energy grid, water distribution, agricultural routes and

Figure 19: Regenerative feedback loop.

To further the decentralization of a food system into being a regenerative system, it was necessary to map the flow of energy and reconnect the end-user organic waste back to the small farm network. Composting in itself is a webbed network of components that require careful balance for maximum effectiveness and minimum harm. An infrastructural composting system was designed to collect organic waste at collection points, mix several varietals for a diverse amount of needs and deliver to the network of small farms.

humans physical world

Figure 20: World human relationship.

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FEET

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Figure 21: A geographical orientation, London and New York.

ALTITUDE: 46,995 FEET

ALTITUDE: 46,995 FEET

Figure 22: An anthropological orientation, Atlanta and Las Vegas.

transportation systems are all human geography that need to be considered in new ways.

atic strategies for reducing our dependence on fossil fuels.

It is not a new concept to consider geography in design of buildings and cities. On the contrary, it is the most instinctual and primary of reactions that most cities have grown up around sources of water and within access of natural resources. Newer cities have begun to grow around human geography. For example, Atlanta rose from the intersection of rail lines and in Greg Lindsay’s article, “Rise of the Aerotropolis,” he discusses the rise of Asian cities being built around the airport.

Sustainability experts are finding that the solutions are tending to be more and more place specific. While at some level, rating systems such as LEED have made efforts to account for this importance in geography, work remains to be done in truly understanding the potentially harmless intervention of manmade and natural. The LEED rating system for new construction has always had sustainable site criteria and now the USGBC has further acknowledged the importance of geography with the inclusion of regional priority credits that award bonus points for achieving credits that the USGBC has determined critical for the project’s specific location. LEED and the 2030 Challenge also recognize the importance of geography by requiring energy use intensity baselines to be determined based on region

Rather than maintain that these resources of human geography are for the mere convenience of modern human lifestyles, it will be imperative to use these proximities to rethink the way in which energy, water and food are distributed in order to discover large-scale system-

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as well as building type. In fact, every LEED category attempts to bring the focus back to discovering a local solution, even though often reference guide users tend toward treating the manual as a catalog of universal design solutions. LEED challenges the designer to use local solutions for everything from water use and energy reduction, to material sourcing. Perhaps bamboo flooring does not make sense everywhere. The LEED reference guide is not prescriptive in how energy and water reduction targets are reached and do not explicitly take into account more specific geographic features such as elevation, proximity to waterways or access to existing infrastructure.

It does become problematic when LEED is used in other countries and the designers rely on recommended approaches outlined in the reference guide, which is U.S. specific, rather than relying on proven local solutions.

The further a solution is taken from its place, the less inherent sense it makes geographically and culturally.

Another basic problem with rating systems is the need to set project boundaries. Energy savings can be realized on many levels, not just that of the building and preferably should be realized in a broader systemsbased sense. Project boundaries refer not only to site boundaries, but also the requirement that the program space be enclosed by walls. Geographically based solutions will increasingly take advantage of temperate climates and locate certain program spaces in open courtyards or breezeways. Typical rating systems have yet to account for the energy savings these decisions provide.

The American Society for Landscape Architects (ASLA) is working to expand the USGBC site metrics so that the standards go well beyond sites where buildings are the critical component. ASLA is looking to apply site-rating tools at a larger scale such as recreation areas, leisure parks, cultural landscapes, ecological restorations and utility and transportation corridors. Hopefully, rating systems will be able to realize a project as not just a building project or a landscape project, but can reconcile how to consider projects that may contain both.

For example, school projects that incorporate outdoor classrooms in exchange for indoor classrooms should be able to receive energy use reduction credit for those spaces.

2.7 Software Tools

In order to meet current carbon, water and energy reduction targets, it is necessary to move beyond the traditional architectural project boundary and consider

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and quantify our actions and our impacts on a larger, system-wide scale.

Designers potentially have the ability to design more regenerative and high-performing buildings with the use of GIS tools. In collaboration with urban planners, the knowledge that buildings are part of a network and connect to both the human and natural systems on which they feed should be optimized. Buildings are typically not designed to exist alone, however the tools that designers typically use suggest that they are. Everything from the building program to the construction drawings stops neatly at the project site boundary. This practice is, of course, necessary given the nature of how the firm gets paid and the reality of the project owner’s scope.

For this discussion, it is suggested that what is possible be considered given current tools and that the contractual implications be reviewed afterwards in a meta-professional light.

For example, is it possible to not only generate renewable energy for new green buildings, but to feed any excess energy that is created back to less green existing buildings? This is already done through semantics, offsets and agreements between local power companies.

It is interesting to consider the tools that could bring to light other ways in which even more design-based symbiotic relationships could occur. Existing infrastructure to be considered as modes for resource sharing may include electrical grids, transportation systems and waterways.

Several GIS tools exist that are beginning to harness the potential of their capabilities for the benefit of sustainability. GIS may be able to provide the tools that can help inform new solutions with existing problems. For example, GIS can map the effects of the surrounding built environment on the wind and sunlight that feeds a project site. While wind tunnel studies and advanced daylighting models may provide this information for larger scale urban projects, this information is not usually considered on the typical project.

Technically speaking, a GIS or Geographic Information System, is a tool that integrates hardware, software and data for capturing, managing, analyzing and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS allows one to visualize and interpret data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns and trends in the form of maps and charts. Much like BIM, or Building Information Modeling, GIS is a database-based tool that allows the user to see data graphically.

Systems Thinking

GIS is most often associated with a map. A map, however, is only one way one can work with geographic data in GIS and only one type of product generated. The three ways in which GIS data can be viewed is through the database view, map view and model view. Smart databases and maps have their obvious advantages that we are familiar with through other tools such as Revit and Google Earth. Data models, however, are somewhat unfamiliar in the design process and should be considered for their potential usefulness. ESRI works with the professional community to create data models based on industry needs. Of interest to the sustainably-minded designer would be the completed data models of energy utilities, environmental regulated facilities, transportation, water utilities and others.

How is GIS being used? GIS aligns with our continued commitment to the integrated and multi-disciplinary design process. It provides a framework in which to overlay multi-disciplinary information at a variety of scales as well as a way to access proprietary and open-source data. The potential for large-scale holistic thinking is infinite.

The urban planning group is currently using GIS in house to offer a new service to potential clients. They have used GIS to serve a developer by maintaining information on land parcels across Atlanta. This provides an ongoing maintenance-based service that utilizes the mapping and database capabilities of GIS.

Tools for achieving sustainable design goals have also been developed. NREL has developed the open source “In My Backyard,� or IMBY tool that allows users to estimate the potential solar and wind energy that could be generated on their site. The user enters data into prompted fields to specify location and solar panel or wind turbine characteristics as well as draws points or areas for collection on a familiar Google Maps interface.

Estimated energy generated can then be tested based on iterative user adjustments to the inputs, allowing the non-technical user to better understand how generally to maximize efficiency. NREL used GIS for both this tool and other maps of wind, solar and biomass available resources across the country that are available online.

Canada’s National Land and Water Information Service is an internet-based geospatial service that provides online access to water and other environmental information to help designers and others make ideal landuse decisions. The Agri-Geomatics page, for example, permits access to maps, databases and online tools that highlight factors such as air quality, biodiversity, soil and water quality for use in selecting appropriate land uses.

Engineering firms have begun to offer geospatial services to its clients as well. Merrick, for one, offers geospatial solutions as one of their primary services. They provide services based on client needs, from GIS database management (much like the Perkins and Will urban planning group is doing), to Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) service that include contour, floodplain and vegetation mapping.

Figure 23: IMBY interface.

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Figure 24: Canada National Land and Water Information Service interface.

Geographic data can be input and manipulated in endless ways using GIS capabilities. While advances in GIS capability and application continues to advance rapidly, its integration into architectural and engineering work for the benefit of the environment is still being tested.

While geographers and planners have relied on GIS, designers have been focusing on BIM as an integrative design tool that can further sustainable goals.

Autodesk integration of CAD, BIM, and GIS Autodesk recently showcased a Green Design Dashboard to continually calculate the factors that affect the overall LEED score throughout the building design process. This tool monitors such things as energy use, water use, storm water runoff, carbon footprint and daylighting on a realtime basis in order to inform designers of the overall impact of their structure as they are designed.

Dashboards make sense as progress monitors for such factors, but will make even more sense and have a greater impact if they were monitoring larger systems rather than single building projects. Realizing this potential, Autodesk has recently developed LandXplorer, a software in which entire digital cities can be created.

Berlin has been modeled thus far, with plans to model

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an experimental urban center in Korea, Salzburg and Vancouver underway. These digital cities include not only building and site information, but also above and below ground infrastructural and meteorological information. In other words, connections can be made between a building’s HVAC system, the transportation line that serves that building and solar angles for the building’s site (taking into consideration shading from surrounding structures and landscape) in a relatively user friendly interface.

Users could potentially see the impact of their design decisions on the grid, wetlands or waste stream. With the increasing popularity of municipal, state and national resource reduction goals, a communal approach to the challenge seems inevitable. GIS has the potential to serve in this role.

3.0 CONCLUSION (AN OPEN DISCUSSION)

Climate change is a global problem that is plaguing the infinite systems within its over-arching scale. It is caused by a confluence of factors that involve all professions and not only requires multidisciplinary solutions, but requires us to redefine the professions that created the problems in the first place. As we all strive towards

Systems Thinking

Figure 25: LandXplorer interface.

this singular goal of reducing our impact on the planet, old work methods that professionally confine us to our traditional niches will become unproductive within this multidisciplinary issue. This redefinition and collective need will unearth new ways to work, collaborate and share information.

Architects talk about using materials with less embodied energy while chefs discuss the virtues of locally sourced ingredients. As we continue to refine the ways in which we live and work, it is important to realize that there is power in synergy. A holistic analysis of distribution systems, for example, rightly addresses both the architect and the chef.

This paper presents explorations into systems-based thinking and how it can be used in design applications.

Although the discussion begins with theoretical concepts, climate change is not a theoretical problem that will be subsequently solved by more theory. We realize it is a very real issue that requires actual methods and tools to begin to address it. We propose that GIS software bridges the gap between theoretical ideas that draw influence from the inherent success of natural sys-

tems and the need for a practical platform from which to understand those complexities and their relationship to the man-made built environment.

The software tools outlined are in the early stages of their development and use. Their potential power is yet to be realized. As our firm turns to more holistic services to offer our clients, such as campus sustainability plans, carbon management strategies and green team formation and consulting for multi-national corporations, we will need tools to help realize the complex multidisciplinary solutions that will be necessary. This paper attempts to serve as an invitation to begin exploring these ideas and methods as considerations in our projects and perhaps more importantly, the process by which we deliver services and collaborate. “We are not going to be able to operate our spaceship earth successfully, nor for much longer, unless we see it as a whole spaceship and our fate as common.

It has to be everybody or nobody.�

Buckminister Fuller

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Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge Cassie Branum for teaching us about Geographical Information Systems (GIS).

REFERENCES

Banham, R., (1969). The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Behrens-Abouseif, D., ed. (1989). Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction, New York, NY: E. J. Brill.

Farson, R., (2008). The Power of Design: A Force for Transforming Everything, Atlanta, GA.: Greenway Communications.

GoLoco, (2009). Retrieved on 09/2009 from http:// www.goloco.org/help.

Hensel, M. (2008). “Performance-Oriented Design Precursors and Potentials”, Architectural Design, Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 48-53.

Koerner, B. (2009). “Power to the People”, Wired, April, pp. 78-87.

Lindsay, G., (2006). “Rise of the Aerotropolis”, Fast Company, July/August, pp. 76-85.

Niklas, K. (1978). “Branching Patterns and Mechanical Design in Paleozoic Plants”, Annals of Botany, Vol. 42, pp. 33-39.

Urban Omnibus, (2008). “A Conversation with Robin Chase”, Report, Retrieved on 09/01/2009 from http://urbanomnibus.net/2009/06/a-conversation-withrobin-chase/ U.S. Environmental Information Administration, (2009).

EIA Annual Energy Outlook, Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook with Projections to 2030, Retrieved on 11/17/2009 from http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/electricity.html.

U.S. Energy Information Administration, (2009). “Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2008”, Report, Retrieved on 12/11/2009 from ftp://ftp.eia.doe. gov/pub/oiaf/1605/cdrom/pdf/ggrpt/057308.pdf.

Weinstock, M. (2008). “Metabolism and Morphology”, Architectural Design, Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 26-33.

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Wikipedia, (2009). Retrieved on 08/2009 from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotroph.

Wikipedia, (2009). Retrieved on 08/2009 from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_thinking.

Wikipedia, (2009). Retrieved on 08/2009 from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_reductionism.

Automating Practice

03.

AUTOMATING PRACTICE:

Defining Use of Computation in the Architectural Design Workflow

Michael Hodge, Associate AIA, mike.hodge@perkinswill.com ABSTRACT Computation in architectural design, specifically algorithmic/generative design, is a byproduct of advances in software development that have enhanced the digital tools available for explorations in all design disciplines. It is also quickly becoming a sub-discipline with a broad inter-disciplinary range. Currently, computational design methods have extended design and analytical capabilities in software tools available to architects. While there is a growing number of software applications and myriad methods for writing custom applications/programs capable of leveraging the use of algorithms for many tasks within the design process, there is limited understanding of how to integrate and adapt computational capabilities into the design workflow.

This article surveys the spectrum of computational design theory as it applies to the practice of architecture and is intended to be an instrument for presenting a framework, which stands as a knowledge model for adaptive use of programming and algorithms in the design process. It also introduces a new term, “Process Automation”, which defines how computation can expedite and enhance standard task involved in the architectural design process.

KEYWORDS: computational design, parametric design, algorithmic design, evolutionary design systems, generative modeling/processes, scripting, programming, design artifacts, process objects

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The profession of architecture is entering into a period of major change that is revolutionizing how architects utilize digital technology and leverage software tools for building design, construction and documentation. This period in the profession is rooted in BIM (building information modeling) as the new foundation of practice.

At its core, BIM as a paradigm is more about building information management and associations and integration of building components and disciplines. It provides a building database model that is the integrated environment that better facilitates collaboration and communication between architects, clients, consultants and engineers.

However, it is not the end or extent of change, nor have the advances it provides to the practice of architecture heavily impacted design process beyond documentation and delivery methods. It has introduced associative parametrics as a measure of design control and flexibility that was not been available in past architectural design software tools and removes the disconnect between design and documentation that prevented CAD from being an integrated design tool.

This article is about further advances on the horizon based in innovative design techniques and methods utilizing computation as an applied design theory. The next progression or evolution will regard design techniques and methodologies establishing new design approaches. These approaches are based on emerging means of utilizing computational design to automate design task and create better means for iterating and validating design results.

Figure 1 is a look at one aspect of applying computation from a form generation approach to construct design artifacts or “process objects”1. Generative modeling was utilized to develop an enclosure system through aggregation, and rapid prototyping (a form of digital fabrication) was utilized to study and analyze form as scale representations.

As an applied design technique, generative modeling is categorized under the umbrella term of computational design and in the example shown in Figure 1, is a part of a design approach including rapid prototyping (3D printing) to create design artifact(s) at varied scales for study and rationalizing construction. Although this represents a widely utilized aspect of computational means

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Figure 1: Design artifact/process object. (image courtesy of Computation Group, Department of Architecture and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).

and methods, this article will focus only on the larger entity, computational design and touch on additional techniques and methods not including digital fabrication and rapid prototyping.

