Anthropology What Does It Mean to Be Human? Second Canadian Edition by Robert H. Lavenda

Anthropology What Does It Mean to Be Human? Second Canadian Edition by Robert H. Lavenda

CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. In the textbook, "anthropology" is defined as the study of . a) human nature, human society, human language, and the human past b) the remains of earlier societies and peoples c) the ways of life of contemporary peoples d) the physical and mental capacities of human beings 2. The authors define "holism" as . a) trying to study everything possible about a group of people b) integrating what is known about human beings and their activities c) studying human biology and culture at the same time d) fitting together economics, political science, religious studies, and biology 3. To say that anthropology is comparative means that . a) each anthropologist studies many different societies during his or her career b) anthropological generalizations draw on evidence from the widest possible range of societies c) anthropologists use data from many different academic disciplines d) there is no one way for the anthropologist to do research 4. is NOT listed in the text as an element of the anthropological perspective. a) Holism b) Comparison c) Evolution d) Culturalism 5. A study examines how economics, politics, religion, and kinship shape one another in a specific society. a) detailed b) cultural c) holistic d) comparative 6. An anthropologist studying a social group observes that people shake hands when greeting one another and

concludes that handshaking is universal among humans. This study is faulty because it was not a) holistic b) evolutionary c) ethnocentric d) comparative

.

7. When we say that anthropology is a field-based discipline, we mean that . a) information about particular social groups comes through direct contact with them b) anthropologists working in universities intersperse teaching and other tasks with field research c) research connects anthropologists directly with the lived experiences of other people and to the material evidence that people have left d) All of the above 8. According to the text, culture consists of . a) sets of learned behaviours and ideas that humans acquire as members of society b) elements of human experience that require education and good taste, such as fine art, classical music, and literature c) sets of innate behaviours that enable humans to function in a complex world d) those practices that distinguish one group of humans from another 9. North Americans typically do not eat insects because they have learned to label insects as inedible. This explanation is based on _ . a) culture b) biology c) ethnocentrism d) genetic programming 10. When we state that humans are biocultural organisms, we mean that _ . a) human biology makes culture possible, and human culture makes human biological survival possible b) biology is more important than culture for humans c) human culture predates our biological organism d) humans evolved independently of our ability to create culture 11. Traditionally, North American anthropology has been divided into a) two b) three c) four d) five 12. According to the text, a) Archaeology b) Cultural anthropology c) Biological anthropology d) Physiological anthropology

subfields.

is NOT a major subfield of North American anthropology.

13. The following statement is NOT associated with the traditional North American model of anthropology: . a) This configuration reflects anthropology's commitment to holism.

b) This configuration is associated with anthropology's successful fight against 19th century scientific racism. c) This configuration constitutes a protected "trading zone" within which fresh concepts and knowledge from a variety of research traditions are brought together. d) This model is widespread in Europe and other parts of the world.

14. Social groupings that allegedly reflect biological differences are called a) populations b) cultures c) races d) ethnicities

.

15. Nineteenth-century attempts to group all humans into unambiguous categories called "races" were based on . a) observable physical features, such as skin color, hair type, and skull shape b) supposed mental and moral attributes c) existing beliefs about the inherent biological superiority of some races and the inferiority of others d) All of the above 16. Michel Bouchard's research on status and stigma among French-speakers in Alberta shows that a) young children know which language is dominant b) French is spoken only by people who have recently arrived in Alberta from Quebec c) French-speaking children in Alberta believe that they belong to a high-status-group d) media campaigns can reduce the stigma felt by linguistic minorities

.

17. By the early twentieth century, some anthropologists and biologists concluded that the concept of "race" was . a) justified by the increasingly scientific biological research on humans b) a cultural label invented by humans to sort people into groups c) a political liability, although the evidence was increasingly strong in its favor d) a label that recognized important cultural and biological differences between groups 18. After discrediting scientific racism and moving away from the classification of humans into distinct races, biological anthropologists shifted their attention to . a) patterns of variation and adaptation within the human species as a whole b) the material remains of the human past c) present-day social arrangements in human groups d) human symbolic communication 19. refers to the systematic oppression of members of one or more socially defined "races" by members of another socially defined "race" that is justified in terms of the supposed inherent biological superiority of the rulers and the supposed inherent biological inferiority of those they rule. a) Ethnocentrism b) Hierarchy c) Racism d) Hegemony 20. Primatologists are biological anthropologists who study a) the closest living relatives of humans

.

b) the bones and teeth of early humans c) material remnants of early human society d) the reconstruction of human evolution through DNA 21. Paleoanthropologists study . a) modern apes b) biological variation in living human populations c) fossilized bones and teeth d) nutrition and physical development 22. Biological anthropologists do not investigate the . a) connection between disease patterns in contemporary Quebec and historical disease patterns among settlers in New France b) identification of human remains to assist in law enforcement c) identification of human remains to assist in human rights cases d) differences in culturally-assigned gender roles 23. All of the following terms, EXCEPT for a) sociocultural anthropology b) social anthropology c) ethnology d) ethology

, refer to cultural anthropology.

24. The anthropological subfield typically associated with Canadian Anthropologist Marie-France Labrecque is . a) cultural anthropology b) physical anthropology c) archaeology d) linguistic anthropology 25. Gender, kinship, religion, sexuality, migration, political or economic systems of contemporary human society are scopes of . a) cultural anthropological studies b) biological anthropological studies c) archaeological studies d) ethnological studies 26. Sociology and anthropology developed during the same period and share a common interest in social organization. However, . a) while anthropologists did qualitative research, sociologists did quantitative research b) anthropologists typically did research outside industrial societies, while sociologists did research within these societies c) anthropologists typically did research in Europe and North America, while sociologists did research outside these societies d) anthropologists focused on rural communities, while sociologists focused on urban communities 27. Today, anthropologists study . a) all human societies, including their own

b) only societies where they are considered outsiders c) rural communities, while sociologists focus on urban communities d) rural and urban communities in non-industrialized societies 28. Kinship is . a) a form of social groups, such as secret societies and political organizations b) a form of relatedness that links people to one another on the basis of birth, marriage, and nurturance c) the study of gender and sexuality d) a form of human population movement, including labour migration, refugee movement, and forced migration 29. Cultural anthropology is NOT likely to study . a) the use of cyber technology in Yemen b) how Yemeni people have responded to capitalism and colonialism c) the study of ritual in Yemen, including its historical context d) the reconstruction of Yemeni dwellings 30. Fieldwork is the period of research during which cultural anthropologists . a) take part in the everyday routine of the people whose way of life they are interested in b) carry out a preliminary study to see if a methodology is feasible c) determine which areas are most likely to yield evidence of early human occupation d) spend most of their time making preparations for travel to the field 31. People who share information about their culture with anthropologists are sometimes called contemporary anthropologists. a) informants b) collaborators c) respondents d) All of the above

by

32. Some anthropologists dislike the term "informants" because it _. a) suggests that the role is limited to supplying information for the benefit of the researcher b) implies that the anthropologist is involved in covert activity c) distinguishes between people who provide information and those who don't d) identifies people to whom the anthropologist has promised anonymity 33. involves participating in activities with members of a group while observing at the same time. a) Mutual participation b) Observation participation c) Active observation d) Participant observation 34. The textbook authors consider a) participant observation b) observation participation c) fieldwork d) semi-structured interviews 35. Ethnography refers to a

as a central research method to cultural anthropology.

.

a) history of anthropology as a discipline b) comparison of the customary social practices of two or more identifiable groups of people c) description of the customary social behaviours of an identifiable group of people d) detailed discussion of the methodology used in field research 36. Ethnology is a . a) comparison of the customary social behaviours of two or more identifiable groups of people b) description of the customary social behaviours of an identifiable group of people c) history of anthropology as a discipline d) detailed discussion of the methodology used in field research 37. "Language" is defined as . a) a fixed, rule-based system of words b) a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used to encode experience c) the correct, spoken form of grammar d) a neutral system in which letters correspond to sounds 38. are languages that are produced when speakers of unrelated languages are forced to communicate with one another. a) Niche constructions b) Conlangs c) Pidgins d) Norms of reaction 39. Christine Schreyer, who studied communities built around fictional languages like those depicted in The Lord of the Rings and Avatar, found that the popularity of these languages was driven by . a) tangible economic benefits associated with speaking these languages b) revitalization of endangered minority languages c) fan conferences called conlangs d) the prestige associated with the fictional characters who use them and people's attachment to the fantasy world they are used in 40. According to your textbook, linguistic anthropology is considered a separate subfield of anthropology because . a) linguistic anthropologists do not use translators in their research b) cultural anthropologists do not receive training in languages or linguistics c) linguistic anthropology is relatively disconnected from the other subfields d) highly specialized training in both linguistics and anthropology is required 41. The following phrase does NOT accurately describe archaeology: . a) Archaeology is the cultural anthropology of the past b) Archaeology is the discovery and systematic study of the remnants of the human past c) Archaeology uses anthropological knowledge to solve practical cross-cultural problems d) Archaeology studies the reconstruction of human prehistory and history through the analysis of material culture 42. Archaeologists perform all of the following tasks, EXCEPT for a) conducting surveys of areas that may have been inhabited by humans b) reconstructing the types of houses that were used in a particular site

.

c) recreating tools that were used in a particular site d) identifying which hominin species occupied a particular site 43. Archaeologists usually work in teams or crews . a) that include specialists such as geologists, botanists, metallurgists, and others b) so that work can continue around the clock, in order to do as much as possible within a limited time frame c) of two or three people who share tasks such as excavation and documentation d) that are composed primarily of labourers and other support staff 44. All of the following, EXCEPT for , are examples of material culture. a) remnants of an ancient campfire b) fossilized human bones c) a pile of stone flakes left over from toolmaking d) garbage deposited by humans over the last two or three decades 45. Professional ethics and historic preservation laws throughout the world require archaeologists to a) seek government permission to excavate sites b) be accountable to the public for the conservation of human prehistory c) follow standard protocols for preserving artifacts d) All of the above 46. Cultural resource management is also known as a) salvage archaeology b) applied archaeology c) archaeology in the public interest d) ethical archaeology

.

47. Archaeologists working in cultural resource management . a) plan and design temporary and permanent museum exhibits b) make recommendations on where and how artifacts should be exhibited and stored c) assess locations that are slated for industrial development and infrastructure projects d) work with museum staff to determine how cultural resources should be managed 48. The subfield in which anthropologists use material gathered from the other anthropological specialties to propose solutions to practical cross-cultural problems is called . a) practical anthropology b) applied anthropology c) cultural resource management d) environmental anthropology 49. In Canada, applied anthropologists have worked with First Nations bands to a) assist with government negotiations regarding land use and resource development b) trace chemical similarities and differences in the immune system c) better understand how humans lived in the past d) study prehistoric garbage to understand what people ate

.

50. According to your textbook, is what makes Canadian anthropology unique in North America. a) the focus on collaborating with Indigenous communities

.

b) the four-field orientation in training and research c) the expertise in specialized areas such as molecular anthropology d) important contributions in medical anthropology 51. According to your textbook, a) archaeology b) medical anthropology c) linguistic anthropology d) cultural anthropology

is one of the most rapidly growing specialties in anthropology.

52. is the specialty in anthropology that is concerned with human health—the factors that contribute to disease or illness and the ways that human populations deal with disease or illness. a) Physical anthropology b) Health anthropology c) Biological anthropology d) Medical anthropology 53. Emőke Szathmáry's research on diabetes among the Dene found that there was a connection between . a) diabetes and introduction of processed, westernized foods b) diabetes and traditional spiritual practices c) diabetes, low birth weight, and high cortisol d) diabetes and genetic risk

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Anthropology can be defined as the study of the human past.

2. Anthropologists are not alone focusing their attention on human beings and their creations.

3. Comparison is a characteristic of the anthropological perspective that requires anthropologists to study similarities and differences across as many societies as possible before generalizing about humans and their activities.

4. Culture is the set of instinctive behaviours and ideas that humans have acquired through evolution.

5. Biocultural organisms are organisms, such as human beings, whose defining features are codetermined by biological and cultural factors.

6. Races are social groupings that allegedly reflect biological differences.

7. Franz Boas was the father of the British Social Anthropology.

8. According to Linnaeus, Europeans were "fickle, sanguine, blue-eyed, gentle, and governed by laws."

9. Primatology is the study of humans and other primates.

10. Ethnology is sometimes used interchangeably with cultural anthropology.

11. Sex refers to the observable physical characteristics that distinguish two kinds of humans, females and males, needed for biological reproduction.

12. The people who work with anthropologists and provide them with insights and information about their way of life are usually called referrers.

13. Gender roles and identites are identical across human societies and cultures.

14. The system of arbitrary vocal symbols used to encode one's experience of the world and of others is known as a society's primary myth.

15. The preservation of endangered languages is no longer significant today, as globalization encourages the simultaneous use of different languages.

16. Archaeology is the specialty of anthropology that studies the human past by analyzing material remains left behind by earlier societies.

17. Applied anthropologists use information gathered from humanities, sciences, and social sciences to propose solutions to practical problems.

18. Critical medical anthropology is committed to the "making social" and "making political" of health and medicine.

19. "Adaptations of resistance" refers to peoples' attempts to change or escape social relations that compromise their well-being.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What is anthropology?

2. What is culture?

3. What do anthropologists mean when they claim their discipline is holistic?

4. What does it mean to say that anthropologists study humanity from a biocultural perspective?

5. How is biological anthropology different from biology as a discipline?

6. What forms of social organization are found in societies that do not have centralized governments?

7. Explain how Christine Schreyer's research about conlangs can help community leaders deal with decreasing interest in maintaining a minority language.

8. What is applied anthropology?

9. According to critical medical anthropologists, what social and cultural factors make people more vulnerable to disease and suffering?

10. How might a university undergraduate benefit from studying anthropology?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. a 2. b 3. b 4. d 5. c 6. d 7. d 8. a 9. a 10. a 11. c 12. d 13. d 14. c 15. d 16. a 17. b 18. a

19. c 20. a 21. c 22. d 23. d 24. a 25. a 26. b 27. a 28. b 29. d 30. a 31. d 32. a 33. d 34. a 35. c 36. a

37. b 38. c 39. d 40. d 41. c 42. d 43. a 44. b 45. d 46. a 47. c 48. b 49. a 50. a 51. b 52. d 53. a

8. TRUE 9. FALSE 10. TRUE 11. TRUE 12. FALSE 13. FALSE 14. FALSE

15. FALSE 16. TRUE 17. FALSE 18. TRUE 19. TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. FALSE 2. TRUE 3. TRUE 4. FALSE 5. TRUE 6. TRUE 7. FALSE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Anthropology is the study of human nature, human society, human language and the human past.

2. Culture is the sets of learned behaviour and ideas that human beings acquire as members of society.

3. This refers to the discipline's perspective, which draws together the study of human nature, human society, human language, and the human past. Anthropology emphasizes that all aspects of human life intersect with each other in complex ways and become integrated with each other over time.

4. Anthropologists examine both biological and cultural evolution of the human species, including both how the physical features and life processes of humans have changed over time as well as how beliefs, behaviours, and material objects have changed. Humans' biological makeup makes us organisms that are capable of creating and using culture, and at the same time, our physical survival depends on learned ways of thinking and acting that help us to meet our biological needs.

5. While biological anthropologists use many methods and theories shared by the natural sciences, they employ a

perspective that is holistic, comparative, and evolutionary. This perspective reminds them always to consider that their work as only part of the overall study of human nature, human society, and the human past.

6. Societies that do not have centralized governments have other forms of social organization including kinship, secret societies, and age sets.

7. Schreyer found that conlangs draw their prestige from the lore surrounding the characters who use them in fictional realities. People generally wish to learn conlangs because of their attachment to a larger universe of wonder and fantasy. Finding a way to increase the level of prestige attached to an endangered language, to increase its appeal to potential users, is vital to revitalization.

8. Applied anthropology is the subfield of anthropology in which anthropologists use information gathered from the other anthropological specialties to propose solutions to practical cross-cultural problems.

9. Disease and suffering are caused not only by the presence of microbes, but also by social inequality (based on gender, class, perceived race, and ethnicity) and lack of access to health care.

10. Anthropology shows us that, in addition to the lives we are living, there are many options for living a satisfying human life. In becoming familiar with other cultural traditions, we can shed harmful stereotypes and gain skills and perspective that are useful when dealing with people who speak a different language, have a different appearance, and see the world differently from us.

CHAPTER 2 WHY IS THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE IMPORTANT? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The human condition is distinguished from the condition of other living species by a) culture b) learning c) nature d) instinct 2. Culture is a) learned b) shared c) symbolic d) All of the above

.

.

3. Patterns of learned behaviour and ideas that humans acquire as members of society, together with the material artifacts and structures humans create and use, is an anthropological definition of . a) culture b) symbol c) language d) socialization 4. French anthropologist Pierre Bourdieu referred to those parts of culture that are never explicitly taught but absorbed in the course of practical daily living as . a) habitus b) cultural basics c) cultural techniques d) material culture 5. The cultural practices shared within social groups . a) include only that knowledge and skills possessed by all members b) includes the knowledge and skills of many different members c) are those that are unique to that group and distinguish it from others d) are those that rely on formal instruction, more so than observation 6. refers to the process by which humans living with one another must learn to come to terms with the ways of thinking and feeling considered appropriate in their respective cultures. a) Enculturation b) Discipline c) Socialization d) Introspection 7. refers to the process by which humans as material organisms, living together with other similar organisms, cope with the behavioural rules established by their respective societies. a) Enculturation b) Discipline

c) Socialization d) Introspection 8. Individualism is highly valued in North American society, with its influence apparent in child rearing practices, economic practices, and religious practices. This repetition of related beliefs in different areas of social life illustrates how culture is . a) patterned b) symbolic c) shared d) learned 9. Which of the following statement is NOT correct? a) Fulfulde language is widely spoken in Quebec b) human language is a good example of culture as patterned c) the English of Newfoundland differs from the English of other provinces in Canada in style, rhythm, and vocabulary d) English and French are widely spoken in Canada, which is connected to the colonial conquest and domination of Canada by the speakers of English and French in past centuries 10. Human newborns . a) have instincts that enable them to survive largely on their own b) depend on support and nurturance from adults and other members of their group c) are born with the cultural knowledge appropriate to the environment in which their ancestors lived d) acquire culture mostly through formal instruction, although observation is also important 11. A symbol is something that . a) stands for something else b) has a logical relationship to its referent c) is untranslatable d) refers to two contradictory things or meanings 12. The letters of an alphabet symbolize the sounds of spoken language as . a) the sounds of spoken language symbolize the meanings a speaker tries to express b) Arabic symbolizes Hebrew c) the meaning a speaker is trying to express symbolizes the sounds of spoken language d) the shape of a letter symbolizes the shape of language 13. Japanese macaques' practice of washing sweet potatoes before eating them suggests that a) the common ancestor of humans and non-human primates had some capacity for culture b) Japanese macaques have highly adaptive instincts c) sweet potatoes are a high status food among Japanese macaques d) washing food is an instinct rather than a learned practice 14. Homo sapiens appeared about a) 300.000 b) 6 million c) 2.5 million d) 10,000

years ago.

.

15. Humans and their immediate ancestors are referred to as a) Homo sapiens b) human agencies c) evolutionary ancestors d) hominin

.

16. Complex symbolic representation among humans includes the ability to a) communicate about the past, present, and future b) express warnings and information about the environment c) tell others about inner states such as pain, fear, and excitement d) count objects and identify members of a set

.

17. Rudimentary capacity for symbolic representation exists/existed among a) modern humans only b) human ancestors and modern apes c) modern apes but not human ancestors d) human ancestors but not modern apes

.

18. According to your textbook, . a) we cannot demonstrate that the brain evolved b) culture evolved first, making it possible for the brain to evolve c) the brain evolved first, making it possible for culture to evolve d) culture and the human brain coevolved 19. For Homo sapiens, _ another. a) cranial shape b) skin colour c) culture d) blood type

has become the predominant manner in which human groups vary from one

20. Because of the coevolution of human biology and culture, anthropologists refer to humans as a) holisms b) human agencies c) biocultural organisms d) coevolution creatures

.

21. Institutions are . a) enduring forms of cultural practice that organize social life b) a group of biological features that vary together, forming identifiable traits c) the cultural and biological traits that are characteristic of humans, and distinguish us from non-human primates d) social organizations found in complex societies 22. According to Rick Potts, culture . a) demonstrates continuity between the human and animal realms of behaviour b) represents a sharp break between humans and other animals c) is less important than genetics in shaping human behaviour d) first appeared about 100,000 years ago

23. Many social scientists believe that humans . a) are unable to say to what extent their behaviour is predetermined b) have free will, and are ultimately responsible for their choices and actions c) exercise behaviour that is completely determined by forces beyond individual control d) struggle to exercise some control over their lives, within the context of culture and history 24. Humans' exercise of at least some control over their lives is called a) free will b) habitus c) human agency d) historical materialism

.

25. The perspective on the human condition that assumes that mind and body, individuals and society, and individuals and the environment interpenetrate and even define one another is known as . a) holism b) dualism c) reductionism d) essentialism 26. refers to the interconnected relationship between biological processes and symbolic cultural processes, in which each makes up an important part of the environment to which the other must adapt. a) Coevolution b) Dualism c) Holism d) Adaptation 27. Hoyt Alverson discovered that the United States' Peace Corps in Botswana had difficulty with their assignments in part because the Tswana _. a) and the Americans had different interpretations of the meaning of solitude b) did not agree with the goals of the American projects c) were offended when the American volunteers sought time to be alone d) thought the American volunteers were either witches or insane 28. is the term anthropologists use to describe the opinion that one's own way of life is natural or correct. a) Prejudice b) Culture shock c) Racism d) Ethnocentrism 29. can be defined as understanding another culture in its own terms sympathetically enough so that the culture appears to be a coherent and meaningful design for living. a) Cultural relativism b) Ethnorelativism c) Fieldwork d) Holism 30. Pharaonic circumcision is the a) removal of the male foreskin

.

b) nicking the clitoris with a knife to draw blood c) excision of the labia and clitoris, together with fastening the remaining skin to partially close the vaginal opening d) removal of the clitoris 31. In Western societies, removal of the male foreskin . a) used to be practiced by observant Jews b) used to be practiced by observant Jews as well as others who recommended it for hygienic reasons c) is practiced today by observant Jews as well as others who recommend it for hygienic reasons d) is restricted to Jewish and Muslim populations 32. Women anthropologists who come from African societies where genital cutting is traditional point out that Western women who want to help are likely to be more effective if they . a) pay closer attention to what the African women themselves have to say about the meaning of these customs b) focus more on genital mutilation as a human rights abuse than as a barbaric and backward practice c) first repair the harm caused to African women by colonization and capitalism d) first pay attention to the position of women in the West 33. Currently, female genital cutting is . a) illegal throughout Africa and in most industrialized countries b) legal in much of Africa but illegal in most industrialized countries, including Canada and the United States c) protected by the United Nations as a cultural practice d) illegal in 18 African states and 12 industrialized countries, including Canada and the United States 34. Attempts to reduce female genital cutting among refugees and immigrants in Canada and the United States are complicated because . a) female genital cutting is part of girls' transition to adulthood b) women may seek to arrange the circumcision of their own daughters c) the media stigmatize those who take part in the practice as mutilators and child abusers d) All of the above 35. When anthropologist Janice Boddy carried out fieldwork in northern Sudan, she learned that a) female circumcision is required to make it possible for a girl to use her fertility b) only girls were subjected to ritual cutting c) female circumcision is required for a girl to become a woman d) girls undergoing genital cutting rarely suffered physically as a result of the procedure 36. Janice Boddy writes that women in Hofriyat associated infibulation with a) virginity that could be renewed and protected after giving birth b) female bodies that were clean, pure, and smooth c) fertility that was renewed and protected after each birth d) All of the above 37. According to Janice Boddy, the people of Hofriyat associated a) waterbirds b) ostrich eggshells c) gourds d) All of the above

.

.

_ with the infibulated female body.

38. In many countries around the world, the media message to women is that success in life requires a) an infibulated body b) power c) youth d) education

.

39. When anthropologists distinguished between "Culture" and "cultures," they were distinguishing between and . a) different traditions of learned behaviour/the ability to learn and create sets of behaviours and ideas b) the ability to create and imitate patterned, symbolically mediated ideas/ activities/learned ways of life of specific groups of people c) the fine arts/local traditions of human beings d) the genetic programming that sets humans apart from other animals/the ways in which programming works in specific places 40. Which of the following is a reason that anthropologists give for why the concept of cultural imperialism is not a satisfactory explanation for the spread of Western culture? a) The discourse of cultural imperialism denies agency to non-Western peoples who make use of Western cultural forms b) Cultural imperialism ignores the fact that cultural forms and practices sometimes move from one part of the non-Western world to other parts of the non-Western world, bypassing the West entirely c) Cultural imperialism assumes that non-Western cultural forms never move "from the rest to the West" d) All of the above.

41. Cultural borrowing that produces something new, drawing attention to the positive processes of cultural creativity, is known as _ . a) innovation b) cultural hybridity c) cultural imperialism d) cosmopolitanism 42. The idea of cultural hybridity is problematic because . a) it easily turns the experiences of hybridized elites into a hegemonic standard, suggesting that class exploitation and racial oppression are easily overcome or no longer exist b) it ignores the fact that its effects are experienced differently by those with power and those without power c) it is based on the notion that it occurs when two or more supposedly "pure" cultures mix, except that cultures have always been hybrid d) All of the above

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Socialization is the process by which humans living in groups must learn to come to terms with the ways of thinking and feeling that are considered appropriate in their respective cultures.

2. All cultural traditions contain unique elements of their own, as well as share elements with other traditions.

3. Human biological survival depends only on instincts.

4. Habitus is the result of learning and is heavily influenced by our interactions with culture.

5. Individualism in the North American society is an example of culture as patterned.

6. The fact that we can translate from one language to another suggests that the same or similar meanings cannot be expressed by different symbols.

7. Humans see the world in symbolic categories.

8. Anthropologists agree that culture appeared suddenly with the arrival of homo sapiens.

9. According to Rick Potts (1996), human culture has its roots in primate culture.

10. The holistic perspective tells us that cultural traditions and institutions can be understood individually in a meaningful way.

11. Ethnocentrism is the inevitable outcome when people from different cultural backgrounds come into contact.

12. Anthropologists are convinced that human experience is inherently ambiguous.

13. Ethnocentrism is the opinion that one's own way of life is natural and correct.

14. Radical feminist Mary Daly considered female genital cutting along with foot binding and witch burning to be patriarchal "Sado-Rituals" that destroy "the Self-affirming being of women."

15. The textbook authors assert that in North American women's experience, youth is "made, not born," through consumer products and surgeries.

16. Cultural relativism is a "tough-minded philosophy" because it enables us to clearly distinguish between right and wrong.

17. Early twentieth-century anthropologists Franz Boas and Bronislaw Malinowski showed that the culture concept could be misused to judge whether or not beliefs or behaviours are "authentic."

18. Today, most Inuit consider Christianity to be part of their cultural heritage.

19. It is fairly accurate to say that the Inuit "Inuitized" Christianity just as much as the missionaries "Christianized" the Inuit.

