Focus SPM Biology samplebook

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BIOLOGY

KSSM

üInfographics üComprehensive Notes üConcept Maps üActivities & Experiments üSPM Tips

REINFORCEMENT & ASSESSMENT

üSPM Practices üCheckpoint

REVISION

üSPM Model Paper üComplete Answers

KSSM

EXTRA

• Matematik • Matematik Tambahan • Sains • Biologi • Fizik • Kimia • Prinsip Perakaunan • Perniagaan

• Mathematics • Additional Mathematics • Science • Biology • Physics • Chemistry

KSSM

• Bahasa Melayu • Karangan • English • Bahasa Cina • Sejarah • Pendidikan Islam • Pendidikan Seni Visual • Ekonomi

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CC038442 ISBN: 978-967-2779-60-5

PELANGI

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üExamples üQR Codes

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SPM FORM

REINFORCEMENT

EXTRA FEATURES

üSPM Highlights üMemory Tips

BIOLOGY

BIOLOGY

FOCUS SPM KSSM Form 4 • 5 – a complete and precise series of reference books with special features to enhance students’ learning as a whole.

This series covers the latest Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah (KSSM) and integrates Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) requirements.

A great resource for every student indeed!

REVISION REVISI

SPM

4∙5

FOCUS

FORM

CC038442

SPM

PELANGI BESTSELLER

Jariah Khalib (Textbook Writer) Sudani Sudin (Textbook Writer) Rodiah Abd Wahid (Textbook Writer) Noor Haniyatie Ibrahim (Textbook Writer) Tan Moi Ho

D ual L anguage P rogramme NEW SPM ASSESSMENT FORMAT

2021

Format: 190mm X 260mm TP Focus SPM BIO BI 2022_pgi_CRC update

BIOLOGY

SPM

Jariah Khalib (Textbook Writer) Sudani Sudin (Textbook Writer) Rodiah Abd Wahid (Textbook Writer) Noor Haniyatie Ibrahim (Textbook Writer) Tan Moi Ho

© Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. 2022

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, mechanical, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. ISBN: 978-967-2779-60-5 eISBN: 978-967-2779-61-2 (eBook) First Published 2022

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FORM

4∙5

KSSM

Exclusive Features of This Book r

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Introduction to Biology and Laboratory Rules

1

Report to the teacher immediately if there is accident inside the laboratory.

Tie your long hair when using Bunsen burner.

Do not taste or smell the chemicals unless permitted by the teacher.

Do not dispose chemicals into the sink randomly.

Do not eat or drink inside the laboratory.

Doctor

2. Biotechnology is currently a widely used field of technology. List five biotechnology products available in your home.

Safety and Rules in Biology 1.2 Laboratory

Biology teacher

1. Safety measures in biology laboratory have to be followed to avoid accidents or any unforeseen mishaps due to negligence.

Physiotherapist

Nutritionist

Figure 1.2 Example of careers related to biology

Wear safety goggles when mixing or heating chemicals.

Safety goggles To be worn while performing activities using dangerous materials

Face Mask To filter particles bigger than 5 μm such as bacteria, spores and fungi

1.1 Fields and Careers in Biology 1.2 Safety and Rules in Biology Laboratory 1.3 Communicating in Biology 1.4 Scientific Investigation in Biology

Laboratory gloves Protect hands from heat and chemicals

Laboratory coat • Laboratory coat should be comfortable and easy to disrobe during accidents or chemical contamination • All other clothing such as shirt collar, tie or scarf should be neatly placed

1 Biology SPM Chapter 2 Cell Biology and

Organisation

food such as bacteria

Pseudopodium

Lysosome

SPM Tips

Living Processes of

Amoeba sp. are not the only ones to use phagocytos White blood cells also is. use phagocytosis to protect our body from pathogens.

These white blood cells are also known as phagocytes.

Contractile vacuole

SPM Highlights The diagram shows an

2 Cell Biology and Biology SPM Chapter

Food vacuole

2.1 Cell Structure

Oral groove Micronucleus Figure 2.8 Paramecium sp.

Answer: C

4

2.12.1 men Activity Eksperi plant cell slides Aim: To prepare and observe scalpel, light distilled water, onion, needle, dropper Iodine solution, filter paper, Materials and apparatus: forceps, cover slips, mounting microscope, glass slide, Procedure:

Forceps

Onion

Reproduction • Paramecium sp. undergoes sexual and asexual reproduction.

• Asexual reproduction undergoes binary fission in • When the condition is not suitable, Paramecium suitable conditions (when there is ample food resources). sp. would conjugate via sexual reproduction instead.

Cytoplasm divides

Asexual reproduction

– binary fission

(a)

Virology

Study of fungi

Mycology

Study of tissues of organisms

Taxonomy

Study of classification of animals and plants

D

equipment?

A Laboratory coat, gloves, covered shoes and mask B Laboratory coat, gloves, covered shoes and fire

extinguisher C Laboratory coat, fire proof blanket, covered shoes and safety goggles aid D Laboratory coat, first box, covered shoes and

A

C

CONCEPT MAP cONCEPT

Meaning of Biology

Cell wall

+

3. Figure 2 shows the structure of a plasma membrane.

R Figure 2

492

Purple solution of potassium Figure 3

Which of the following describe the process occur in Figure 3?

A The movement of molecules from a region of low concentration to high concentration.

B The movement of molecules need energy.

C The movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to low concentration.

D The molecules move against concentration gradient.

Q

+

Q Galactose

ap

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1

Introduction to Biology and Laboratory Rules

Checkpoint

1.1

S1 3 research fields in biology: • Zoology – The study of animals which includes structure, physiology, development and classification.