Computation as a design tool and method for design only includes the initial design concept, scripting an algorithmic solution and the resultant geometry (geometric model as shown in Figure 1) to create the intended design element/component or spatial arrangement intended.

The structure of this article is to define these new methods in application, or as an adjective, computational design, and within this categorization describe applicable usage of algorithms and programming as it applies to analytical and generative methods of designing. There are additional correlations to additional advances and technologies impacting the profession, such as rapid prototyping and digital fabrication. However, the focus in this study is to describe what computational design is and prescribe an approach for integrating use as a new design approach.

In the context of this research article computation refers to utilization of algorithms and programming to control parametric 2D/3D objects for design purposes and referent to the term computational design as an adjective.

This body of research will not dispel common misconceptions/preconceptions regarding algorithmic and generative design. The research will also provide awareness and understanding of how practical use of computation can become common place in the architectural design process by investigating algorithmic methods for spatial design and form finding. What will also be examined is how this revolution impacts Autodesk Revit Architecture, the primary design software application in our working environment.

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The facts and examples of use will present computation from a fresh and forward perspective and identify how computation utilized in the design process can automate preliminary design and conceptual design investigations, aid in design productivity and enhance final building design solutions. It is not intended to establish a doctrine of computation becoming the design process, or an attempt to negate traditional design methods by initiating a philosophy of “Computer as Creator”2. This endeavor also introduces a theory of “Process Automation” as a standard method for computational design approaches and utilizing new capabilities to automate design task; toward the goal of formalizing the beginning of ideas for the future development of custom design and productivity tools driven by algorithms and scripts.

2.0 DEFINING COM•PU•TA•TION

noun 1 a : the act or action of computing : CALCULATION.

-Merriam Webster Dictionary All physical systems can be thought of as registering and processing information, and how one wishes to define computation will determine your view of what computation consists of3.

-Seth Lloyd Before reading this article, most readers probably preconceive computation to be computing and have a understanding limited to the Merriam-Webster definition of computing as a transitive verb, which is: “to determine especially by mathematical means; also : to determine or calculate by means of a computer”4.

In general, the perception would be correct in regard to the act of computers processing data, and applicable to how the profession has utilized CAD for over two decades. However, the basic utilization of software as an

Automating Practice

architectural representation substitute and drafting tool has changed dramatically.

To better define this: Computation is the logical assertion of rules structured within the confines of an algorithm. A systemic formula created to reckon or assert a solution and/or define a result that assists the design process. Computation based on an algorithmic system, by definition is not dependent on computers. However, the focus of algorithms in this paper will be computer dependent and used in the context of computational design strategies.

“Such a use of computation can involve the articulation of computer programming to solve problems with known targets, as well as, to address problems whose targets are unknown. Within this realm, solutions can be built for almost any problem whose complexity, amount or type of work justifies the use of algorithms and computer processing in design process to solve, organize or explore problems with increased visual or organizational complexity.”5

3.0 COMPUTATIONAL DESIGN AS METHOD AND PROCESS

In a research paper titled “Digital Rocaille”, Aaron Westre reviews the 2005 MoMA PS1 submission by Benjamin Aranda and Chris Lasch, which was a small, avant-garde structure that employed an experimental digital process method for design and innovative manufacturing production techniques to create a novel form resembling a cave or grotto. In the paper he states: “this method falls into a category of design denoted by a wide variety of descriptors: generative, procedural, algorithmic, parametric, computational, among others. Regardless of the name applied, it is a method of designing which employs an algorithm, a series of procedures and rules, to arrive at a formal solution. It is a method that embraces the automatic, recursive and rigid logic of the computer. It is a seemingly radical break from traditional design methods in which the object of invention is the computer code itself.”6 As a concept to integrate into customary design process, this can be difficult to grasp for most in the profession of architecture. The extent of computational design as a generative process applied to design in the profession is fairly new. Although the theories that define computational design have been in academic and architectural theorist circles for as long as CAD has been present in the profession as a drafting productivity tool, this is new and uncharted territory.

Lack of exposure beyond what software manufacturers have been advertising and marketing for several years has fostered unawareness of the potential and limited progress in the profession to date. It has only recently become valued in traditional architecture and is a large part of all major architecture and design programs throughout the world. As well software manufacturers, such as Autodesk and Bentley have also become integral in promoting design progress to date by developing better design tools with generative and parametric capabilities.

In the last five years there has been a slow movement to adapt and integrate computational design methods into the profession by way of generative design tools. This is the safest and most comfortable means of resulting change because solely as a design tool or more aptly, a modeling method, the generative and parametric tools fit a customary design process. As stated, this is progress, but has little to do with Computational Design Theory as applicable to the design process as a whole.

What is missing is a fundamental understanding of what computational design is and how to utilize it.

3.1 Computational Design=Evolutionary Design Systems and Generative Processes

Utilization of computer software in the profession has entered into a new phase; an era where “design tools that aim not only to analyze and evaluate, but to generate and explore alternative design proposals are now under development…an evolutionary paradigm is presented as a basis for creating such tools”7.

Computational Design is based on an evolutionary paradigm, which “is shown to be the only successful design system on which this new phase of design tool could be based”8.

Conflict arises in understanding this because software companies and architectural publications are not narrating utilization of these systems as process…only tools and feature sets. As a process, evolutionary design systems provide generative processing capability that is capable of evaluating output, generating options and evolving form.

In Aspects of Evolutionary Design by Computers, Peter Bentley examines the four main types of Evolutionary Design: evolutionary design optimization, evolutionary art, evolutionary artificial life forms and creative evolutionary design. He attempts to inter-relate the cross-disciplines between the convergence of biology and computer sci-

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Figure 2: Evolutionary Computation and Evolutionary Design have their roots in Computer Science and Evolutionary Biology (image adapted from Peter Bentley, Intelligent Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, University College London).

ence as Evolutionary Computation/Evolutionary Design (Figure 2). He states the following in his research: “The use of Evolutionary Computation to generate designs has taken place in many different guises over the last ten or fifteen years. Designers have optimized selected parts of their designs using evolution, artists have used evolution to generate aesthetically pleasing forms, architects have evolved new building plans from scratch, and computer scientists have evolved the morphologies and control systems of artificial life”9.

Although Bentley has a larger holistic world view of evolutionary computation and evolutionary design, this article will narrow the focus as applicable to architectural design.

3.2 Systems and Tools of Computational Design

As software companies begin to address the potential of computation as applied to architectural design by creating tools with computational capabilities, and industry publications begin to showcase work from early adopters of computational design methods, architects have to move beyond the jargon and marketing narration and become better educated to make informed decisions regarding applicable use in the design workflow while determining the value of this design approach.

“The goal is not to make computers imitate human designers; on the contrary, it is to allow computers to play a complementary role integrated with the design process and to work with human designers. There is a need to enhance this process through feedback and

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through other methods and techniques. We need to reduce the gap between the design phases, particularly between the early phases and the other phases of building process. Computation has promising potential in enhancing creative thinking. There is a compelling need and opportunity to utilize computers in the conceptual composition of architectural design”10.

The research presented in this article will not expand on these systems, nor place further emphasis on the programming theory or logic of use. It will provide examples that facilitate a better understanding of the use of almost all of these in application by investigating case studies of innovative and creative solutions .

To begin the education process, the first steps will be to identify the algorithmic systems that are the foundation of computational design. The following programming systems provide generative and evolutionary power in design: • • • • •

Parametrics L-Systems Cellular Automata Fractals Shape Grammar

Note: there are also programming languages that architects have to be aware of as applicable to each system and use in combination with other software tools. (i.e. processing, C++, MEL, Visual Basic, etc.).

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“In architecture, computer support for design composition has used many different approaches, including shape grammars formalisms [Flemming, 1987], graphics algorithms [Mitchell, 1994; Kolarevic, 1997], evolutionary computations [Jakimowicz et al., 1997], and fractals [Frazer, 1995; Bruton, 1997]. But architectural design practice is still in need of further research in order to utilize computation in practical ways particularly in design composition”11.

The broader ideal is that process utilization of these as it applies to evolutionary design and generative processes will eventually improve efficiency in the building industry in general and provide design solutions that escaped architects before using other tools for design.

4.0 COMPUTATIONAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

Computational design encompasses several paradigms at present. As design theory applies, it requires a shift in thinking architectural process as Westre character-

ized that involves structuring the design workflow to include algorithms to expedite task as design objectives, or to define design logic and/or systems which evolve or generate shape or “process artifacts” as termed by Loukissas and Sass.

4.1 Fundamentals of a Computational Design Approach

What has become commonplace in the architectural design process is that the architect/designer utilizes computing and not computation to model entities or processes that are already conceptualized. This act is simply manipulating 3D model elements as building components and translates either rectilinear objects or NURBS (non-rational B-Splines) as surfaces to create advanced geometry.

In its simplest form, a computational algorithm can be utilized as a design assistant. In a more complex

Figure 3: Example of shape grammar definition controlled by two rules. (from Design Synthesis and Shape Generation http:// www.engineering.leeds.ac.uk/dssg/objectives.htm).

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and systemic approach to evolve, or generate solutions based on rules defined by intent, program, zoning, life safety, performance, and other pertinent design constraints. The process begins by defining a set of rules that can be programmed into the computer, or structured as parametric associations. There are several methods used to explore design as a generative phenomenon, or as evolutionary events. All of which can pertain to design characteristics such as: abstraction,

translation, revolution, constraint, randomness, dependency and many others. No matter what computational system or programming technology/language chosen, a design process involving this approach implies an understanding which modifies and/or enhances the fundamental creative and analytical process that drives the thoughts and actions of architects to develop conceptual design intent into a final built environment.

Figure 4: Example of a genetic algorithm used to recursively optimize a building’s design (image courtesy Michael Hansmeyer Computational Architecture).

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4.2 Rule Definition

Rule Based Design (RBD) can generally regard any of the algorithmic systems mentioned earlier: Cellular Automata, L-Systems, Fractals and Shape Grammar, as well as, other programming languages to create 3D geometry as form or texture from pre-defined rules. RBD can be utilized to extend iterative design investigation and can be structured to provide a continued dialogue between the architect/designer to continually provide input, and/or update variables or parameters to evolve and or generate a variation of outcomes.

4.3 Shape Evolution

Architectural design involves problem solving and the development of form based on how the problem is solved and/or resolved. Generally, a resultant building is defined by the constraints identified in the early conceptual stages of the design process. A shape grammar can assist design exploration by expediting iterative study of form relationships either as a generative or evolving process (Figure 3). The shape grammar is a design language based on a shape, or multiple shapes as defined, the parameters and variables that will establish the linguistics of spatial relationships is structured within a singular rule or multiple rules. This establishes the shape grammar that will be utilized for spatial form generation. Additional programming, generative and/or evolutionary is then applied to the computational design process to derive and analyze form studies.

The examlple shown in Figure 4 is a complex computational solution developed as algorithmic optimization as a problem solving design method. Michael Hansmeyer developed the design of a commercial apartment building through a generalized concept of a pure partitioning exercise driven by the buildings market value as a reference point for the algorithm. This is a bottom up design approach in which the pre-defined unit types were defined as components and the construction rules and parameters established optimum assembly. The system was created to include a secondary algorithm to generate or evolve the structural system to match.

Designers have two different starting points when conceiving new structural forms, top-down and bottom-up.

Top-down is the classical, Cartesian-center technique of picking the overall shape first and then filling in the parts. Bottom-up, as the name implies, is the opposite: it starts with geometric components as the initial building blocks. Through repetition and variation according to logical rules, they grow to define larger systems.

Although scripting seems to bias the role of human decision making to a more bottoms-up approach, you learn to define basic parameters and the computer makes the big exploratory moves.

Ultimately, algorithms adapted as computational design provide a level of design capability and complexity that will transform the practice of design in our profession.

4.4 Generative Design + Evolutionary Methods

Algorithms are exceptional tools for automating design studies involving spatial relationships, layout and allocation. The use can range from programmatic/spatial layout investigations (as shown in Figure 4), which analyze adjacency relationships and determines optimum layout scenarios, or begin to further define the plan results into the third dimension to explore form generalities. The level of complexity is restricted only by the time allotted to defining the parameters and creating the algorithm for use. The tool can be structured to follow empirical methods or be more complex to involve adaptive behavior/procedures.

A genetic algorithm grows or breeds results and solutions whereas, an evolutionary design procedure uses genetic programming as an algorithmic method that evaluates and refines the design process and result.

Evolutionary algorithms can extend initial design intent by building upon the results of a computation rule based design approach.

Academia and practice are continually defining the theoretical fundamentals for use of computation in architectural design. The foundation of this is based in utilizing algorithms to generate or evolve design based on a set of rules. Generative design and evolutionary design are intrinsically the same, where logic and reasoning define the design process. What determines the necessity for one above the other is based in a designers reasoning or logic for intended use of a computational tool.

4.5 Optimization & Rationalization

Optimization could become a prescriptive design approach as identified in the generative/evolutionary example in Case Study 4. Other computational and parametric methods can be used as design development evaluation tools. Algorithms can be created to inform and validate free-form design decisions through pre and post rationalization.

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5.0 COMPUTATIONAL DESIGN CASE STUDIES

In design, algorithms can be used to solve, organize or explore problems with increased visual or organizational complexity. The bounds of creativity and/or innovation are not set by the computer; it is only the processing device. The architect, as designer and creator of the built environment, has to determine appropriate usage and how to adapt and integrate these methods and techniques in order to benefit from a process that involves algorithmic design.

Kostas Terzidis refers to this use of algorithms as “otherness” in the second section of the prologue in his book Algorithmic Architecture. He states: “an algorithm becomes a rationalized version of human thinking. As such it may be characterized as being precise, definite and logical, but at the same time may also lack certain unique qualities of human expression such as vagueness, ambiguity or ambivalence. While this may be true as far as the linguistic expression is concerned, it is not necessarily true for the products of the language.12 The otherness that Terzidis coined in his book becomes the design assistant or design enabler, when computational design is utilized constructively. As a part of the design process, computation can act in accordance to constraints and program requirements (defined as rules) to expand design options and create and analyze myriad iterations.

The following case studies are examples of how computation applied as a design strategy can enhance the design process and can be applied to customary practice. The studies are not applied research delving into a step by step review of the completed investigation or project. The reviews will expound specifically on the use of computation in the design process and methods of utilization. It will not promote generative modeling procedures: generative design vs. generative modeling, parametric design vs. parametric modeling, component based design vs. component based modeling, algorithmic design vs. algorithmic modeling. Emphasis will be placed on the general subject/category of computational design as the governing realm of the above mentioned methods and/or techniques as applied to the design process.

Case Study 1 A SIMPLE PARAMETRIC PLANAR SURFACE STUDY workflow / process The workflow and process is simple—McNeil Rhino is used as the base geometry creation tool (Figure 5). A 3D definition of a wall or vertical planar surface is defined in Rhino through a plug-in (Grasshopper) and an associated script is created based on the basic Grasshopper definition (the distribution of nine cells on the xy plane). The definition is being used to perform planar surface studies by using a linked Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to control geometry definitions in a one-

Figure 5: Grasshopper Definition in Rhino controlled by an excel spreadsheet. Script and Rhino definition provided by Live Architecture Network (LAN).