20. Inuit who adopted Christianity did not continue to practice traditional healing and divination.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What are the five attributes of culture described in your text? Provide a brief explanation of each.

2. What are the differences and similarities between socialization and enculturation?

3. Karl Marx wrote, "Men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please." How does this statement relate to our understanding of agency and culture?

4. How can enculturation be used in explaining the difficulties of American Peace Corps workers in Botswana?

5. What is ethnocentrism? Briefly discuss how relationships between individuals from different cultural backgrounds can be positive as well as challenging.

6. How is the concept of "pattern" an attribute of culture? Provide an example using your own culture or drawing on Janice Boddy's discussion of female genital cutting in Hofriyat.

7. What is cultural relativism?

8. How do anthropologists distinguish between culture as an attribute of humanity as a whole and distinct human cultures?

9. On what grounds did some anthropologists, by the end of the twentieth century, criticize the way the plural concept of culture was being used?

10. How have Inuit beliefs and practices influenced Christianity in Labrador? What does this suggest about the nature of culture?

11. What did Franz Boas and his students mean by "borrowing with modification"?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. a 2. d 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. a 7. c 8. a 9. a 10. b 11. a 12. a 13. a 14. a

15. d 16. a 17. b 18. d 19. c 20. c 21. a 22. a 23. d 24. c 25. a 26. a 27. a 28. d

29. a 30. c 31. c 32. a 33. d 34. d 35. a 36. d 37. d 38. c 39. b 40. d 41. b 42. d

8. FALSE 9. TRUE 10. FALSE 11. FALSE 12. TRUE 13. TRUE 14. TRUE

15. TRUE 16. FALSE 17. FALSE 18. TRUE 19. TRUE 20. FALSE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. FALSE 2. TRUE 3. FALSE 4. TRUE 5. TRUE 6. FALSE 7. TRUE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Human culture is learned, shared, patterned, adaptive, and symbolic. "Learned" means that (unlike other animals) human babies are not born with instincts, but rather learn behaviours that enable them to survive from others. "Shared" means that cultural practices are shared within social groups. "Patterned" means that related cultural beliefs and practices appear repeatedly in different parts of social life. "Adaptive" means that culture enables individuals to master ways of thinking and acting that promote their biological survival. "Symbolic" means that human culture has a symbolic dimension, including the ability to communicate about the past, the future, and the invisible.

2. Socialization and enculturation both involve the individual's processes of learning about the society in which they live. Socialization refers to the processes of learning to cope with behavioral rules established by the group, while enculturation refers to the processes of learning to come to terms with the ways of thinking and feeling that are considered appropriate in their cultures.

3. Humans struggle to exercise control over their lives which are constrained by the cultural and historical contexts in which they act. In these contexts, humans exercise agency by making interpretations, formulating goals, and pursuing these goals.

4. Enculturation is the process by which humans come to terms with the ways of thinking and feeling that are considered appropriate in their cultures. American Peace Corps workers in Botswana struggled to reconcile their

desire for time alone (daily "private time" that is highly valued by Westerners) with Tswana beliefs that the only humans who want to be alone are the insane and witches. Since the Americans did not appear to fit either category, the Tswana sought to be hospitable and provide constant company. The American volunteers, who had not adopted or come to terms with Tswana ways of thinking and feeling burned out, hostile to their Tswana hosts, and failed in their assignments.

5. Ethnocentrism is the opinion that one's own way of life is natural or correct. When people from different backgrounds come into contact, people may both recognize areas of cultural similarity and be shocked by differences they encounter, sometimes resulting in conflict and attempts to change the other's cultural practices or, worse, to eliminate them. Learning about other cultures enables people to see different possibilities for belief and action and to recognize that no culture has a monopoly on truth.

6. Human culture is patterned, by which we mean that related cultural beliefs and practices show up repeatedly in different areas of social life. Janice Boddy showed how women in Hofriyat described infibulated female bodies as clean, pure, and smooth, and stated that infibulation turned women into potential mothers of men who are celebrated in village genealogies. These concepts were repeated in multiple areas of village life, for instance in the description of "clean" water birds, "clean food" such as eggs, ostrich eggshells and egg-shaped gourds which were all associated with female fertility.

7. Cultural relativism is understanding another culture in its own terms sympathetically enough so that the culture appears to be a coherent and meaningful design for living.

8. Some anthropologists use the upper and lower case letter C to distinguish between culture as an evolved attribute and capacity of the human species (Culture) and cultures (with a lower case c, and often expressed in the plural form) as particular, learned ways of life belonging to specific groups of human beings.

9. Some anthropologists have noted that the concept of cultures, rather than operating to protect the integrity of possibly vulnerable cultures against Western cultural imperialism, has sometimes been used to limit diversity and change from within a cultural tradition through the suggestion that change is inauthentic.

10. While many Inuit adopted Christianity in place of their traditional belief system, they adapted Christianity in the process. For instance, the traditional Inuit Sedna feast was integrated into Christmas celebrations, and many of the shamans and elders who became lay preachers and ministers continued to practice Inuit healing and divination in secret. This illustrates how culture is continually changing rather than fixed and static.

11. Borrowing-with-modification means that people never adopt blindly, but always adapt what they borrow for local purposes. That is, people rarely accept ideas, practices, or objects from elsewhere without domesticating or indigenizing them--i.e., finding a way of reconciling them with local practices in order to serve local purposes.

CHAPTER 3 WHY IS EVOLUTION IMPORTANT TO ANTHROPOLOGISTS? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. According to philosopher of science Philip Kutcher, successful scientific theories are a) testable, unified, and fruitful b) true statements about the physical world c) beliefs that have been supported by most members of the scientific community d) the observable, measurable, overt characteristics of an organism 2. Evolutionary theory is based on a set of a) testable hypotheses b) scientists' opinions about different species c) assumptions about when life began d) observations of the natural world

.

.

3. On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, by Charles Darwin, was first published in a) 1763 b) 1819 c) 1859 d) 1901

.

4. The claim that "living species can change over time and give rise to new kinds of organisms, with the result that all organisms ultimately share a common ancestry" is central to . a) evolutionary theory b) genetic transformational theory c) intelligent design d) prehistoric positional theory 5. are examples of the two kinds of material evidence important in the development of evolutionary theory. a) DNA and the genome b) Natural selection and variational evolution c) The fossil record and species distribution patterns d) Niche construction and discontinuous variation 6. The pre-Darwinian belief that each "natural kind" of living thing is characterized by an unchanging, perfect core of features that separates it from all other living things is known as . a) essentialism b) the Great Chain of Being c) catastrophism d) uniformitarianism 7. The belief that all living things are linked in a continuous, complete, and hierarchical arrangement based on the degrees to which they depart from divine perfection is known as . a) essentialism b) the Great Chain of Being

c) catastrophism d) uniformitarianism 8. The theory that natural disasters such as floods are responsible for the extinction of species that are then replaced by new species is known as . a) essentialism b) the Great Chain of Being c) catastrophism d) uniformitarianism 9. The theory that natural processes such as erosion and volcanism that affect the earth today have been present through time and allow us to reconstruct the history of the earth is known as . a) catastrophism b) essentialism c) transformational evolution d) uniformitarianism 10. The theory that all members of a species transform themselves in identical ways to adapt to a uniformly changing environment is known as . a) transformational evolution b) uniformitarianism c) essentialism d) catastrophism 11. Both the Greeks and the Judeo-Christian tradition viewed the world as _ a) created for the use of humans b) being around forever c) young but doomed to end soon d) fixed and unchanging

.

12. The belief that both the world itself and the forms of life that are part of it do not change is associated with . a) Plato b) Aristotle c) Lamarck d) Lyell 13. The Great Chain of Being asserts that humans occupy a unique position in the hierarchy of the natural world because they . a) are bipedal b) possess both material bodies and souls c) are capable of advanced forms of communication d) were created by God 14. According to the text, is considered an essentialist. a) Charles Darwin b) Carolus Linnaeus c) Jean-Baptiste de Monet de Larmarck d) Gregor Mendel

15. In biology, refers to a classification system used to organize various kinds of organisms. a) species b) genus c) taxonomy d) hierarchal organisms 16. According to the Great Chain of Being perspective, creatures farthest away from the divine perfection were . a) excluded from the hierarchy b) ranked highest in the hierarchy c) equal to God in different terms d) ranked lowest in the hierarchy 17. According to French scientist Georges Cuvier's anatomical studies, there were only living things. a) two b) three c) four d) five

categories of

18. The discovery of in the eighteenth century gradually raised doubts about the Great Chain of Being. a) fossils b) DNA c) deviations from the "normal" form of a species d) natural disasters 19. The theory of catastrophism is associated with a) Georges Cuvier b) Carolus Linnaeus c) Jean-Baptiste de Monet de Lamarck d) Gregor Mendel

.

20. Catastrophism differed from nineteenth-century Judeo-Christian beliefs in that it stated that a) species changed over time b) species might disappear in mass extinctions c) species were not created by God d) all species were equal in perfection

.

21. , nineteenth-century intellectual groups, held that the harmonious integration of nature was evidence of God's creation. a) Uniformitarians b) Catastrophists c) Essentialists d) Evolutionists 22. The uniformitarian position gained powerful support from the book a) The Power of Geology b) The Silent Language

.

c) Principles of Geology d) On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection 23. In 1809, wrote that physical resemblances between fossils and living species suggest that fossil forms were the ancestors of living forms. a) Jean-Baptiste de Monet de Larmarck b) Charles Lyell c) Georges Cuvier d) Charles Darwin 24. Lamarchkian evolution has also been called _ a) variational evolution b) natural selection c) transformational evolution d) adaptation evolution

.

25. Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin . a) published a scientific paper together (under both names) in which they first put forth their ideas on evolution b) disagreed with each other about why there are many similar but distinct species c) determined that the earth must be older than 6,000 years, its widely believed age d) compared finches from the Galapagos Islands with those from the Ecuadorian mainland to determine that similar species must be descended from a single parental population 26. Darwin's claim that similar living species must all have had a common ancestor is referred to as the theory of . a) origins of species b) common ancestry c) evolution d) natural selection 27. Drawing on the work of Thomas Malthus, Darwin theorized that the population of a species was limited in size by . a) available resources b) transformational evolution c) superior fitness d) heredity 28. The Darwinian theory of evolution by natural selection argued that a) biology b) transformation c) unitary essence d) variation

is the central condition of life.

29. Pandas used their wrists intensively to obtain enough bamboo leaves to survive, causing their wrist bones to lengthen, a trait they passed on to their offspring. This example illustrates the theory of . a) transformational evolution b) exaptation c) natural selection d) variational evolution

30. The concept of adaptation refers to . a) any useful feature of an organism, regardless of its origin b) a useful feature of an organism that was shaped by natural selection for the function it now performs c) a useful feature of an organism that was originally shaped by natural selection to perform one function but later reshaped by different selection pressures to perform a new function d) the explanation of how descent with modification takes place 31. The concept of aptation (distinct from adaptation) refers to . a) any useful feature of an organism, regardless of its origin b) a useful feature of an organism that was shaped by natural selection for the function it now performs c) a useful feature of an organism that was originally shaped by natural selection to perform one function but later reshaped by different selection pressures to perform a new function d) the explanation of how descent with modification takes place 32. The concept of exaptation refers to . a) any useful feature of an organism, regardless of its origin b) a useful feature of an organism that was shaped by natural selection for the function it now performs c) a useful feature of an organism that was originally shaped by natural selection to perform one function but later reshaped by different selection pressures to perform a new function d) the explanation of how descent with modification takes place 33. According to Gould and Vrba (1982), the original adaptive function of insect appendages was a) flying b) body warming c) body cooling d) balance

.

34. Consider these two individuals: an Olympic athlete who never had any children, or a sedentary and overweight individual like J.S. Bach who has twenty children. According to Darwinian theory, a) J.S. Bach has higher fitness b) the athlete has higher fitness c) it is impossible to tell who has higher fitness d) they have equal Darwinian fitness

.

35. The ancient theory of heredity known as pangenesis explained inheritance in terms of . a) a single, Divine creation of all species b) each parent contributing one particle for each trait to his or her offspring c) multiple particles from both parents that blended, in different proportions, in their offspring d) sets of paired bodies that contain the hereditary genetic information that organisms pass to their offspring 36. Biologists have discovered that physical differences in offspring result from the way fertilization. a) genes b) pangenesis c) mitosis d) chromosomes 37. Gregor Mendel's plant breeding experiments revealed that

.

form during

a) the ratio of parental traits (red or white flowers) appearing in the first (100 per cent red) and second generation (75 per cent red, 25 per cent white) was consistent over time b) the theory of pangenesis was correct c) each parent contributed multiple particles to their offspring that blended together to produce a particular trait d) pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell duplicate and line up along the centre of the cell 38. The asserts that an individual gets one particle (gene) for each trait from each parent. a) theory of continuous variation b) principle of segregation c) the theory of natural selection d) principle of independent assortment 39. The term "genetics" was coined in a) 1808 b) 1858 c) 1908 d) 1958

.

40. Polygeny is . a) the portion or portions of the DNA molecule that code for proteins that shape phenotypic traits b) a pattern of variation in which traits grade imperceptibly from one member of the population to another without any sharp breaks c) the phenomenon whereby many genes are responsible for producing an observable trait such as skin color d) a theory of heredity suggesting that an organism's traits are acquired from both parents who contribute multiple particles from all parts of the organism 41. William Bateson invented the term both parents for a particular trait. a) "chromosome" b) "gene" c) "homozygous" d) "heterozygous"

to describe a fertilized egg that receives the same particle from

42. The phenomenon of one single gene affecting multiple traits is called a) heterozygous b) alleles c) continuous variation d) pleiotropy

.

43. From a Darwinian perspective, . a) populations evolve as each generation contributes different numbers of offspring to the generation that comes after it b) mutations occur because they are necessary for the population's survival c) individuals evolve genetically over time d) genes change based on feedback about the individual's experiences or needs 44. Mutations that neither help nor harm an organism are called a) subdued b) neutral

mutations.

c) modern d) evolutionary 45. A genome is . a) the sum of all the genetic material in the cell b) the genetic information about particular biological traits encoded in an organism's DNA c) the observable, measurable, overt characteristics of an organism d) the molecular structure of a gene 46. Individuals with the same genotype may develop a range of different phenotypes. An example of this is . a) identical twins, who develop unique fingerprints b) fraternal twins who look very similar but are genetically different c) when organisms actively perturb the environment in ways that modify the selection pressures experienced by subsequent generations d) pleiotropy 47. is understood to occur when organisms actively perturb the environment in ways that modify the selection pressures experienced by subsequent generations of organisms. a) Norm of reaction b) Niche construction c) Mutation d) Natural selection 48. Many living organisms modify their environment or actively move into a different environment so as to modify the selection pressures experienced by subsequent generations of organisms. This practice has been . a) proposed as an adaptive process alongside natural selection b) identified as a challenge to the theory of natural selection c) called a norm of reaction d) identified as a pattern of variation involving polygeny 49. According to the textbook, evolutionary theory . a) is a method, not an answer b) predicts how species change over time with extraordinary accuracy c) shows that life began about two million years ago d) allows us to see the development of Homo sapiens as a directed, purposeful path 50. According to Lewontin, a) 10.521 b) 26.887 c) 73.677 d) 99.999

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS

per cent of all the species that have ever existed are extinct.

1. Evolution is as highly verified a thesis as can be found in science.

2. Records show that humans tried to explain the presence of fossils for many centuries before Darwin.

3. A theory is testable when its hypotheses can be independently matched up against culture.

4. According to essentialists, living things can be divided into groups based on significant differences from each other.

5. Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection appeared in 1859.

6. Material evidence of change over time and material evidence of change across space are two kinds of material evidence are important in the development of evolutionary theory.

7. The Great Chain of Being theory dominated the Western scientific worldview from 300 AD to the Middle Ages.

8. Cuvier asserted that there were no connections whatsoever between the four basic categories of living things.

9. The uniformitarian position gained powerful support from the book Principles of Geology by Charles Lyell (1797-1875).

10. Both Catasrophists and Uniformitarians accept the harmonious, non-directional view about the God's creation.

11. Lamarck argued that transformation of species occurred when an organ is strengthened by use and weakened by disuse.

12. Darwin became better known that Wallace in part because of the mass of material evidence he collected in support of his theory together with his refined theoretical interpretations of that evidence.

13. The struggle for existence described by Darwin refers to individuals fighting with each other for access to food.

14. The distinction between adaptation and exaptation is important because mistaking one for the other can lead to evolutionary misinterpretations.

15. Living cells reproduce by undergoing two kinds of division: mitosis and meiosis.

16. The word "gene" was coined after the word "genetics" was introduced.

17. Geneticists originally, but wrongly, thought that traits were determined by a single gene.

18. Gene mutation explains how genetic inheritance can be unchanging and still produce the variation that makes evolutionary change possible.

19. Continuous variation refers to the phenomenon whereby a single gene may affect more than one phenotypic trait.

20. Mendel's research found that peas with red flowers could not produce peas with white flowers.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What are the two kinds of material evidence for evolution? Briefly discuss each.

2. Describe essentialism as it relates to the natural world.

3. What was the dominant view of the natural world prior to the challenges raised by social and scientific discoveries in the eighteenth century?

4. What question was raised by increased knowledge of the fossil record in the early nineteenth century? How did catastrophism address this question?

5. How was catastrophism similar to and different from prevailing beliefs about species at the time?

6. What were Lamarck's two laws of transformational evolution?

7. What is the theory of common ancestry and to whom is it attributed?

8. What is the theory of natural selection and to whom is it attributed?

9. What is exaptation and how does the idea of exaptation help us understand the evolution of complex structures such as insect wings?

10. What is niche construction and how has this concept altered our understanding of evolution?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. a 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. c 6. a 7. b 8. c 9. d 10. a 11. d 12. a 13. b 14. b 15. c 16. d 17. c

18. a 19. a 20. b 21. a 22. c 23. a 24. c 25. a 26. b 27. a 28. d 29. a 30. b 31. a 32. c 33. c 34. a

35. c 36. d 37. a 38. b 39. c 40. c 41. c 42. d 43. a 44. b 45. a 46. a 47. b 48. a 49. a 50. d

8. TRUE 9. TRUE 10. FALSE 11. TRUE 12. TRUE 13. FALSE 14. TRUE

15. TRUE 16. TRUE 17. TRUE 18. TRUE 19. FALSE 20. FALSE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. TRUE 2. FALSE 3. TRUE 4. FALSE 5. TRUE 6. TRUE 7. FALSE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. There are two kinds of material evidence for evolution: material evidence of change over time and material evidence of change across space. Material evidence of change over time is found in the fossil record. When scientists compared fossil forms with living animals, they found great differences. An example of material evidence of change across space can be found in the comparison of finch species from the Galapagos Islands with those of mainland Ecuador. They are very similar, and yet have distinct differences.

2. Essentialism is the belief (associated with Plato) in a world of perfect, eternal, unchanging forms of which the changeable natural world is an imperfect representation so that all individuals that belong to the same species are imperfect representations of a single ideal form. In this view, species do not change over time.

3. Prior to the expansion of support for evolution in the mid-nineteenth century, scholars shared a belief in the Great Chain of Being, a view that linked all living things in an elaborate chain.

4. The scientific excavation of fossils led Cuvier and others to believe that some species had disappeared over time and were replaced by other new species. Cuvier suggested that species became extinct as a result of natural disasters, which were known as catastrophes.

5. Catastrophism was similar to the prevailing ideology of the Great Chain of Being in that it did not reject the essentialist understanding of species or suggest that new species were simply old species that had changed over time. On the other hand, it challenged traditional beliefs that God's creation was perfect and complete by stating that species might disappear in mass extinctions. Furthermore, catastrophism held that there were four categories of living things that were unrelated and could not be hierarchically and linearly arranged in the manner of the Great Chain of Being.

6. First, an organ is strengthened by use and weakened by disuse (the law of use and disuse). Second, the physical result of use or disuse could be passed from one generation to the next (the law of inheritance of acquired characteristics).

7. The theory of common ancestry is associated with Charles Darwin. Darwin asserted that similar species can be traced to a common ancestor.

8. The theory of natural selection is associated with Charles Darwin. Natural selection occurs as a result of naturally occurring variation within a species that enables some individuals to survive and procreate at a higher rate than others in a given environment.

9. Exaptation is the shaping of a useful feature of an organism by natural selection to perform one function and the later reshaping of that feature by different selection processes to perform a new function. If insect wings evolved gradually via natural selection, the first wing-like forms would not have permitted flight. Exaptation suggests that initially, wing-like forms would have had a different adaptive function such as cooling, and were exapted for the function of flying once they had reached a certain size or shape.

10. Niche construction refers to how organisms actively alter their environment in ways that modify the selective pressures experienced by subsequent generations of organisms. This concept reveals how organisms are not solely passive, but rather sometimes capable of intervening in their evolutionary fate.

CHAPTER 4 WHAT CAN THE STUDY OF PRIMATES TELL US ABOUT HUMAN BEINGS? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The term " " is most relevant to a critical understanding of the fictional portrayal of primates such as Curious George and King Kong. a) anthropomorphism b) homoplasy c) homology d) clades 2. The similarity between human and chimpanzee DNA is about a) 60 per cent b) 90 per cent c) 99 per cent d) 75 per cent

.

3. The two words that compose the scientific name assigned to each species refer to a) species and population b) genus and population c) genus and species d) family and genus

.

4. Taxon refers to . a) a classification system used to organize various kinds of organisms b) a species or group of related species at any level of a taxonomic hierarchy c) the study of the various processes that objects undergo in the course of becoming part of the fossil and archaeological records d) a relative dating method that relies on the depth of strata and associated artifacts and fossils 5. Contemporary taxonomies are designed to reflect a) morphology b) geographical distribution c) homoplasy d) evolutionary relationships

.

6. Cladistics is . a) a taxonomic method based on morphological similarity b) a taxonomic method based on evolutionary relatedness c) an example of parallel evolution d) the physical shape and size of an organism 7. The suborders of primates are . a) New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, and apes and humans b) New World monkeys and Old World monkeys c) strepsirrhines and haplorhines d) Old World monkeys, apes and humans

8. Prehensile tails are characteristic of a) all platyrrhines b) some platyrrhines but no catarrhines c) some catarrhines but no platyrrhines d) some platyrrhines and some catarrhines

.

9. is/are NOT associated with New World monkeys. a) Downward-pointing nostrils b) Three premolars c) Tree-dwelling d) Broad, flat noses 10. Hamadryas and gelada baboons . a) are the best known species of New World monkeys b) belong to the genus Hominoidea c) both live in social groups that possess a single breeding male d) belong to the most widely distributed and continuously studied primate genus in the world 11. Hominins are . a) humans b) humans and their immediate ancestors c) humans and chimpanzees d) humans, chimpanzees, and orangutans 12. Sexual dimorphism refers to . a) genetic differences between males and females of the same species b) behavioural differences between males and females of the same species c) observable phenotypic differences between males and females of the same species d) emotional or affectional relationships between sexual partners 13. form mated monogamous pairs and feature males and females that are of similar size but with different coat colors. a) Tarsiers b) Gibbons c) Orangutans d) Bonobos 14. The following statement is NOT associated with orangutans: a) They have two forms of adult male, flanged and unflanged b) They live in bands of tightly bonded females with one male c) Some have been observed using tools d) Juveniles are highly dependent on their mothers 15. Biruté Galdikas observed orangutans by . a) establishing camp near a high-ranking group of adult females b) establishing a habitat for orangutans in her primate research lab c) filming orangutans near sources of food and water d) forming close relationships with orphaned orangutans

.

16. are a species of endangered great ape. a) Orangutans b) Japanese macaques c) Gelada baboons d) Tarsier 17. In the following group, females have stronger bonds with males and with other unrelated females; as a result, they play a more central role in their societies: . a) chimpanzees b) mountain gorillas c) bonobos d) orangutans 18. The following practice was observed by Jane Goodall: . a) Male mountain gorillas protecting immature members of their group b) Young male gibbons forming a non-breeding pair with their widowed mothers c) Several male hamadryas baboons congregating to forage together d) Chimpanzees preparing sticks to help them fish for insects in termite mounds or anthills 19. The following statement best describes tool use among chimpanzees: _ . a) Patterns of tool use vary regionally, suggesting the existence of separate cultural traditions in different chimpanzee groups b) Tool use is fairly simple and is strongly instinctive c) Tool use has been observed primarily in laboratory settings d) Chimpanzees select tools of an appropriate shape and size but do not alter materials 20. The "grandmother hypothesis" suggests that . a) those who had as many offspring as possible were more reproductively successful than those who had fewer b) those who had offspring later in life were more reproductively successful than those who had offspring earlier in life c) those who focused on the longevity of a few offspring were more reproductively successful than those who aimed to have as many offspring as possible d) female relatives contribute more to the well-being of offspring than do male relatives 21. Theoretically and methodologically interdisciplinary study of the multifarious interactions and interface between humans and other primates is called . a) ethnoprimatology b) primatology c) ethnology d) etiology 22. rejects that idea that humans are separate from natural ecosystems a) ethnoprimatoly b) paleoanthropology c) processual archaeology d) interpretative archaeology 23. What is NOT true about ethnoprimatological projects? a) it provides a robust area for the (re) integration of sociocultural and biological perspectives in anthropology

b) it is useful for maintaining human and non-human primate relations c) it is possible to find a sustainable solution to social and economic crises that can benefit alloprimates as well as humans. d) ethnoprimatological projects can address racial biasness in human society 24. is NOT a distinguishing characteristic of primates. a) Opposable thumbs and toes b) Nails instead of claws on at least some digits c) Sensitive pads on tips of fingers and toes d) A well-developed sense of smell 25. is NOT believed to be among the selective pressures that shaped primate evolution. a) Eating plants and fruits b) Living in trees c) Expanding into colder climates d) Feeding at night 26. The era began 65 million years ago. a) Cenozioc b) Cretaceous c) Holocene d) Anthropocene 27. is considered to be ancestral to humans. a) Proconsul heseloni b) Altanius orlovi c) Pan panicus d) Theropithecus gelada 28. The earliest known hominoid fossils were found in a) Western Europe b) China c) western Saudi Arabia and northern Kenya d) North Africa

.

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Because African apes share many physical characteristics with humans, anthropologists believe that these primates also share many of our feelings and attitudes.

2. Primatologist Pamela Asquith is against romanticizing or demonizing primates to understand these primates in their own right.

3. In traditional taxonomic systems, great apes and humans are grouped together because their adaptations are more similar to one another than to those of lesser apes.

4. Homoplasy refers to genetic inheritance of common features from a shared ancestor.

5. Primates are only studied in laboratories.

6. Homology refers to genetic inheritance resulting from common ancestry.

7. Unlike most mammalian groups, primate species are nearly all found in the tropics.

8. Primate species share similar social configurations and patterns of mating and rearing offspring.

9. Ecological niche refers to a species' unique position within the ecosystem in which it exists, which is shaped by its way of life.