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to-one relationship. Another script component is used to filter the values (0-9) from the Excel cells to different lists. This method allows the designer to have direct control of the design representation and depending on the value of the cell, s/he could place different geometries in any of the nine positions allowing for flexibility and varied uses of the base definition and script. design utility + computational tool Once fully functioning and operational, this study then becomes a design utility within the digital assets and can be reused in the same manner or expanded to have generative properties, or linked to Autodesk Ecotect, in a bi-directional manner for solar exposure analysis to dictate the orientation of geometry and/or type of geometry placed in cells based on exposure and shading needs.

5.1 Geometry Control and Form Development

The example above in Figure 5 demonstrates how algorithmic controls can prove to be exceptional tools in the design workflow. It also shows how the scripting control automates the design process. Iterations are virtually instantaneous with no modeling required, unless a new object is being created to be introduced into the wall system. In the traditional means of utilizing standard 3D

modeling tools, each iteration would have to be modeled and the only timesaving control is that there may be reusable components that can be easily copied per iteration.

The fundamental element that separates the examples in Case Study 1 from a more standard or implicit 3D modeling approach is that the geometry has an associative relationship with all the model components and is directed and controlled through explicit means. The objects (wall components) are not grouped or arrayed.

They are by-products of what was structured in the algorithm as it relates to the Excel spreadsheet and the defined geometry. The Grasshopper plug-in for Rhino expands the utilization of 3D elements and transforms the components into smart objects. This methodology also requires less upfront and direct programming by providing a graphical interface that makes it easier for designers to adopt use of the tools.

Case Study 2 PARAMETRIC FORM DEVELOPMENT USING RHINO + GRASSHOPPER Studio Mode was commissioned by Populous in New York City to design a custom parametric model and digi-

Figure(s) 6a-6d: Studio Mode utilized Grasshopper to establish a flexible path for design development. The gill-like vertical ventilation openings, roof slope and curvature are controlled and adjusted in Grasshopper. (images courtesy of Studio Mode).

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Figure 6b

Figure 6c

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Figure 6d

tal environment for the schematic and design development phases of a soccer stadium in Monterrey, Mexico.

Figures 6a-6d show the form as a shape definition in Rhino Controlled by the Grasshopper Plug-in. workflow / process The project required the ability to achieve iterative development of the stadium’s overall form, skin and associated surface geometry, including material break-lines and “gilled” apertures. The model was generated using associative logic related to main driver geometry based in a 1:1 metric and utilized the extension of the chosen parametric design platform, Grasshopper, through custom built and scripted nodes. design utility + computational tool Using parametric modeling and algorithmic control of model form parameters and components in the early stages gives architects a range of variations to work with as they fit the concept into real-world constraints. The programming of “custom design tools” eliminates hours of modeling re-work on large, complex projects.

As the Rhino Grasshopper plug-in (graphical scripting interface shown in Figure 6c) sets the standard for more intuitive user interfaces, other applications will follow suit making it easier to explore a more familiar, implicit approach to using software as a computational design tool. There will still be a necessity for a certain level of programming knowledge in the process to define design rules that will quantify and qualify results. Access to the programming code, by way of a scripting interface and controlling flexibility within the code, remains a necessity and these applications over time will evolve to provide a graphical interface that is intuitive to reduce the necessity for writing huge amounts of computer code.

Ultimately, this will better enable the programming prolific architect/designer with the power to write code to manipulate and control these algorithms in the design process as well as allow the less prolific architect/programmer to work in an application environment that integrates both s/he as architect/designer with the programmer/algorithm specialist (potentially another architect), establishing an integrative means for each of them

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to access the three-dimensional design representation to collaborate. All 3D design software applications provide an open system that is flexible for customization and adjustments via programming/scripting. However, each requires a higher degree of programming skills to leverage parametric power and control and interoperability of geometry between applications is still limiting.

Consequently, Autodesk Revit Architecture is evolving toward a more open system allowing for similar levels of customization and geometry control.

5.2 Automating Design Parameters to Propagate Form

R2= x2 + y2, is an example of a parametric definition for a circle. Parametrics define the parameters of a particular design and not its shape. For many years other design related industries have utilized parametric design features/controls in CAD/CAM/CAE software. It would appear that parametrics and computational controls for design purposes are fairly new to architectural design heuristics. There is currently an immediacy to integrate advanced computational design techniques into practice, driven by advances in architectural software development, the search for new formal expression and a variety of other reasons, but as early as 1993 Grimshaw Architects had actualized a building project wherein, the design process was based on parametric control and form propagation. The project was the International Terminal at Waterloo Station in London.

The parametric expression of relationships between graphical objects is a way of modeling a complex set of design relationships that would be very difficult to model using conventional CAD techniques13.

Case Study 3 GENERATIVE AND EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHMS workflow / process Figure 7 is an example of a generative design method utilizing Stochastic Searching to determine relationships between predefined shapes and rules. The example is a generative/evolutionary design study for an apartment complex. A stochastic algorithm is utilized to define layout and stacking of geometry while optimizing the results. Stochastic Search is a method used in computational design, typically in an evolutionary design process as an optimization technique.

The algorithm can be modified to allow conditions of placement to be so complex that they can satisfy various architectural conditions (e.g., public space, sun exposure, zoning envelope, etc.).

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design utility + computational tool Generative and evolutionary algorithms are utilized for architectural form finding and spatial design arrangement and can become useful standard algorithmic tools in the schematic and conceptual design phases.

Recently, many architectural specific software applications have far exceeded the CAD conventions of the ‘90’s, enabling parametric control of architectural building components, and flexibility to control geometry through algorithms and other computer languages.

6.0 PARAMETRICISM

Could this era possibly be the great new style after modernism? Patrick Schmaucher has concluded that there is a paradigm shift and based on the BIM revolutions foundation of associative elements driven by parametric constraints and the current movement to legitimize computational design into mainstream architectural design canon; his belief is that computational design is not merely a new design approach, and he has generally termed these methods and approaches as a new paradigm “parametricism”. He states: “We must pursue the parametric design paradigm all the way, penetrating into all corners of the discipline.

Systematic, adaptive variation and continuous differentiation (rather than mere variety) concern all architectural design tasks from urbanism to the level of tectonic detail. This implies total fluidity on all scales”14.

Whether Schumacher is correct in asserting that the innovative use of algorithms and parametric design tools is evolving and relegating modernism as the new postmodernism is to be defined by the passage of time and definitive use of these tools by architects. It is evident that there is a new shift or correctly an update to the current paradigm shift. What can be logically deduced is that the rate of change is occurring at blurring speed increments in comparison to the digital maturity that has been witnessed in practice for the last two decades.

It took CAD two decades to become the infrastructure for architectural design practice. BIM is currently at a pace to accomplish a similar feat in half the time.

Schumacher “does run the risk of being punctuated in history as yet another individual uproariously wrong, or possibly, he is one of a few exceptional individuals that Paolo Antonelli describes in Design and The Elastic Mind, wired for change, a visionary capable of understanding the new rate of change and capable of seeing the necessity for elastic thinking”. Elasticity is what Antonelli, MOMA design curator, defines as “the

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Figure 7: Generative/Evolutionary Algorithms used to create a housing complex (Source: Algorithmic Architecture, Kostas Terzidis, 2006).

by-product of adaptability + acceleration, the ability to negotiate change and innovation without letting them interfere excessively with one’s rhythms and goals. It means being able to embrace progress, understanding how to make it our own. One of design’s fundamental tasks is to help people deal with change. Designers stand between revolutions and everyday life”15.

management control are intuitive design tools and associative parametric control of parameters and properties which link all model elements together as one database.

This creates a network of relationships between building elements, which is either inferred by the software and/or set by the user.

7.0 DESIGN PROCESS AUTOMATION IN REVIT

The new release of the software, Revit Architecture 2010, has evolved the software to include several new modeling paradigms including intuitive direct manipulation, robust freeform modeling and bidirectional parametric control. In addition, some highly specialized patterning and panelization techniques.

At the heart of the Building Information Modeling and

The application has been greatly enhanced as a design tool through the addition of the new conceptual design environment and patterning features and in many ways removes the need for advanced level scripting, especially for surface pattern concept designs and advance form creation. Autodesk has also expanded the API (application programming interface) to support additional conceptual enhancements in the modeling environment. These capabilities in parallel with the new “Macro Manager” is where the application can be utilized in a capacity similar to Rhino’s Grasshopper, Bentley’s

As more architects and designers “embrace progress” as suggested by Anotnelli, this period may well come to be known as Parametricism in due time.

The parametric change engine in Autodesk Revit Architecture is the foundation of the BIM environment and the infrastructure that will provide a means for extending the base capabilities of the application toward computational design and tools that will automate design process. The parametric controls and capability to create custom parameters in the application have always provided a means of generally customizing the building design components in the 3D model for the purpose of data transfer and exchange, take-offs and specs.

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Figure 8: A complex surface from a series of spline curves, and curtain panel system divided, panelized applied to the surface created (Source http://www.aecbytes.com/review/2009/RevitArch2010.html).

Generative Components, Maya and/or Gehry’s Digital Project.

Until the latest release of the software, scripting controls and or establishing algorithmic design controls has been virtually none existent. Autodesk Revit Architecture has developed to provide architects and designers with more intuitive visual parametric tools that provide associative control of building design elements through definition of parameters and parametric constraints and in many ways this method is comparable to the visual scripting relationship of the data tree in Rhino’s Grasshopper. However, it is a bit less intuitive than Grasshopper and takes a more constructivist or engineered mindset to create the geometry, factor variables as instance parameters and assign additional constraints and parameters for control.

Although, the changes in Revit are still far behind the easier usage that Grasshopper’s graphic interface provides, these changes have generally leveled the playing field to put Revit very close to the capabilities available in other applications. However, in Revit, it currently re-

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quires a two or three stage programming approach to do what these other applications directly structure in the feature sets and tools, and currently there are no successful models or examples that exist.

7.1 Rule Based Design Control in Revit

A new modeling environment in Autodesk Revit Architecture provides tools that now make the application a highly capable free-form modeler and comparable in many ways to originally more advanced 3D form generating applications based on NURBS (Figure 8). In addition to the new conceptual design environment, the application includes updates to performance, interoperability and other enhancements, but the key component that begins to allow Revit to move beyond parametric design controls and into the realm of computational design and algorithmic control is the inclusion of a macro manager.

The evolution of Revit becoming a powerful algorithmic and computational design tool will be based on the software’s inherent capability to create instance parameters and custom design parameters as well as being capable

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of assigning formulas that can greatly extended capabilities. These features, in tandem with the new Macro Manager, updates to the API and a new visual coding language based on Visual Basic (VSTA), provide the capability of extending the tools closer to software with true algorithmic/computational design features sets and currently provides the necessary infrastructure to begin developing custom Parametric Design Automation tools for design and productivity.

7.2 Process Automation in Revit 2010

With each new version, or at minimum, every major upgrade/milestone in Revit, Autodesk has built upon its maturity as a solid building model management and documentation tool. As earlier stated, the latest version, has accelerated and is pushing the bounds of the application being equally capable as a design environment.

The primary address in the design centric upgrades has regarded advanced geometry creation capabilities, but what is apparent is that it is impossible to have an ad-

vanced free-form environment and not provide a means for utilizing algorithmic design control.

AUTOMATION IN REVIT THROUGH MACROS The Macro Manager and VSTA, RDB database link/exchange capability and excel geometry creator are all the components that give Revit the capability of providing computational design power and provide access to the internal workings of the application to develop custom applications to aid and assist design process (Figure 9 and 10).

Jeff Rayhorn, a CAD/BIM manager and systems administrator in Virginia Beach, VA describes macros as, programs that are designed to help you save time, by automating repetitive tasks. Each macro performs a series of pre-defined steps to accomplish a particular task. The steps should be repeatable and the actions predictable16.

Figures 9 and 10: The diagram above and on the next page are an overview of the initial setup of Revit VSTA for Macros development.

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Figure 10

The application of macros can range from geometry rationalization for structural framing of complex and advance forms, to utilizing cellular automata and shape grammar for spatial design studies as identified below in Figures 11 and 12 (this application as a design tool would expedite conceptual design studies and provide more options for iterations of plan layout and form as well could be rule defined based on typologies or ontological parameters).

7.3 Design Automation In Revit

The following examples show how a surface pattern can be controlled in the Revit 2010 Massing environment by rules set to calculate the distance between curtain

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panel by pattern instances and another placed family, then writes this number to an instance parameter in each panel.

A key usage of this as a design tool would be to further utilize algorithms, create the capability of connecting the change parameters embedded in the curtain panel family to Ecotect solar study data and provide aperture width and geometry orientation to be guided solar inclination.

7.4 The Limits of Revit as a Computational Design Tool

Figure 12 is a study to determine the flexibility of utiliz-

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Figure 11: The examples are directly from tools and utilities provided in the Revit product installation CD, or as a part of the Revit Software Developer Kit (SDK).

ing VB (Visual Basic scripting) in Revit. The investigation was attempted by Marco Mondello and Professor Gian Marco Todesco. What was discovered is that with all the advances in Revit a simple task like identifying a spline and scripting a generative tool to create simple mass families along a spline can be much more difficult than in an application like Grasshopper.

tool kit can act as a valuable design assistant, generate and/or evolve solutions that can be further explored using traditional design techniques and even become integrated into a BIM environment/process. Also, computation can expedite and enhance many tasks involved in the architectural design process, establishing Process Automation.

Even with the complex nature presented at the idea of expanding and automating capabilities and functionality, the awareness of potential in the application provides a clarity and understanding of how Autodesk is positioning Revit to provide comprehensive, integrated computational design tools and features, which will only get better in future versions of the software.

COMPUTATION AS PROCESS AUTOMATION DEFINED adjective: the act or action of utilizing computational tools in the form of algorithmic scripting and associative parametrics for the purpose of creating architectural design and documentation tools that enhance design explorations and increase productivity.

8.0 CONCLUSION

Computational design as the use of an algorithmic system to provide an additional tool in the architects design

This article has defined computation and implied applicable usage of algorithms as computational design process and tools. Utilization in the design workflow can define form in the conceptual/schematic design phases of a project through shape grammar and as-

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Figure 12: The script created references 20 points along the spline to generates massing objects along a curve.The Rule(s) were as follows: Given a spline in R2010 the script: 1-attaches N reference points to it; 2-attaches a family to each refPoint (images courtesy of Parametrichedi Techniche Progettazione).

sociative parametrics (Figure 13). Also, computational techniques can define analytical design process and define optimal performance solutions when connected through scripting to an environmental analysis application such as Ecotect (Figure 14).

As sustainability continues to drive architectural design decisions toward better performance, determining if the building form, its components and orientation are the optimal result will require additional control and manipulation of the defined parameters. Iterative and analytical control will be based on a set of rules or a computational design technique known as Rule Based Design and will be based on techniques requiring a different approach to the development and formation of spatial geometry. It will require upfront decisions and an analytical overview of project goals and objectives to establish rule definition and custom tools to reside in the base software platform or at minimum provide the possibility to integrate external applications and/or programming.

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Figure 13: Example of an algorithm created as a conceptual massing tool that defines building massing based on programmatic relationships and associations (images courtesy of Quinsan Ciao, Generative Design: Rule-Based Reasoning in Design Process).

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Figure 14: Example of a symbiotic relationship between algorithmic massing study and environmental analysis. (images courtesy of Live Architecture Network (LAN)).