10. Haplorhines include tarsiers and anthropoids, primates with a dry-looking nose that is separate from their lips.

11. There is no evidence of hybridization among species of New World monkeys.

12. Distinguishing features of apes include reduced canine size and the absence of a tail.

13. All primates display sexual dimorphism in size.

14. Gibbon parents sometimes assist their mated offspring in establishing their territory.

15. Male chimpanzees have been observed hunting for meat and sharing their kill with other members of their group.

16. Extensive study has allowed anthropologists to conclude that chimpanzee sexual behaviour is used to manipulate social relationships rather than to increase reproductive rates.

17. All living and extinct primates have dermal ridges (finger prints).

18. Primates are unusual because of their tendency to lose specific parts that other animals have retained during their evolution.

19. Although the best current candidate for the oldest primate fossil was found in South Africa, it is still unclear where the first primates evolved.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What is anthropomorphism?

2. Why is morphology not a foolproof indicator of evolutionary relatedness?

3. What is an ecological niche?

4. What is significant about prehensile tails?

5. Describe male—female relations among gibbons.

6. How are hamadryas and gelada baboon social groups different from each other?

7. What is Anthropocene?

8. What is the shelf-life of eggs hypothesis?

9. What are the six evolutionary trends that distinguish primates, living and extinct, from other animals?

10. What are the three ancestral characteristics that distinguish primates, living and extinct, from other animals?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. a 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. b 7. c 8. b 9. a 10. c

11. b 12. c 13. b 14. b 15. d 16. a 17. c 18. d 19. a 20. c

21. a 22. a 23. d 24. d 25. c 26. a 27. a 28. c

8. FALSE 9. TRUE 10. TRUE 11. TRUE 12. TRUE 13. FALSE 14. TRUE

15. TRUE 16. FALSE 17. TRUE 18. FALSE 19. FALSE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. FALSE 2. TRUE 3. FALSE 4. FALSE 5. FALSE 6. TRUE 7. TRUE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics to non-human animals.

2. This is because similarity can arise either through inheritance of common features from a common ancestory (homology) or through adaptation to similar environments (homoplasy).

3. An ecological niche is a species' unique position within the ecosystem in which it exists, which is shaped by its way of life (e.g., what it eats and how it finds mates, raises its young, relates to companions, and protects itself from predators).

4. Prehensile means "grasping"; prehensile tails function like a fifth limb, enabling individuals to hang from their tails. Some New World (platyrrhine) monkeys have prehensile tails; no Old World (catarrhine) monkeys have prehensile tails.

5. Gibbons are monogamous, neither male nor female is consistently dominant, and males contribute substantially to caring for offspring. Gibbon pairs do not spend a lot of time interacting with each other, but do cooperate to defend their territory from outsiders.

6. Hamadryas baboon males build up their one-male units by enticing females away from other units or by "adopting" immature females and caring for them until they are ready to breed. By contrast, gelada baboons construct their one-male units on a core of strongly bonded female relatives that are closely influenced by the dominant female and that stay together even if the male of their group is removed.

7. A new geological epoch that has been initiated because of extensive human generated environmental

modification 8. The shelf-life of eggs hypothesis attempts to explain why human females experience menopause. Linda Fedigan argues that the deterioration of eggs with age limits reproductive years to a maximum of 54 years among mammals. However, among humans, evolutionary pressures have led to a longer lifespan without an accompanying increase in the number or longevity of eggs in female humans.

9. - Increased relative brain size - Reduced facial projection and reliance on smell - Increased dependence on sight and development of stereoscopic vision - Reduced number of teeth - Increased infant dependency - Greater dependence on learned behaviour 10. - Five digits on hands and feet - Clavicle for flexible shoulders - Plantigrade locomotion (walking with the palms of the hands and the feet flat on the ground)

CHAPTER 5 WHAT CAN THE FOSSIL RECORD TELL US ABOUT HUMAN ORIGINS? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. , a subfield of evolutionary studies, focuses on long-term evolutionary changes, especially the origin of new species. a) Macroevolution b) Microevolution c) Species evolution d) Transformational evolution 2. The expansion of a) grasslands b) forests c) glaciers d) coastal caves

was a selective pressure that favoured bipedalism.

3. Bipedalism refers to _ . a) walking primarily on two feet with the use of forelimbs for balance b) walking on two feet instead of four c) swinging from arms, as in arboreal locomotion d) walking with the heel on the ground 4. The following is NOT believed to be a selective pressure that favoured the emergence of bipedal locomotion in hominoids: . a) Upright posture made it easier to spot and evade predators b) Upright posture reduced the amount of skin surface exposed to the sun c) Upright posture was more energy efficient d) Upright posture allowed individuals to travel long distances more rapidly 5. According to Michael Day, the increase in stamina enabled bipedal hominins to a) outrun predators at short distances b) become endurance hunters who slowly tracked game over long distances c) move into the ecological niche of hunting during the night d) collect marine species as well as terrestrial species

.

6. The simple technology and massive molars of the first bipedal hominins suggest that their diet was probably composed of . a) berries, fruits, nuts, roots and tubers, mushrooms, grasses, and seeds b) berries, fruits, nuts, roots and tubers, reptiles, eggs, nesting birds, some fish, and small mammals c) terrestrial and aquatic reptiles, eggs, birds, fish, and small mammals d) grains, vegetables, meat from goats, sheep and cattle, yogurt, and other dairy products 7. The Laetoli footprints are significant because _ . a) they are evidence of hominin hunting behaviour 3.6 million years ago b) they suggest that hominins developed bipedalism much later than originally thought c) they are evidence of hominin bipedalism 3.6 million years ago

d) they show evidence of hominin evolution in Europe 8. Most early hominin fossils that show skeletal evidence of bipedalism have been placed in the genus a) Ardipithecus b) Sahelanthropus c) Homo d) Australopithecus

.

9. The fossil skeleton of the individual known as Lucy is significant because . a) it was undisturbed and 40 per cent intact, including much of the postcranial skeleton b) it was the first fairly complete adult skull c) it is the oldest example of hominin bipedalism d) it is the only example of Australopithecus afarensis found to date 10. Diastemata are . a) the enormous cheek teeth that are found among later australopiths b) spaces in the tooth row for each canine of the opposite jaw to fit into when the jaws are closed c) the sexually dimorphic canine teeth that project beyond the tooth row in humans d) the biting incisors found among contemporary apes 11. Increased size in australopith molars is the result of . a) larger body size b) adaptation to grassland diets consisting of coarse vegetable foods c) selective pressure for shearing meat d) sexual dimorphism 12. The following list correctly reflects cranial capacity among hominins, from smallest to largest: a) Australopithecus afarensis, Ardipithecus ramidus, Homo habilis, Homo sapiens b) Homo ramidus, Homo afarensis, Homo sapiens, Homo habilis c) Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus afarensis, Homo habilis, Homo sapiens d) Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus afarensis, Homo sapiens, Homo habilis 13. Gracile australopiths flourished a) between 7 and 6 mya b) between 2.5 and 1.5 mya c) between 400,000 and 30,000 years ago d) between 3 and 2 mya

.

.

14. is considered to be intermediate between fossils currently classified as Australopithecus and those attributed to early Homo. a) Australopithecus afarensis b) Australopithecus sediba c) Paranthropus robustus d) Ardipithecus ramidus 15. The "man the hunter" theory of human evolution asserts that . a) physical and behavioural traits characteristic of humans are the outcome of a reliance on hunting b) contemporary stereotypes have influenced how we interpret archaeological evidence c) the reliance on vegetables and eggs gathered by men and women shaped both the biological and the behavioural

evolution of humans d) most early tools were probably developed by women 16. According to ethnographic research, a) meat hunted by men b) plant food gathered by women c) plant foods cultivated in small gardens d) dairy and eggs produced by trading partners

_ was most important to the survival of foraging peoples.

17. The following is NOT a feature of the "woman the gatherer" model of human evolution: . a) The key tools for human adaptation were digging sticks, slings for carrying infants, and containers for food b) It suggests that social organization was rigidly hierarchical and dominated by aggressive males c) It claims that the earliest food sharing was between mother and child, rather than between mates d) It is based on the social organization of chimpanzees rather than baboons 18. The first Homo species emerged a) between 2.4 and 1.5 mya b) between 6 and 7 mya c) between 600,000 and 200,000 years ago d) about 200,000 years ago 19. The cranial capacity of Homo habilis was a) between 350 and 550 cm cubed b) between 750 and 1225 cm cubed c) about 1400 cm cubed d) larger than that of all australopith species

.

.

20. The species nicknamed "handy man" is formally known as a) Homo habilis b) Homo erectus c) Homo sapiens d) Homo robustus

.

21. allows paleoanthropologists to decide if a gracile fossil younger than 2 million years old should be placed in the genus Homo. a) Where it was found b) Cranial capacity c) Foot morphology d) Association with stone tools 22. When and where have paleoanthropologists discovered hominin fossils called Homo naledi? a) In 2015, from Rising Star Cave in South Africa b) In 2012, from Rising Star Cave in Kenya c) In 2018, from Rising Star Cave in Tanzania d) In 2014, from Lake Turkana in Kenya 23. Stone tools of the Olduvai tradition are named after . a) the location where they were first found b) the archaeologist whose publications describing these tools are best known

c) the Homo species associated with these tools d) the museum where many of these tools are now housed 24. The oldest undisputed stone tools were found in a) South Africa b) Syria c) Ethiopia d) Germany 25. The oldest undisputed stone tools are at least a) 2.5 million years old b) 3.9 to 3.0 million years old c) 230,000 to 27,000 years old d) 400,000 years old

.

.

26. Oldowan tools can be described as . a) thin, symmetrical tools made by striking off flakes on alternating sides with a variety of stone, bone, and antler tools b) polished, ground stone tools c) exceptionally small flint tools d) tennis ball—sized rocks with a few flakes knocked off to produce cutting edges 27. would allow a paleoanthropologist to determine if a stone is a tool rather than a rock modified by natural processes. a) Symmetry along the long and short axes of the stone b) Wear patterns along the edge of the stone c) Flake patterns on both sides of the stone d) Whether it was found on the surface or buried 28. The following theory about the behaviour of Olduvai hominins is supported by evidence from butchery marks: . a) Olduvai hominins hunted large prey b) Olduvai hominins scavenged carcasses killed by carnivores c) Olduvai hominins used fire to warm themselves and cook meat d) Olduvai hominins raised cattle for consumption, similar to present-day inhabitants of this region 29. The "stone cache hypothesis" asserts that . a) early hominins created the first stone caches accidentally but would have returned to them whenever stone tools were needed, thus reconstructing their niche by creating a collection of stone and animal parts b) early hominins constructed tools in locations selected for the abundance of stones appropriate for tool making c) early hominins hid tools at intervals but then forgot about or abandoned some of their caches d) early hominins stored caches of tools at select locations that served as trading posts 30. Which Homo species was the first to migrate out of Africa? a) Homo habilis b) Homo neanderthalensis c) Homo sapiens d) Homo erectus

31. Homo erectus fossils have NOT been found in a) Western Europe b) East Africa c) China d) Republic of Georgia

.

32. The following statement about the fossil skeleton known as Turkana boy is false: . a) He would have reached an adult height of six feet b) The size and shape of his thoracic canal suggests that he wouldn't have been able to communicate using spoken language c) He is typical of other known Homo erectus individuals. d) His skeleton is the most complete early hominin skeleton ever found 33. The following feature is NOT characteristic of Homo erectus: a) Cranial capacity of 500 to 700 cm cubed b) Heavy brow ridges c) Bony protuberance at the rear of the skull called a "nuchal crest" d) Reduction of jawbones and molars relative to those of early Homo 34. The is considered the best-known tool from the Acheulean tradition. a) scraper b) chopper c) cleaver d) biface or "hand ax" 35. The following statement about endurance running is correct: . a) Endurance running is found among all primates, but humans are most adapted for it b) Humans can outrun almost all other mammals, including horses, at marathon-length distances c) Endurance running probably emerged with Homo sapiens d) Contemporary human foragers can outrun their prey at short distances 36. used and controlled fire, a very important and useful tool that likely influenced diet, lifestyle, and living conditions. a) Homo erectus b) Homo habilis c) Homo sapiens d) Australopiths 37. Which of the following is NOT a part of the three sets of adaptations that make human endurance running possible? a) hypoxia b) energetics c) stabilization d) temperature regulation 38. Lieberman and Bramble (2007) argue that running emerged about transition to H.erectus and long after bipedal walking evolved. a) 2 million b) 2.5 million

years ago, at the time of the

c) 3 million d) 3.5 million

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Primates exhibit upright posture that evolved in an arboreal context and was exapted for bipedalism in a terrestrial context.

2. Anagenesis refers to the slow, gradual transformation of a single species over time.

3. Cladogenesis refers to the birth of a variety of descendants species from a single ancestral species.

4. Many species of haplorhines became extinct throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa about 10 million years ago when the Miocene epoch was ending.

5. Ardipithecus ramidus fossils support the hypothesis that bipedalism is an adaptation to life in open grasslands.

6. Walking upright reduces the amount of skin surface exposed to the sun and allows greater distance to be covered.

7. Most paleoanthropologists consider bipedal locomotion as an adaptation to life in open African grasslands called savannah.

8. The ape pelvis is long and broad, and the knee is almost directly in line with the thigh bone.

9. Cranial capacity refers to the size of the braincase.

10. The Laetoli footprints were discovered by paleoanthropologist Mary Leaky.

11. Early Homo's expansion in brain size was accompanied by a marked increase in body size.

12. The skeleton of Au. afarensis more closely resembles that of modern human beings than that of apes.

13. Since 1959, western Africa has become the most important source of hominin fossils in the world.

14. We currently know little about the postcranial morphology of any early Homo species.

15. We currently believe that several Homo genuses coexisted along with the robust australopiths in eastern Africa, which supports the hypothesis of phyletic gradualism.

16. Ian Tattersall emphasizes that the earliest hominins who made identifiable stone tools "invented efficient toolmaking from materials they consciously chose", something different from what any living apes have ever been observed to do.

17. Carnivore tooth marks and stone cut marks on fresh bone appear very similar when examined under a scanning electron microscope (SEM).

18. Modern human foragers who hunt for meat never use the same kill site for a long time, leading taphonomists to conclude that their hominin ancestors probably did not do so either.

19. Acheulean tools were made solely by Homo erectus.

20. The control of fire was a contributing factor that allowed Homo erectus to disperse into Europe and other temperate zones.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What do we mean by mosaic evolution?

2. What criticism has been raised about theories that suggest that human evolution was shaped by adaptation to life in the savannah?

3. What features of Australopithecus afarensis suggest that this species was bipedal?

4. What do we know about hand morphology among australopiths?

5. According to Richard Lee, what features of Ju/'hoansi society may have characterized the first hominin societies?

6. What are the characteristics of early Homo craniums relative to those of australopith craniums?

7. According to Carol MacLeod's study of ape and human brains, where did the most significant evolutionary changes occur?

8. What conditions would lead a paleoanthropologist to assert that a flaked rock was a tool?

9. Upon re-examining data from East African sites once thought to have been home bases where tools were kept and meat was shared among early hominins, what evidence led paleoanthropologists to conclude that many of these sites were carnivore lairs or locations near watering places?

10. How may the control of fire have contributed to human evolution, according to Richard Wrangham?

11. How did the emergence of running contribute to new subsistence strategies among hominins?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. a 2. a 3. b 4. d 5. b 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. b 11. b 12. c 13. d

14. b 15. a 16. b 17. b 18. a 19. d 20. a 21. b 22. a 23. a 24. c 25. a 26. d

27. b 28. b 29. a 30. d 31. a 32. c 33. a 34. d 35. b 36. a 37. a 38. a

8. TRUE 9. TRUE 10. TRUE 11. FALSE 12. FALSE 13. FALSE 14. TRUE

15. FALSE 16. TRUE 17. FALSE 18. TRUE 19. FALSE 20. TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. TRUE 2. TRUE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. FALSE 6. TRUE 7. TRUE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Mosaic evolution refers to the evolution of different traits at different rates, rather than all at once.

2. Evidence about the evolutionary environment of Ardipithecus ramidus shows that there was a certain degree of spatial and temporal variability in the proportion of grass versus trees. The term savannah "can be interpreted too broadly." In fact, the environment was so variable in time and space that the term savannah is almost useless when examining habitat-specific versus habitat-variability explanations of human evolution.

3. The great toe was in line with other toes, allowing it to be used for push-off rather than grasping; the femur bent inward toward the knee joint, allowing the center of gravity to shift over the stepping foot; the pelvis was short and basin-like, allowing it to support the torso above it; and the position of the foramen magnum shows that the skull was balanced at the top of the spinal column rather than positioned in front of it as in quadrupedal animals.

4. Research by Michelle Drapeau suggests that several species of australopith had highly dextrous hands that would have allowed them to shape and manipulate tools. Her research suggests that Au. afarensis had very "human-like" hands whose capacity for using and creating tools may have given them an adaptive advantage.

5. - Flexible kinship that recognizes both male and female lines - Group mobility; lack of permanent attachment to territory - Small group size with fluctuating membership - Equitable food distribution

- Highly egalitarian social relations - Division of labour that leads to sharing 6. Compared to the more elongated australopith cranium, the cranium of early Homo has thinner bone and is more rounded; the face is flatter and smaller in relation to the size of the cranium; and the teeth and jaws are less rugged, with a more parabolic arch. Most importantly, the expansion in brain size was not accompanied by a marked increase in body size.

7. MacLeod has concluded that the most important changes occurred in our lateral cerebellum, located below the larger cerebral cortex, which has allowed us to improve our memory and learning abilities.

8. Wear patterns--such as marks of butchery--along the flaked edges or in association with other evidence of human activity 9. - No convincing evidence of hearths, shelters, or other structures that are found at the campsites of later human groups 10. Cooked food may have led to the evolution of smaller guts, bigger brains, bigger bodies, and smaller teeth.

11. The greater ability of Homo erectus to regulate its body temperature while running meant that these hunters were able to force prey to run at speeds that caused the prey to collapse from hyperthermia, after which the animals could be killed by the available weapons--simple stone tools and sharpened, untipped, thrusting spears.

CHAPTER 6 HOW DID HOMO SAPIENS EVOLVE? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The theory that Homo erectus was a single, long-lived, geographically-dispersed species that underwent a rapid spurt of evolution to produce Homo sapiens is coherent with . a) punctuated equilibrium b) phyletic gradualism c) taphonomy model d) mosaic evolution 2. The evidence that best supports the regional continuity model of evolution from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens is . a) the pattern of fluctuating climate and environmental change caused by the repeated advance and retreat of ice sheets b) the morphological similarity between European Homo erectus and later European Neanderthals, between Homo erectus from Java and later Australian Homo sapiens, and between Chinese Homo erectus and later Chinese Homo sapiens c) 800,000-year-old fragments of hominin bones and teeth in the limestone caves of Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain d) DNA analysis that shows extensive gene flow between modern humans and other hominins 3. Flake tools that have been retouched to make scrapers and points are characteristic of assemblages. a) Mousterian b) Oldowan c) Acheulean d) Late Stone Age

tool

4. Evidence for culture (including pits; a post hole; care for individuals who were diseased, elderly, and injured; and deliberate burials) has been associated with . a) Homo erectus b) Homo habilis c) Australopithecus afarensis d) Neanderthals 5. The following is NOT an anthropological interpretation of the cut marks found on Neanderthal bones: . a) Ritual sacrifice reveals a complex belief system that rested on social inequality b) Cannibalism occurred as a result of dietary stress c) Removal of flesh may have been a mortuary practice d) Some damage to bones may have been caused by carnivores, not Neanderthals 6. Anthropologists now believe that anatomically modern humans first appeared a) 40,000 years ago in Europe b) 400,000 years ago in Siberia c) Approximately 300,000 years ago d) 90,000 to 120,000 years ago in Israel

.

7. Analysis of DNA extracted from fossils found at Denisova Cave, Siberia, suggests that . a) Denisovans interbred with anatomically modern humans who took some Denisovan DNA with them when they moved into South Asia b) Denisovans interbred with Neanderthals and transmitted Neanderthal DNA to modern humans c) Denisovans replaced Homo erectus populations in Asia d) Denisovans were anatomically modern humans 8. Upper Paleolithic/Late Stone Age refers to . a) the period of Mousterian stone-tool tradition in Africa (200,000 to 40,000 years ago) b) a stone tool tradition associated with Neanderthals in Europe and southwestern Asia and with anatomically modern humans in Africa c) the period of highly elaborate stone-tool traditions in Africa in which blades were important (40,000 to 10,000 years ago) d) a stone tool—making tradition characterized by bifaces or hand axes 9. are considered most distinctive of the Upper Paleolithic Age. a) Composite tools, such as spears and arrows b) Bifaces and hand axes c) Blade tools d) Flakes 10. are thought to be the oldest evidence of art. a) Blade tools b) Ostrich-eggshell beads c) Cave paintings d) Human figurines 11. The period is associated with the earliest evidence of trading networks. a) Lower Paleolithic b) Middle Paleolithic c) Upper Paleolithic d) Oldowan 12. The earliest known hominin skeletal remains found in the Americas have been dated a) between 13,000 and 11,000 years old b) at 27,000 years old c) at 40,000 years old d) between 60,000 and 40,000 years old

.

13. Archaeologists in Germany and Britain have discovered wooden spears that date to the period when were the only hominins in Europe. a) Neanderthals b) Homo erectus c) Antatomically modern humans d) Homo habilis 14. Persuasive evidence of cannibalism in association with Neanderthals has been reported from the 100,000 year old site in .

a) Germany b) Britain c) Siberia d) France 15. Why is the traditional radiocarbon method considered ineffective for dating fossils found in Jebel Irhound in Morocco? a) traditional radiocarbon methods tend to be ineffective for dating fossils that are less than 10,000 years old b) traditional radiocarbon methods tend to be ineffective for dating fossils that are more than 60,000 years old c) traditional radiocarbon methods are only effective for dating fossils that are more than 100,000 years old d) None of the above 16. What percentages of Neanderthal genome have been found in modern humans according to evidence found in ancient DNA? a) 1-4% b) 1-6% c) 4-7% d) 5-6% 17. Modern humans ancestors interbred with another extinct hominins species known as a) the Scandinavians b) the Denisovans c) the Kelvians d) the Danians

.

18. Middle Paleolithic/MSA tools disappear in Africa and southwestern Asia by approximately ago and in Europe years ago. a) 40,000, 35,000 b) 45,000, 45,000 c) 55,000, 60,000 d) 35,000, 48,000

years

19. During the glacial time, between 35,000 and 20,000 years ago, a land bridge known as eastern Siberia to Alaska. a) the Bering land bridge b) the Northern land bridge c) the Western land bridge d) the Euroasian land bridge

connected

20. The first anatomically modern humans to inhabit the Americans are sometimes known as a) Paleoindians b) Paleomexicans c) Palaeoamericans d) Paleoarmanians 21. Clovis points are associated with the earliest human culture to have existed in the a) Polynesians b) Europeans c) Latin Americans

.

.

d) Americans 22. By what time had modern humans spread to every continent EXCEPT Antarctica? a) by 12,000 years ago b) by 15,000 years ago c) by 18,000 years ago d) by 20,000 years ago

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. We currently we believe that several homo genuses coexisted along with the robust australopiths in eastern Africa, which supports the hypothesis of phylectic gradualism.

2. Paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall supports a phyletic gradualism hypothesis over a punctuationist explanation for the origins of Homo sapiens.

3. H.heidelbergensis was described as a "truly cosmopolitan" hominin species by Ian Tattersall.

4. Climate change is considered one of the influential factors that contributed to the human evolutionary trend that especially occurred during the Late Pleistocene.

5. According to regional continuity model, evolution from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens occurred gradually throughout the traditional range of H.erectus.

6. Neanderthals get their name from the Neander Tal ("Neander Valley") in Germany, where a fossil skullcap and some postcranial bones were discovered in 1856.

7. Neanderthals, an archaic species of Homo, lived in Europe and western Asia 230,000 to 27,000 years ago.

8. The average Neanderthal cranial capacity was smaller than that of modern human populations.

9. Homo erectus matured more quickly than modern humans and that's why they had a shorter childhood than us (modern humans).

10. Neanderthals created significant numbers of symbolic artifacts like modern humans.

11. Sweating is an adaptation that allows humans to outrun other mammals at long distances.

12. Archaic Homo sapiens possessed morphological features found in both Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.

13. Fossilized impressions of Neanderthal brains demonstrate patterns of difference with modern human brains that suggest that most Neanderthals were left-handed, unlike modern humans.

14. The Mousterian tradition is the stone-tool tradition associated with Neanderthals in Europe and southwestern Asia and with anatomically modern human beings in Africa.

15. Mousterian tools were assigned to the Middle Paleolithic, whereas similar tools from Africa are assigned to

the Middle Stone Age (MSA).

16. Neanderthals were not skilled hunters like modern humans.

17. The earliest evidence for anatomically modern humans comes from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, which is approximately 300,000 years old.

18. Scientists have recently found that 1 to 4 per cent of the genomes of modern non-Africans contain Neanderthal sequences, but that no genetic sequences from modern humans appeared in the Neanderthal.

19. During the glacial time, what is known as the Bering land bridge connected eastern Siberia to Alaska.

20. Blood-group and tooth-shape evidence supports the idea that the ancestors of Indigenous peoples of the Americas migrated into North America from Asia.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What methods did paleoanthropologist Günter Bräuer use to compare the skulls from Africa that had been assigned to archaic Homo sapiens?

2. What are the three competing theories that are used to explain the origin of Homo sapiens?

3. What is replace model?

4. What are the significant differences between modern human and Neanderthal morphology?

5. What did Paleolithic Archaeologist April Nowell focus on her research?

6. What is known about Mousterian tradition? How is tradition associated with Neanderthals?

7. Why do archaeologists argue that Neanderthals were skilled hunters of large game like modern humans?

8. When did anatomically modern human beings first appear on earth?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. a 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. a 6. c 7. a 8. c

9. a 10. b 11. c 12. a 13. a 14. d 15. b 16. a

17. b 18. a 19. a 20. c 21. d 22. a

8. FALSE 9. FALSE 10. FALSE 11. TRUE 12. TRUE 13. FALSE 14. TRUE

15. TRUE 16. FALSE 17. TRUE 18. TRUE 19. TRUE 20. TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. FALSE 2. FALSE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. TRUE 6. TRUE 7. TRUE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Paleoanthropologist Günter Bräuer used cladisitc methods to compare the skulls from Africa that had been assigned to archaic Homo sapiens.

2. The following are the three competing theories that are used to explain the origin of Homo sapiens: 1. the replacement model, 2. the regional continuity model, and 3. the African hybridization and replacement model.

3. Replace model is the hypothesis that only subpopulation of Homo erectus, probably located in Africa, underwent a rapid spurt of evolution to produce Homo sapiens 300,000 to 100,000 years ago. After that time, Homo sapien would itself have multiplied and dispersed, gradually populating the globe and eventually replacing any remaining populations of Homo erectus or their descendants.

4. Neanderthals were shorter and more robust than H. sapiens, with massive skulls, continuous brow ridges, and protruding, chinless faces. They had larger teeth, with enlarged pulp cavities, fused roots, and a gap behind the third molar.