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The research has identified how computation utilized in the design process can automate preliminary design and conceptual design investigations. In addition to the fundamentals covered in the article here are suggested requirements for adapting computational design methods and techniques:

intent. This will require additional software be made available to designers/architects as well as new skillsets for development and utilization of computational design tools. The key to successful implementation and adaption is to develop the appropriate mix of tools, expertise and knowledge.

1) Developing an information system that emphasizes research and understanding of the technologies involved.

2) A strategic plan directing the use of algorithms to inform form and provide analysis of design intent.

3) Definition of the specific software tools to be utilized and identification of what scripting and programming languages/environments best interrelate to the software specified.

4) Development of computational techniques and generative design strategies.

5) Testing and practice in order to develop competency and habits.

This article is the first step toward investigations and studies to define the best usage of computation to automate and enhance the design process. The working title for a follow up article as a part of a series of applied research investigation is “Scripted Process: Computation tools that enhance creativity, workflow and increase productivity.”

In the book The Algorithm Design Manual, Steven S. Skiena defines a foundation that is essential to the success of implementing, adapting and/or integrating algorithms into a design process. He states that most professional programmers that are not well prepared to tackle algorithm design problems. Designing correct, efficient and implementable algorithms for real-world problems requires access to two distinct bodies of knowledge: • Techniques – Good algorithm designers understand several fundamental algorithm design techniques, including data structures, dynamic programming, depth-first search, backtracking and heuristics. Perhaps the single most important design technique is modeling, the art of abstracting a messy real-world application into a clean problem suitable for algorithmic attack.

• Resources – Good algorithm designers stand on the shoulders of giants. Rather than laboring from scratch to produce a new algorithm for every task, they can figure out what is known about a particular problem. Rather than re-implementing popular algorithms from scratch, they seek existing implementations to serve as a starting point. They are familiar with many classic algorithmic problems, which provide sufficient source material to model most any application.

Involving computation into our design approach implies a modification and/or enhancements to the fundamental creative and analytical process that drives our concepts to define actions that develop the design toward

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REFERENCES

[1] Loukissas, Y. and Sass, L., (2004). “RULEBUILDING: A Generative Approach to Modeling Architectural Designs Using a 3-D Printer”, Proceedings of ACADIA 2004.

[2] Frost, M. and Smith, K., (2008). “Algorithmic Architecture”, Retrieved on 11/17/2009 from http://architecturewithoutarchitects.wordpress.com/2008/10.

[3] Lloyd, S., (2006). Programming the Universe: A Quantum Computer Scientist Takes On the Cosmos, New York, NY: Random House.

[4] Webster Dictionary, (2009). Retrieved on 11/17/2009 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/.

[5] Terzidis, K., (2006). Algorithimic Architecture, Burlington, MA: Elsevier.

[6] Westre, A., Unpublished manuscript “A Digital Rocaille”.

[7] Janssen, P., Frazer, J. and Ming-Xi, T., (2002). “Evolutionary Design Systems and Generative Processes”, Applied Intelligence, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 119-128.

[8] Ibid.

[9] Bentley, P., (1999). Evolutionary Design by Computers, San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.

[10] Mubarak, K., (2005). “Case Based Reasoning for Design Composition in Architecture”, PhD Dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University.

[11] Ibid.

Automating Practice

[12] Terzidis, K., (2006). Algorithimic Architecture, Burlington, MA: Elsevier.

[13] Szalapaj, P., (2001). CAD Principles for Architectural Design, Wooburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

[14] Schmaucher, P., (2008). “The Future is Parametric”, Retrieved on 11/17/20089 from http://www.bdonline.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=452&storycode=312 2853&c=2&encCode=0000000001829771.

[15] Antonelli, P., (2008). “Design and the Elastic Mind”, Retrieved on 11/17/2009 from http://seedmagazine.com/content/print/design_and_the _elastic_mind/.

[16] Rayhorn, J., (2008). “Revit Structure API & VSTA Overview”, Retrieved on 11/17/2009 from http://lwcoffee.blogspot.com/2008/05/revit-structure-api-vstaoverview.html.

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04.

CLINICAL PROCESSES INFORMING THE DESIGN OF THE EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT Richard Herring, AIA, LEED® AP, richard.herring@perkinswill.com Marvina Williams, RN, marvina.williams@perkinswill.com ABSTRACT This article examines the use of “event planning” for the determination of the functional and physical requirements of the new emergency department for Halifax Medical Center. Based on clinical processes, functional and operational goals of the project were established and projected workload, practice trends and strategic directives of the institution were developed. The method for conducting this research was a highly participatory process.

The process involved meetings with senior leadership, nurse managers, medical directors, management of ancillary services, case management, patient access services and the Perkins and Will team. Space needs were derived by using sound prediction techniques and tools, not rules of thumb. The Perkins and Will team employed a technique known as “event planning” as a means to rethink and visualize the ideal process for every operational task. This process yielded diagrams that documented the preferred processes for things such as patient arrival, triage and waiting. Results of this research are an ED design that provided the greatest degree of flexibility and adaptability possible, not only for the fluctuation in patient census, increased satisfaction for the ED patient and staff, but for future changes in technology and clinical practice. Through the use of event planning, existing clinical processes were challenged. Those processes that were positive to the function of the department were maintained in the new design, while others were replaced with new ideas and improvements. The clinical processes informed the design of the ED with a modular approach.

KEYWORDS: event planning, guiding principles, acuity adaptable universal rooms, modular approach 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Operational and space inefficiencies are the most common reasons facilities renovate and/or expand their emergency departments. This case study uses event planning, which evaluates each clinical event or process in the emergency department (ED), in order to design a more efficient department. Each event can be evaluated to identify strengths and weaknesses in a facility and explore best practice. This paper outlines the research that went into the programming/event planning exercise that was used to determine the functional and physical requirements of the new ED for Halifax Medical Center.

Each year, Daytona Beach in Florida deals with a fluctuating population that ebbs and falls based on three major events it is host to: Spring Break, NASCAR and Bike Week. Accordingly, Halifax Medical Center located here sees its ED volumes swell and surge around these events. The ED is evolving into the hospital’s front door and is a large contributor to hospital operations and fi-

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nancial growth, therefore a good patient experience is very important.

1.1 Objective For Research

In an attempt to respond to the incredible rate of change in today’s healthcare market, this program did not narrowly focus on current operational patterns, but attempted to provide organizational concepts that would afford Halifax Medical Center the greatest degree of flexibility and adaptability possible. The ED was envisioned to be a team-oriented environment that encourages coordination among healthcare professionals. The environment was also envisioned to be one that changes and adapts to emerging technologies and clinical practices, allowing Halifax to offer the latest and most effective care available.

The following guiding principles have been used to provide direction for the overall functional organization and design of the new facility:

Clinical Processes Informing the Design of the Emergency Department

1. Create an image that is respectful of the existing context, forward thinking, timeless and elegant.

2. Create a healing and supportive environment with restorative spaces, positive distractions, natural light, views to nature, ergonomics, sense of control, reduced anxiety and reduced noise.

3. Maximize flexibility and potential use of the new space by considering changing patient demographics, ergonomics, new technologies and changing practices.

4. Provide future opportunities for growth.

5. Create a supportive, efficient environment for staff by accounting for ergonomics, travel distances, restorative and collaborative spaces.

3. Identification of existing programs to be aggregated into the ED. 4. Determination of guiding and organizing operational principles.

2.2 Current ED Workflow Model

In order to achieve the guiding principles listed above, the design approach for the Halifax Medical Center Emergency Department project was a highly interactive process. The process involved meetings and input from senior leadership, nurse manager representation from the different patient care units including the behavioral health unit, medical directors, management of ancillary services such as materials management, pharmacy, pulmonary services, dietary, environmental services, medical imaging, case management, patient access services and the Perkins and Will team.

Emergency department patients arrive either by ambulance or as walk-ins. The walk-in patients are screened by a security person before being allowed into the triage area. Next, they proceed through a locked door to the triage area where the ED triage nurses quickly assess the patient and take vital signs. There are triage stations and a sub waiting area if the stations are busy. Once triaged, the patients proceed to the registration area unless they are a critical patient. Critical patients are taken straight back to a patient room. Many pediatric patients are registered at the bedside. If patient beds are not available and the patient is not critical, the patients are sent to the waiting room. Once a bed is available, the patient is admitted to the appropriate primary emergency area: emergent, fast-track or pediatrics. At this point, ambulance and walk-in patients merge. After treatment in the emergent, fast-track or pediatric area, the patient will remain in the treatment room until they are either admitted, discharged, expired or leave against medical advice(AMA). The current ED model does not have secondary treatment areas.

2.1 Guiding Principles

2.3 Targeted ED Workflow Model

2.0 METHODOLOGY

As the guiding principles were established in the initial meetings, Perkins and Will looked into the historic data and ran a series of workload projections to predict growth needs. Accordingly, space needs were projected. Perkins and Will identified key departmental events such as the process for material flow for the ED. Event planning or rethinking of how each event would be handled was discussed. Areas were identified, such as laundry, pharmacy and dietary, and logistical implications were discussed at length to determine the best way to handle the flow for the ED. Based on the guiding principles and goals identified, the program outlined the functional and operational goals of the project based on projected workload, practice trends and strategic directives of the institution.

The work process included the following: 1. An assessment of the capacities and future workload of existing ED. 2. Identification of potential operational and orgzational strategies that could maximize flexibility.

Emergency department patients will continue to arrive either by ambulance or as walk-ins. The walk-in patients will go to an initial triage/reception area where they will be quickly triaged by the ED staff as walking critical versus walking wounded. If the patient is determined to be walking critical or a bed is available for a non-acute patient, he or she will be sent straight back to the adult or pediatric treatment area and bedside registration. If beds are not available and the patient is not critical, he or she will be assessed in the assessment rooms. The patient will then either remain in the assessment room and registration will be completed there or the patient will proceed to centralized registration. The patient will then move to the adult waiting room, adult fast-track waiting room or pediatric waiting room. Once a bed is available, ambulance and walk-in patients merge and will be admitted to the necessary primary emergency areas depending on the criteria set for: adult emergent, adult fast-track and pediatric ED. However, all pediatric trauma patients will go to the adult trauma rooms for treatment. After visiting adult emergent or adult fasttrack, patients will continue on to either a secondary treatment bed, will be admitted, discharged, expire, or

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Halifax Medial Center 2005

Current Patient Flow Model 94,026

Year

Rec/Business

Total ED Wkld Public

Primary ED Areas

4.0% 3,730

0.7% 627

Ambulance Entrance

Other Depts

Adult Psych

0.0%

Adult

0.0%

Disposition

Psych Admit

Expired

Trauma 0.1% 96

Walk-in Entrance

Secondary ED Areas

Security

Expired

Waiting Room

38.4% 36,128

Peds 22.3%

Adult Emergent 74.3%

100.0% Central Registration

33.7% 31,707

19.8% 18,660

94,026

Bypass Secondary Areas

100%

Discharged

Adult Fast Track

0.0%

Peds Emergent

3.4%

3.4% 3,174

Admitted

Left Without Being Seen

100%

All A.M.A.

All L.W.B.S.

100.0%

Figure 1: Current Halifax ED workflow model.

leave against medical advice(AMA). Due to the lower volume of pediatric patients, there will not be secondary treatment areas for this population. The adult secondary treatment areas will be the new ED components.

This should facilitate the achievement of room turnaround times close to the national benchmark times by moving patients meeting the observation status criteria to these secondary areas.

2.4 Definitions Of Secondary Treatment Areas For The ED The Rapid Admission Unit (RAU) will accommodate unscheduled ED patients waiting to be admitted and/ or direct admits will be placed for further treatment, consent, resource utilization screening and financial screening. Admissions processing and necessary laboratory and imaging tests may be conducted at this time.

This should reduce the turnaround time in the emergent care unit by releasing the exam beds when the main examination is complete and the decision to admit is made. Length of stay may also be decreased by the rapid initiation of admission orders such as antibiotics.

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Extended Care Area/Chest Pain (ECA/CP) will provide rooms for patients who are in need of observation, waiting for special tests or in need of special medical treatments such as IV fluids for rehydration. Potential heart patients may be observed in this area awaiting tests or test results and determination of best course of treatment.

The Behavioral Health Area is a separate entity of the hospital, but is adjacent to the ED. This will consist of a six-bed screening area with two secure holding rooms that behavioral health patients may access by a separate entrance to be evaluated by mental health evaluators. If these patients are in need of a medical screening or treatment, the patient may be transferred to the ED.

2.5 Historical Data

Historic workload patterns were evaluated with alterations in these patterns to account for projected operational and market factors, arriving at a reasonable future demand projection. This workload is then broken down by ED component/population to understand the impact throughout the ED.

Clinical Processes Informing the Design of the Emergency Department

Halifax Medial Center 2006

Targeted Patient Flow Model 93,483

Year

Total ED Wkld

Rec/Business

Public

Psych Entrance

Primary ED Areas

4.1% 3,820

Secondary ED Areas

10.00

Other Depts

Disposition

0.0%

Psych

Psych Admit

1.00 0.6% 597

Ambulance Entrance

Adult

0.0%

Expired

Trauma 0.1% 89

Peds

79.0% 73,817

1.00 Emergent Waiting Room

Adult Assessm

Walk-in Entrance

Fast Track Waiting Room

RAU Family Waiting

2.50 38.8% 36,258

Adult Emergent

22%

Admitted

3.0 11.3% 10,589

1.00 36.6% 34,250

Bypass Secondary Areas

*Rapid Admission Unit

76.7%

Adult Fast Track

Discharged

10.0 Initial Triage

9.7%

Central Registration

Peds Assessm

9,077

Peds ED Waiting Room

*Chest Pain / Extended Care

0.0%

All A.M.A.

1.00 19.1% 17,845

Peds Emergent / Resus

1.0%

1.0% 935

100%

All L.W.B.S.

Left Without Being Seen

100.0%

100.0%

Figure 2: Targeted ED workflow model.

2.5.1 Patients That Left Without Being Seen (LWBS) • The percentage of ED patients that left without being seen has risen at Halifax over the last four years to over 4%.

• The national average is approximately 2% with a worthy goal of 1% to reduce lost revenue, according to the Advisory Board Company.

• Workload projection models will assume a 1% LWBS rate.

2.5.2 Workload Projections The workload projections for adult, pediatrics and secondary treatment candidates have been derived through two methods. The first method uses linear regression. This establishes a baseline projection based on historical trends. The second method adjusts the baseline by considering market factors, such as demographic changes and market dynamics, to arrive at the target workload that is used in the final Perkins and Will model.

Of the 94,026 patient visits to the ED in 2005, 75,366 were adults. With the addition of secondary treatment areas, we expect to see a decrease of LWBS and a reduction in lost revenue. There are two secondary treatment areas added in the model: (1) Rapid Admissions Unit and (2) Chest Pain/Extended Care & General Observation.

The intent of these areas is to remove long stay patients from the primary ED areas, creating better patient throughput. It is assumed that all patients in secondary treatment areas will first be seen in a primary treatment area.

A psychiatric component has also been added to the model to better understand the impact of these patients on the main ED and identify the treatment spaces needed to manage these patients.

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Figure 3: Adult workload projections.