5. The main focus of April Nowell's research was on the evolution of language, art, and symbol use and the emergence of modern cognition. Her research focused on how Neanderthal children grew and developed and what this can tell us about the adults they became. Nowell described that Neanderthals matured more slowly than earlier hominins such as Homo erectus, but more quickly than modern humans. As a result, they had a shorter childhood than modern humans.

6. Mousterian tradition is a Middle Paleolithic stone-tool tradition associated with Neanderthals in Europe and southwestern Asia and with anatomically modern human beings in Africa. Similar tools discovered from Africa

are assigned to the Middle Stone Age (MSA). Most Mousterian/MSA sites are rock shelters located near what were once source of fresh water. Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead, often with arms and legs folded against their upper bodies. Paleoanthropologists interpret deliberate burials as evidence for the beginnings of human belief systems.

7. Archaeologist P.G. Chase has argued that Neanderthals were skilled hunters of large game and their diet does not seem to have differed much from that of the modern people who eventually replaced them. Archaeologist Eugene Morin has noted that the Neanderthals put themselves at risk as their reliance on reindeer intensified, and they likely experienced years of feast and famine as result.

8. Experts long thought that anatomically modern human beings first appeared about 40,000 years ago in Europe. however, discoveries in recent years have profoundly altered our understanding of modern human origin. It is now accepted that the earliest evidence for anatomically modern humans comes from Jebel Irhoud in Morocco with these fossils and associated culture items dating to approximately 300,000 years ago.

CHAPTER 7 WHAT CAN EVOLUTIONARY THEORY TELL US ABOUT HUMAN VARIATION? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. , a subfield of evolutionary studies, focuses on short-term evolutionary changes that occur within a given species over relatively few generations of ecological time. a) Macroevolution b) Microevolution c) Species evolution d) Transformational evolution 2. The biological species concept refers to . a) a reproductive community of populations that are reproductively isolated from others and occupy a specific niche in nature b) the idea that all living organisms have evolved from a single ancestor c) the idea that species can change over relatively few generations of ecological time d) the sum total of all genetic information about an organism 3. The biological species concept is no longer widely supported because . a) alleles come in a range of different forms b) biologists have been unable to find definitive proof of evolution c) real-life examples of mating between different "races" has demonstrated that hybridization has occurred d) many thinkers are convinced that biological evolution requires theoretical pluralism 4. relies on measurements of morphological differences between living species in order to determine how fossils with overlapping characteristics may be sorted into distinct species. a) Phylogenetic species concept b) Biological fossil species concept c) Phenotypic species concept d) Taxonomic species concept 5. According to Darwinian population thinking, the following statement correctly depicts the relationship between species, populations, and organisms: . a) Species are made up of populations which are made up of organisms b) Populations are made up of species which are made up of organisms c) Organisms are made up of populations which are made up of species d) Populations are made up of organisms which are made up of species 6. Since horses and donkeys may mate and produce infertile offspring, a) horses and donkeys are considered to be separated by a species boundary b) horses and donkeys are considered to belong to the same population c) horses and donkeys are considered to belong to the same species d) horses and donkeys are the parent species of a new species 7. The field of a) reticulation b) gene frequency

.

uses statistical analysis to study short-term evolutionary change in large populations.

c) genetic pool d) population genetics 8. Evolutionary theorists Ian Tattersall and Rob DeSalle describe the process of species differentiation and reintegration as _. a) "reticulation" b) "dichotomy" c) "phenotypic process" d) "population genetics" 9. The following statement correctly describes genetic variation across populations: a) Populations differ because they have different proportions of the same set of alleles b) Populations differ because they have mutually exclusive sets of alleles c) Some populations show clinal variation, while others show polymorphic variation d) Populations are those groups of organisms that have the same set of alleles 10. Alleles that come in a range of different forms are called a) phylogenetic b) polymorphous c) cline d) macroevolutionary

.

.

11. The "Diego antigen" is significant because . a) it occurs sporadically in Asian and African populations, and illustrates that there is no simple line that can be drawn to distinguish groups of humans based on their genetic makeup b) it is a blood cell antigen found only in people of European descent, and illustrates that human populations are genetically distinct from each other c) it is found in all human populations, and demonstrates that all humans share a common ancestor d) it is a mathematical model that allows us to predict the outcome of human genealogy 12. Cline refers to the . a) alleles that come in different forms b) gradual intergradation of genetic variation from city to city c) physiological flexibility that allows organisms to respond to environmental stresses d) gradual intergradation of genetic variation from population to population 13. The independently varying distributions of human skin colour and hair type that shift gradually from place to place is called . a) race b) allele c) cline d) ethnicity 14. The following statement about clines is NOT correct: a) Clines depict gradual shifts in genetic variation b) Clines show the distribution of a single trait c) Clines can be represented on maps d) Clines allow us to accurately map human racial groups

.

15. According to the text, each cline is a map of the distribution of a a) species b) single trait c) single race d) group of genes

.

16. Personalized medicine is based on . a) knowledge of individuals' genomes that reflect their genetic risk for a particular disease b) correlation of individuals' height, weight, and health habits with their risk of death from various diseases c) stereotypes about people of different "racial" groups d) phenotypes rather than genotypes as a basis for medical intervention 17. According to anthropologist Nadia Abu El-Haj, contemporary commercial technologies . a) assume that everyone has a mixed ancestry of some kind, while nineteenth-century race science aimed to discover how many races existed and assign all individuals to their true race b) provide information based on phenotypes, while nineteenth-century race science used genotypes to assign individuals to racial groups c) are associated with scientific racism, while nineteenth-century race science was focused on furthering knowledge of human variation d) use DNA analysis to assign people to racial groups, while nineteenth-century race science used physical features to assign individuals to races 18. When combined with other medications, BiDil is a drug that has shown success at treating heart failure among . a) Asian Americans b) European Americans c) Latin Americans d) African Americans 19. BiDil was demonstrated to have a strong positive effect on heart failure in a large study of Americans who identified themselves as belonging to one "racial" group; however, . a) it was not tested among Americans from other "racial" groups b) it showed no effect when tested on Americans from other "racial" groups c) it had only mild positive effect when tested on Americans from other "racial" groups d) it had negative effects when tested on Americans from other "racial" groups 20. Hemoglobin is . a) an instance of macroevolution b) a protein in white blood cells c) a protein in red blood cells d) a protein in red and white blood cells 21. The HbS allele is advantageous to survival in malaria cases where a) an individual inherits HbS from one parent and HbA from the other parent b) an individual inherits HbS from both parents c) individuals are not exposed to malaria d) individuals develop sickle-cell anemia 22. The gene flow refers to the

.

.

a) flexibility that allows organisms to respond to environmental stresses b) exchange of genes that occurs when a given population experiences a sudden expansion due to in-migration of outsiders from another population c) random changes in gene frequencies from one generation to the next due to a sudden reduction in population size d) change in the way the body functions as a result of stress 23. The high frequency of the HbS allele in parts of the world where malaria is present is due to a) selection pressures b) genetic drift c) gene flow d) founder effect 24. Pleiotropy and polygeny are examples of a) gene interaction b) microevolution c) macroevolution d) gene flow

.

.

25. Pleiotropy refers to the . a) contribution of a single gene to more than one phenotypic feature b) combination of many genes to produce a single phenotyping feature c) physiological flexibility that allows organisms to respond to environmental stresses d) phenotypical traits that do not appear but are shared amongst a population 26. refers to physiological flexibility that allows organisms to respond to environmental stresses. a) Polygeny b) Pleiotrophy c) Phenotypic adaptation d) Phenotypic plasticity 27. According to the text, the "action" that goes into producing adult organisms with distinctive phenotypes . a) is pre-determined b) occurs during development c) is directed by genes d) All of the above 28. Genetic adaptation, short-term adaptation, and developmental adaptations are the three levels of a) phenotypic adaptation b) phenotypic plasticity c) pleiotropy d) polygeny 29. Acclimatization refers to . a) the mutual shaping of organisms and their environments b) the way the body functions in response to physical stress c) mathematical formulas that predict outcomes of human interactions d) an analysis of the origin and significance of culture in human evolution

.

30. The development of a higher-than-average basal metabolic rate among northern peoples is an example of . a) human phenotypic plasticity b) genetic variation c) short-term acclimatization d) hypoxia 31. Biologists agree that skin color is adaptive and related to . a) the degree of ultraviolet radiation that human populations have experienced in particular regions of the globe b) the presence of lower oxygen levels experienced by human populations at higher altitudes c) the effect of HbS on red blood cells d) the process by which blood vessels alternately constrict and then dilate in a cyclical pattern 32. Variations in skin thickness are a function of a) sun exposure b) number of white blood cells c) age and history of sun exposure d) morphological factors

.

33. Anthropologists believe that the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees had a) dark skin covered with dark hair b) light skin covered with dark hair c) hairless light skin d) hairless dark skin 34. Interpersonal or intrapersonal intelligence is exhibited by those with a) exceptional athletic skills b) exceptional understanding of social relations c) a deep connection to plants and animals d) exceptional linguistic skills

_.

.

35. When African American and European American students of the same class and educational background are given IQ tests, their average scores are similar. This suggests that . a) IQ scores are independent of environmental factors b) IQ scores are not phenotypic traits uniquely determined by genes c) IQ scores are determined by multiple genes d) IQ scores do not reflect educational background and class 36. Many biological anthropologists today believe that some traits are not the direct result of adaptation but rather the by-product of some other feature that was shaped by natural selection. Jonathan Marks's example of highlights a "passive consequence" of other evolutionary processes. a) brow ridges found in human ancestors b) large chest dimensions among humans living at higher altitudes c) contemporary human variation in skin color d) slow physical growth among Guatemalan Mayan children 37. Biological anthropologists today agree that slow growth in height, weight, and body composition among Guatemalan Mayan children is a result of _.

a) genetic adaptation to low oxygen levels found in high altitude environments b) genetic adaptation to a harsh natural environment c) genetic adaptation to a high calorie diet d) the effects of poverty and political marginalization on human health and maturation rates 38. The Human Genome Project determined that the human genome contains a) about 20,500 genes, roughly the same as the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans b) at least 100,000 genes c) 46 genes d) an innumerable quantity of genes

.

39. Evidence for processes of extinction of old species and the origin of new species comes primarily from . a) population genetics b) close study of fossils and of the comparative anatomy of living organisms c) study of environmental modifications that constitute new selection pressures d) social and economic conditions 40. In order to adapt to environments, humans have options that do not exist for other organisms: passed on by learning. a) formal models b) specific clines c) cultural adaptations d) biological features

are

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Species are normally subdivided into populations that are more or less scattered.

2. Human populations differ because they have mutually exclusive sets of alleles.

3. By superimposing maps of clines, biological anthropologists have been able to determine that there is good evidence for the existence of human races.

4. When a trait is helpful to the survival and reproduction of an organism, the frequency of the alleles involved in its production will be increased as a result of natural selection.

5. Genetic drift is an evolutionary process that decreases variation between populations while increasing variation within a population.

6. All living organisms exhibit phenotypic plasticity.

7. Variation in human skin color seems to be determined primarily by genes of minor effect.

8. The vocabulary items of most contemporary IQ tests are unbiased and allow us to accurately compare the intelligence of people from different cultural backgrounds.

9. Until the late twentieth century, most evolutionary biologists believed that macroevolution was the result of microevolutionary processes continuing over a long enough period of time.

10. Punctuated equilibrium theorists argue that species boundaries are arbitrary with no sharp breaks in the fossil record between old and new species.

11. Like Darwinists, punctuationists see speciation as the outcome of changing gene frequencies.

12. Recently, geneticists have been able to pinpoint the genetic changes involved in speciation.

13. Today, we know that the human genome contains approximately 20,500 genes.

14. It is hypothesized that the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees probably has light skin covered with dark hair.

15. Modern evolutionists recognized sixteen evolutionary processes that can alter the frequencies at which genes occur in a given population.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What is reticulation with regard to microevolution?

2. What does the study of clines reveal about the existence of human biological races?

3. What process serves to enhance natural selection among animals, including humans? What form does this take among humans?

4. What are genes of major effect and genes of intermediate or minor effect?

5. Why is it incorrect to assume that genes "direct" the development of organisms or "determine" the production of phenotypic traits?

6. How is tanned skin an example of how natural selection has favored enhanced phenotypic plasticity?

7. Why do we reject the idea that IQ scores show that racial differences in intelligence are clear-cut and genetically determined?

8. What are some of the questions that are not addressed by the gradualist view of evolution?

9. What is species selection?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. b 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. a 6. a 7. d 8. a 9. a 10. b 11. a 12. d 13. c 14. d

15. b 16. a 17. a 18. d 19. a 20. c 21. a 22. b 23. a 24. a 25. a 26. d 27. b 28. a

29. b 30. a 31. a 32. c 33. b 34. b 35. b 36. a 37. d 38. a 39. b 40. c

6. TRUE 7. FALSE 8. FALSE 9. TRUE 10. FALSE

11. FALSE 12. FALSE 13. TRUE 14. TRUE 15. FALSE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. TRUE 2. FALSE 3. FALSE 4. TRUE 5. FALSE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Reticulation refers to the separation and reintegration of populations within a single species, such as the separation of early humans into isolated populations in Europe and North America that came into contact again in the fifteenth century and were able to interbreed and produce viable offspring.

2. Superimposed maps that show the clinal variation of different traits do not reveal any neat subpopulations of humans. This demonstrates that the existence of races is a symbolic construct, based on a few superficial phenotypic differences rather than biological difference.

3. Natural selection is enhanced by genetic variation introduced by mating with individuals from outgroups.

Among humans, mating with outgroup members is encouraged by incest taboos, which are cultural rules that forbid sexual relations with close kin.

4. A gene of major effect is a gene at one locus whose expression has a critical effect on the phenotype. The evolution of a phenotypic trait may begin with selection on genes of major effect. The products of such genes may be pleiotropic, producing adaptive as well as harmful consequences for the organism. Further selection on multiple polygenes of intermediate or minor effect also affect the trait, but it may modify or eliminate the harmful consequences.

5. It is incorrect to say that genes "direct" the development of organisms or "determine" the production of phenotypic traits because all living organisms exhibit phenotypic plasticity, that is, the ability of an organism to react to an environmental input with a change in form, state, movement or rate of activity. Phenotypic plasticity

occurs particularly during development.

6. Selective pressures have produced two opposing clines of skin pigmentation, grading from dark at the equator to light at the poles as an adaptative protection against sun damage, and grading from light at the poles to dark at the equator as an adaptive response favoring the production of vitamin D, which requires solar radiation. At the middle of these two clines, natural selection favored the emergence of skin that tans and loses its tan in response to sunlight exposure. During the summer when sunlight and ultraviolet radiation is abundant, skin tans in order to protect the body from sunburn and prevent the destruction of folic acid, which is necessary for healthy cell division; however, when sunlight levels decrease, individuals easily lose their tans.

7. First, skin color varies gradually across populations, and does not correspond with socially defined races.

Second, it has not been demonstrated that there is a single, measurable quality of intelligence that exists in different quantities in different people. Problem-solving and creativity have not been measured accurately with written tests. Third, even to the extent that intelligence is measurable, we do not know that it can be accurately measured by IQ tests, since performance is affected by factors such as illness, hunger, anxiety, cultural knowledge and so on.

8. Phyletic gradualism does not explain apparent breaks in the fossil record where old species have disappeared and new species appeared with relative rapidity. Nor does it explain the fact that a single fossil species seems to have given rise to a number of descendent species rather than a single one through gradual change.

9. Species selection is a process in which natural selection is seen to operate among variant related species within a single genus.

CHAPTER 8 HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT THE HUMAN PAST? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. study hominin skeletal fossils from the distant past. a) Paleoanthropologists b) Archaeologists c) Taxonomists d) Paleoarchaeologists 2. would NOT be studied by an archaeologist. a) Metalwork b) Genetic material c) Irrigation canals d) Ancient cities 3. The following is the first step in archaeological research, according to your textbook: a) Identifying the precise geographical locations of the remains of past human activity b) Small-scale excavations using a shovel to dig small pits c) Large-scale excavations of entire sites or large portions of sites d) Recording the matrix and provenance of objects

.

4. A unique advantage of survey archaeology is that . a) it provides a lot of information about a small area b) artifacts may be associated with a living community c) soil can be sifted through screens to recover tiny artifacts such as stone flakes d) it is non-destructive 5. is NOT a method used for survey archaeology. a) Walking over a field with eyes trained on the ground b) Images taken by unmanned aerial vehicles c) Assemblage d) Ground-penetrating radar 6. According to anthropologist Treena Swanston, which one of the following true? a) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infects two in five globally and only one of twelve of those infected develop active tuberculosis. b) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infects one in three globally and only one of ten of those infected develop active tuberculosis. c) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infects three in ten globally and only two of three of those infected develop active tuberculosis. d) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infects four in ten globally and only six of ten of those infected develop active tuberculosis.

7. , a bacterium in stomach tissue, can be found in half of the world's population, but only 15 per cent of the infected individuals will have clinical symptoms. a) Helicobactoer pylory

b) Mycobacterium tuberculosis c) Mitochondrial DNA d) Bacilli bacteria 8. According to your textbook, are not well suited to GIS methods. a) topography b) climate c) social and cultural modifications of the environment d) water locations 9. Kisha Supernant's archaeological research on Métis sites in Alberta has suggested that a) Buffalo Lake was occupied by 1000 to 2000 people b) Métis people established year-round settlements c) Alberta Métis were primarily traders rather than trappers d) GIS mapping and remote sensing are not appropriate tools for studying mobile populations

.

10. The systematic uncovering of archaeological remains through removal of the soil deposits and other covering material is known as . a) archaeology b) excavation c) survey d) stratigraphy 11. As archaeologists uncover one stratum after another in sequence, they gradually reveal _. a) artifacts and features associated with one another that provide evidence of contemporary activities b) a topographical map of the area c) evidence for changes in human activities over time d) LIDAR systems 12. Archaeologists use statistical sampling techniques to a) determine how old a site is b) record detailed field notes c) determine the degree of disturbance that has occurred d) choose which portions of a site to excavate

.

13. When surveys or excavations at several sites turn up the same assemblages, archaeologists refer to them as . a) an archaeological culture b) a subsistence strategy c) a cultural niche d) cosmopolitan culture 14. The creation and successful management of digital heritage relies on clear partnerships between a) archaeologists and digital experts b) Indigenous or other communities and digital experts c) archaeologists and Indigenous or other communities d) All of the above 15. Processual archaeologists aim to

.

a) reconstruct the lifeways (or culture) of the people who created particular artifacts b) reconstruct the material remains of the past by reassembling statues and pots and restoring houses c) explain the cultural processes that led to ways of life and material cultures of particular kinds d) describe the techniques and processes used in the characteristic technologies of a group 16. The term " a) foragers b) producers c) pastoralists d) horticulturalists

" is also used by anthropologists to refer to food collectors.

17. Pastoralists . a) gather, fish, or hunt b) cultivate small gardens c) depend on herds d) make intensive use of plows, draft animals, irrigation, and fertilizer 18. The idea that humans have developed over time from savagery to civilization through the slow accumulation of experimental knowledge is known as . a) unilineal cultural evolutionism b) natural selection c) cultural selection d) technological evolutionism 19. is most closely associated with the idea that people, ideas, rituals, and artifacts flowed across porous social boundaries, challenging the role of independent invention in cultural change. a) Lewis Henry Morgan b) Franz Boas c) A.R. Radcliffe-Brown d) Bronislaw Malinowski 20. The observation that particular forms of social and political organization seem to correlate with particular forms of economic and technical organization is associated with . a) A.R. Radcliffe-Brown b) Bronislaw Malinowski c) Franz Boas d) Lewis Henry Morgan 21. Ownership of a peoples' heritage and antiquities is an important form of control over that peoples' history. The following well-known artifact is held in a museum in the country where it was crafted and found: _ . a) Nefertiti's bust b) the Rosetta Stone c) the Parthenon Marbles d) None of the above 22. Most Canadian First Nations and Inuit groups believe that the excavation of Indigenous burials, scientific analysis of human remains, and public display of bones . a) is a conflicting necessity for Indigenous people to uncover their own past and gain control over their heritage b) represents continued disrespect and colonial domination that has been commonplace for Indigenous peoples in

North America since Europeans first arrived c) enables all people to appreciate the variety of human experience d) preserves and documents Indigenous heritage in a scientific and appropriate way 23. The Haida Repatriation Committee has assisted in . a) negotiating the move of ancestral remains in foreign museums to museums that are closer to the Haida people b) bringing ancestral remains housed in museums home to their lands in British Columbia where the remains are reburied c) managing archaeological sites and cultural heritage in northern Quebec and Labrador d) returning over 1700 Huron-Wendat skeletons to their local First Nations groups in Ontario and Quebec 24. The events following the discovery of the Kwädąy Dän Ts’ìinchį remains demonstrate that . a) remains are often obtained unethically, through grave robbing and even murder b) federal and provincial governments have different and often conflicting views on the role of researchers c) the rapid development of the oil and gas industry has exponentially increased the number and significance of archaeological investigations d) interactions between researchers and Champagne and Aishihik First Nations can be highly productive and able to meet the needs of First Nations peoples 25. In the American Southwest, destroyed. a) 70 b) 50 c) 90 d) 30

per cent of the Classic Mimbres sites (c. 1000 CE) have been looted or

26. The Bamyan Buddhas are 1500-year-old statues . a) removed from Afghanistan by British archaeologists and held today in a London museum b) revered by Afghanistan's budding Buddhist population c) that were repatriated to Afghanistan following extensive negotiations between the Islamic Conference and the British government d) destroyed by the Taliban 27. Cultural resource management (CRM) refers to . a) federal regulations that outline conditions under which research involving Indigenous or Aboriginal peoples and their culture may be undertaken b) the ways in which ethnic and cultural communities ensure that their languages and traditions are maintained for future generations c) the archaeological specialty whose practitioners record, evaluate, and protect or, if necessary, salvage cultural resources d) the destruction of the human past as a consequence of land development, agriculture, and looting 28. Feminist archaeologists questioned the assumption that . a) highly formalized, elaborately retouched, standardized core tools were made by men to hunt with b) prehistoric hunting was carried out primarily by single-sex male collaborative groups c) living human societies and historical documents can provide insight into prehistoric ways of life d) flake tools are a less complex technology than core tools 29. Joan Gero's analysis of a multi-layered site in highland Peru found that

.

a) the production of flake tools at a site visited by foragers was succeeded by a residential settlement whose inhabitants made elaborate biface tools in a ceremonial setting b) the production of biface tools in a ceremonial centre was succeeded by a residential settlement whose inhabitants used flake tools c) tool-making technologies used at the site changed from more simple to more complex over time d) women, not men, were the likely producers of elaborate biface tools 30. is defined as a research approach that explores why women's contributions have been systematically written out of the archaeological record and suggests new approaches to the human past that include such contributions. a) Feminist archaeology b) Gender archaeology c) Processual archaeology d) Queer archaeology 31. The presence of clothing on some female figurines (and no male figurines) at the 30,000-year-old Dolni Vestonice site has led archaeologists to conclude that . a) female figurines represent fertility symbols because of their exaggerated breasts and bellies b) high status people covered themselves with woven clothing, while low status people used animal skins c) the female figurines with clothing represent a few women at this time and place who gained individual status from their skill at producing textiles d) women had higher status than men at this time 32. Sandra Hollimon's interpretation of Chumash burials indicates that . a) genders were permanent categorical identities that were reflected in burial practices b) graves of two-spirited individuals stood out from graves of women and other men c) two-spirited individuals and menopausal women were marginalized members of Chumash society d) sex may not have been the most significant basis for the identity of the Chumash people 33. What action was NOT suggested by Dana Lepofsky as a way to engage the community in local archaeological research projects? a) Encouraging community members to excavate areas on their land and contact archaeologists if they find unexpected objects b) Hosting a community potluck at which issues related to the research project can be discussed c) Creating an artifact kit and making it available to the public so people can touch the artifacts that have been found d) Going to local schools or community centres and educating students about the heritage of the sites 34. Many archaeologists have adopted the view that their first obligation should be . a) to preserve the world heritage sheltered in unexcavated archaeological sites b) to advance knowledge of the human past through meticulous research and dissemination of archaeological knowledge c) to avoid local legal and political involvements and influence d) to work with those local (and often marginalized) people with traditional connections to the archaeological sites where they work 35. is NOT associated with the cosmopolitan approach in archaeology. a) Acknowledging that preservation of archaeological artifacts may go against the wishes of local groups with close connections to those artifacts

b) Avoiding involvement in legal and political debates about the future of cultural heritage c) Assuming that all cultures can share in a discussion of the future of cultural artifacts, even though they may not be able to reach a consensus d) Acknowledging that local communities may assign very different meanings to ancient artifacts

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. In archaeology, context refers to non-portable items created by humans, such as houses or ditches.

2. GIS models overemphasize the social and cultural modifications of the environment at the expense of environmental features as determining factors in past human settlement patterns.

3. The more levels of occupation at a site, the more likely it is that some of the levels will have been disturbed by subsequent humans, other animals, or natural forces.

4. Processual archaeologists tend to emphasize the active role people play as agents who are conscious of what is happening around them and whose activities contribute to cultural maintenance or change.

5. In Canada, there is no single legal framework that protects all archaeological sites on lands and waters controlled by the federal and provincial governments.

6. A major change that has impacted archaeological work in the field is the rapid expansion of global tourism.

7. The Taliban in Afghanistan destroyed almost 90 percent of the classic Mimbers sites in 2001.

8. Gender archaeologists have found that new questions can be asked about variation in sex, gender, and other kinds of human difference in past societies if attention shifts away from the universals and focuses instead on detailed contextual features of specific archaeological sites.

9. Among the Chumash, two-spirited individuals were often skilled craftspeople.

10. Historical archaeology is the study of archaeological sites that were occupied prior to 1900.

11. In collaborative archaeological research, archaeologists work with Indigenous peoples to include their world views and traditional perspectives.

12. Cultural anthropologists need to develop cosmopolitan skills and awareness as they move in and out of fieldwork situations.

13. Archaeological record refers to all material objects and structures created by humans and our hominin ancestors.

14. Mycobacteriaum tuberculosis (MTB) is a bacteria that infects two in five globally.

15. Ecofacts refer to biological remains that are likely associated with food consumption or other human activities.

16. The use of geographic information systems (GIS) is declining in archaeological research of the availability of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What are the three kinds of information that are recorded about objects found during a survey or excavation?

2. What three technologies allow contemporary archaeologists to learn about what is below a site's surface without actually digging?

3. Why might archaeologists choose not to excavate an entire occupation level or site?

4. What characteristics distinguish post-processual archaeology?

5. What is extensive agriculture?

6. How does looting make scientific analysis of a site impossible?

7. How is gender archaeology different from feminist archaeology?

8. What are the characteristics of collaborative archaeological research conducted with Indigenous peoples in Canada today?

9. Why does Rosemary Joyce argue that Paleolithic figurines depicting females with exaggerated breasts and bellies have been misunderstood?