It should be noted that the historical percentage of fasttrack patients is substantially higher than the norm of approximately 30% of the total workload. It may be possible for the hospital to divert these patients to urgent care facilities positioned throughout the community. For purposes of this model, it is assumed that these patients will continue to be seen in the primary ED. 2.5.3 Primary Treatment Room Need The required patient treatment rooms beginning with 2005 through the year 2015 were calculated. The space projections are based on national benchmark data that include turnaround times and the projected visits.

Several physical and operational measures may be utilized to lower the room turnaround time through the addition of secondary treatment areas. The charts created by Perkins and Will demonstrate the required number of patient positions for each primary and secondary treatment areas of the emergency department as projected using a 99% Poisson Distribution Ratio.

Patients that proceed to the secondary treatment areas pass through the primary emergency department area before being disposition to the secondary areas.

Many secondary treatment areas will also receive workload from direct admits. If secondary treatment areas are not established, then the primary treatment areas may be negatively affected by having to accommodate the patients for a prolonged period.

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Once the projected space needs were determined, room needs were calculated using targeted throughput times established with HMC leadership. These needs were summarized in a schedule illustrating the number of exam rooms needed at various years.

The workload to space calculations were derived by determining the peak daily workload. This was estimated based on the average daily workload during the peak month and the desired level of confidence that a room will be available when a patient arrives, through the use of a Poisson Distribution Ratio. The ratio used for the Halifax ED assumes a room will be available 99% of the time, meaning a zero wait time for patients at the targeted workload.

2.5.4 Secondary Treatment Areas ECA/CP and RAU patient position workload volumes were derived from a percentage of the total ED patients.

The ALOS for the ECA/CP was determined based on standard patient processing times for the clinical types being held in this unit. For the RAU, a targeted time of 3 hours has been established, assuming adequate inpatient capacity. It is recommended that the hospital establish protocols for moving patients to the inpatient units in a timely manner. Units should be contacted when a patient arrives in the RAU and told that the patient will arrive in a set timeframe. This “push� strategy should prevent abuse of the RAU.

Clinical Processes Informing the Design of the Emergency Department

Figure 4: Space Need Projections.

Figure 5: Secondary space need projections.

2.5.6 Summary of Projected Treatment Room Need The ED faces many challenges. Patient expectations are increasing, placing significant emphasis on patient satisfaction and customer service. This is difficult to achieve with limited space and resources, increased census and rising costs.

renovation needs due to areas being too small or oversized. The traditional ED was grouped into spaces designed specifically for certain populations with little or no flexibility. Organizational strategies for the required treatment rooms will be identified and explored to meet the challenges encountered.

The projected treatment room needs established can impact these challenges.

3.0 ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY FOR EMERGENCY DEPARTMENTS

The calculated room need shows 103 total treatment room positions, which is an increase of 51 beds. These calculations are an estimate for ten years.

The challenges that are typically created in a new ED are the likelihood of margin of error and the perpetual

The development of the organizing strategies for the ED is intended to maximize the overall effectiveness, flexibility and life cycle of the emergency department.

These strategies will help facilitate current and future decisions regarding the placement of emerging technologies and adoption of new programs.

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3.1 Strategy One: Utilize Acuity Adaptable Treatment Rooms

The acuity adaptable treatment room also known as the universal room is a concept in which all treatment rooms, with the exception of the trauma rooms, are set up so that patients of all acuities may be treated in these rooms. Given the current rate of change, it is necessary to allow flexibility for changes in workload and clinical practice. The rooms would provide for versatility in order to flex in high peak times to adapt to surges in capacity and acuity. For example, if the emergent census is high, there is the capability to flex over into the fast-track rooms due to the universal room concept.

3.2 Strategy Two: Organize The Emergency Department Treatment Rooms Into Universal Modules To Allow For Maximum Flexibility

It is envisioned that modules could be assigned to various patient populations, flowing seamlessly from one module to the next.

The modular approach, rather than the conventional approach of set distinct areas, allows for flexibility during changes in demand for a certain acuity or patient type. Modules can be totally reorganized to meet the needs of the department. It also maintains the ability to close areas during low census and increase beds as census increases. The modular concept will allow flexibility with respect to future growth needs.

During this programming exercise, the modules studied consist of 12 and 16 acuity adaptable beds with a nurs-

ter operational flexibility in adapting to changing procedural volumes.

In the following early conceptual design, Design A, the beds are in a semi-circular arrangement: 3.2.1 Design A The design below illustrates the flexibility afforded by the modular design as demand changes throughout the course of a typical day.

3.2.2 Design B In this strategy the beds are in a “U� shaped configuration in an attempt to resolve construction difficulties created by the circular scheme while still maintaining the ability to flex between modules. This design has modules pushed off-center to allow for flexibility and enhanced circulation through the ED. Visibility and communication between the modules is enhanced and allows for the ability to flex patients and staff.

Design B was selected with a 12-bed module based on its ability to adapt to the special needs, patient visibility and the ease of closing down modules completely or in part while maintaining patient visibility and staff flow.

3.3 Strategy Three: Secondary Treatment Areas To Decrease Turnaround Times

Secondary treatment areas will support and keep the ED primary treatment areas’ turnaround time as low as possible. The secondary areas that have been developed are the rapid admission unit (RAU), the extended care area/chest pain area (ECA/CP) and the behavioral health area. These areas are adjacent to the ED or within the department and can also remain versatile.

These modules are exactly the same as the ED modules, with the exception of the behavioral health area.

This allows for flexibility and the ability to change their location throughout the ED as needed. This will provide a certain level of autonomy, but will still help each area to adapt to variations in workload.

3.4 ED Summary Figure 6: Universal room concept.

ing station that created 12- and 16-bed units headed by an ED physician. Primary or team nursing models may be utilized based on the staffing design in the ED. Based on the information gathered, the 12-bed module was determined to be the most efficient from a module size and staffing evaluation. It is intended to yield bet-

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The three strategies identified, the acuity adaptable universal rooms, universal modules and secondary treatment rooms, should meet the challenges of increased census, high acuity, patient holds and space deficiencies. Eight, 12-bed modules include adult emergent, adult fast-track, pediatrics, chest pain/extended care and a rapid admission unit, in addition, trauma and resuscitation beds and eight behavioral health beds are programmed. The 8, 12-bed modules will all have

Clinical Processes Informing the Design of the Emergency Department

Figure 7: Design A - 16-bed above, and 12-bed below.

service by providing patient confidentiality and privacy.

The modular approach should allow for increasing or decreasing the number of emergent rooms needed as census fluctuates and staffing models change.

Figure 8: U-shaped configuration.

shared support functions and the ability to flex with growing needs of certain patient types.

The volume projections for the trauma rooms indicate that there is a need for one to two trauma rooms. However, the data provided only accounted for trauma patients excluding resuscitation patients. It is predicted that with the inclusion of adult and pediatric resuscitations in the ED, the total of two adult trauma rooms, three adult resuscitation rooms and one pediatric resuscitation room will be required.

Three, 12-bed modules will be used for the private adult emergent rooms and should improve customer

The adult fast-track suite is designed to meet the needs of the lower acuity patients in the ED. The area will have a total of 12 beds, or one module. All the rooms will be acuity adaptable universal rooms to allow for flexibility in acuity and surge in capacity for the ED. The module can be easily shut down during the shift for low census times and reopened as census increases.

The pediatric volume projections have been relatively flat, however, the concept of a designated pediatric ED module may increase awareness in the community and growth. A total of 12 treatment rooms, or one module, including a resuscitation room have been programmed.

The behavioral health area adjacent to the ED has been projected for six behavioral health rooms and two secure holding rooms. This is based on a 10 hour average turnaround time for patient evaluation, placement and transport. These rooms will be designed to provide a safer environment for patients and staff.

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The secondary treatment rooms include the rapid admissions unit and the extended care/chest pain area.

The rapid admission unit volume projection for 11 beds is based on unplanned ED admits and specific direct admits that are sent to the ED when no beds are available in the house. There will be specific criteria set up for this area and critical care will be excluded. This number may change once data is provided on the number of scheduled admissions and direct admits not sent through the ED that will meet the criteria for this unit.

The extended care/chest pain unit has been programmed for 21 beds. They will be using two, 12-bed modules. The combined module should allow for the area to be cost effective, flexible and productive. ECA/ CP candidates include ED re-hydration patients, those awaiting test results or who require ongoing evaluation, patients awaiting further imaging studies, those requiring extended observation and chest pain patients. The number of telemetry patients seen in the ED makes this an ideal area to distinguish between cardiac and noncardiac pain and reduce the number of unnecessary admissions to rule out a myocardial infarction. At present, 24 patients per day are admitted to telemetry. Many patients on telemetry do not need to tie up a monitored bed unless there are available beds.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Halifax Medical Center opened their new facility in June 2009. A post occupancy study is needed once they have been in the facility for a few months. This will allow Perkins and Will to evaluate the ED in use, from the perspective of those that use the ED and from metrics established such as turnaround times.

Rethinking and visualizing the ideal processes for every operational task in event planning took a lot of time and creative thinking. Based on the new processes and the functional and operational goals, the ED should be well programmed to handle the fluctuations in patient census, increase the satisfaction for the ED patient and staff and have adaptability for future changes in technology and practice.

Understanding how the ED is performing will allow Perkins and Will to see what works well and what does not.

Through the programming and event planning process, we can continue to improve and grow in our techniques and design.

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Acknowledgments

Mimi Day, Scott Weinhoff, Trey Beatty, Julie Gabriel, Dr. Meeks, Kalpana Kuttaiah and Nancy Berlin.

REFERENCES

AIA Guidelines for Design and Construction of Health Care Faculties, (2006).

Chan, T. C., Killeen, J. P., Kelly, D. and Guss, D. A., (2005). “Impact of Rapid Entry and Accelerated Care at Triage on Reducing Emergency Department Patient Wait Times, Length of stay, and Rate of Left Without Being Seen”, Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 46, No. 6, pp. 491-497.

Joint Commission, (2007). Hospital Accreditation Standards.

Kohn, L. T., Corrigan, J. M. and Donalson, M. S., eds.

(1999). “To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System”, Report, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Sine, D. M. and Hunt, J. M., (2007). “Design Guide for the Built Environment of Behavioral Health Facilities”, Report, Washington, DC: National Association of Psychiatric Health Systems.

Transcending Project Type - Principles for High Performance Interior Design

05.

TRANSCENDING PROJECT TYPE – PRINCIPLES FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE INTERIOR DESIGN: High Performance Interiors + Evidence-Based Design Joan Blumenfeld, FAIA, LEED® AP, joan.blumenfeld@perkinswill.com Carolyn BaRoss, ASID, IIDA, LEED® AP, carolyn.baross@perkinswill.com Sonya Dufner, ASID, LEED® AP, sonya.dufner@perkinswill.com ABSTRACT In a diverse design practice such as Perkins and Will, we have found recent trends in interior design that reach across market sectors that appear to link aspects of environmental design to improvements in productivity, health and learning capacity. Several common attributes or trends are found to occur in all project types, regardless of the particular functionalities of the spaces under consideration. Are there actually metrics that will link these attributes to improved performance or health? Does research within any particular market sector relating to the discrete parameters for success within that project type support the importance of these attributes in a high performance interior?

KEYWORDS: evidence based design, higher education, healthcare, corporate, office, civic, cultural, and research

1.0 INTRODUCTION

“Evidence-based design” has used research to tie principles of design to fulfilled business, learning and wellness goals. This has become possible through an examination of successfully realized projects and the aspects of those projects that can be linked back to gains in wellness, productivity or satisfaction in finite metrics. For the purpose of this paper, we have chosen to focus on a few of these aspects that reverberate through all high performance interior design regardless of market sector: collaborative spaces, modularity/flexibility, sustainability/wellness and daylighting. There are many other ways to parse high performance design, but these four have become some of the mainstays of design for modern interiors and are easy markers for the cultural movements that are motivating environmental change, regardless of environmental function. Over the past ten to fifteen years, these trends have become dominant for a number of reasons that have not necessarily been proven, but have become the prevailing wisdom. Is there research across market sectors that can tie these prevalent trends to improvements in performance, health and well-being? In this paper we will survey the literature regarding these attributes in each one of the market sectors separately, in an attempt to determine whether there are metrics to prove out the efficacy of these trends from the standpoint of the user.

2.0 TRENDS IN MODERN HIGH PERFORMANCE INTERIOR DESIGN: COLLABORATIVE SPACES, MODULARITY/FLEXIBILITY, SUSTAINABILITY AND DAYLIGHTING 2.1 Collaborative Spaces

As perspectives on office culture, pedagogy and healing methods change, environments increasingly provide spaces for people to gather, collaborate and connect in both formal and informal ways. Modern workplaces often provide open workspaces and a range of meeting areas for employees to interact and exchange ideas, from small teaming areas to larger, reconfigurable conference rooms. In response to contemporary approaches to pedagogy, schools have started to accommodate the varying ways students learn in and out of the classroom. Healthcare facilities have also begun to rethink their facilities as both collaborative workplaces and places for patients to heal through personal connections to others. The common thread is a revived belief in the value of human interaction in daily life.

Healthcare Two comprehensive studies “A Review of the Research Literature on Evidence-Based Healthcare Design” and

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“The Role of the Physical Environment in the Hospital of the 21st Century: A Once-in-a-Lifetime Opportunity”

by Ulrich et al., and additional publications from The Advisory Board Company; “Taking Note Noise, Hospitals Making Facility and Unit Changes to Lower Noise Volume” by Oncology Insights are less specific about studies on collaboration spaces per se, but point more to aspects of collaborative experiences that lead to positive results, through enhanced communication, social support and acoustical control. Examples of this include unit configuration to reduce walking and maintain continuity of patient information between staff, by minimizing patient bed transfers through single-occupancy, acuity adaptable rooms1. In private emergency treatment rooms and in private inpatient rooms, the confidential setting leads to perceived improved communication between patients and caregivers2. To create environments that allow quality sleep and minimize staff and patient stress, dedicated areas for conferencing and collaboration help in controlling noise and maintaining patient privacy by reducing corridor conversations1,3. Hybrid models of decentralized and centralized nursing care alleviate stress and burnout in nursing by providing social support and reducing a sense of isolation1. Dedicated family areas in patient care settings lead to improved outcomes by encouraging social support and helping to reduce stress levels1.

From these examples it is apparent that, whether designed for intentional or opportunistic and serendipitous collaboration, caregivers need places where they can comfortably work and collaborate and communicate with patients and families to lead to better patient outcomes.

In addition, teaching hospitals generally require dedicated team conference and work areas to facilitate the teaching process. In certain cases, institutions such as Mayo Clinic organize care delivery through a multidisciplinary team approach and the physical environment must support this.

Workplace For years, designers have struggled with a client’s request to provide visual access among employees that need to share knowledge and interact, balanced by the requirement to work effectively by oneself. The necessity to go back and forth between focused and collaborative work is supported by workplace studies that suggest collaborative work environments are linked to productivity. One of those studies in the international journal, Building and Research Information, found that co-location of teams in the same general area can provide a balance that allows individuals to work for periods of time undisturbed by positioning themselves to signal

Figure 1: Mayo Hospital, Jacksonville, Florida plan with features that support teaching program and collaboration.

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Transcending Project Type - Principles for High Performance Interior Design

different levels of concentration and interaction. Other solutions, such as ‘co-location’ stimulate areas of practice and promote spontaneous encounters as well as ‘heads down’ work. Allowing staff the flexibility to work from home or in the field and then connect back with other team members in the office at designated times has also been found to have positive correlations with productivity through user choice of workplace environment4.