10. Why was the work of archaeologist Janet Spector important?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. a 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. c 6. b 7. a 8. c 9. a 10. b 11. c 12. d

13. a 14. d 15. c 16. a 17. c 18. a 19. b 20. d 21. d 22. b 23. b 24. d

25. c 26. d 27. c 28. a 29. b 30. a 31. c 32. d 33. a 34. d 35. b

7. FALSE 8. TRUE 9. TRUE 10. FALSE 11. TRUE 12. TRUE

13. TRUE 14. FALSE 15. TRUE 16. FALSE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. FALSE 2. FALSE 3. TRUE 4. FALSE 5. FALSE 6. TRUE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. The three kinds of information that are recorded are the matrix in which an object is found (e.g., soil, gravel, sand, or clay), its provenance (the precise three-dimensional position of the find within the matrix), and its context (other remains found near it, in order to identify associations and relationships between objects).

2. Magnetic methods can detect objects made of iron or baked clay, and metal detectors can locate buried metal objects. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) reflects pulsed radar waves off features below the surface, providing data on changes in the soil and sediment as well as the depth at which those changes are found. This data can be assembled into 3D maps of buried archaeological remains.

3. First, archaeologists today generally excavate only a small part of a site on the assumption that future archaeologists will have better techniques and different questions if they return to the same site. In addition, excavating an entire occupation level is usually prohibitively expensive.

4. Post-processual (or interpretive) archaeology is characterized by a focus on symbolic and cognitive aspects of social structures and social relations. Some post-processual archaeologists focus on power and domination in their explanations of the archaeological record, drawing attention to the ways that archaeological evidence may reflect human agency and internal contradictions within a society. Others point out that similar-looking features can mean different things to different people at different times, which is why it is misleading to assume that all cultural variation can be explained in terms of universal processes like population growth or ecological adaptation.

5. Extensive agriculture refers to the process of using human muscle power and simple tools to clear plots of

uncultivated land, burn the brush, and plant crops in the ash-enriched soil that remains. After two or three seasons, the soil is exhausted and must lie fallow for several years as a new plot is cleared and the process is repeated.

6. Archaeologists record the precise placement (provenance) of every object they excavate in order to understand how objects were used in the past. When the context is destroyed, so is the archaeological value of a site.

7. While feminist archaeology aims to understand why women's contributions have been systematically written out of the archaeological record and to suggest new approaches to the human past that include such contributions, gender archaeology draws on insights from contemporary gender studies that investigate how people come to recognize themselves as different from others, how people represent such differences, and how others react to such claims.

8. Canadian collaborative archaeological research today involves Indigenous peoples to include their world views and traditional perspectives. In these projects, researchers interpret artifacts and sites using combined ideas about history, which they form by taking into account oral stories, songs, place names, and landscape use.

9. Because there exists a widely shared assumption that all figurines depicting human females had to be "fertility symbols," which is not correct according to contemporary archaeological findings, archaeological evidence from contemporary burials shows that clothing of men and women was not differentiated by gender and did not resemble the images of clothing portrayed on figurines.

10. Janet Spector was one the first archaeologists in North America to initiate an Indigenous partnership research program with the descendants of the people who once occupied the sites she excavated. She also wanted to shift attention from the artifacts to the people who made them, from a preoccupation with active men and passive women to a more realistic assessment of active women and men.

CHAPTER 9 WHY DID HUMANS SETTLE DOWN, BUILD CITIES, AND ESTABLISH STATES? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Human interference with the reproduction of another species, with the result that specific plants and animals become more useful to and dependent on people, is known as . a) pastoralism b) domestication c) ecological niching d) sedentism 2. For most of human prehistory, our ancestors a) lived in a socially stratified society b) survived by producing agriculture c) survived by hunting and gathering d) subsisted on domestication

.

3. Domestication occurred independently in seven different areas of the world between a) 40,000 and 25,000 years ago b) 25,000 and 10,000 years ago c) 10,000 and 4,000 years ago d) 4,000 and 2,000 years ago

.

4. The difference between domestication and cultivation is as follows: . a) Domestication and cultivation mean the same thing b) Domestication refers to human control of animal reproduction, while cultivation refers to human control of plant reproduction c) Domestication refers to the human control of a single species, while cultivation refers to the human control of many species d) Domestication refers to human interference with the reproduction of another species, with the result that it becomes both useful to and dependent on people. Cultivation refers to the activities of modifying the environment so that the species can mature and be harvested successfully 5. Burning off vegetation to encourage the growth of preferred plants that thrive in burned-over landscapes, or to attract wild animals that feed on such plants, is an example of . a) sedentism b) niche construction c) domestication d) foraging 6. was a subsistence strategy associated with the sedentary adaptations of the Indigenous peoples living on the northwest coast of Canada, such as the Haida Gwaii. a) Foraging b) Domestication c) Cultivation d) Agriculture

7. The following characteristics of wild wheat would have been selected by humans as they chose suitable seeds: . a) softer glume, seed heads that mature over a longer period, brittle rachis b) durable glume, seed heads that mature over a longer period, brittle rachis c) softer glume, seed heads that mature at the same time, less brittle rachis, d) durable glume, seed heads that mature at the same time, less brittle rachis 8. can be interpreted as evidence of animal domestication. a) The presence of animal species within its natural range b) The presence of remains from a wide age range c) Equal proportions of male and female remains d) An abrupt increase of some species relative to others at a site 9. The earliest evidence for goat and cattle herding is about a) 8,000 years b) 11,000 years c) 21,000 years d) 40,000 years

before the present.

10. refers to the practice of controlling the movements of a herd, ensuring its safety, and intervening in the herd's gene pool through selective breeding and culling. a) Loose herding b) Close herding c) Herd following d) Pastoralism 11. Goats were first domesticated in a) western Mexico b) eastern Ethiopia c) southern Iran d) western Europe

.

12. The shift to a diet based on a wider spectrum of foraged foods is thought to have led to a) a decline in sedentary communities and expanded migratory range b) increased conflict between sedentary communities over the control of food sources c) the emergence of sedentary communities and population growth d) the emergence of specialized roles within sedentary communities, such as blacksmithing

.

13. An alternate theory for the development of domestication associates the emergence of farming with . a) pressure to provide resources for religious rituals at widely separated shrines b) competition between local groups to achieve dominance over each other through feasting extravaganzas c) population expansion into environments with sparse naturally-occurring food sources d) sprouting of surplus foraged seeds and tubers during extended storage 14. The earliest evidence of domesticated plants and animals is found in a) Southwest Asia b) Mexico c) Namibia and South Africa

.

d) the Indus Valley (India) 15. characteristic of Natufian dwellings, leading archaeologists to believe that this/these formed permanent settlements and not just foraging home bases. a) A complex network of irrigation canals was b) Monumental architecture was c) Food storage cabins that were raised high above the ground were d) Plaster-lined storage pits and walls of stone and mud were 16. Personal ornaments and headdresses associated with the Natufians have been interpreted as evidence of . a) mobility b) foraging c) sedentism d) ancient state government 17. Social stratification refers to . a) a method of data collection in which a researcher lives and works closely with the people whose way of life she or he is studying, while participating in their lives as much as possible b) the patterning of human interdependence in a given society through the actions and decisions of its members c) the process by which humans cope with the behavioural rules established by their respective societies d) a form of social organization in which people have unequal access to wealth, power, and prestige 18. Grave goods are . a) items that are inherited from family members after they pass b) objects buried with a corpse c) objects that are produced for distribution to mourners at a funeral d) items of any type that bear few distinguishing features 19. In early Natufian times, the dead were buried . a) in individual graves b) together with their spouse and young children c) together in large groups that may have corresponded to an entire village d) together in small groups that may have corresponded to subgroups such as extended families 20. Skeletal evidence from the Hayonim Cave reveals that this group a) mated with members of their own group rather than with outsiders b) selected mates from a fairly wide geographic area c) had low levels of social stratification d) experienced malnutrition because of their reliance on cultivated grains

.

21. was interpreted by Donald Henry as evidence for the emergence of chiefdoms. a) Group burials marked by differences in grave goods b) Individual burials marked by differences in grave goods c) Individual burials with no grave goods d) Group burials with similar grave goods 22. The relationship between Natufian and Harifian cultures is as follows: . a) Harifian culture refers to those Natufian communities that domesticated plants and used pottery

b) Harifian culture refers to the culture that emerged when some Natufian communities developed a greater reliance on fishing c) Harifian culture refers to the culture that emerged when some Natufian communities domesticated plants d) Harifian culture emerged when some Natufian communities returned to simple foraging 23. Jericho is a a) PPNB b) Harifian c) PPNA d) Natufian

_ site.

24. indicates that early Jericho residents participated in trade. a) The presence of obsidian b) The presence of coins c) The presence of stone walls d) The absence of gazelle bones 25. By , the farmers in southwestern Asia practised a mixed agricultural strategy, incorporating grains and livestock. a) 12,500 years ago b) 10,500 years ago c) 9,300 years ago d) 8,000 years ago 26. The culture is associated with increasing sophistication in architecture and the construction of dual-purpose buildings that served as temples and houses. a) Harifian b) Natufian c) PPNB d) PPNA 27. Maize, goosefoot, marsh elder, sunflowers, and squash were domesticated in a) Mesoamerica b) North America c) Mesopotamia d) South America 28. Coffee, millet, okra, and sorghum were domesticated in a) Africa b) Asia c) Mesopotamia d) eastern North America 29. a) Rice b) Tea c) Beans d) Onion

was/were NOT domesticated in eastern Asia.

.

.

30. is thought to have first gained importance with sedentism. a) Property ownership and entitlement b) Kinship c) Tool-making d) Birth control 31. does NOT work to increase the timing between pregnancies among foraging women. a) Frequent and extended breastfeeding b) A diet relatively rich in carbohydrates c) A diet relatively rich in protein d) High-energy drain 32. is NOT associated with the emergence of domestication. a) The coevolution of rats and mice along with the domesticated crops they feed on b) The constant presence of some communicable diseases in the population c) The nutritional deficiencies of an agricultural diet d) Improvement in disposal of human and animal waste 33. According to Richard Lee, the Ju/'hoansi use _ a) less than 20 plants b) less than 60 plants c) more than 80 plants d) more than 100 plants

to meet their feeding needs.

34. New features of the agroecology created new opportunities for the spread of diseases such as a) malaria and tuberculosis b) malaria and cholera c) cholera and tuberculosis d) tuberculosis and syphilis

.

35. distinguishes the first complex societies to appear in the archaeological record. a) Occupational specialization b) Monumental architecture c) Social stratification d) Surplus production 36. The term " stratified. a) complex b) transegalitarian c) chiefdom d) Harifian

" is used by archaeologists to describe societies that are neither egalitarian nor socially

37. is defined as a stratified society that possesses a territory that is defended from both outside enemies by an army and from internal disorder by a police force. a) Civilization b) Empire c) The nation d) The state

38. Each of these is a formal category used by anthropologists to classify forms of human society EXCEPT . a) band b) chiefdom c) state d) community 39. Monumental architecture, elaborate burials, and occupational specializations provide evidence of a) Social complexity b) Egalitarian society c) Transegalitarian society d) Transitional society

.

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Morphological features refer to the subsystems of an organism's environment.

2. Many archaeologists believe, along with Robert Wenke, that "people have proved to be excellent devices for cereals to conquer the world."

3. The age and sex of animals from archaeological sites can be used to infer the existence of domesticated animals.

4. Humans may affect the gene pool of animal species by intervening in breeding and culling without fully domesticating them.

5. The most significant factor that promoted the domestication of plants and animals was the extinction of the large-bodied dinosaurs.

6. Complex foragers live in areas of abundant resources that may appear inexhaustible.

7. PPNA sites are much smaller than Natufian sites.

8. Broad-spectrum foraging was practiced prior to the domestication transition in the Americas.

9. Foraging societies employ tools made of wood, stone, and bone that can be easily made by everyone.

10. Trade was significant in PPNA Jericho.

11. Mesopotamia is often referred to as the "cradle of civilization" where early complex societies developed.

12. In eastern Canada, maize appeared around 1,500 years ago.

13. In foraging societies, a woman's pregnancies tend to be spaced three to four years apart because of an extended period of breastfeeding.

14. Surplus production refers to the production of amounts of food that exceed the basic subsistence needs of the population.

15. It is incorrect to describe foraging societies as simple societies.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What do contemporary ecologists mean by ecological niche?

2. How is human domestication of plants unlikely to parallel the mutualistic relationship between ants and acacia trees?

3. Which animal species was first domesticated, and when and where did this likely occur?

4. How is loose herding distinct from domestication?

5. How are generalized foragers different from complex foragers?

6. What is PPNA, and what are the two characteristics of PPNA cultures?

7. What does the presence of broken pottery or kilns found evenly distributed throughout a settlement suggest about occupational specialization?

8. Which culture is associated with the rapid expansion of cultivation? Where are some of the sites associated with this culture found?

9. Why is it incorrect to describe foraging societies as "simple"?

10. According to Michael Hoffman, why did virtually every original complex society build monumental architecture and produce quantities of luxury goods? What does Hoffman call these objects?

11. What is bloodwealth?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. b 2. c 3. c 4. d 5. b 6. a 7. c 8. d 9. b 10. a 11. c 12. c 13. b

14. a 15. d 16. c 17. d 18. b 19. d 20. a 21. b 22. d 23. c 24. a 25. d 26. c

27. b 28. a 29. c 30. a 31. b 32. d 33. d 34. a 35. a 36. b 37. d 38. a 39. a

6. TRUE 7. FALSE 8. TRUE 9. TRUE 10. TRUE

11. TRUE 12. TRUE 13. TRUE 14. TRUE 15. TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. FALSE 2. FALSE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. FALSE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Many contemporary ecologists would argue that ecological niches are best defined in terms of the activities of a particular species, including the space, time, and resources that a population utilizes on a daily or seasonal basis.

2. Ants living inside enlarged acadia thorns consume a sugary substance produced by the trees and simultaneously protect the trees from insect predators. By the time humans domesticated plants, however, they were fully modern and highly aware of their environment, unlike ants. They likely deliberately selected plants that were easier to harvest, more nourishing, and tastier. Second, paying attention only to the plants and the people involved in domestication ignores the kinds of environmental modifications needed to make domestication successful, which clearly depended on conscious, active human intervention.

3. Dogs were the first domesticated animals; the earliest evidence for their domestication dates to around 16,000 years ago and was found in northern Spain.

4. Domestication can be defined as the capture and taming by human beings of animals of a species with particular behavioural characteristics, their removal from their natural living area and breeding community, and their maintenance under controlled breeding conditions for mutual benefit. While loose herding involves controlling the herd's movements, cullling animals with undesirable traits, and intervening in reproduction through selective breeding, it does not involve removing the animals from their natural living area or capture and taming.

5. Complex foragers live in areas of abundant resources, while generalized foragers live in areas that are less generous. Generalized foragers cope with shortages by diversifying their subsistence activities.

6. PPNA stands for Pre-Pottery Neolithic A. PPNA cultures cultivated plants but did not use pottery.

7. The even distribution of broken pottery and kilns throughout a settlement suggests that pottery was made by individual families.

8. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) culture is associated with the rapid expansion of cultivation. There are more than 140 sites, and some of these are found in Anatolia and the Zagros Mountains.

9. Although the foragers used simple technology based on wood, stone, and bone tools, these activities needed highly specialized knowledge of architecture, textiles, and metallurgy. These activities also presupposed a form of social organization that permitted some members of society to become highly specialized in certain activities while other members carried out different tasks.

10. Monumental architecture and luxury goods served to demonstrate the superior power the rulers and evidence of the elite's fitness to rule. Hoffman calls these objects "powerfacts."

11. Bloodwealth is a payment by perpetrators to compensate victims for their loss, and if the bloodwealth created a surplus in some individuals or groups over others, social relations amongst these people would no longer be egalitarian. Bloodwealth is not found in egalitarian societies.

CHAPTER 10 WHY DO ANTHROPOLOGISTS STUDY ECONOMIC RELATIONS? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The patterning of human interdependence in a given society through the actions and decisions of its members is called . a) social hierarchy b) social inequality c) social organization d) social stratification 2. The part of the discipline of anthropology that debates issues of human nature that relate directly to the decisions of daily life and making a living is known as . a) cultural anthropology b) economic anthropology c) institutional analysis d) political anthropology 3. Although our physical survival depends on our making adequate use of the resources around us, our tell(s) us which resources to use and how to use them. a) culture b) environment c) genes d) instincts 4. The Western perspective of economy is based on the the assumption of a) labour b) value c) leisure d) scarcity

.

5. are those who gather, fish, or hunt a) Food collectors or foragers b) Food producers c) Pastoralists d) Horticulturalists 6. depend primarily on human power and simple tools such as digging sticks to cultivate their fields. a) Horticulturalists b) Pastoralists c) Foragers d) Intensive agriculturalists 7. The traditional Western perspective of economy presumes that _. a) individuals maximize their utility under conditions of scarcity b) economic decisions are embedded in cultural institutions c) individuals spend their resources in order to obtain the goods they want

d) individuals aim to obtain as much satisfaction as possible at the largest possible cost 8. Institutions are best defined as . a) the patterning of human interdependence in a given society through the actions and decisions of its members b) complex, variable, and enduring forms of cultural practice that organize social life c) an economic system dominated by the supply-demand price mechanism called the "market" d) ruling with coercive force 9. The three phases of economic activity generally accepted by anthropologists are a) means of production, relations of production, and ideology b) production, distribution, and consumption c) labour, value, supply-demand market d) institutions, values, and behaviours

.

10. is an example of the distributive process. a) Eating food b) Transforming nature's raw materials into products useful to human beings c) Exchange d) Storage 11. Adam Smith is most closely associated with the field of a) economic anthropology b) political anthropology c) economics d) political science

.

12. In feudal economies, goods and services are allotted to individuals based on a) need b) cash payment c) equal shares d) status

.

13. is well known for his anthropological analysis of non-capitalist gift exchanges. a) Karl Marx b) Karl Polanyi c) Marcel Mauss d) Eric Wolf 14. The restrictions. a) capitalist b) feudal c) kin-ordered d) tributary

mode of production is considered "free" because exchange is not subject to traditional

15. The three historical and cross-cultural modes of exchange described by Marshall Sahlins are a) gift exchange, market purchase, and labour exchange b) reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange c) free exchange, barter exchange, and currency exchange

.

d) potlatch, matrimonial exchange, and market exchange 16. Generalized reciprocity is when . a) exchange takes place without the expectation of an immediate return and without specifying the value of the return b) exchange partners expect a return of equal value within a specified time c) at least one party attempts to get something for nothing without suffering any penalties d) exchange partners expect a return of equal value at some point in the future 17. Some anthropologists borrow 's argument that in order to understand economic activity, we must examine the social relations between those involved in production. a) Marshall Sahlins b) Adam Smith c) Karl Marx d) Marcel Mauss 18. The social relations linking humans who use a given mode of production are called a) modalities of production b) relations of production c) means of production d) classes 19. The proportion of their subjects' production, or labour, taken by rulers is known as a) tribute b) profit c) relations of production d) surplus

.

.

20. The following is an example of farm labour organized according to kin-ordered relations of production: . a) labourers are relatives who are paid b) labourers are relatives who are not paid c) labourers are non-relatives who are not paid d) labourers are non-relatives who are paid 21. refers to the use of material goods necessary for human survival. a) Ecology b) Distribution c) Consumption d) Production 22. The following is considered to be a weakness of the internal explanation for human consumption patterns: . a) It relies on Western assumptions about values that motivate decisions b) It does not explain why all societies do not share the same consumption patterns c) It does not acknowledge psychological needs d) It does not show how social institutions are linked to satisfying individual needs 23.

focuses on how the available resources in particular habitats are exploited by particular human

groups. a) Evolutionary ecology b) Nutritional anthropology c) Functionalist anthropology d) Cultural ecology 24. Nicole Gombay uses the term " " to identify the economy associated with the ideas, processes, social relations, values, and institutions that the Inuit of Puvirnituq link to producing their food by hunting, fishing, and gathering. a) kin-ordered b) subsistence c) vernacular d) reciprocal 25. The Dobe Ju/'hoansi people of southern Africa, whom Richard Lee lived among in the 1960s, . a) were described by Lee as living the most miserable of existences, spending all their waking hours in a quest for food that yielded barely enough to keep them alive b) were no longer able to forage full-time and were making difficult adjustments to their new mode of subsistence c) had returned to full-time foraging after economic ties with neighbouring herders became too onerous d) consumed about 70 per cent of their calories from meat and the remaining 30 per cent from a wide variety of plants 26. According to Richard Lee's research in the 1960s, the Dobe Ju/'hoansi people spent food-collecting activities. a) 10 hours per week b) 50 hours per week c) 40 hours per week d) 20 hours per week

in

27. The condition of having more than enough of whatever is required to satisfy consumption needs is known as . a) subsistence b) affluence c) profit d) surplus 28. "Women's wealth" in the Trobriand Islands refers to a) household goods b) yams c) banana leaves d) bracelets and necklaces

.

29. Annette Weiner's research in the Trobriand Islands in the 1970s found that . a) women participated in an important local tradition of production and exchange that Bronislaw Malinowski had overlooked b) women's wealth was involved in transactions that occur when there is a birth or marriage in the community c) women are not important actors in the local economy d) women cultivate yams, which are an important local food, thereby contributing about 70 per cent of the calories that are consumed in the society

30. The following statement about women's wealth in the Trobriand Islands is NOT true: . a) We cannot tell if women's wealth was accumulated during the time of Bronislaw Malinowski's fieldwork b) Bronislaw Malinowski may have considered it unimportant because his accounting of economic activities focused on those that satisfied biological survival needs c) Bronislaw Malinowski may have overlooked these transactions because they are carried out by women d) Transactions involving women's wealth are crucial for the stability of kinship relations 31. The following exchange is NOT an important feature of Trobriand society, according to Annette Weiner: . a) Women exchange store goods for women's wealth from other women b) Women give women's wealth to their husbands and get yams from them in exchange c) Relatives of a recently deceased exchange women's wealth for yams and other goods that the deceased person gave to others during his or her lifetime d) Men get yams from their brothers-in-law (via their wives) and give women's wealth to their wives to be ultimately passed on to the women in the family 32. The following is NOT one of the contemporary areas of interest in the anthropology of food and nutrition: . a) how quarantines, health inspections, and import bans have been used as political tools b) the influence of political forces on how food is produced, distributed, and accessed around the world c) cross-cultural comparisons of nutrition and growth d) the structure of the global capitalist food market 33. The Dene people of the Sahtu Region of the Northwest Territories value spending time on the land because . a) it allows for the development of skills and knowledge that people associate with being Dene b) it connects people to the places and stories that explain how the world was created and how it will come to be in the future c) it fosters community cohesion through the sharing of knowledge, food, and senses of common identity d) All of the above 34. According to Carly Dokis, presents a challenge to Dene people who wish to hunt, fish, and gather plants and berries. a) Dene stories that explain how the world was created and how it will come to be in the future b) the Dene Universal Law c) the belief that the land is a leader rather than a passive receptor of human management d) the high price of gas, ammunition, snowmobiles, and traps 35. Carole Counihan's food-centred life histories of Italian women and men depicts . a) the egalitarian gender division of labour among peasant workers, where men and women were both involved in food production and preparation b) the struggles of Florentine women who needed to work for wages but who were still expected to maintain a household at the same time, with little assistance from their husbands c) how food was abundant in the first part of the twentieth century but became scarce after World War II d) how traditional food production and preparation practices were reinforced by the Italian state under Mussolini

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Social organization is strongly determined by the environment in which humans live.

2. Some anthropologists argue that the job of economic anthropologists should be to describe and explain cultural variations in different societies' organization of economic life.

3. The recognition of human needs and of appropriate ways to satisfy them is an area of behaviour that is shaped more by the few instincts humans have than by cultural patterns.

4. In a feudal economic system, those with high status have a right to more goods and services.

5. Since redistribution relies on social pressure, it requires a population in which individuals are well-known to each other.

6. A key weakness of Karl Marx's analysis is that he did not recognize the importance of mental or cognitive labour.

7. The kin-ordered mode of production is found among foragers and those farmers and herders whose political organization does not involve domination by one group.

8. Human consumption patterns vary little between societies.

9. Bronislaw Malinowski explained social practices by relating them to the need for social cohesion.

10. Richard Lee's research among the Ju/'hoansi people revealed that, while they periodically suffered from shortages of their preferred foods and were forced to consume less-desired items, most of the time, their diet was balanced and consisted of foods they preferred.

11. Many anthropologists have been persuaded that social organization is naturally harmonious or that social change is naturally orderly.

12. Bronislaw Malinowski's analysis of the importance of women's farming and trade activities in the Trobriand Islands was confirmed by Annette Weiner, who found that women are directly or indirectly responsible for 80 per cent of the calories consumed by their community.

13. Much of the early literature on consumption emphasizes the ways in which vulnerable groups have resisted commodities or developed ritual means of "taming" them, based on an awareness at some level of the capacity of those commodities to destroy.

14. Daniel Miller urges anthropologists studying consumption to examine inequalities of access and the impact of contemporary economic institutions on much of the world's population.

15. Carole Counihan's study of food practices in Tuscany described how women's sense of self-worth is damaged by men who cook on a regular basis but who often do not shop or clean up and who tend to dismiss cooking as easy.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What is economic rationality?

2. What are the three phases of economic activity, and which is considered most important in anthropological analysis?

3. What are two characteristics of non-capitalist gift exchanges according to Marcel Mauss?

4. Of the three modes of exchange recognized by anthropologists, which is associated with the Nootka (Nuu-chah-nulth) potlatch? Explain briefly.

5. What is the mode of production?

6. What are the means of production?

7. What are the three main features of the capitalist mode of production, according to Eric Wolf?

8. Briefly describe Bronislaw Malinowski's internal explanation for human consumption patterns.

9. Why does Marshall Sahlins reject the idea that foragers are poor, describing the Ju/'hoansi and other foragers like them as "the original affluent society"?

10. What is the significance of women's wealth in the Trobriand Islands, according to research carried out by Annette Weiner in the 1970s?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. c 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. a 6. a 7. a 8. b 9. b 10. c 11. c 12. d

13. c 14. a 15. b 16. a 17. c 18. b 19. a 20. b 21. c 22. b 23. d 24. c

25. c 26. d 27. b 28. c 29. a 30. a 31. b 32. c 33. d 34. d 35. b

6. FALSE 7. TRUE 8. FALSE 9. FALSE 10. TRUE

11. FALSE 12. FALSE 13. TRUE 14. TRUE 15. TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. FALSE 2. TRUE 3. FALSE 4. TRUE 5. FALSE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Economic rationality is the idea that individuals set priorities and allocate resources according to these priorities.

2. Anthropologists differ in the importance they attach to each phase. For instance, while some assert that exchange is central to the functioning of both Western and non-Western societies, those influenced by Marx argue that exchange cannot be understood without first studying the nature of production. Others contend that neither production nor exchange can be considered without first specifying the culturally-determined consumption patterns of the people who are producing and exchanging.

3. Non-capitalist gift exchanges are deeply embedded in social relations and always require a return gift.

4. Potlatch is an example of redistribution, a mode of exchange in which all members of the group make contributions which are then redistributed to all members from a central position in the social organization.

Among the Nootka, nobles sought to outdo one another by redistributing goods accumulated in one village to nobles attending the ceremony from other villages; when the guests returned to their own villages, they redistributed the goods among their followers.

5. Mode of production refers to the ways in which different human groups carry out production. Eric Wolf defines it as a "specific, historically occurring set of social relations through which labour is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of tools, skills, organization, and knowledge."

6. The means of production are the tools, skills, organization, and knowledge used to extract energy from nature.

7. The three main features of capitalist production according to Eric Wolf are: - Means of production: private property owned by members of the capitalist class, - Workers must sell their labour power to the capitalists in order to survive - Surpluses of wealth are produced that capitalists may retain as profit or reinvest in production to increase output and generate further surpluses and higher profits.

8. The internal explanation for human consumption patterns relates social practices to the basic biological or psychological needs that each practice fulfills. If these needs for nourishment, reproduction, bodily comforts, safety, movement, growth, and health go unmet, according to Malinowski, a society might not survive. Each culture responds to these needs in its own way with some form of the corresponding institutions: food-getting techniques, kinship, shelter, protection, activities, training, and hygiene.

9. Sahlins has argued that while Western capitalist societies have achieved affluence through producing much, foragers have been able to achieve affluence (that is, having more than enough of whatever is required to satisfy consumption needs) by desiring little. Affluent foragers live in societies where social institutions do not reward greed. Thus, while their standard of living may be low by Western measures, they should not be considered poor.

10. Banana leaves, known locally as "women's wealth," are the sole currency that is used to mark the social relationships in which individuals are involved. At a person's death, surviving relatives use women's wealth to "buy back" all the yams or other goods that the deceased person gave to others during his or her lifetime. The dead person's status, as well as the status of her or his family, depends on the size and number of the payments made. Women make women's wealth themselves and exchange store goods to obtain it from other women, but collect it from their husbands when someone in their matriclan dies. A woman's value is measured by the amount of women's wealth her husband provides. The value of a husband is read by a woman's kin as the value of his productive support in securing women's wealth for his wife. In this way, women's wealth upholds the kinship arrangements of Trobriand society.

CHAPTER 11 WHAT CAN ANTHROPOLOGY TEACH US ABOUT SEX, GENDER, AND SEXUALITY? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. argues that women and men are equally human and therefore that women are entitled to enjoy the same rights and privileges. a) Chivalry b) Feminism c) Humanism d) Patriarchy 2. The domination of men over women and children is called a) matriarchy b) public/private divide c) patriarchy d) sexism 3. Cultural anthropologists use males from females. a) the term gender b) the terms man or woman c) the terms masculine or feminine d) the term sex

.

to specifically refer to the physical characteristics that distinguishes

4. Which of the following is INCORRECT? a) most ethnographies were based primarily on the views of male informants although some of these ethnographies were written by women b) many feminist anthropologists are not concerned with how women were represented in many ethnographies in the past c) in most ethnographies, women's cultural roles as wives and mothers followed naturally from the biological facts of pregnancy and lactation d) the work of the American anthropologist Margaret Mead played a crucial role in changing perspectives of classical ethnographic research on women.

5. Anthropologists use the tem to refer to the culturally constructed roles assigned to males or females, which varied considerably from society to society. a) gender b) gender binary c) patriarchy d) sex 6. When were some feminist anthropologists concerned that both the gender binary and male domination of females might be universal? a) by the 1940s b) by the 1960s c) by the 1970s d) by the 1980s

7. "Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?" was written by a) Margaret Mead in 1935 b) Sherry Ortner in 1972 c) Mary Douglas in 2001 d) Katherine Reese-Taylor in 2009

.

8. In which society, according to feminist anthropologist Marilyn Strathern, are men engaged with other men in the management of large-scale ceremonial exchange from which women were excluded. a) Melanesian societies b) Polynesian societies c) Samoan societies d) Sub-Saharan societies 9. Many anthropologists and other social scientists support the move to combine the study of women, men, sex, gender, and sexuality in an inclusive field called . a) feminist studies b) gender studies c) men's studies d) women studies 10. The work of Marcia Inhorn focuses on how a) Americans b) Egyptians c) Iranians d) Bedouins

coped with infertility.

11. Emergent masculinities, is a term coined in the research of a) Gayle Rubin b) Eleanor Leacock c) Marchia Inhorn d) None of the above 12. The literal meaning of machismo is a) maleness b) femaleness c) ethnicity d) mixed-race

.

.

13. Who argues that an individual's composite gender identity incorporates many features shaped by the historical, economic, political, and sociocultural settings in which he or she live his or her life? a) Bonnie Hewlett b) Emily Wentzell c) Gayle Rubin d) Sherry Ortner 14. is the notion that institutional forms of oppression organized in terms of race, class, and gender are interconnected and shape the opportunities and constraints available to individuals in any society. a) Composite masculinity

b) Intersectionality c) Postcolonialism d) Transnationality 15. Haiti was a colony of a) Spain b) France c) Britain d) Belgium

.

16. Which of the following is INCORRECT about women's rights and status in Haiti? a) Women have control over family life, wealth, and property b) Men have control over family life, wealth, and property c) Women belong to the Haitian nation, but they are deprived of equal social, economic, and political rights d) Until 1987, Haitian women who married foreigners lost their Haitian citizenship 17. According to anthropologist Roger Lancaster, what is the meaning of cochón? a) heterosexuality, a form of sexual practice between men and women found in most societies b) homosexual, similar to North America's idea of homosexuality c) homosexual, different from North America's idea of homosexuality d) homosexual practice, existing between working class Nicaraguan men and upper-class men 18. The practice of dressing and taking on mannerisms associated with a gender other than one's own is called . a) Gender performativity b) Transvestism c) Third gender d) Transgender 19. In recent years, anthropologists have turned to the work of a) Edward Said b) Margaret Mead c) Michel Foucault d) Sherry Ortner

.

20. refers to the understanding of a human body that is easily taught, or can be subjected, used, transformed, and improved through disciplinary methods. a) biopolitics b) docile body c) technology of the self d) technology of the domination 21. What is intersex? a) Individuals who lack genitalia b) Individuals who have lack of reproductive capacity despite having functional genitalia c) Individuals who engage in sexual activity with all sexes d) Individuals who possess ambiguous genitalia 22. What does the term "gay" refer to?

a) individuals classified as homosexual by the medical authorities use the term gay to refer to themselves, an affirmative and empowering self-designation b) individuals classified as intersexed by the medical authorities use the term gay to refer to themselves, an affirmative and empowering self-designation c) individuals classified as lesbians by the medical authorities use the term gay to refer to themselves, an affirmative and empowering self-designation d) None of the above.

23. What is heteronormativity? a) the view that heterosexual intercourse is or should be the normal form of humans sexual expression b) sexual relations involving individuals of different sexualities c) a form of sexual bias against all those who are not heterosexual d) sexual relations involving two males or two females 24. Who studied homosexuality among Swahili Muslims in Mombasa, Kenya? a) Afsaneh Najmabadi b) David Halperin c) Gill Shepherd d) Roger Lancaster 25. Anthropologist Gill Shepherd found that a wealthy, high-ranking Muslim woman can only a) marry a woman who is her equal or superior b) marry a man who is her equal or superior c) divorce her husband if her husband fails to fulfill her sexual needs d) deny to have a baby after marriage

.

26. Why did anthropologist Gill Shepherd argue that the Western notion of "homosexuality" cannot be the same as homosexuality among Mombada Muslim women in Kenya? a) because women were allowed to choose other women as sexual partners only after they had been married b) because both men and women were open about their same-sex relationships c) because wealthy females or lesbians build a circle of dependents who are mostly wives of poor men d) All of the above answers are correct.

27. Afsaneh Najmabadi investigates the role of . a) gender in the history of Iran b) Islamic code of conducts for women in the history of Iran c) sexual division of the labor in the history of Iran d) women in protecting reproductive and sexual rights in the history of Iran 28. Afsaneh Najmabadi discovered that . a) the distinctions between sex, gender, and sexuality, developed by Western scholars can easily be mapped onto Iranian categories between sex, gender, and sexuality b) the distinctions between sex, gender, and sexuality, developed by Western scholars cannot be mapped onto Iranian categories between sex, gender, and sexuality c) most Iranians can recognize a clear distinction between sex and gender d) Iranians followed the Western version of heteronormativity 29. The study of Afsaneh Najmabadi demonstrates that Western and non-Western increasingly entangled and complex in the contemporary globalized world.

have become

a) LGBTQ issues b) the same-sex marriage and transgender issues c) religious values and homosexuality issues d) marriage systems and family structures

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Anthropologist Marilyn Strathern argued that Western anthropologists had misunderstood Melanesian gender relations.

2. Androgyny refers to a condition in which an individual person possesses both male and female characteristics.

3. In Mexico, masculinity is traditionally defined in terms of practices associated with machismo.

4. Anthropologists strongly accept the idea that a person's gendered beliefs or behaviour is directly caused by that person's biological sex.

5. In recent decades, the study of the "body", especially the discussion of sex, gender, and sexuality, has got special attention from sociocultural anthropologists.

6. The concept of cochón can be translated into English as "homosexual."

7. The concept of affect refers to visceral arousal, emotion, or feeling.

8. Sexuality refers to the ways in which people experience and value physical desire and pleasure in the context of sexual intercourse.

9. Pansexuality refers to sexual attraction to both males and females.

10. The standard use "lesbian" to describe female same-sex sexuality began by the end of the 19th-century.

11. Anthropologists still use the term "berdache" to refer to Indigenous social roles in which men (and sometimes women) were allowed to take on the activities and sometimes the dress of members of the other sex.

12. Queer refers to a self-identification claimed by some persons whose gender identities or sexual practices fall outside the range defined by the heterosexual-homosexual continuum.

13. According to anthropologist Gill Shepherd, financial independence for a woman offered a chance to covert wealth to power in Mombasa.

14. Afsaneh Najmabadi undertook participant-observation in order to learn exactly how trans activists engaged psychological, medical, religious, and governmental authorities on an everyday basis.

15. The medical anthropological work of Marcia Inhorn shows that men were unwilling to accept publicly that they were responsible for the couple's infertility.

16. Intersectionality theory is useful for understanding gender relations only.

17. Sexuality refers to the ways in which people experience and value physical desire and pleasure in the context of sexual intercourse.

18. Anthropologist Bonnie Hewlett's study among women in the Central African Republic shows that respect from husbands is an important symbol of respect and love for women.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What does the concept " feminism" refer to?

2. What is public/private divide?

3. What is the difference between gender and sex?

4. Why did anthropologist Sherry Ortner argue that the "male domination over female is universal"?

5. What finding did Eleanor Leacok have about male dominance in contemporary societies?

6. What is The Gender of the Gift?

7. What is intersectionality?

8. What is gender performativity?

9. What did Afsaneh Najmabadi discover about the distinctions between sex, gender, and sexuality in Iran?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. b 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. a 6. c 7. b 8. a 9. b 10. b

11. c 12. a 13. b 14. b 15. c 16. a 17. c 18. b 19. c 20. b

21. d 22. a 23. a 24. c 25. b 26. d 27. a 28. b 29. a

7. TRUE 8. TRUE 9. FALSE 10. FALSE 11. FALSE 12. TRUE

13. TRUE 14. TRUE 15. TRUE 16. FALSE 17. TRUE 18. TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. TRUE 2. TRUE 3. TRUE 4. FALSE 5. TRUE 6. FALSE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Feminism refers to the idea that women and men are equally human and, therefore, that women are entitled to enjoy the same rights and privileges as men. As a social movement in North America, the first wave of feminism emerged in the 19th-century to establish women's political rights. In the 20th-century, a second wave of feminism emerged, which vowed to challenge many other forms of gender inequality.

2. The public/private divide is a socially and culturally constructed barrier between men and women. In this model, 'public life' is considered the domain of men and 'private life' or domestic home life as the place of women.

Feminists argue that patriarchy creates such a barrier between men and women, which perpetuates inequality and oppression against women.

3. Sex refers to the physical characteristics that traditionally distinguish males from females (e.g., body, shape, reproductive organs, or other body functions). Gender, on the other hand, refers to the socially culturally constructed roles assigned to males and females, which varied significantly from culture and culture.

Child-rearing or cooking food is considered women's work, for example, in many non-industrial society.

4. According to Sherry Ortner (1972), male dominance rooted in a universal form of binary thinking that opposed male to female, males associated with culture and females with nature. While women might able to mediate between culture and nature, women's physiology and bodily function, such as the process of pregnancy, childbirth, and lactation, put them closer to nature.

5. Eleanor Leacock (1983) argued that the cases of male dominance in contemporary societies were less likely to reflect the original human condition than they were to show forms of institutionalized gender inequality influenced by the spread of capitalism. Leacock used ethnographic and historical evidence from different continents to show how colonization had transformed egalitarian gender relations into unequal, male-dominated

gender relations.

6. The Gender of the Gift is an ethnographic text written by anthropologist Marilyn Strathern (1988). In this ethnography, Strathern challenged the assumptions that Western notions of individuality were universal; that is, that in all societies, every human individual comes into the world as a self-contained, autonomous being with a unique identity.

7. Intersectionality is a theoretical perspective used to understand institutionalized forms of oppression organized in terms of race, class, and gender interconnected and create unequal life chances for individuals in any society.

Intersectionality helps to understand how different social, economic, and political institutions create unequal life chances for women in Haiti, for example.

8. Gender performativity refers to the notion that gender is something we "perform" or "enact," something we "learn to do", not something we "are born with." Performativity could include gender identity, sexuality, or other forms of social identity such as race and ethnicity. Anthropologist Roger Lancaster explored the performativity of gender and sexual identity among working class people in Nicaragua.

9. Afsaneh Najmabadi (2014) discovered that the distinctions between sex, gender, and sexuality, developed by Western scholars, did not easily map onto Iranian categories. While conducting anthropological research, Najmabadi interviewed Iranians. Most of these Iranians did not recognize the distinction between sex and gender.

That's Western differences between sex, gender, and sexuality were absent in Iran.

CHAPTER 12 WHERE DO OUR RELATIVES COME FROM AND WHY DO THEY MATTER? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The term 'imagined communities ' is associated with a) Benedict Anderson b) David Schneider c) T.W. Ward d) Zygmunt Bauman

.

2. Social relationships that are prototypically derived from the universal human experiences of mating, birth, and nurturance are called . a) affinity systems b) kinship systems c) postmarital residence systems d) systems of consanguinity 3. Descent is defined as _ . a) the principle based on culturally recognized parent-child connections that define the social categories to which people belong b) the principle based on biological parent-child connections that define the social categories to which people belong c) the principle based on socially assigned parent-child connections that define to which community people belong d) the principle based on biological parent-child connections that define the biological categories to which people belong 4. Which of the following is NOT true? a) consanguineal relationships refer to kinship connections based on descent b) adoption refers to kinship relationships based on nurturance, often in the absence of other mating or birth connections. c) marriage, descent, and adoptions are selective d) In Canada, the term aunt refers to a woman who occupies a unique biological position.

5. The following statement is NOT true: . a) Bilateral kindred is a common kind of descent group b) Kinship practices clarify what rights and obligations people have c) Descent groups are social categories that are defined through culturally recognized marriages d) Descent group membership may control how people mobilize for political action 6. The kinship group followed by most North Americans and Europeans is the a) bilateral kindred b) unilineal descent group c) patrilineal descent group d) matrilineal descent group 7. In a patrilineal society, members of a patrilineage include

.

.

a) a male and his brothers b) a woman and her sisters c) all those who trace descent to a common female ancestor d) all those who trace descent to a common male ancestor 8. Most lineages have a time depth of about a) four b) five c) six d) ten

generations.

9. E.E. Evans-Pritchard defined as the largest group of people who trace their descent patrilineally from a common ancestor, cannot marry each other, and consider sexual relations within the group to be incestuous. a) minor lineage b) minimal lineage c) clan d) maximal lineage 10. In a , a woman's children are not in her lineage. a) patrilineage b) matrilineage c) minor lineage d) clan 11. The a) Inuit b) Haida c) Nuer d) Mende

community is matrilineal.

12. Of the following criteria used to indicate how people are related to one another, common. a) collaterality b) generation c) affinity d) bifurcation

is the LEAST

13. Among the Inuit of the North American Arctic, adoption . a) is a traditional form in which the adoptee maintains flexible relationships with her or his birth and adoptive families b) is a way of making sure that every amauti carries a child c) contributes to a strong sense of community and provides families with many hands to help with hunting, fishing, preparing food, and other subsistence tasks d) All of the above 14. Woman marriage, in which a woman could marry another woman and become the "father" of the children the wife bore, was practised among the . a) Ju/'hoansi b) Nyinba

c) Nuer d) Mende 15. Endogamy is a rule that refers to a) marriage outside a defined social group b) marriage within a defined social group c) kinship connections based on descent d) kinship connections based on marriage

.

16. Same-sex marriage was legally recognized in Canada in a) 1997 b) 2001 c) 2005 d) 2007 17. The a) patrilocal b) neolocal c) avunculocal d) polygamy

.

postmarital residence pattern results in a characteristic social grouping of related men.

18. Islam permits a man to have as many as four wives but only on the condition that . a) he is morally fit b) he can support them all equally, both emotionally and financially c) the women to whom he is already married must be in agreement that he may take an additional wife d) the wives must not be related to each other 19. The following marriage pattern is found among the Nyinba of Nepal and Tibet: . a) Individuals may marry several times during their lives and can end marriages after demonstrating valid reasons b) Individuals are married once and do not remarry after the death of their spouse c) Men aspire to have several wives, though in practice most have only one d) A group of brothers is married to a single woman 20. Anthropologists view bridewealth as _. a) the wife's contribution to the establishment of a new household b) a practice found primarily in the agricultural societies of Europe and Asia c) an assurance that when a woman marries she will continue to enjoy the level of comfort to which she is accustomed d) compensation to the bride's relatives for the loss of her labour and childbearing capacities 21. The non-conjugal family . a) consists of a woman and her children, whose husband/father may be occasionally present or completely absent b) is common outside of Canada and the United States c) is composed of a group of sisters, their children, and their brothers d) refers to the household of an unmarried man and woman and their children 22. In India, dowries . a) have been illegal for many decades b) are often disguised by families as gifts to the newlyweds

c) have increased in size and frequency over the past 40 years d) All of the above 23. Neolocal monogamous families, called nuclear families, accounted for about population in 2010. a) 25 per cent b) 40 per cent c) 50 per cent d) 75 per cent

of the Canadian

24. According to Caroline Bledsoe, competition between Mende co-wives often focuses on . a) how many nights the husband spends with each woman b) their children's access to education and their eventual accomplishments c) accessing assistance in completing paperwork for visas d) shifting and uncertain markers of friendship within a hierarchical ranking based on their original family's status and the order in which they were married to their shared husband 25. Among the Ju/'hoansi, divorce . a) requires only mutual consent b) involves the return of bridewealth, which may instigate the break-up of additional marriages in order to assemble the needed amount c) does not exist, although when a couple stops living together, the husband and wife are considered to be separated and ready for another marriage without the dissolution of the first one d) results in more connections within the community 26. family is created when previously divorced or widowed people marry, bringing with them children from their previous marriages. a) A non-consanguineal b) A nuclear c) An extended d) A blended 27. Research by Eugenia Georges about the experience of people from Los Pinos (Dominican Republic) who migrated to work in the United States showed that . a) women were more likely than men to migrate, since they were willing to take the more plentiful lower-status jobs such as cleaning and elder care b) over time, individuals eventually brought several generations of their family to the US and settled there permanently c) when husbands migrated, their wives took on greater decision-making roles in the family d) the divorce rate was slightly lower in migrant families than in families whose members never migrated 28. Research by Kath Weston on family among gay and lesbian individuals in the San Francisco Bay Area during the 1980s found that . a) relationships based on genetic relatedness are preferred to ties based on friendship b) ties between non-related people are more fragile and less long-lived than traditional families who consider themselves related by blood c) new kin ties can be created over time as friends and lovers demonstrate their genuine commitment to one another by creating families of choice d) the understanding of kinship based on nurturance is incompatible with lesbian and gay activists' advocacy for

the recognition of legal rights enjoyed by traditional families, such as hospital visiting privileges, joint adoption, and property rights 29. Close human friendships . a) correspond to the classic patterns of reciprocity b) tend to be personal, affective, and a matter of choice c) are very similar to friendship in some non-human primate species d) mirror kinship relations

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Relatedness takes many forms, including friendship, marriage, parenthood, and workplace associations.

2. Imagined communities are social, cultural, and historical constructions.

3. Descent is the same thing as birth.

4. When members of a group believe that they can no longer accurately specify the genealogical links that connect them but believe that they are "in some way" connected, they form what anthropologists refer to as a lineage.

5. Anthropologists today understand kinship using the six major patterns identified in the early 1950s.

6. In a Nuer ghost marriage, the ghost husband is the pater while his brother or brother's son is the genitor of children born of the union.

7. The most common form of plural marriage is polygyny.

8. In fraternal polyandry, a man is married to a group of sisters.

9. Violence against women in India has been linked directly and indirectly to the institution of dowry.

10. Cross-culturally, childlessness is not usually grounds for divorce.

11. A "divorce" among the Inuit results in fewer connections.

12. Close human relationships are very similar to relationships called "friendship" in primate species like baboons.

13. LGBTQ people got the legal right to marriage in Canada in the late 1980s.

14. Bell and Coleman (1999) argue that the complex processes of globalization have weakened the traditional forms of kinship ties in many societies.

15. Anthropologist T.W. Ward describes that many youths join a Salvadoran street gang as means of survival and self-defence, as a means of constructing an identity of self-worth, and a way to create a surrogate family.

16. Affinal relationships are kinship connections based on mating or marriage while consanguineal relationships

are based on descent or blood relationships.

17. Bilateral descent refers to a descent group formed by people who believe they are related to each other by connections made through their mothers and their fathers equally.

18. Patrilineage refers to a social group formed by people connected by father-child links.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What are kinship systems?

2. What is a clan?

3. What is the prototypical kernel of a matrilineage? Why is that?

4. What are parallel relatives?

5. What are ascribed statuses? Give one example.

6. While not all cultural groups define marriage in exactly the same way, five criteria are common in most societies. What are these five common elements in how marriage is defined?

7. In which circumstances did the Nuer contract ghost marriages? Who were the partners in such a marriage?

8. What is serial monogamy? Where is it a common spousal pattern?

9. What is Bill C-38? What is its significance?

10. What is bridewealth?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. a 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. c 6. a 7. d 8. b 9. c 10. a

11. b 12. d 13. d 14. c 15. b 16. c 17. a 18. b 19. d 20. d

21. a 22. d 23. a 24. b 25. a 26. d 27. d 28. c 29. b

7. TRUE 8. FALSE 9. TRUE 10. FALSE 11. FALSE 12. FALSE

13. FALSE 14. TRUE 15. TRUE 16. TRUE 17. TRUE 18. TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. TRUE 2. TRUE 3. FALSE 4. FALSE 5. FALSE 6. TRUE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Kinship systems are social relationships that are prototypically derived from the universal human experiences of mating, birth, and nurturance.

2. A clan is a group of people who can no longer specify the genealogical links that connect them but believe that they are in some way connected. It is usually made up of lineages that the society's members believe to be related to each other through links that go back to mythic times. Sometimes the common ancestor of each clan is said to be an animal that lived at the beginning of time.

3. The prototypical kernel of a matrilineage is the sister-brother pair. A matrilineage may be thought of as a group of brothers and sisters connected through links made by women. Brothers marry out and often live with the family of their wives, but they maintain an active interest in the affairs of their lineage. The most important man in a boy's life is not his father (who is not from his lineage) but his mother's brother, from whom he will receive his lineage inheritance.

4. Parallel relatives are linked through two brothers or two sisters and are usually easily understood as cousins.

5. Ascribed statuses are the social positions that people are assigned at birth. Positions within a kinship system are one example of ascribed statuses.

6. Cross-culturally, most definitions of marriage share these five criteria: 1) marriage transforms the status of the participants; 2) marriage stipulates the degree of sexual access the married partners are expected to have to each other; 3) marriage perpetuates social patterns through the production or adoption of offspring, who also have rights and obligations; 4) marriage creates relationships between the kin of the partners; and 5) marriage is symbolically marked in some way.

7. Ghost marriages were carried out when a man died without male heirs, potentially leaving an unhappy and angry spirit who might trouble his living kin. In a ghost marriage, a kinsman (brother or brother's son) would marry a woman "to his name," paying the bridewealth in the name of the dead man to the patrilineage of the woman.

8. Serial monogamy means that people may be married to several different people over the course of their lives, but only one at a time. It is practiced in Canada and other western European societies.

9. The Government of Canada brought the Civil Marriage Act (Bill C-38) to Parliament in February 2005, to define a "civil marriage" as "the lawful union of two persons of all others." Bill C-38 was passed by the House of Commons by a vote of 158 to 133 on 28 June 2005. This bill passed the same-sex marriage law, which came into force on 20 July 2005 after the Senate approval.

10. Bridewealth refers to the transfer of certain symbolically important goods from the family of the groom to the family of the bride on the occasion of their marriage. It represents compensation to the wife's lineage for the loss of her labor and her childbearing. The goods that are exchanged may include shell ornaments, ivory tusks, brass songs, bird feathers, cotton cloth, and animals. Bridewealth is most common in patrilineal societies that combine agriculture, pastoralism, and patrilocal marriage.

CHAPTER 13 HOW DO ANTHROPOLOGISTS STUDY POLITICAL RELATIONS? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. is understood by anthropologists as "transformative capacity." a) Mode of subsistence b) Power c) Production d) Status 2. Organizational power is best explained as . a) the ability of an individual to impose her or his will on another individual b) the ability to organize social settings and control the allocation of social labour c) the ability of individuals or social units to limit the actions of other individuals in particular social settings d) the ability to transform a given situation into an orderly and profitable outcome 3. focuses most closely on social power in human society. a) Biological anthropology b) Participant observation c) Economic anthropology d) Political anthropology 4. Current approaches in political anthropology emerged during a) the 1930s and 1940s b) the 1950s and 1960s c) the 1970s and 1980s d) the 1990s and 2000s

.

5. According to Marshall Sahlins, population pressure determines _. a) the number of people, primarily women, that are pressured to reproduce in order to magnify their social group's dominance b) the number of people that can be supported when the environment is used in a particular way c) the number of people that submit to forms of social organization and peer pressure d) the amount of people who can access forms of private property 6. refers to a form of social organization in which a leader and close relatives are set apart from the rest of the society and allowed privileged access to wealth, power, and prestige. a) Band b) Chiefdom c) State d) Tribe 7. Which of the following has separate governmental institutions to enforce laws and to collect taxes and tribute? a) band b) chiefdom c) clan d) state

8. is closely associated with the idea that the absence of a state could only mean anarchy, or the "war of all against all." a) Thomas Hobbes b) Michel Foucault c) E.E. Evans-Pritchard d) Antonio Gramsci 9. The freedom of self-contained individuals to pursue their own interests above everything else and to challenge one another for domination is known as . a) hegemony b) free agency c) domination d) biopower 10. Lewis Henry Morgan showed that a) age stratification b) economic institutions c) gender distinction d) kinship institutions

could organize orderly social life in societies without states.