Evidence in the article, “Designing Space to Support Knowledge Work”, suggests that the layout of the physical environment can influence social- and task-based interactions in the work experience and that both of these interactions have an impact on achievement, worker productivity and morale. Designing space to reduce perceived worker distance from team members and to foster interaction and collaboration has been shown to improve the flow of communication in groups5.

A study at Cornell University International Workplace Studies Program suggests that the typical high-paneled cubicles made famous by Dilbert cartoons are generally dysfunctional and that more team-oriented spaces provide opportunities to increase efficiency both in space and work product.

Research by O’Neill, “Measuring Workplace Performance”, examines human resources, procurement, finance as well as other functional areas and confirms that designing workspace to foster group work and collaboration has a positive impact on business process time and cost. Workers who moved from private offices to a collaborative, open work environment realized performance increases in speed and accuracy of work6.

Education While there is not much literature showing measurable productivity gains through the provision of collaborative space, educational learning theory has focused on the necessity for schools to provide many different types of environments for learning. The classroom has become only a single unit in an overall network of opportunities for “productive collisions”. The internet provides an essential tool for students, a tool that can be accessed any time and any place. Settings such as lounges and touchdown areas provide the physical environment where this access can be afforded7.

There has, however, been literature in psychology journals such as Environment and Behavior that generally ties the physical environment to quality of learning in a quantitative way8. This relationship is being explored in a long term (30-month) study, commissioned by the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) in Great Britain. The study will examine how space that has been “personalized” into more collaborative and diverse environments improves learning and student morale.

There is also a body of work available on the topic of collaborative space on the website for EDUCAUSE, an organization that is predicated on the development of innovative learning environments. The website contains

Figures 2 and 3: New York office of Perkins and Will collaborative workspace images.

Figure 4: Students meet and study at Simon Frazier University in circulation zones.

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links to articles regarding the development and necessity for innovative and collaborative approaches, given the high degree of technology integration within student life, with the personal and the academic intertwined through the internet and other electronic connectivity7.

The classroom thus has become only one element in institutional learning patterns, particularly at the level of higher education. Public space has now taken on a function of learning space through social and technological interplay and the spaces “in between” become instrumental in supporting this type of learning. These spaces also serve as branding, displaying the open and transparent nature of the institution through the encouragement of student interaction. There is general recognition by educators, such as Chris Johnson at the University of Arizona or Kenneth Bruffee at Johns Hopkins, that open space is necessary for group identity to occur at a large scale, allowing students to participate in a community setting7,9.

2.2 Modularity and Flexibility

The flexibility of physical spaces has become a critical criteria for performance from economic, environmental and social sustainability perspectives. The ability for an organization to adapt its facilities according to increasingly faster changes in technology, philosophy and business has been a design driver, only balanced by financial concerns. Designers have used many different strategies for accommodating future change within the design of a physical typology as well as in infrastructure and technology.

Healthcare Planning for change in anticipation of future care models and technologies to provide long-term economic value has become standard practice. One strategy for addressing this is through standards and modularity, which can accommodate future growth and allow flexibility in use via scheduling or without disruptive renovation in occupied spaces.

In the hospital setting, research by Ulrich et al., focuses on inpatient environment, specifically patient rooms, and conclude that patient rooms be private, and acuity adaptable with standardized room design and samehanded layout1.

One important aspect of standards for private patient rooms has a relationship to human health. In the United States, hospital acquired infections are one of the leading causes of death10,11. In a report by the Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) “Preventing Healthcare

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Figure 5: Mayo Hospital acute care room.

Associated Infections” to the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists on June 7, 2009, cited Klevens, et al. Public Health Report, 2007, that there are 1.7 infections acquired in US hospitals annually, or 1 in 20 patients. Of these cases, 99,000 people die12. There are complex procedural recommendations to help curb this problem, including hand washing and contact precautions and research investigated by Ulrich et al. has demonstrated that an architectural solution of single patient rooms can also contribute to reducing the spread of infection, and this recommendation has been endorsed and is now recommended by the AIA Guidelines for Healthcare Design1,2.

Workplace When considering an investment in a major renovation, a client will usually measure the success of a new workplace by cost savings, rather than looking at the business case for design. Even less often do clients implement any ongoing measurement programs to assess and improve the quality of the work environment. In his book ”Measuring Workplace Performance”, O’Neill reviews multiple case studies that focus on how the incorporation of flexibility and control into a workplace design improves employee and organizational performance and can provide metrics for future renovations6.

Today’s workplace design is influenced by a desire to reduce cost, increase density or adjust for higher churn rates that require workspace to be flexible so that employees or departments can be easily rearranged around the building. Different levels of mobility and technology need to be accommodated and supported in the modern open office. Densification is relatively inexpensive as compared with leasing more space, so it is often a solution that is considered first. In our own offices, we frequently move staff around so that teams

Transcending Project Type - Principles for High Performance Interior Design

working on the same project sit together. In the photo below of our New York office you can see that everyone sits in the same size workstation in an open environment with team rooms located at the core. Furniture is designed with mobile tables and storage to allow for flexibility when shifting around teams.

There is a movement gaining popularity in higher education called SCALE UP—Student-Centered Active Learning Environment for Undergraduate Programs.

Originally started for the teaching of physics, it has now expanded to all types of learning. Individual universities have been doing their own proprietary studies, show-

Figures 6a-b: New York office of Perkins and Will open office workspaces.

Fewer and more flexible standards mirror flatter and more nimble organizations. Linking workspace with function rather than hierarchy or status compliments modern management theory and allows for this flexibility.

Education At the level of the classroom, there has been a significant movement away from traditional lecture style learning13. This movement is in parallel with the understanding of the need for collaborative space at many scales mentioned previously. Modern teaching styles require a flexible environment, encompassing a traditional lecture arrangement along with more interactive and collaborative settings. Brown and Lippincott, in their article “Learning Spaces, More than Meets the Eye”, again make the point that technology and the student’s intimate relation to the internet plays a significant role in this transformation14.

These new teaching methodologies require flexible and modular physical arrangements. The standard classroom for 30 to 40 students traditionally had rows of seats with tablet arms on which to take notes15. Laptops have made even the tablet arm itself obsolete. As most students will take notes electronically, the tablet arm is simply too small. Flexible tables that can be arranged in rows for lecture style teaching, in “u” shapes for seminars or completely separated for learning in groups have replaced the tablet arm chair13,16.

ing improved test scores in classrooms where teachers utilize these more interactive and flexible learning environments to augment lectures. Some of the schools that have experimented with this include Clemson University, University of Pittsburgh, Florida State University and MIT. These studies show significant increases in retention. Another surprising result has been that, although female students typically score lower on SATs in science, these environments contribute to leveling-out gender differences15.

2.3 Sustainability

While some industries lead others in the incorporation of environmental responsibility, many factors have come together to make resource efficiency and public health a leading factor in the design of high performance spaces. This section examines studies showing the implications of sustainable design towards improved general outcomes from each industry’s perspective.

Healthcare More than any other industry, healthcare holds responsibility for promoting public health. While slow to adopt sustainable design principles, there is a rising trend towards sustainable healthcare buildings that reduce negative impact and are restorative to their occupants and the Earth17.

A growing group of practitioners are compiling research on product composition, life cycle and long-term

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Figure 7: Sustainable materials at the Jaffe Center.

environmental impact18,19. Materials and maintenance are being investigated by the Health Care Research Collaborative, which is a research collaborative coordinated by faculty of the University of Illinois at Chicago School of Public Health, with support from the Pioneer Portfolio of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and initiated by Health Care Without Harm in partnership with Global Health & Safety Initiative and the Healthy Building Network. This collaborative was established to research and advise on toxins in healthcare materials that negatively affect health from construction to operations18. The healthcare industry represents 15% of the United States gross national product. With this purchasing power it could demand change from manufacturers, as has been done by Kaiser Permanente following the Green Guide for Healthcare. “In the past 5 years, the organization has chosen ecologically sustainable materials for 2.7 million square meters in new construction, prevented 70 billion pounds of air pollutants each year, eliminated the purchase and disposal of 40 tons of hazardous chemicals, saved more than $10 million per year through energy conservation strategies and installed more than 50 acres of reflective roofing. It also makes a concerted effort to buy food and products locally.”20,21 Ironically, in contrast to its mission for healing, the healthcare industry has lagged in building sustainable environments from construction to operations and in many aspects, related to some interior material challenges. Material costs and installation costs, infection

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control concerns and maintenance requirements have yielded many square miles of vinyl-clad, waxed surfaces. Questionable substances comprise the materials and occupants are subjected to off-gassing of maintenance products in 24-hour occupied environments.

Healthcare construction projects, typically years in duration, use up precious funding long before allocated resources are preserved to install healthier but typically more expensive finish products. Unfortunately, there is a shortage of cost competitive alternates to inexpensive, vinyl composition tile (vct). The construction industry accounts for more than 60% of world-wide PVC use, according to sources cited in Lent et al. paper “Resilient Flooring & Chemical Hazards: A Comparative Analysis of Vinyl and Other Alternatives for Health Care”. It “has the most pervasive presence of unavoidable persistent bioaccumulative toxicants (PBTs) in its life cycle” when compared to synthetic rubber, linoleum and polyolefin.

“PCBs are toxic. They can cause cancer, gene mutations, or impair normal development or reproduction, among other adverse effects.”18 However, a growing body of research and product information available about the negative health and environmental impacts of vinyl composition tile and its maintenance that can help designers and facilities managers build the case for investment in healthier choices18.

Research indicates that high acoustical performance is an important environmental factor. The widely published study by Busch-Vishniac and West demonstrated that noise levels in hospitals have been increasing since the 1960’s and greatly exceed the World Health Organization’s 1995 hospital noise guidelines, and that noise is a top complaint from patients and staff22. Noise is tied to physiological responses that compromise health and patient safety23. For caregivers, distractions, disruptions in communication and fatigue contribute to error and burn out. For patients, noisy disruptions increase stress and interrupt quality sleep1. Hospitals are typically filled with highly reflective materials because these are easier to clean. To reduce sound transmission and ambient noise, designers are considering space configuration to trap sound, enhanced wall construction, acoustically absorptive materials on walls and ceilings with high NRC levels, and spaces that have the ability to close doors and utilize observation windows.

Workplace Reducing an organization’s environmental impact is a goal that many companies have adopted to varying degrees. Five significant factors have been found to endorse the business case for sustainable building design and operation. These include resource efficiency,

Transcending Project Type - Principles for High Performance Interior Design

energy efficiency, pollution prevention, harmonization with the environment, and integrated and systemic approaches, including environmental management systems. In an article by Kathy Roper and Jeffery Beard, they discuss how corporate real estate executives can bring these values to their organizations while positively impacting the environment24.

In the paper “The Economic Case for High Performance Buildings” Johnson estimates that sustainable workplaces are 6-16% more productive and improves absenteeism by 15-45%. Scott measured these results by analyzing cost and other data of existing facilities as compared to new buildings for the same client. Economic benefits have the potential to add bottom-line value over the long term. Table 1 is his study of what just 1% in productivity improvement can mean to an organization over the life of a building25.

Table 1: Analyzing one percent productivity improvement.

A) Average corporate building construction cost $80-150/SF B) Average building size 100,000 SF C) Number of employees per average building 500 D) Average fully-burdened salary per employee $100,000 E) Useful life of building 30+ years F) Labor costs per square foot over useful life (C*D*E/B) $15,000/SF G) 1% Productivity Improvement over 30 years (1%*C*D*E) = $15 million

Sustainable workplaces provide recruitment and retention bonuses for organizations that share their sustainable message with their corporate image. Social responsibility as well as mandated energy conservation measures will make this an integral part of design.

Education Over time (anecdotally as designers) we have been seeing an increased interest in sustainable design by educational institutions. While there is not research easily available for review on the topic, we have seen a marked increase in interest in designing facilities that have a metric for measuring sustainability that is easily accessible. For this reason, the majority of our academic work has been mandated LEED compliant, either willingly or by state mandate, usually to a minimum of LEED Silver.

One of the reasons for this interest is that academic institutions at all levels take a long term view for their facilities. Whereas a tenant fit-out space for a corporate client may only have to have a lifespan of the duration of the lease, typically 10 to 15 years, an academic space will have to last the lifetime of the building. Renovation or adaptive reuse of a cosmetic sort may occur, but on a less frequent basis than for corporate interiors, and renovations involving mechanical systems are less frequent still.

Figure 10: Courtyards self shade from the harsh climate at Kuwait University, College of Arts.

Figures 8 and 9 : LEED Gold Cofra offices in New York.

There have been a few studies looking at the cost implications for sustainable buildings, doing high-level life-cycle cost analysis. One in particular, Moussatche and Languel’s “Life Cycle Costing of Interior Materials for Florida’s Schools,” examines the cost impact of sustainable materials over time 26. All together, the study

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found that sustainable materials did not increase project life cycle costs, and some materials, because of their recycled content, local availability and recyclability, were significantly lower in energy footprint.

In addition, there have been studies of the overall life cycle costs for sustainable buildings, showing that over time sustainable buildings reimburse first costs. The payback period varies significantly, depending on the climate, the cost of energy and the type of sustainable measures taken24,25.

Another motivator, outside of cost, is that academic institutions regard their facilities as teaching templates.

Buildings are used as teaching tools, and sustainable features can be especially useful in teaching environmental and life sciences, engineering, real-time building operations and economics, and other related disciplines.

mune and endocrine function, which may contribute to problems such as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), diabetes, reproductive and growth disturbances, and symptoms associated with premature aging, as well as affecting working memory and cognitive activation1,27.

Further study of this research has demonstrated that appropriate lighting conditions are important to human health and well being. There is research that shows shorter length of stays for patients in brightly lit rooms, compared to darker rooms, and that exposure to bright light improves sleep and circadian rhythms1,27. In one study noted by Ulrich and Zimring, patients exposed to an increased intensity of sunlight needed 22% less pain

Institutions also use their buildings to illustrate their position in the community as a good citizen, thus demonstrating commitment to social responsibility in relation to global warming, energy conservation, etc. A school’s “customers” are its students, who are often on the cutting edge of promoting change and vocal about their opinions, which are usually progressive and supportive of environmental stewardship. The sustainable aspects of the building thus can contribute to institutional branding of a positive nature.

2.4 Daylighting

Daylighting is one particular aspect of sustainable design that can have a powerful impact on the performance of a facility, both positive and negative. Depending on a variety of factors, especially climate, natural light can be harnessed to enhance and power an environment and result in increased productivity, learning outcomes, and health. It can also render a space uncomfortable, unusable, inefficient, and expensive to operate. A highperformance interior environment uses daylighting in a way that creates a pleasant, effective environment, employs technology to manage it, and accommodates the idiosyncrasies of both the exterior climate and the space’s program areas.

Healthcare The lack of adequate natural light, the lack of the full spectrum of light, and the lack of darkness have a negative effect on physical and emotional health as well as behavior and performance. Various studies noted

by Ulrich and Zimring, as well as Edelstein show that inadequate lighting levels can result in diminished im-

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Figure 11: Critical and Intermediate Patient rooms with wall to wall windows at the New Regional Medical Center.

Transcending Project Type - Principles for High Performance Interior Design

medication and had 20% less pain medication costs because they perceived less stress and less pain2.