11. The following statement about E.E. Evans-Pritchard's description of social life among the Azande is NOT true: . a) If people believed they were bewitched, they were likely to be afraid b) Their society provided them with practical remedies, like vengeance magic, that they could use to defend themselves c) The Azande lived in a stateless society d) Most Azande believed in witchcraft 12. A world view that justifies social arrangements under which people live is known as a(n) a) ideology b) institution c) relations of production d) social organization 13. Karl Marx argued that dominated groups who accepted the ruling class ideology suffered from _ a) biopower b) false consciousness c) hegemony d) loss of agency 14. According to Antonio Gramsci, . a) coercive rule is less expensive than mutual accommodation b) the dominated class cannot draw benefits from hegemony c) rulers can persuade the dominated to accept their rule as legitimate d) hegemony is more vulnerable to challenge than coercive rule 15. The concept of hegemony is attractive to many anthropologists because . a) it draws attention to the importance of modes of subsistence in determining social organization

.

.

b) it draws attention to the central role of cultural beliefs and symbols in struggles to consolidate social organization and political control c) it draws attention to how human capacity for symbolic thought has co-evolved with culture d) it draws attention to the forms of power preoccupied with bodies–both the bodies of citizens and the social body of the state 16. The persuasion of subordinates to accept the ideology of the dominant group by mutual accommodations that nevertheless preserve the privileged position of rulers is known as _. a) hegemony b) a world view c) domination d) coercion 17. addresses the forms of power exercised over people specifically as living beings whose individual sexual and reproductive conduct interconnect with issues of national policy and power. a) Agency b) Biopower c) Coercion d) Governmentality 18. New techniques of government that emerged in the seventeenth century focused on . a) making sure that an absolute ruler maintained control of the state b) putting the advice of political philosophers such as Machiavelli into practice c) running a state as if it were a household, drawing on information about the people, goods, and wealth that needed to be managed d) using education and the church to persuade the population of the benefits provided by the state 19. is associated with the state's need for statistical information. a) Governmentality b) Consensus c) Absolute rule d) Hereditary rule 20. Although it expanded to encompass a call for the renewal of Indigenous identities and lifeways, the Idle No More movement began in 2012 in response to . a) a lengthy history of language loss, especially as a result of residential schooling b) Canadian Bill C-45, the government's omnibus budget implementation bill that included changes to land management on reservations c) the increase in oil and gas exploration in the Sahtu Region over the past twenty years d) work on behalf of the Haida Nation to bring ancestral remains housed in museums home to Haida Gwaii 21. In explaining how a dispersed population of wealthy Chinese merchant families became so successful, Aihwa Ong (2002) focused on the different forms of that are characteristic of nation-states. a) free agency b) governmentality c) hidden transcripts d) ideology 22. According to Aihwa Ong (2002), the outcome when some Chinese citizens moved out of China in the late

nineteenth century and into merchant cities under European imperial control elsewhere in Asia and Southeast Asia was as follows: . a) Customary obligations to their lineages were enhanced, and the extended family and its members became the principal focus of loyalty among kin b) Local obligations to patrilineages were replaced by new obligations to both matrilineages and patrilineages that could be fulfilled from a distance. c) Ritual obligations to ancestors were replaced by financial obligations to living relatives. d) Traditional obligations to their lineages were effectively severed, and the individual family and its members became the principal focus of loyalty among kin.

23. Hidden transcripts are . a) the deliberate representations of particular identities (e.g., caste, class, race, ethnicity, and nationality) as if they were the result of biology or nature, rather than history or culture b) the strategies and effects employed by managers, technocrats, and professionals who move regularly across state boundaries and seek both to circumvent and to benefit from different nation-state regimes c) forms of transborder identity that do not focus on nation building d) the private, unofficial accounts of oppression and alternatives to it, from those who are dominated 24. Poor Malaysian rice farmers, among whom James Scott (1990) carried out field research responded to occasional arrests, warnings, legal restrictions, and other forms of "routine repression" by . a) marketing their rice strategically to challenge their position at the bottom of a social hierarchy dominated by farmers b) mobilizing economic, political, and kinship ties to generate solidarity c) supporting a shared Buddhist ideology that rationalized their poverty and low status as retribution for misdeeds in previous lives d) engaging in resistance that included theft, sabotage, arson, and slander 25. Weapons of the weak was written by a) Antonio Gramsci b) James Scott c) Lewis Henry Morgan d) Michel Foucault

.

26. Who uses Fiji as the example of represented communities and argue that nation-states are more than imagined communities? a) Ian Hacking b) James Scott c) John Kelly & Martha Kaplan d) Liisa Malkki 27. refers to a group of people believed to share the same history, culture, language, and even physical substance. a) Nation b) Nation-state c) Nationality d) Territorial group 28. An ideal political unit in which national identity and political territory coincide is known as a a) nationality

.

b) nation-state c) transnational culture d) stratified society 29. When nationalist leaders define nationality in a way that preserves the cultural domination of the ruling group but also includes enough cultural features from subordinated groups to ensure their loyalty, they are engaging in a process called . a) state socialism b) naturalizing discourse c) transformist hegemony d) nation building 30. A "three-legged stool" was associated with the image of the a) Canadian First Nations b) Fijian nation c) Iroquois Confederacy d) Malaysian nation

.

31. The Canadian government granted Indigenous peoples' right to determine matters related to their culture, identity, traditions, and language under of the Constitution Act 1982. a) section 23 b) section 35 c) section 55 d) section 65 32. When did Nunavut become an independent territory? a) 1 April 1999 b) 1 April 2001 c) 1 April 2003 d) 1 April 2005 33. The Cold War came to an end in a) 1969 b) 1979 c) 1989 d) 1999

.

34. The reshaping of local conditions by powerful worldwide forces on an ever-intensifying scale is known as . a) development b) globalization c) modernization d) neoliberalism 35. For transborder citizens, legal citizenship is . a) accorded by state laws and can be difficult for migrants to obtain b) defined by the actions that people take to assert their membership in a state and to bring about political changes that will improve their lives c) the strategies and effects employed by managers, technocrats, and professionals who move regularly across

state boundaries and seek both to circumvent and to benefit from different nation-state regimes d) understood as the right to promote familial interests apart from the well-being of society 36. A is a nation-state in which the relationships between citizens and the state extend to wherever citizens reside. a) flexible nation-state b) transnational nation-state c) substantive nation-state d) coherent nation-state 37. Countries that have all the attributes of nation-states, including government bureaucracies, armies, and United Nations representation but are unable to meet the needs of their people are known as . a) apparent states b) developing states c) indeterminate states d) substantive states 38. Michael Herzfeld found that residents of Rione Monti were . a) threatened by Ukrainians, who looked like local people but were in fact competing with locals for work and space b) threatened by immigrants of colour whose customs were judged to offend the morality and values of Italian law c) influenced by neo-fascist politicians to turn against immigrant families in the neighbourhood d) more likely to rent apartments to Ukrainians than to immigrants of colour 39. is NOT among the challenges experienced by residents of Rione Monti in the twentieth century. a) Mussolini's demolition of part of the neighbourhood b) The presence of local criminal networks c) The influx of well-to-do Italians into the neighbourhood d) A decline in the use of the romanesco dialect 40. The following best describes how Germany has attempted to come to terms with increasing numbers of Muslim immigrants in the historically Christian state: . a) Immigrants are promised all the rights and privileges of native-born citizens as long as they adopt German culture completely, dropping other ethnic or cultural attachments and assimilating the German language and character. b) The state funds minority religious schools, including Catholic schools for German Catholics and Muslim schools for the Muslim immigrants. c) Elementary schools teach all students about different religious traditions, including Islam, in ways that emphasize the possibility of harmonizing one's religious faith with one's obligations as a citizen. d) Immigrants are expected to be loyal and law-abiding citizens, but are not expected to "become German;" private cultivation of cultural differences is tolerated as long as they do not threaten the German way of life.

41. According to Tariq Modood, European multiculturalism requires supporting conceptions of citizenship that . a) allow the right to assimilate b) allow the right to have one's "difference" c) defend the right to widen and adapt the national culture d) All of the above

42. are described by John Bowen as "Islamic public actors." a) French Muslims who attempt to influence the opinions and political allegiances of Muslims in France and elsewhere through spectacular acts of public violence b) French Muslim students c) Religious teachers and scholars who provide instruction and advice to other French Muslims d) Citizens who are Muslim but identify closely with the values and cultural practices of the wider French public 43. Some French Muslims argue that city hall marriages are un-Islamic because a) they are often performed by Christians b) they incorporate readings from Christian religious texts c) they did not exist at the time of the Prophet Muhammad d) they require the bride to uncover her face and hair

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44. The Human Terrain System is . a) a United States federal research initiative in which published anthropological research is scrutinized for possible relevance to its combat goals in Iraq and Afghanistan b) a United States army program in which small civilian teams including anthropologists are embedded within US combat forces in Iraq and Afghanistan c) a university research consortium that gathers information to facilitate cross-cultural studies in anthropology d) a system that combines ethnographic and GPS data to identify sites that have a good likelihood of yielding evidence of early human occupation

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. According to Eric Wolf, structural power highlights how individuals or social units can limit the actions of other individuals in particular social settings.

2. According to Eric Wolf, interpersonal power involves the ability of one individual to impose his her will on another individual.

3. Political anthropology refers to the study of social power in human society.

4. Societies may respond to population pressure by various means, which may include decreasing consumption, inventing new technologies that intensify food production, and reducing their numbers by inventing new social practices such as infanticide and forms of birth control.

5. The idea of unilineal cultural evolution was proposed by anthropologist Franz Boas in the early 1950s.

6. Early in the twentieth century, political anthropologists recognized that there were many options for "civilized" social power in the absence of a state.

7. Bands were a form of social organization mostly found in medieval Europe.

8. Domination refers to the persuasion of subordinates to accept the ideology of the ruling group by mutual accommodations that nevertheless preserve the rulers' privileged position.

9. According to Antonio Gramsci, coercive rule is expensive and unstable.

10. Successful hegemony involves linking the understandings of dominant and subordinate groups into what appears to be mutual accommodation.

11. The statistical information a state collects is used to guide programs that include taxation, education, and social services, sometimes in stark opposition to the interests of a specific cultural, racial or other group subject to its control.

12. Nationality refers to a sense of identification with and loyalty to a nation-state.

13. The assimilation policy strips individuals of their cultural differences with the ultimate goal of creating citizens who all share one culture's beliefs, values, and traditions.

14. The practice of multiculturalism in Canada is uneven, as it privileges those who speak one of our two "official" languages and it is not consistent across all regions.

15. Most French judges agree that Islamic marriages and divorces contracted outside of France remain valid when the parties move to France.

16. Long-time residents of Rione Monti were initially less hostile to immigrants of colour than to Ukrainian immigrants, who congregated in the neighbourhood's central square twice a week to attend services in a Ukrainian church that overlooks the square.

17. Class relations in the community of rich and poor rice farmers where James Scott (1990) carried out research in Malaysia were animated by key symbols–generosity, stinginess, arrogance, humility, help, etc.–that provided a set of rules that actors were obliged to follow.

18. Legal citizenship is the same as the flexible citizenship.

19. Contemporary globalization processes have weakened national sovereignty of many nation-states.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What are the three modes of social power, as described by Eric Wolf?

2. How does Joan Vincent divide the history of political anthropology?

3. Why is population pressure on its own an inadequate explanation for the emergence of social practices such as birth control and migration?

4. Why does your textbook consider the concept of false consciousness to be problematic?

5. What are two methods suggested by Antonio Gramsci for rulers to persuade the dominated population of their legitimacy?

6. What is biopower?

7. What is governmentality? Give an example of how a state might exercise governmentality.

8. What are two reasons why many observers believe that globalization undermines the power and sovereignty of nation-states?

9. What is a transborder state? Name a transborder state.

10. How has Italy's experience of immigration changed over the twentieth century?

11. How was the idea of "race" introduced into Fijian nation building?

12. What is the significance of section 35 for the Canadian Constitution Act?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. b 2. c 3. d 4. c 5. b 6. b 7. d 8. a 9. b 10. d 11. a 12. a 13. b 14. c 15. b

16. a 17. b 18. c 19. a 20. b 21. b 22. d 23. d 24. d 25. b 26. c 27. a 28. b 29. c 30. b

31. b 32. a 33. c 34. b 35. a 36. b 37. a 38. a 39. d 40. c 41. d 42. c 43. c 44. b

8. FALSE 9. TRUE 10. TRUE 11. TRUE 12. TRUE 13. FALSE 14. TRUE

15. TRUE 16. TRUE 17. FALSE 18. FALSE 19. TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. FALSE 2. TRUE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. FALSE 6. FALSE 7. FALSE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Wolf's three types of social power are interpersonal power, organizational power, and structural power.

2. Joan Vincent divides the history of political anthropology into three phases: (1) the formative era (1851-1939), in which basic orientations and some of the earliest anthropological commentaries on political matters were produced. (2) the classic era (1942-1971), when political anthropology developed with the contributions of some British anthropologists who worked on preindustrial political systems during the colonial era. (3) the globalizing era (1970s and onwards), when political anthropologists began to focus on the questions about power and inequality.

3. Members of a society can respond to that pressure in various ways: they can try to get along on less, intensify food production by inventing new technology, reduce their numbers by inventing new social practices (infanticide or forms of birth control), or migrate elsewhere. Indeed, the manner in which a group might choose to implement any of these options is equally undetermined by population pressure. Which members of the group will have to do with less? Which members will control technological innovation? Who will be expected to migrate? And will the ultimate decision be imposed by force or voluntarily adopted?

4. The textbook authors argue that false consciousness is problematic since it views humans as passive beings incapable of withstanding ideological indoctrination.

5. Antonio Gramsci suggested that rulers provide genuine material benefits to their subjects and use schools and other cultural institutions to disseminate an ideology justifying their rule.

6. Biopower refers to the forms of power preoccupied with bodies--both the bodies of citizens and the social body of the state itself.

7. Governmentality is the art of governing appropriately to promote the welfare of populations within a state. For example, state bureaucrats might use statistics to determine that a famine was likely and to calculate how much it might cost the state in the suffering and death of citizens and in other losses. They would then develop a plan of intervention, such as insurance, designed to reduce the impact of the famine and preserve the stability of the state.

8. Many observers have suggested that globalization undermines the power and sovereignty of nation-states for two reasons. First, states are unable to control what their citizens read or watch in the media due to the facility with which satellite services, telecommunications, and the Internet elude state-ordered censorship. Second, nation-states allow migrants, students, and tourists to cross their borders because they need their labour, tuition, or vacation expenditures, but, in doing so, states must contend with the political values, religious commitments, or families that these outsiders bring with them.

9. A transborder state is a form of state in which it is claimed that those people who left the country and their descendants remain part of the ancestral state, even if they are citizens of another state. Examples given in the text include Mexico, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, and Brazil.

10. Historically, Italy was a source of immigration rather than a target. However, after German, France, and Britain passed laws curtailing immigration in the 1970s, Italy became an increasingly popular destination for immigrants from Africa, Asia, and Latin America. After the end of the Cold War, Italy also began to attract immigrants from outside the European Union, including eastern Europe.

11. At independence, the Fijian nation was depicted as a three-legged stool, with each "leg" being a category of voters: "general electors" (a minority of the population including Europeans), "Fijians" (ethnic Fijians, descended from the original inhabitants of the island), and "Indians" (or Indo-Fijians, descendants of indentured labourers brought to Fiji by the British in the nineteenth century). These three categories have deep roots in the colonial period, where they were said to correspond to separate "races," although, particularly in the case of Indo-Fijians, the people bearing this label shared no common identity prior to being brought to Fiji. These racial distinctions were concretized in colonial law, where the legal status of ethnic Fijians was different from the legal status of Indo-Fijians. At independence, the voting system was structured to reflect these different statuses. Since then, political parties have generally and increasingly followed racial lines. While Indo-Fijians have promoted the image of a nation in which all electors have equal status, ethnic Fijians have worked to construct a national identity based chiefly on traditions in which Indo-Fijians have no meaningful part. Although the race-based voting system was abolished in 2013, the Fijian nation is still very much a "contested idea."

12. Section 35 of the Constitution Act recognizes Indigenous peoples' right to determine matters related to their culture, identity, traditions, and language.

CHAPTER 14 WHAT CAN ANTHROPOLOGY TELL US ABOUT SOCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. What did the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution promise to end in the late 1700s? a) gender inequality b) the oppressive privileges of the ruling class c) the tax exemption for the ruling class d) None of the above 2. defines classes in terms of a society's members' different relations to the means of production. a) Adam Smith b) Antonia Gramsci c) Fredric Engels d) Karl Marx 3. The partners in ritual co-parenthood relationships found throughout Latin America are between _ a) parents and godparents who are close friends, and ideally neighbours b) parents and godparents who are in-laws or siblings c) parents who are peasants or workers and godparents who are landowners or factory owners d) parents who are landowners or factory workers and godparents who are peasants or workers

.

4. Which of the following is NOT true about the findings of anthropologist Carla Jones on Class and Gender in Indonesia? a) Consumption and femininity are closely linked components in the creation of selves shaped by class b) Market-research companies estimate that the middle-income segment of this population rose by almost one third by 2009 c) Members of Indonesian middle class define themselves in terms of income d) Middle-class status in Indonesia is highly gendered 5. Traditionally, the difference between classes and castes is that a) classes are achieved, whereas castes are ascribed b) classes are independent, whereas castes are interdependent c) classes are contemporary, whereas castes are historic d) classes are open, whereas castes are closed 6. The residents of Gopalpur said that members of each jati a) are related by ties of kinship b) marry only among themselves c) follow particular practices and occupations d) All of the above

.

.

7. In terms of purity and pollution, the following activity is the least polluting for the Hindu-ranking of jatis: . a) a vegetarian diet

b) eating sheep and goats c) butchering animals d) washing dirty clothing 8. The economic status of any particular jati in Gopalpur . a) roughly reflects the status of that jati on the scale of purity and pollution b) has no direct correlation with the status of that jati on the scale of purity and pollution c) depends on its ties to local Brahmins d) is unusual in India, in that all jatis are prosperous and remarkably independent of the influence of local landlords 9. In Gopalpur, the interdependence of different jatis is most important in the context of a) everyday life b) economic situations c) ritual d) travelling

.

10. The following statement is NOT true: . a) Cultural practices associated with caste have declined over time. b) Members of middle-ranking jatis treat each other as equals outside of ritual contexts. c) Negative stereotypes held by the so-called clean castes of the so-called untouchables have declined over time. d) A number of low-caste groups have converted from Hinduism to religions in which caste plays no role.

11. At the end of the twentieth century, relations between low-caste and high-caste Hindus were characterized as . a) competitive b) conflictual c) cooperative d) egalitarian 12. The human population category whose boundaries allegedly correspond to distinct sets of biological attributes is . a) achieved group b) class c) ethnic group d) race 13. The systematic oppression of one or more socially defined "races" by another socially defined "race," which is justified in terms of the supposedly inherent biological superiority of the rulers and the supposed inherent biological inferiority of those they rule is called _ . a) racism b) slavery c) discrimination d) colourism 14. The social category of race is . a) a category that derives from human biology b) an achieved status that goes back to the ancient Greeks c) based on naturalizing discourse

d) a relatively recent invention, dating from after the sixteenth century 15. The social category of race . a) has real consequences, even if it has no reality in biology b) is based on measurable differences among biological groups c) is less relevant to people's lives than is the biological category of race d) is based on achieved rather than ascribed statuses 16. Around the end of the nineteenth century, most immigrants to Canada came from a) Asia and Africa b) China c) the United Kingdom and the United States d) the Middle East

.

17. Canada's immigration policy was fairly open until . a) 1885, when the government imposed a Head Tax on Asian immigrants from China b) 1910, when certain groups of people were barred from immigration c) 1967, when the Points system was introduced to give preference to immigrants with particular languages and skills d) 2001, when the government bowed to security screening pressures from the United States 18. A system of social identities negotiated situationally along a continuum between white and black is called . a) racism b) colourism c) social races d) castification 19. Roger Lancaster points out that the Nicaraguan system of colour term a) is not repressive b) takes account of the lower levels of racism in Nicaragua c) is being replaced by a classification system that ignores colour differences d) presupposes white superiority and black inferiority

.

20. According to Parin Dossa, the immigrant Muslim women living in Vancouver experienced discrimination because . a) they are new to Canada b) they have physical disabilities c) they practice the ritual of female genital cutting d) both a & b 21. Indigneous Nicaraguans are sometimes referred to as a) Blanco b) Indios c) Mestizos d) Moreno

.

22. A principle of social classification that creates groups on the basis of a set of distinctive cultural criteria that people in the group are believed to share is referred to as .

a) caste b) class c) ethnicity d) race 23. Many anthropologists today accept that ethnicity is created by a) genetics b) historical processes c) descent d) nationalism

.

24. According to the text, one outcome of the struggle of ethnic groups to define themselves is a) the appearance of new ethnic groups that do not correspond with earlier cultural groups b) constant ethnic warfare, as ruling elites set one ethnic group against another c) the development of political movements that are based on ethnic membership d) the transformation of ethnic groups into races

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25. In an ethnically stratified society, ambitious individuals and groups . a) are out of luck unless they belong to highly ranked ethnic groups b) can manipulate ethnicity as a resource to pursue their interests c) use politics to attempt to raise the position of their own ethnic group within the system of stratification d) use violence to undermine the system of stratification so they can surmount it 26. Some anthropologists argue that ethnicity becomes racialized under certain circumstances to a) mark and stigmatize certain peoples as essentially different b) so that one ethnicity can ally or jockey for power with the privileged classes c) enable members to take advantage of the stronger position that membership in a race provides them d) allow for the creation of stronger solidarity among more people of different backgrounds

.

27. refers to a form of negative racial or ethnic absolutism that encourages the violent elimination of targeted groups and is central to the practice of racism. a) Reification b) Objectification c) Structural violence d) Direct violence 28. According to Arshia Zaidi and colleagues, in which society is it generally acceptable for youths to date cross-gender peers of their own choice, with individuals having a greater sense of gender equality in relation to dating? a) in Bangladeshi society b) in Canadian society c) in Indian society d) in Pakistani society 29. adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. a) The Parliament of Canada b) The United Nations (UN) c) The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) d) The World Health Organization (WHO)

30. Arguments that pit human rights against culture depend on the assumption that "cultures" are a) open to change b) internally diverse c) not the same thing as societies d) homogeneous

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31. As Zygmunt Bauman described in Modernity and the Holocaust (1989), the former Yugoslavia deployed selective assassinations and forced migration to rid their fledging nation-states of unwanted "others," a policy known as . a) ethnic cleansing b) racial framework c) genocide d) ethnic segregation

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Naturalizing discourses rely on the imaginary reduction, or conflation, of identities to achieve persuasive power.

2. Social class refers to a ranked group within a hierarchically stratified society whose membership is defined primarily in terms of wealth, occupation, or other economic criteria.

3. Clientage is a relationship between individuals rather than groups.

4. Marx's view of class is not different from the hegemonic view of class in Canada.

5. For generations, Canadians have believed that they may pursue wealth, power, and prestige unhampered by the unyielding class barriers characteristic of traditional European societies.

6. The Portuguese colonizers used the word caste to create hierarchies within Portuguese societies that they encountered in South Asia in the fifth century.

7. In 2009, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced to members of the G20 Summit that Canada is unique in being a country unmarked by histories of colonialism.

8. According to anthropologist Carla Jones, women have very little economic role in shaping the Indonesian middle-class consumption patterns.

9. Racism refers to the systematic oppression of one more socially defined "races" by another socially defined "race" that is justified in terms of the supposedly inherent biological superiority of the rulers and the supposed inherent biological inferiority of those they rule.

10. According to Roger Lancaster, Nicaraguans sometimes use a "polite" system of colour classification, in which all the colours in the phenotypic system are "inflated," so that morenos are called blanco and negros are called moreno.

11. By 1976, Fulbe identity in Cameroon had become an achieved status; it was the ethnicity claimed by the upwardly mobile.

12. According to Pnina Werbner, objectification is a form of negative racial or ethnic absolutism that encourages the violent elimination of targeted groups and is central to the practice of racism.

13. There is an intimate relationship between human rights and multiculturalism within the context of globalization.

14. Research by Arshia Zaidi and colleagues on second-generation South Asian Hindu, Muslim, and Christian youth's experiences of intimate relationships in Canada found that Muslims were most likely to accept and have experience with intimate relationships.

15. Human rights refer to power, privileges, or material resources to which people everywhere, by virtue of human being, are justly entitled.

16. By the middle of the 19th century, white northern European began to racialize ethnic, religious, or class stereotypes associated with other European societies.

17. The Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) declaration was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1991.

18. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights allows people to bring allegations of human-rights abuses to an international forum to seek redress.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What was the impact of the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution on the European social class divisions especially in the 19th century?

2. What is the effect of colour bar on Canadian Indigenous people?

3. What is the origin of the word caste?

4. What are the three dimensions that Alan Beals documented to describe caste relations in India?

5. What are the three different systems of colour classification used in Nicaragua, and what is the meaning of "negro" in each?

6. What are self-ascription and other-ascription with regard to ethnicity?

7. What does the acronym CEDAW stand for? When CEDAW made a declaration in 1993, what organization adopted it?

8. Why do anthropologists disagree with those who say that rights talk is an unwelcome colonial imposition of ideas that reflect ethnocentric European preoccupations?

9. What are the key features of the human-rights world view that point to its origins in Western secular discourse?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. b 2. d 3. c 4. c 5. d 6. d 7. a 8. b 9. c 10. c 11. b

12. d 13. a 14. d 15. a 16. c 17. a 18. b 19. d 20. d 21. c 22. c

23. b 24. a 25. b 26. a 27. a 28. b 29. b 30. d 31. a

7. TRUE 8. FALSE 9. TRUE 10. TRUE 11. TRUE 12. FALSE

13. TRUE 14. FALSE 15. TRUE 16. TRUE 17. FALSE 18. FALSE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. TRUE 2. TRUE 3. TRUE 4. FALSE 5. TRUE 6. TRUE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. In the late 1700s, both the Industrial Revolution and French Revolution promised to end the oppressive privileges of the ruling class. However, class divisions did not wither away in Europe. In the 19th century; they just changed their contours. The old ruling class was replaced by feudal aristocrats and the feudal aristocrats were replaced by the bourgeois capitalists.

2. Colour bar has limiting effect on non-white individuals, but moreso those with Indigenous ancestry. The colour bar acts like a rigid barrier where one cannot move from a lower to upper class. This is similar to the caste system in India.

3. The word caste comes from the Portuguese word casta, meaning "chaste." Portuguese explorers applied it to the stratification systems they encountered in South Asia in the fifteenth century. They understood that these societies were divided into a hierarchy of ranked subgroups, each of which was "chaste" in the sense that sexual and marital links across group boundaries were forbidden.

4. Alan Beals documented the following three dimensions of caste relations in India: 1. Jati membership mattered most on ritual occasions in rural villages.