Edelstein emphasizes the need for healthcare to have 24-hour design considerations. Day and night shift caregivers need access to daylight and darkness, as well as control of task lighting levels and glare. Patients require individual control of the lighting environment; to be able to darken a room completely for better quality of healing sleep, both day and night, and for adequate access to natural light27. The functional drivers for adjacencies and modularity also suggest a large floor plate, and healthcare facilities are challenged to bring natural light into staff work areas and Diagnostic and Treatment areas, as patient rooms typically fill the perimeter to provide daylight to patient rooms. New, sustainable recommendations require a higher percentage of access to daylight for all staff, reintroducing features such as courtyards, light wells to accomplish this.

In addition to the advantages of daylighting itself, patients with views to nature require less pain medication and heal faster1,2. There is a trend towards making nature and views to nature accessible to patients, families and care givers. Planning can be organized around opportunities to provide natural views in waiting and respite areas, and especially in patient rooms.

Workplace Most people, when asked, would agree that a room with windows is preferable to one that has no natural light.

There is a large quantity of consistent data correlating increased daylight to employee satisfaction. Research showing gains in productivity varies, but shows large positives as long as distractions from negative effects, such as thermal heat gain and glare are controlled by sun shading or position of work setting28.

Many of the studies examine call centers workers and measure the length of time it takes to service a call.

One such study collected data over four weeks in call centers in California. In this study it was observed that there was a 17%–19% reduction in average handling time among workers that had access to daylight. Workers with the highest panels had 11%-18% longer handling times and perhaps the most interesting statistic is that workers who had an unobstructed view directly to the outdoors had a 6%-7% advantage over workers that could not see directly out28.

The benefits to office workers are so great that many countries in Europe require that workers be within 27 feet of a window. Stress reduction and focus can also

Figures 12 and 13: Bloomberg Dublin office and briefing room spaces with access to natural light.

be increased by the presence of natural vegetation or plants in the workplace or seen through windows. One study found that employees had lower blood pressure readings and felt more attentive in a room with access to plants. In the post occupancy evaluation of energy edge buildings, the researchers reference that the specific benefits to working in daylit buildings are reduced absenteeism, increases in productivity, financial savings and increases in retention and recruitment of staff29.

Views and windows may also add economic value, as a property overlooking a beautiful site may cost more as compared to one without a view. There is anecdotal evidence that the complete absence of windows reduces the rent that can be asked for an office. There is also evidence that the value of office space can also be increased if the space meets environmental accreditation programs such as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, daylight admission is an integral part of the programs. Energy studies show that day-lit spaces

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lower energy costs significantly and some do not even require lights to be on during the workday30.

Education While there is copious literature on this subject for workplace in particular, there is much less available regarding academic environments. Much of the literature is in the form of research reviews, such as articles in ASHRAE Journal summarizing the results of research papers.

However, in looking at the source material for almost all the literature it traces back to a series of papers by the Heschong-Mahone Group, who have specialized in the study of the relationship between pedagogy and daylight by engaging in a number of large scale studies, involving tens of thousands of students, over time.

relationship to our daily schedules. This relationship is particularly strong in children, who are more susceptible to having their clocks disrupted by environmental factors. Because daylight has more light in the blue spectrum, which seems to be the wavelength that is most effective in setting the clocks, it is four times more effective than fluorescent light and twenty times more than incandescent34. This fact may be one explanation for improved performance in daylit spaces.

Finally, there has also been research in journals such as Corporate Environmental Strategy showing cost savings related to reduced energy use in daylit spaces25. This is a common sense result, as the majority of energy use in buildings is related to lighting and not the ambient temperature outside. Reducing the necessity for artificial lighting, even partially, has a significant impact on energy savings overall.

3.0 CASE STUDIES

The following case studies illustrate incorporating the four elements of a high performance interior design daylighting, collaborative spaces, sustainability and modularity/flexibility.

Figure 14: Glass walls allow for light to penetrate into circulation and laboratory spaces.

The literature shows varying results, mostly positive, ranging from students doing 15-20% better on standardized tests31 to negative results where the windows allowed too much noise and glare to enter the space32.

Most of the research that has been done, when corrected for poorly designed classrooms, trends towards accelerated learning and improved testing33.

However, the positive results are reported with wide variations, even in the same papers, between the large scale differences mentioned above down to less than one percent.

This type of research, which takes an epidemiological approach, does not answer the question of underlying causation. Why would students perform better in daylit spaces? A clue to this question might be found in studies showing the relationship between circadian rhythms and daylight. Our biological clocks, or circadian rhythms, which regulate our sleep cycles, etc., require the perception of daylight to be set at their “normal”

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3.1 Healthcare Case Study – Massachusetts General Hospital Yawkey Center for Outpatient Care

As the first project to follow Massachusetts General Hospital’s comprehensive 20-year master plan, the Yawkey Center for Outpatient Care unites innovative design and planning to significantly improve the efficiency of ambulatory care services and enhance the overall patient experience.

Strategic Intent Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) is the third oldest general hospital in the United States and the largest in New England. While consistently ranked as one of the top hospitals in the nation (Number 5 in 2009’s US News and World Report’s Honor Roll), in 2000 MGH faced severely escalating demands for services. According to MGH administrators, between 1996 and 2000, inpatient volume increased 32% and ambulatory volume was up 21%, outpatient cancer visits were up 100% and infusions 115%, but in a less-than patient-centered environment. In addition to the increases in patient volume, Massachusetts General Hospital found that, because of the inefficiencies created by its highly autonomous departments, the patient experience had suffered greatly. On average, patients traveled to more than four separate locations to receive care over the course of one

Transcending Project Type - Principles for High Performance Interior Design

day. The cardiology department, for example, had services in 14 different locations.

To help remedy this a new building was envisioned with features to provide much needed and convenient parking, to allow the routing of patient and staff pedestrian traffic from the new Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) station and, most importantly, to accommodate the consolidation and relocation of the rapidly growing ambulatory clinics that had previously been scattered across the MGH campus to the front of the hospital.

Among many campus and operational goals, the following summarize those identified for the building:

tect, urban design, design and executive architect Cambridge Seven Associates, Inc., and historic consulting architect Ann Beha Architects, Inc. This new Yawkey Center for Outpatient Care includes design innovations that reinforce the facility’s stature as one of the nation’s best hospitals as well as provide a dramatic new entrance to the world-renowned institution. It also met a variety of challenges ranging from the shift in hospital culture to site issues such as the disassembly and the reconstruction of a portion of the historic Charles Street jail, construction over and around an existing Proton Therapy building and parking garage, to construction of seven levels of below-grade parking to allow future demolition of the existing garage to open up green space as part of the campus master plan.

• Enhance the quality of the PATIENT and STAFF EXPERIENCE. • Maximize FUNCTIONALITY and FLEXIBILITY of the building.

• Create environments for COLLABORATIVE and MULTIDISCIPLINARY practices.

• Support new OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES. • Provide a consistent hospital IMAGE with uniqueprogram IDENTITIES. • Maintain BUDGET and COST efficiency of the building.

Design Modularity and Flexibility A large goal of the project was to centralize and expand ambulatory care services with a new “one-stop” outpatient facility. During a process that fostered communication, Perkins and Will led 25 practice groups through planning and design to consensus and achieved a highly flexible, yet specialized planning model. The flexible 110SF planning module provides various benefits to the organization and the individual.

Process MGH retained Perkins and Will, in association with Steffian Bradley Associates, to lead planning and design for the interior architectural fit-out of the new 10-story, 370,000SF center. The core and shell team included planning and design architect Michael Fieldman, archi-

The flexible module supports the hospital’s many operational changes and facilitates increased volume in cancer care, women’s and children’s care and cardiology and radiology services. Offices and examination rooms can be converted to use for either purpose for a low cost. This helps to provide maximum adaptability

Figures 15, 16 and 17: Planning diagram with 110 SF modules, clinic entrance, waiting area.

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Figures 18, 19 and 20: 110 SF exam room, clinic suite corridor, and office.

for future growth and change. Additionally, each floor organizes the various elements and services that make up a clinical program, drastically reducing patient travel.

These 110 SF units are arranged in standard clinic modules that create individual “front door” reception, check in, scheduling and check out areas with interconnected patient treatment areas that can allow collocation of complementary departments for flexing of practice schedules into adjacent clinics if desired. This allowed MGH to build in growth capacity without building additional square footage. The standardized exam room configuration allows expansion and contraction of practices in adjacent spaces with minimal construction.

Components of the build out are also modular. In lieu of custom millwork reception desks, check out and scheduling stations, furniture systems were utilized to easily accommodate future changes.

Collaborative Spaces During the program finalization process, all agreed that a consolidated, institutional approach for support spac-

Figures 21, 22 and 23:Team room, day-lit stair and conference room.

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es would yield the best function while saving valuable space.

Within each exam suite, non-assigned clinician team work rooms are provided for “heads down” work or consultations and mentoring within the clinic areas. Offices are reserved for those physicians with a majority of hours working in the building. Department offices are not in the building.

Consultation rooms in each exam suite are provided for clinician and patient meetings. Conference rooms were agreed to be shared and are consolidated into several suites that are centrally scheduled and no more than one level of light-filled stair walk away from any practice.

They are also located along public corridors for public use and to allow access without disruption to clinics.

Daylighting Quality of light and access to light and views were objectives embraced by all participants in the process.

The decision to locate public circulation along the east side of the building with borrowed light and views in all

Transcending Project Type - Principles for High Performance Interior Design

Figures 24 and 25: Oncology infusion bays and borrowed daylight and view in waiting area.

Figures 26 and 27: 8th floor roof garden is adjacent to the Cancer Center infusion bays.

waiting areas via a secondary façade of glass along this corridor was unanimous. Stairwells all have windows to encourage use. Clinic corridors terminate at natural light wherever possible. Staff break and conference rooms are filled with light or have access to dramatic views. Chemotherapy treatment bays are filled with light and have some of the best views in the building over the Charles River and of Cambridge.

Sustainability Although not a LEED project and not billed as “sustainable”, this building does incorporate some aspects of sustainable design. Most notable are the access to daylight and views, healing roof garden, interior configurations leading to enhanced acoustical performance, reuse of existing buildings, access to public transportation, modularity and flexibility to reduce future construction. Since its completion in 2005, Massachusetts General Hospital as part of Partners Real Estate has embraced sustainable construction and is holding to this standard for its new buildings on the boards and in construction.

Outcomes In its new central campus location, the award winning Yawkey Center for Outpatient Care offers healthcare in one convenient location, accommodating 600,000 patient visits annually. With a new face to the campus and in a modern, efficient and light-filled environment, it exemplifies the very best in a team partnering success story and illustrates an ambitious concept and highly coordinated design effort for a complex set of circumstances.

3.2 Workplace Case Study - L’Oreal USA

Rethinking workplace guidelines to provide a sustainable high performance workspace that is more adaptable to change and less hierarchical.

Strategic Intent – What is the Mission of L’Oreal?

L’Oreal’s mission is to “dedicate all the company’s expertise and resources to work for the well-being of men and women and to promote cosmetics as part of the universal quest for beauty.” L’Oreal asked Perkins and Will to help align their work environment with the organizantion’s

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goal to support working in a more collaborative way. The key objectives for the project were to rethink how group and individual space is allocated, provide a flexible environment that is adaptable to moving departments around the building over time, maximize efficiency, improve opportunities for collaboration and promote the company brand in a sustainable workplace.

• FLEXIBILITY in layout and configuration.

• TIMELESS SOLUTION, not a trendy design.

• Opportunities to DENSIFY space.

• Maximize EFFICIENCY; reduce clutter.

• Improve opportunities for COLLABORATION. • Emphasize FUNCTION in workspace planning.

• Promote BRAND of modern cosmetic company (i.e., beauty and glamour.)

• Emphasize SUSTAINABILITY in workplace.

Process Perkins and Will first analyzed the client’s existing workspace in multiple locations, interviewed and held focus groups with employees, benchmarked what other consumer product companies and competitors were doing and provided recommendations for office, meeting room and support spaces. When data was collected on their existing conditions, it was found that individual space was noticeably underutilized. Follow up user meetings showed a need for more informal team space and conferencing space. Workplace guidelines were developed with the client and then applied to the design of the headquarters building in Berkeley Heights, New Jersey.

Figure 28: High performance workplace diagram illustrates that real estate is only one of the critical factors to understand when designing a workplace.

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Design Collaborative Spaces As you enter the L’Oreal office as a visitor or employee you are greeted by the welcoming buzz of the activity hub. This multi-function space acts as a lounge for informal meetings or an area for visitors to touch down and check email. There is a kitchen so that staff can prepare lunch or grab a cup of coffee. The activity hub has movable furniture and is able to accommodate departmental or group meetings. Opposite the elevator lobby each floor has a conference space that can seat 24 people around modular tables and can be reconfigured into a training or lecture room for up to 50 people.

A combination of semi-private teaming areas and enclosed meetings rooms are adjacent to the open office area give employees a choice about what type of work area supports the task that they are performing.

Daylighting The planning diagram below illustrates workstations (colored in light blue) located at the perimeter of the building floorplate and private offices have glass fronts (colored in bright blue) and are located near the center core to allow natural light to flow into the entire office area. Daylight sensors control the lighting depending on the amount of light coming in to the work area.

Modularity and Flexibility When you enter the work area, ‘neighborhoods’ are created by breaking up clusters of workstations with team and informal meeting areas. In the new environment only senior management sits in an office (approximately a 15% reduction from their previous workplaces). Most of the increased efficiency was reallocated to meeting rooms, team rooms, open pantries and lounge areas that encourage collaboration. The client boasts that these spaces are fully utilized. The layout utilizes one standard size office and one standard size workstation that make it easy to move staff around providing another way to better utilize the inventory of spaces. Clusters of workstations are designed with a module that will allow for a section to be swapped with offices or the reverse as the organization changes.

Sustainability Commissioning ensures the energy related systems are performing to the design standards, which reduces energy use and lowers operating costs. Low-emitting adhesives, sealants, paints and coatings were specified to reduce the indoor contaminants that are odorous or harmful to the comfort and well being of the inhabitants. Lighting is zoned and all offices and team rooms are equipped with occupancy sensors, thus saving on

Transcending Project Type - Principles for High Performance Interior Design

Figure 29: Activity hub rendering.

Figure 30: Private meeting areas adjacent to open office.

Figures 31 and 32: Flexible meeting spaces.

energy use. High efficiency fixtures, such as low flow sensored faucets, waterless urinals and dual flush toilets reduce the burden on municipal water supply and waste water systems. Bike storage and showers are provided to employees to reduce load on public transportation system.

Multiple shared support spaces such as copy/print/mail rooms are located along the primary circulation path and provide wall surface for graphic design and messages that remind staff about L’Oreal’s commitment to sustainability. The building is LEED Gold and the interior is expected to earn LEED-CI silver.

Figure 33: Open office area adjacent to team rooms.

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Figure 34: Typical floor plan.

Figure 35: Graphic designs depicting sustainable messages.

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3.3 Higher Education Case Study – NYU Stern Business School

Renovating an outdated underground facility brings students together in a state-of-the-art educational environment that reflects the world class status of NYU as an institution.

Strategic Intent NYU’s Stern School of Business is located in three disparate buildings on a dense urban site at Washington Square Park on the edge of the Greenwich Village Historic District.

Figure 36: Main entry was formerly tucked back into a dark loggia at left, making the school invisible from the street.