2. Members of middle-ranking jatis in Gopalpur who treated one another as equals outside of ritual contexts.

3. Middle-ranking jatis were willing to use violence to block the upward mobility of members of a low-ranking jati.

5. Three different systems of colour classification operate in Nicaragua. The first is the phenotypic system, which refers to people's physical characteristics. The second is the polite system, in which all the colours in the

phenotypic system are "inflated." Finally, there is the pejorative and/or affectionate system, which uses only two terms, chele (light) and negro (dark). In the phenotypic system, negro can refer to people of African ancestry or people of purely Indigenous appearance, whether or not they are culturally classified as Indio or mestizo. In the polite system, used in the presence of the person about whom one is speaking, negro is considered a grave insult.

Finally, in the pejorative and/or affectionate system, negro is an affectionate and intimate term of address.

6. Self-ascription refers to insiders' efforts to define their own identity, while other-ascription refers to outsiders' efforts to define the identities of other groups.

7. CEDAW stands for the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. This declaration was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1993.

8. Although some forms of violence against women may be culturally sanctioned in some societies, there are many forms of violence against women can take, and not all of these forms are accorded the same amount of cultural support. For example, cultural practices such as female genital cutting could be justified in the past in some circumstances as an appropriate cultural action, but it is now being questioned and even outlawed in societies where it was traditional. This suggests that "cultural values" cannot be held responsible for everything that people do in any society, and that members of the same society can disagree about these matters and even change their minds.

9. The key features of the human-rights world view that point to its origins in Western secular discourse are: 1) it focuses on the rights of individuals; 2) it proposes to relieve human suffering through technical rather than ethical solutions; and 3) it emphasizes rights over duties or needs.

CHAPTER 15 WHY IS UNDERSTANDING HUMAN LANGUAGE IMPORTANT? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Anthropologists define language as . a) the nation-specific system of communication used by humans b) the process of sending and receiving messages with or without the use of words c) the vocal system that human beings use to communicate with one another about significant aspects of their environment d) the system of arbitrary symbols human beings use to encode their experience of the world and of one another 2. The following statement about non-verbal communication is NOT correct: . a) Non-verbal communication cannot be as effective as language in transmitting simple messages b) Many non-verbal signals are culture-specific c) Well over 60 per cent of our messages are communicated non-verbally d) Non-verbal communication includes non-verbal vocalizations such as laughing and sobbing 3. The movements and postures that communicate attitudes and feelings non-verbally are known as a) proxemics b) kinesics c) body language d) attitude

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4. According to your textbook, is used by Nicaraguans to indicate a question. a) joining the thumb and forefinger in a circle b) movement of the lips c) raising or waving the hand d) wrinkling the nose 5. Tanya Romaniuk's study of the use of laughter in response to questions during a news interview concluded that . a) some interviewees use laughter to provide commentary on a question without waiting for the question to be completed b) interviewees laugh when they are uncomfortable and unsure of what to say c) laughter reduces interviewees' credibility with audiences d) women laugh more frequently than men 6. is NOT an example of language. a) Australian Aboriginal sign language b) Laughter c) Morse code d) Creoles and pidgins 7. Word-for-word translations (such as the nonsensical French phrase "Je suis plein" for "I am full") reveal that . a) any language's set of phonemes can be used to create a very large number of correctly formed morphemes b) certain ideas that can be easily expressed in one language cannot be easily expressed in another

c) competent adult speakers exhibit mastery of grammar even when they are not familiar with its explicit rules d) linguistic competence includes not just vocabulary and grammar, but also assumptions about how to speak 8. Icelandic is more similar to the original Nordic language, Old Norse, than is Norwegian, because _ a) the speakers of Old Norse inhabited Iceland before Norway b) Icelandic is less complex than Norwegian c) the Vikings came from Iceland d) until recently, Iceland was extremely isolated

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9. Contemporary language changes tend to reflect . a) cultural adaptations on a large scale b) migration patterns c) invasions of different groups in the past d) internal factors related to the foundational Proto Indo-European language 10. The development of an elaborate English vocabulary for discussing computers and computer-related technologies suggests that . a) English is more modern than other languages b) English is more complex than other languages c) most computers and computer-related technologies were developed by English-speaking people d) this aspect of life is important to them 11. refers to the study of language in relation to social factors, such as differences of regional, class, and occupational dialect, power and gender differences, and bilingualism. a) Sociolinguistics b) Linguistic relativity principle c) Historical linguistics d) Communicaton studies 12. is NOT one of Charles Hockett's design features of language. a) Openness b) Displacement c) Communicative competence d) Arbitrariness 13. The following statement best illustrates the assertion that non-human primate call systems are said to be closed when compared to open human languages: . a) Links between the sounds of calls and their meanings appear fixed from one non-human primate population to another b) Non-human primates cannot emit a signal that has some features of one call and some of another c) Non-human primates cannot use their call systems to discuss events that happened in the past d) Non-human primates cannot use their call systems to suggest theories 14. Mastery of adult grammar is known as a) linguistic competence b) communicative competence c) semanticity d) speech prosody

.

15. refers to the mastery of adult rules for socially and culturally appropriate speech. a) Linguistic competence b) Grammar c) Duality of patterning d) Communicative competence 16. Among French-speaking university students, the use of "tu" among strangers indicates a) a lack of respect b) social solidarity c) that the speaker is older than the individual being addressed d) that the speaker is not likely to be a native French speaker

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17. Clifford Geertz noted that, in Java, a request like "Are you going to eat rice and cassava now?" _ . a) was avoided, since it referred to a bodily function that people felt should be carried out in the intimacy of the family rather than publicly b) indicated that the speaker and the person to whom one is speaking were going to share the meal c) communicated one's social position relative to the person to whom one is speaking d) required the speaker to provide additional contextualizing phrases in order to be polite 18. The existence of languages such as Fulfulde, where only one third-person pronoun is used for males and females even while male-dominant social patterns are quite evident among native speakers, suggests that . a) the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is incorrect b) the weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is incorrect c) the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is correct d) the weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is correct 19. Linguistic determinism suggests that . a) bilingual children are easily able to reconcile two contradictory views of reality b) if English speakers replaced "he" and "she" with a new, gender-neutral singular pronoun, then English speakers would begin to treat men and women as equals c) language is a tool kit, or set of resources, that speakers make use of to build more elaborate conceptual structures d) translators must render features that are grammatically encoded in one language into a second language in which they are not encoded 20. Which of the following is NOT true? a) every language provides its native speakers with alternative ways of describing the world b) in many societies people learn to speak more than one language fluently c) although bilingual children benefit from knowing two languages, they confuse them and they cannot switch readily from one to another language effectively. d) bilingualism is considered a highly valued skill, especially in modern globalizing world 21. The study of language in the context of its use is known as a) proxemics b) pragmatics c) kinesics d) discourse

.

22. According to Michael Silverstein, the meaning of the sentence "Who is that standing by the door?" requires us to consider . a) ethnopragmatics b) discourse c) linguistic context d) non-linguistic context 23. Ethnopragmatics is . a) the study of relationships between languages and how they change over time b) a set of rules that aim to describe fully the patterns of linguistic usage observed by speakers of a particular language c) the study of language in the context of its use d) the study of language use that relies on ethnography to illuminate the ways in which speech is both constituted by and constitutive of social interaction 24. When we locate the source of meaning in shared routine activity rather than in grammar, . a) then communication is possible even if the people interacting with one another speak mutually unintelligible languages b) then communication is impossible when the people interacting with one another speak mutually unintelligible languages c) then communication is possible only when the people interacting with one another speak mutually intelligible languages d) then communication is impossible even if the people interacting with one another speak mutually intelligible languages 25. The following is NOT traditionally considered to be a characteristic of pidgin languages: a) Complex grammatical features marking the gender or number of nouns tend to disappear b) They have native speakers c) The sentence structure may be similar to the subordinate language or languages d) The vocabulary is usually taken from the language of the dominant group 26. By the 1930s to 1940s, approximately a) 10 per cent b) 25 per cent c) 50 per cent d) 75 per cent 27. In the 2011 Canadian census, was an Indigneous language. a) 4.25 per cent b) 14.5 per cent c) 26 per cent d) 50.25 per cent

.

_ of Indigenous children lived in residential schools in Canada.

of the Indigenous population reported that their first language learned

28. Language ideology is . a) mastery of adult rules for socially and culturally appropriate speech b) the study of language in the context of its use to solidify hegemony c) the study of language use that relies on ethnography to illuminate the ways in which speech is both constituted by and constitutive of social interaction

d) a marker of struggles between social groups with different interests, revealed in what people say and how they say it 29. According to Eva Haque, the use and promotion of English and French in Canadian society a) rationalizes a "racial" hierarchy despite official multiculturalism b) provides a sense of belonging for people whose mother tongue is neither English nor French c) creates equality between English and French speakers d) eliminates anxieties and tensions surrounding language use in public spaces 30. Acadajonne, which is used in a) Moncton, New Brunswick b) Baie Saint-Marie, Nova Scotia c) Miscou, New Brunswick d) Acadia

.

, is the oldest variety of French still spoken in North America.

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Today, most anthropologists believe that human language evolved from a call system similar to that used by non-human primates.

2. Anthropologists define language as the system of arbitrary symbols human beings use to encode and communicate about their experience of the world and of one another.

3. Kinesics is the study of body movement, gestures, and facial expressions as a form of communication.

4. The hongi is a traditional Maori greeting in New Zealand in which two people welcome each other by pressing their torsos against one another.

5. Ottenheimer (2013) asserts that most Canadians feel uncomfortable standing within a metre of a stranger, while most Europeans feel comfortable standing half a metre from a stranger.

6. Only within the last 30,000 years did changes to the human brain, genetic structure, and anatomy combine to make language a possibility.

7. External language change occurs when speakers of different languages come into contact, often borrowing words from the unfamiliar language and incorporating them into their own language.

8. The number of calls in a non-human primate call system ranges from 15 to 40, depending on the species.

9. Displacement refers to human ability to talk about absent or non-existent objects and past or future events as easily as we discuss our immediate situations in everyday life.

10. "Colourless green ideas sleep furiously," a sentence invented by linguistic Noam Chomosky.

11. Communicative competence refers to the mastery of adult grammar.

12. A person who has spoken a particular language since early childhood is called a native speaker.

13. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is controversial because it is a radical proposition that is difficult to test, and when it has been tested, the results have been ambiguous.

14. Proxemics refers to the study of how different societies perceive and use space.

15. If a university student knows the linguistic habits appropriate for dinner with her parents, for the classroom, for conversations with her friends, and for her part-time job in a restaurant, her linguistic knowledge is described as creole.

16. Canada's Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which was assigned the task of investigating the full consequences of the Canadian residential school system, concluded that the residential school system "contributed significantly to the fragile state of Aboriginal languages in Canada today."

17. Iroquoian languages, including Mohawk, are the most widely spoken Indigenous languages in Canada.

18. Sarah Shulist's work in the northwest Amazon of Brazil looks at the relationship between language shift and urbanization.

19. Linguistic anthropologists did not pay adequate attention to Indigneous languages spoken by small communities who have experienced a history of colonization by outsiders and who are minorities within states where colonial languages dominate.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. What are the six different design features of human language developed by the linguistic anthropologist Charles Hockett?

2. How do anthropologists explain the presence of over a hundred words for ice and ice forms in the Inuit language?

3. What are the six calls possessed by humans, according to Terrence Deacon?

4. Why do anthropologists argue that there is an intimate relationship between language and culture?

5. What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? What does it state, in its general form?

6. What do the textbook authors mean when they say that people inevitably become fluent in many varieties of language even if we speak only English?

7. What term is used to refer to the context of dominance and subordination in which value judgments are made about other people's speech? Provide and explain an example of this action.

8. How did the Canadian residential school system affect Indigenous language use in Canada?

9. What is Canada's language ideology with respect to French and English?

10. Why may Indigenous language speakers not prioritize the preservation of a dying language?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. d 2. a 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. d 8. d 9. a 10. d

11. a 12. c 13. b 14. a 15. d 16. b 17. c 18. a 19. b 20. c

21. b 22. d 23. d 24. a 25. b 26. c 27. b 28. d 29. a 30. b

8. TRUE 9. FALSE 10. TRUE 11. FALSE 12. TRUE 13. TRUE 14. TRUE

15. FALSE 16. TRUE 17. FALSE 18. TRUE 19. FALSE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. FALSE 2. TRUE 3. TRUE 4. FALSE 5. TRUE 6. FALSE 7. TRUE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Following is the list of these six design features: 1. openness, 2. displacement, 3. arbitrariness, 4. duality of patterning, 5. semanticity, and 6. prevarication.

2. Speakers of a particular language tend to develop larger vocabularies to discuss those aspects of life that are of importance to them. The Inuit have long relied on ice and ice floes for subsistence hunting and winter travel. As a result, they have developed more than one hundred words that describe ice and ice forms.

3. Deacon asserts that humans possess a set of six calls: laughing, sobbing, screaming with fright, crying with pain, groaning, and sighing.

4. Anthropologists argue that languages are clearly cultural products embedded in meanings and behavioural patterns that stretch beyond individuals, across space, and over time. Anthropological analysis reveals grammatical intricacies and complexities suggesting that language is a good model for the rest of culture, including social relations, economic exchanges and power interaction.

5. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is also known as the linguistic relativity principle. The linguistic relativity principle states that language has the power to shape the way people see the world.

6. This refers to the linguistic knowledge known as heteroglossia, which describes the coexisting multiplicity of linguistic norms and forms which are anchored in more than one social subgroup. Because we all participate in more than one subgroup, we become fluent in many varieties of language.

7. Linguistic inequality is making value judgments about other people’s speech in a context of dominance and subordination. Book states "A powerful example of the effects of linguistic inequality is found in the history of Indigenous children who were forced into the residential school system of Canada " but see if students serve up others.

8. Speaking Indigenous languages at school was strictly forbidden, and children who disobeyed the rules faced severe physical and emotional punishments. Children were isolated from their families for months on end and many lost the ability to speak their own languages. As adults, many residential-school survivors were too traumatized and ashamed to speak or relearn their original language. Others actively discouraged their children from learning their ancestral language, believing that fluency in English or French would make their lives easier.

9. Language ideology in Canada highlights bilingualism and biculturalism, centering on the fact that we are a bilingual country founded by two predominantly white colonizing nations. English and French were recognized in 1969 as our two official languages, which is reflected in food product labelling, federal employment, and education funding. However, English and French are not treated equally in all communities across the country.

French speakers living outside Quebec are often considered minorities and pressured to adopt English as their primary language. Likewise, English speakers in Quebec are often considered minorities there and are pressured to adopt French as their primary language.

10. Some parents may care less about preserving their dying language than they do about making sure their children become literate in a world language that will offer them a chance at economic and social mobility.

CHAPTER 16 HOW DO WE MAKE MEANING? MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Play, art, myth, ritual, and religion have the following characteristic in common with language: a) closeness b) displacement c) duality of patterning d) openness

.

2. The explanation of play as providing opportunities to explore the environment and develop behavioural versatility suggests that it . a) can be studied through ethnopragmatics b) reflects natural selection c) reflects social stratification d) requires metacommunication 3. Evidence from a variety of sites suggests that early human children . a) cannot be singled out in the archaeological record b) had a very short period of dependence on adults c) had very little opportunity to play d) learned how to make their own artifacts using flint knapping and potting techniques 4. Neanderthal children likely . a) were less dependent on adults than early Homo sapiens children b) matured more slowly than early Homo sapiens children, their closest relatives c) learned adult roles through fantasy games, similar to contemporary children d) experimented with different aspects of their world, including testing out artifacts 5. Thule sites across Arctic Canada have revealed . a) a range of child-size artifacts almost as diverse as the tools and gadgets used by adults b) children did not begin to learn adult activities until they were well past puberty c) that gender norms did not exclude boys from making and playing with dolls d) that gender norms structured children's activities, particularly with regard to girls' exclusion from learning to follow prey and hunt 6. A smile, a particular tone of voice, a referee's whistle, and the words "Let's pretend" are all examples of . a) communitas b) marking the play frame c) reflexivity d) rites of passage 7. is NOT a kind of metacommunication. a) Liminality b) Framing c) Play face

d) Reflexivity 8. Elizabeth Chin (1999), who studied African American girls and their dolls in New Haven, Connecticut, found that . a) the skin colour, facial features, and hair characteristics of the dolls determined the roles that the girls assigned to each doll b) the girls used crayons and markers to colour their dolls' skin so that they resembled more expensive "ethnically correct" dolls c) the girls were unable to identify the intended "race" of each doll d) the girls transformed "white" dolls by giving them hairstyles like their own, thereby bringing them into the girls' worlds 9. Elizabeth Chin (1999) states that the African American girls she spent time with . a) found ways to reverse the social hierarchy, so that for the period framed by play, black represented power and white represented vulnerability b) challenged the social construction not only of their own blackness, but of race itself as well c) reflected wider social practices of associating skin colour with privilege d) made poverty, discrimination, and racism disappear from the worlds in which they live 10. Activities defined as "art" differ from free play because . a) they are circumscribed by rules b) they are intended for market exchange c) they are carried out by people with some degree of specialized training d) they have a symbolic dimension 11. Alexander Alland's use of the term "transformation-representation" in defining art incorporates the idea that . a) non-Western art is transformed when its influences are incorporated by Western artists b) symbols can be separated from the object or idea being represented and appreciated for their own sake c) the forms of symbols and what they represent have changed over time d) the link between a symbol and what it represents in a piece of art is fixed 12. According to Alexander Alland, "aesthetic" means . a) appreciative of, or responsive to, form in art or nature b) conforming to culturally situated ideas about what is beautiful c) critical thinking about the way one thinks d) symbols cannot be separated from what they refer to and appreciated for their own sake 13. Abelam carvings in New Guinea are . a) a means through which male artists challenge the existing social order and attempt to raise awareness of stereotypes b) folktales that are appreciated not as a story, per se, but as a performance c) statements about male violence and warfare, male nurturance, and the combination of the two d) two-dimensional flat puppets in which the colours, style, inclination of the head, and adornment stand for internal state of Javanese heroes 14. "Art by intention" includes . a) objects that were found and exhibited b) objects that were made for religious purposes

c) objects that were made to be art d) objects that were not intended by their makers to be "art" 15. When Michelle Bigenho tried to assist Bolivian villagers in copyrighting a cassette of their music, she discovered that _. a) Bolivian laws accurately reflect the villagers' belief that music may be copyrighted by authors/performers or by a cultural group b) if the villagers did not take individual ownership of the music, it would be classified as folklore and therefore belonged to the state c) most Bolivians do not believe that traditional music should be recorded d) the Bolivian agency that manages copyright payments is not recognized internationally 16. is defined as the individual artist’s new, innovative, and personal production, such as the original compositions of creative musicians. a) Artistic authenticity b) Artistic copyright c) Unique authenticity d) Metacommunication 17. Anthropologists understand myths to be . a) flawed attempts to explain the origin of the world that are not believed today, but reflect the development of human knowledge over time b) stories that recount how various aspects of the world came to be the way they are c) stories that are false d) the oral storytelling tradition of non-Western societies 18. Frequently, the official myth-tellers are a) the marginal groups in society b) mothers and fathers c) the ruling groups in society d) writers and painters

.

19. is most closely associated with the idea that myths serve as "charters" or "justifications" for present-day social arrangements. a) Bronislaw Malinowski b) Claude Lévi-Strauss c) E.E. Evans-Pritchard d) Victor Turner 20. In the Trobriand myth used to explain and justify clan ranking, . a) clans could not move up or down in status b) higher-ranked clans emerged from the earth before lower-ranked clans c) higher-ranked clans descended from proper sexual relations, while lower-ranked clans descended from improper sexual relations d) higher-ranked clans lived off food from the land, while lower-ranked clans lived off food from the sea 21. Claude Lévi-Strauss argued that myths . a) serve as charters or justifications for present-day social arrangements b) must be taken to the natural world to be matched up against material evidence

c) are conscious strategies formulated by a ruling elite d) are tools for overcoming logical contradictions that cannot otherwise be overcome 22. is NOT a pair that exemplifies the aspects of social life that are thought to oppose each other, according to Claude Lévi-Strauss. a) Natural world/cultural world b) Life/death c) Liminality/communitas d) High/low 23. is best suited to explain the characteristics of weddings, Jewish bar mitzvahs, Hmong sacrifices to the ancestors, and the Catholic Mass. a) Language b) Religion c) Rite of passage d) Ritual 24. Rituals in which people begin as one kind of person and have been transformed into a different kind of person by the time the ritual is over are called . a) communitas b) rights of passage c) rites of passage d) transitions 25. is most closely associated with liminality. a) Introduction b) Reaggregation c) Separation d) Transition 26. is most closely associated with communitas. a) Liminality b) Separation c) Reaggregation d) Metamorphosis 27. The prohibition of deviation from approved forms of behaviour, especially in terms of religion, is known as . a) fundamentalism b) orthodoxy c) orthopraxy d) traditionalism 28. Margaret Drewal's (1992) ethnographic discussion of the overlap of play and ritual centres around the . a) Azande (Central Africa) b) Huichol (Central America) c) Mi'kmaq (North Atlantic coast) d) Yoruba (Western Africa)

29. is NOT one of A.F.C. Wallace's minimal categories of religious behaviour. a) Exhortation b) Physiological exercise c) Mana d) Orthodoxy 30. The common belief in Guider, Cameroon that the ink used to copy passages from the Qur'an has power is an example of . a) mana b) taboo c) exhortation d) orthodoxy 31. A(n) is a part-time religious practitioner who is believed to have the power to contact supernatural forces directly on behalf of individuals or groups. a) magician b) oracle c) priest d) shaman 32. Witchcraft accusations among the Azande, described by E.E. Evans-Pritchard, were made against a) Europeans and others employed by the colonial administration b) individuals who had broken taboos c) neighbours who were suspected of ill feeling toward the victim or their family d) strangers who had recently arrived in the community and whose pasts were unknown 33. is the synthesis of old religious practices (or an old way of life) with new religious practices (or a new way of life) introduced from outside, often by force. a) Nativism b) Revitalization c) Syncretism d) Traditionalism 34. The deliberate, organized attempt by some members of a society to create a more satisfying culture, often arising in times of crisis among groups who are facing oppression and radical transformation at the hands of outsiders, is known by anthropologists as . a) revitalization b) communitas c) orthopraxy d) messiahism

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. All mammals play, and humans play the most and throughout their lives.

2. Framing and reflexivity are two kinds of metacommunication.

.

3. According to anthropologist Elizabeth Chin, Asian-American girls used different cultural artifacts and imaginary ideas to alter white dolls in order to integrate these dolls into their own world.

4. Archaeological evidence from Thule sites across the Canadian Arctic suggests that the Inuit practice of treating children as small adults was characteristic of their Thule ancestors as well.

5. The aesthetic response is probably a universal feature in all human societies.

6. The division of objects and performances into categories of art and not-art is universal.

7. Most societies find methods to restrict the ways in which people imagine and act upon their own understandings of the world through the use of myth.

8. In Trobriand myth, the dog was said to have eaten food that was taboo and, in so doing, made that food acceptable for its descendants.

9. "The Structural Study of Myth" was written by French anthropologist Pierre Bourdieu.

10. Rituals have a particular sequential ordering of acts, utterance, and events.

11. Rituals begin with a period of separation from the old position and from normal time.

12. For people in contemporary nation-states, the experience of communitas can come through participation in mass public events like Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, attendance at large-scale music concerts, or even the climactic winning moments of a regional or national sports team.

13. Many religious systems have methods for physically manipulating psychological states to induce an ecstatic spiritual state.

14. Objects or people that may not be touched are known as mana.

15. The term "shaman"comes from the Tungus of eastern Siberia.

16. Azande oracles "spoke" through the effect the poison had on chickens.

17. Post-Vatican II Catholicism explicitly prohibited Catholics from worshiping using local cultural forms.

18. Knowledge, like power, is evenly distributed throughout a society.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Why didn't most of the African American girls in Elizabeth Chin's (1999) study have "ethnically correct" dolls?

2. According to Alexander Alland, what is art?

3. According to your textbook, what is widely considered to be the dominant Canadian myth? Explain briefly.

4. According to Bronislaw Malinowski, what happens when the social arrangement justified by a myth changes?

5. What is communitas, and why does it threaten society, according to Victor Turner?

6. What is the traditional distinction between religion and other kinds of world views?

7. What are the four major kinds of physiological manipulation associated with religion, according to A.F.C. Wallace? What is their aim?

8. A.F.C. Wallace considers feasts to be an important practice often associated with religion. Provide two examples of religious feasts.

9. How do anthropologists consider shamans to be different from priests?

10. What is nativism?

ANSWER KEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. d 2. b 3. d 4. a 5. a 6. b 7. a 8. d 9. b 10. a 11. b 12. a

13. c 14. c 15. b 16. c 17. b 18. c 19. a 20. b 21. d 22. c 23. d 24. c

25. d 26. a 27. c 28. d 29. d 30. a 31. d 32. c 33. c 34. a

7. TRUE 8. FALSE 9. FALSE 10. TRUE 11. TRUE 12. TRUE

13. TRUE 14. FALSE 15. TRUE 16. TRUE 17. FALSE 18. FALSE

TRUE OR FALSE QUESTIONS 1. TRUE 2. TRUE 3. FALSE 4. TRUE 5. TRUE 6. FALSE

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Few of the girls in Chin's study had African American-appearing dolls because, although they were available commercially, they were too expensive.

2. Alland defines art as "play with form producing some aesthetically successful transformation-representation."

3. The textbook states that the dominant Canadian myth is multiculturalism, which assumes that we are highly accepting of a wide variety of cultures and their beliefs. However, this is not always the case, and some groups appear to have higher status than others.

4. If social arrangements change, the myth changes too, according to Malinowski.

5. Communitas is the intense comradeship shared by people who experience liminality with each other, as during a rite of passage; this brief state is an unstructured or minimally structured community of equal individuals.

According to Turner, it is dangerous because it threatens structure; hence, it threatens survival itself, since those things that are ensured by structure cannot be provided.

6. Scholars have often argued that a religion differs from other kinds of world views because it assumes the existence of a supernatural domain: an invisible world populated by one or more beings who are more powerful than human beings and are able to influence events in the "natural" human world.

7. The four major kinds of physiological manipulation associated with religion are drugs; sensory manipulation;

mortification of the flesh by pain, sleeplessness and fatigue; and deprivation of food, water, or air. The goal of these practices is often the experience of ecstasy, euphoria, dissociation, or hallucination.

8. Examples given in the textbook include the Holy Communion of Catholics and Protestants, the Passover Seder for Jews, the consumption of peyote among the Huichol of Mexico, and everyday meals if they begin or end with a prayer.

9. Priests are found in hierarchical societies and owe their ability to act as priests to the hierarchy of the religious institution. They are skilled in the practice of religious rituals, which are carried out for the benefit of the group.

Priests do not necessarily have direct contact with cosmic forces. By contrast, shamans are part-time ritual specialists. In societies where shamanism is important, it is said that the shaman has no choice but to take on the role; the spirits demand it. Shamans are thought to be able to travel to the cosmic realm to communicate with the beings or forces who dwell there. They often plead with those beings or forces to act in favour of their people and may return with messages for them.

10. Nativism is a return to the old ways, often involving individuals actively removing or avoiding any cultural practices associated with those who seek to dominate them.