Figure 37: Lobby was dark and cluttered before renovation.

Figure 38: Prefunction space below lobby did not reflect NYU’s brand.

Figure 39: Hallways were treated as locker rooms rather than public areas.

The school retained Perkins and Will to renovate and connect all undergraduate public and instructional space on the ground floor and two basement levels of its three buildings. The classrooms and public spaces had evolved in ad hoc renovations that dated from the 1960’s and beyond classrooms were configured in lecture style seating in chairs in rows with tablet arms.

Figure 40: Classrooms were not flexible and did not support modern teaching requirements.

The school did not have a major central space where students could gather and congregate. The classrooms were arranged to accommodate a single and hierarchical teaching style, with minimal audiovisual or technical support. There was no indication from the street that the school existed and the school itself had no connection to the culture and vibrancy of the city.

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Goals set for the project were: • Convey the high quality of the academic experience through the physical environment.

• Raise profile of Stern School for students and community with a clear brand.

• Link Stern to its “campus”: New York City.

• Unify and link existing facilities.

• Improve functionality and integrate technology.

• Create state-of-the-art, flexible spaces.

• Integrate clean, modern design.

• Maximize transparency and openness.

• Create a sustainable and minimally LEED Silver project within the confines of a renovation that was receiving services from a central plant.

Process NYU Stern School originally staged a design competition to award the project. Perkins and Will chose to reach far beyond the mandates of the design competition, to develop the goals enumerated above and then to come up with an aggressive program of adaptive reuse to achieve them. The project had many stakeholders at NYU: Capital Projects, the Stern School of Business, Development, the students and the community at large

Through observation, interviews with deans, faculty and administration, facilities managers, project managers and presentations to the students, a program was developed. The program was then adapted into a design that was then presented periodically to a steering committee representing most of the major stakeholders.

Because the project reached so far beyond the original mandates, it was done incrementally, in a number of phases. This also allowed the school to continue to be fully functional as the project progressed.

Design The final design transforms the existing outdated rabbit warren of vintage 1960’s and 70’s classrooms into a world class business school. The new design incorporates the principals we have discussed above.

Collaborative Spaces The new classrooms are linked to one another by inviting, light-filled corridors, which are in turn punctuated by casual lounge and gathering spaces.

These touch-down/lounge areas (shown in green) are vital in promoting the interaction between students and faculty that make for an academic community. The

Figure 41: Floorplan of Upper Concourse showing renovated classrooms in purple and collaborative spaces in green.

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school is transitioning from a place that students enter for instruction and quickly leave to a destination; a place in which they want to meet and linger.

Within the classroom loops themselves, the two levels have been linked sectionally by cutting an opening that visually connects the levels and that has lounges,

touchdown areas, branding and signage at both ends on both levels. At night, new skylights above this linked corridor glow on the plaza above, indicating the life and vitality of the school below. All three buildings have been linked through new corridors that also include touchdown spaces and branding elements.

Figure 42: Renovated lobby opens three levels to daylight.

Figure 43: Daylight penetrates down to the Lower Concourse, where collaborative spaces link the levels.

Figure 44: The Upper Concourse is connected to the levels above and below.

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Daylighting As the project is a renovation of existing underground space, daylighting could not be introduced into the classrooms. However, all the major public spaces have been redesigned to include ample daylight where none existed previously. The lobby entrance at Tisch Hall has become the main entry to the school and a large, three story atrium has been cut through it to reach the two basement levels below.

able panels so that access across the plaza is not interrupted. A new interconnecting stair adjacent to this corridor also has large skylights above so that students see daylight in every direction within the major corridors.

The entry itself has been pushed out to the building perimeter and the building front has been stripped to create a large glass curtainwall. The major corridor at the rear of the classroom loop has had skylights added and an opening cut into the hallway so that the daylight reaches both basement levels. Because the skylight runs the length of the plaza, it is fabricated of flat, walk-

Sustainability As the project was a renovation in a space served by a central plant, LEED certification was not one of the original mandates. However, Perkins and Will suggested that even within these constraints, a sustainable project was achievable, particularly as NYU as a whole has a program to achieve LEED silver on all new construction.

Figure 45: Diagram showing how daylight penetrates to the three levels in the renovated lobby.

Figure 47

Figure 46: A construction photo of the plaza at night showing walkable skylights and a glowing lobby.

Figures 47 and 48: A construction photo and a rendering of the corridor showing the walkable skylights, new interconnecting stair, and collaborative space.

The other major entry lobby, KMC, has had window grilles stripped off and stairways, railings and other obstructions removed so that daylight can penetrate much deeper into the space.

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The project is tracking LEED silver, through the use of recycled and recyclable materials, energy saving lighting, low flow plumbing fixtures, etc.

Modularity/Flexibility The core motivator in any educational renovation is to provide state-of-the-art facilities for instruction, so the classroom renovations were critical for achieving this goal. Perkins and Will has developed a library of standard classroom configurations, but because this was a renovation within a limited existing envelope, these standard configurations had to be adapted to fit the column grid and corridor locations. A large portion of design time was dedicated to ensuring that these new modular configurations could remain functional in these nonstandard dimensions.

Within those dimensions, all classrooms designed for 40 students or less have movable, flexible furniture, that can be re-arranged for various types of learning environments. Teaching walls have been designed so that in non lecture style configurations, there are still whiteboards and tackboards available for instruction. Power,

AV and data requirements for this kind of classroom have been factored into the design as well. Podiums have been redesigned to be lighter and smaller, with wireless controls, so that they can be moved to accommodate different classroom configurations.

Outcomes Through the introduction of collaborative and communal spaces, the NYU Stern School of Business now has a central “heart� that symbolizes the community of scholars it houses. It also is strongly connected to the outside world of New York City, both through the introduction of transparency into these communal spaces and through the lantern glow of the skylights and lobbies at night, indicating to passersby that there is a lively and vibrant institution within.

The public areas, formerly dingy basement spaces, now are daylit and bright. Where students formerly had to sit on the floor in between classes, there are now lounges and touchdown spaces for them to meet and work in.

Sustainable elements become teaching points, emphasizing NYU’s commitment to being a good neighbor and

Figure 49: Diagrams showing flexible layouts in a modular classroom.

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a good citizen. The business school now has a physical plant that matches the vision and goals of its mission, both for its students, faculty and to the outside world.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In examining the literature available by market sector regarding each of the four parameters we focused on (collaborative spaces, modularity/flexibility, daylighting and sustainability), we have found that there is much anecdotal evidence connecting these parameters to improvements in wellness, productivity and learning, but uneven results in terms of solid metrics. Productivity is difficult to measure, but satisfaction (which is self reported) is far easier to quantify. If worker, patient or student satisfaction becomes a metric for success, then all of these four aspects of current design trends are measurably linked to improvement.

Of all of the four parameters, measuring effects of daylighting has been the easiest component to link to both satisfaction and some aspects of wellness and productivity. Modular design is linked to greater efficiency, which has financial impacts that can be measured and that make a project more successful. This particular trend is not necessarily linked to the more humane parameters that we have been elucidating, however. Sustainability also can be linked to financial gains through energy savings. There are some aspects of sustainability that do translate into increased wellness, through better air quality, emphases on physical design features such as interconnecting stairs that promote fitness. Finally, collaborative spaces have been shown to have positive sociological impacts that can directly affect the health, wellbeing and satisfaction of inhabitants, but again quantifying this has been difficult.

Collaborative Spaces • Informal meeting areas in patient space improve morale and can contribute to rehabilitation, when patients have control and choice between privacy and socialization.

• Dedicated formal and informal collaboration spaces for staff can positively affect patient comfort, safety and outcomes.

• Collaboration areas can facilitate and improve communications between disparate departments to lead to faster and more comprehensive information transfer.

• Worker productivity and morale are linked to providing collaborative areas for teamwork and communication.

• Informal and communal spaces improve student morale and provide recruitment opportunities.

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• Large scale studies are now being done in the UK showing links between access to collaborative space and performance.

Modularity / Flexibility • Modular standards for clinical rooms can support staff and contribute to patient safety.

• Modularity can help accommodate future growth and allow flexibility in use.

• Modularity enhances ability to accommodate technology advancements and changing needs with minimized disruption.

• Linking workspace with function rather than hierarchy matches up with modern management theory.

• Fewer and more flexible standards mirrors flatter and more nimble organizations.

• Modern teaching styles require flexible and modular arrangements to physically support them.

Sustainability / Wellness • There is a trend towards sustainable healthcare buildings that reduce negative impact and are restorative to their occupants and the earth.

• Removal of chemicals that negatively affect health from operations to construction.

• Effective acoustical design improves wellness and quiet operations; higher noise levels increase stress and negatively affect caregivers and patients.

• Patients with views to nature require less pain medication and heal faster.

• Sustainable workplaces provide recruitment and retention bonuses with economic benefits over the long term • Social responsibility as well as mandated energy conservation measures will make this an integral part of future design.

• Employees working in green buildings are more productive.

• Sustainable strategies attract building donors and potential students or patients.

• Institutions have a long term view that supports the financial metrics of sustainability.

Daylighting • Research has demonstrated that lack of natural light and a lack of darkness have a negative effect on health.

• Healthcare facilities are challenged to bring natural light into staff work areas and diagnostic & treatment areas as patient rooms typically fill the perimeter to provide daylight to patient rooms.

• Worker productivity and decreased absenteeism has been correlated with increased access to daylight.

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• Employee satisfaction is strongly linked to access to daylight.

• Cost studies show energy savings in daylit spaces.

• Increased access to daylight has improved and accelerated learning and test scoring.

• Children’s hormonal rhythms are negatively affected by lack of daylight.

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PEER REVIEWERS AJLA AKSAMIJA Perkins and Will

JODY BROWN Pfizer

SEAN GARMAN Perkins and Will

KALPANA KUTTAIAH Perkins and Will

ZAKI MALLASI Perkins and Will

LORI MAZOR New York University

SANTOSH PHILIP Loisos + Ubbelhode

DON SHAFFER Perkins and Will

LINDA SPIVACK Midstate Medical Center

JEFF WILLIAMS Perkins and Will

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AUTHORS 01.

DANA ANDERSON Dana offers more than twenty years of experience in a wide range of renovation and new construction projects for institutional and corporate clients. He is skilled in the management of complex projects with both technical and administrative skills that assure timely and cost effective performance. Teamwork and communication is key to his leadership style; he provides a system of continuity, responsibility, review, and evaluation that results in creative solutions to client requirements. Dana holds a Bachelor of Architecture from Syracuse University and is affiliated with the American Institute of Architects (AIA), the Boston Society of Architects (BSA), and the Society for College and University Planning (SCUP).

01.

PATRICK CUNNINGHAM Patrick has made significant contributions as an advocate for design excellence in the Boston office. He graduated from Syracuse University where he was the recipient of the AIA Henry Adams Medal. Patrick co-teaches graduate level comprehensive design studio as an adjunct professor at the Roger Williams University. He is a regular critic at the Wentworth Institute of Technology, Northeastern University and the Boston Architectural College where he acts as a thesis advisor. His work is characterized by a creative, integrated approach to context and precedent, and a consistent advocacy for the principles of sustainability.

01.

DAVID DAMON

01.

YANEL DE ANGEL

For the past thirteen years David has focused on the design for student life, ranging from master plans to the programming, design, and construction of student centers, residence halls, learning environments, performance spaces, and athletic and recreation buildings. He has collaborated on a series of projects with complex programs, ranging in size. David’s role is strategic in coordinating the program with the design, integration of building systems and acheivement of sustainable goals.

He has made presentations and spoken widely on the issues of student centers and sustainable design. David holds a Master of Architecture for Health and a Bachelor of Science in Design from Clemson University.

For the past ten years Yanel has focused her career on Higher Education environments and the integration of carbon neutral and sustainable strategies in academic buildings. As a project architect she has overseen the design and implementation of sustainable strategies in a variety of projects, including materials selection and the development of technical details that support energy efficient and systems-integrated strategies. Yanel is also interested in scholarly research focused on transformative/flexible environments, ephemeral architecture, and urban events. She holds a Master in Design Studies on History and Theory of Architecture from Harvard University Graduate School of Design, a Master of Architecture from Syracuse University and a Bachelor in Environmental Design from University of Puerto Rico.

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Authors

NANDITA VYAS

02.

Nandita is a licensed architect and LEED accredited professional who serves as a research knowledge manager for the Atlanta Science + Technology team. She has an undergraduate degree in Political Science from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and a Master of Architecture from Georgia Tech. She has four years experience doing architectural project work on LEED projects before coming to Perkins and Will to focus on sustainability research.

NAT SLAUGHTER

02.

Nat studied computer music composition at the Berklee College of Music, focusing on interactive sound installations and perambulatory performances. He is a self-taught graphic designer interested in innovative visualization methods and the convergence of graphics and performance.

MICHAEL HODGE

03.

Michael was one of the first members of design lab and is currently a Design Technology Leader in the Atlanta office. He attempts to remain elastic in his thinking and approach to practice and design. He is the coordinator/moderator of a firmwide focus group titled nD. The group is an interdisciplinary think-tank, currently organized to bridge the tech lab and design lab which are two initiatives within the firm. They investigate analysis, computation and fabrication as it applies to design process. The group is organizing to develop techniques and methods in a series applying and adapting computation to the design culture of the firm.

RICHARD HERRING Richard is the National Director for the Perkins and Will Healthcare Planning and Strategies practice. Richard’s extensive experience with healthcare clients across the country has produced many innovative solutions. He is a licensed architect with a Master of Architecture and Health Care Facility Planning and Design degree. He actively participates in several professional organizations and has served as guest speaker and panelist at professional conferences and universities. Richard has authored numerous articles on healthcare facility design and planning and is a contributing author to “Planning and Urban Design Standards.�

04.

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AUTHORS 04.

MARVINA WILLIAMS Marvina’s thirty years of experience have been in management of emergency departments. She has been responsible for preparing budgets, staffing, evaluating and selecting equipment, writing and implementing policies and meeting regulatory requirements withing large Emergency Departments. Marvina brings to the team her clinical expertise and operational insights. Her contributions consist of operational studies including workflow, workload calculations, patient care procedures, support services and staffing efficiencies. She understands the changes and demands that healthcare providers are facing and seeks opportunities to streamline processes to improve client and staff satisfaction.

05.

JOAN BLUMENFELD Joan is a Principal and Regional Interior Design Discipline Leader at Perkins and Will in the New York office. Her work, which focuses on the design of high performance interiors across many market sectors, has been published in the New York Times, Interior Design Magazine, Contract, Metropolis, Vanity Fair, Architectural Record, various industry publications and has won awards from the AIA, the IIDA, IFMA, the Society for American Architects and Interior Design Magazine, among others.

05.

CAROLYN BAROSS Carolyn is a Principal and Healthcare Interior Discipline Leader at Perkins and Will in the New York office, where she focuses on the design of innovative healing spaces. Her work has won awards from the AIA, the Boston Society of Architects, the NYS Association of Architects, Modern Healthcare, among others. She has had her work or articles published in Architectural Record, Contract, Interior Design Magazine, Buildings Magazine and other trade publications.

05.

SONYA DUFNER Sonya is an Associate Principal and Director of Workplace in the New York office of Perkins and Will where she studies the behavioral aspects of how people interact in the workplace. Her background in interior design combined with her planning experience leads to an interesting intersection between people and design that crosses all market sectors.

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