• Cytology – The study of cells which includes structure, cell composition and interaction with other cells.

• Anatomy – The study of bodily structure of humans, animals and other organisms.

S2 • Five examples of biotechnological products that are available at home: Clothes detergent, yogurt, cosmetics, plastics and fabrics

Checkpoint

1.3

R

Glucose

Glucose

C

Galactose

Fructose

D

Fructose

Glucose

S3 Histogram. It shows frequency distribution of data in ranges value. Its x-axis shows range of marks whereas y-axis shows frequency of pupils.

Checkpoint

SPM Practice Objective Question 1. D 2. D 3. A 6. A 7. A 8. B

is produced to prevent against diseases. Enzymes are produced to enhance detergents so that clothes get cleaner. In food technology, food can be modified to make it taste better and more nutritious.

Preservation methods can prolong expiry date of food. Stem cells have the potential to cure chronic diseases such as spinal cord injury and heart disease. (c) Examples of personal protective equipment that can be worn during surgery are mask, safety goggles, gloves and laboratory coat. The equipment is worn to prevent from contacting with spurted blood or other body fluid. (d) Determine the problem statement, make hypothesis, plan investigation, determine and control variables, perform experiment, collect data, analyse data, interpret data, make conclusion and write report.

1 4. D 9. C

5. D 10. D

Subjective Questions Section A 1. (a) How does physical activity affect pulse rate? (b) As the physical activity increases, pulse rate also increases. (c) 150

1.2

S1 Three protective equipments and their functions: • Laboratory coat – Protects clothing from spilt chemical.

• Gloves – Protects hands from heat and chemical reactions.

• Face mask – Filters fine particles bigger than 5 micrometres such as bacteria, spores, fungi, solid particles and liquid particles from entering respiratory system.

S2 Materials that can be discarded into laboratory sink: 100 ml distilled water, 0.1 M sodium hydroxide Materials that cannot be discarded into laboratory sink: Concentrated sulphuric acid, matchstick

Glucose

B

shows how the observations were recorded; the data was analysed and evaluated. In addition, future research to be carried out was suggested; and the conclusion was presented to summarise the research outcome based on the results.

FORM 4 r

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S1 Vertical axis: Responding variable Horizontal axis: Manipulated variable S2 Dorsal view of a fish

What are Q and R? A

10

Checkpoint

R Figure 4

Steps in scientific investigation method

Body plane, sectioning and directions of organism

1.4

S1 Three things that are needed in the procedure when planning an experiment: Data collection, selection of apparatus and materials, and planning of procedure to be carried out.

S2 A report shows the flow of research methodology in the experiment. It also

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0

Husna

Zulfati

Sarah

Resting

Walking

Jogging

(d) As the physical activity increase, pulse rate also increases. This shows that more oxygen in the blood is pumped from the heart to the rest of the body to produce more energy. (e) Heartbeat Section B 2. (a) (i) Ecology is a scientific study on distribution of organism, interactions among organisms, and interactions between organisms and their environment. (ii) Nanotechnology is a branch of technology that focuses on manipulation of materials smaller than 100 nanometres. (iii) Longitudinal section is a section done along the long axis of a structure of organism, organ or tissue. (b) Genetic engineering is used in livestock and agriculture to produce better quality organisms.

For example, tomato which does not turn squishy, and remain fresh longer. In medicine, vaccine

2

Cell Biology and Organisation

Checkpoint

2.1

Checkpoint

2.2

Checkpoint

2.3

S1 Nucleus, cytoplasm and plasma membrane.

S2 Presence of water in vacuole produces turgor pressure in herbal plants. Turgor pressure is important for herb to maintain its shape and prevent it from wilting.

1. (a)

Form

6. Figure 4 shows the action of an enzyme maltose.

Record data Analyse and interpret data Biological drawing

Good practices in biology laboratory

Form

e

Q

Figure 1

1.4

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY AND LABORATORY RULES

Steps in managing laboratory accident

Advancement in Biology

11

Paper 1 1 hour 15 minutes This question paper consists of 40 questions. Answer answers A, B, C and all questions. Each question D. Choose one correct is followed by four alternative answer for each question.

1. Pernyataan berikut adalah What is the part labelled R? mengenai organel P. 5. The equation shows A Lipid a process in the formation B Phospholipid bilayer of • Contain hydrolytic triglyceride.

C Carrier protein enzyme D Pore protein • Eliminate dead or worn Glycerol Triglyceride out organelles Process S + + 4. Figure 3 shows a 3 fatty acid change 3 water occur when a small amount Which of the following molecule is molecule of potassium permangana organelle P? te crystal is put into the A Lisosome What is process S? water.

B Ribosome A Condensation C Golgi apparatus B Hydrolysis Potassium D Nucleus C Reduction permanganat

What is the function of Q? A Provide nutrient to plant cells B Controlling plant osmotic pressure C Give support to herbaceous plant D Maintain the shape of the plant cell

Checkpoint

1. List three things that are needed in the procedure when planning an experiment.

2. Why is it necessary to prepare a report after performing an investigation?

Disposal of chemical waste

Careers in Biology

SPM MODEL PAPER

crystal

(g) Results of observations (h) Discussion which involves analysis and data interpretation (i) Conclusion

Apparatus and equipment

Research areas

Figure 1

cell.

a scientific investigation

D

Nucleus Plasma membrane Cytoplasm

Biology SPM SPM Model Paper

2. Figure 1 shows a plant

Concept Map summarise essential concepts learnt in the chapter using concept map.

Collect and present data

Make conclusion and write report

Interpret data

detailed 7. Figure 1 shows a drawing by Parvesh.

safety goggles

SPM Model Paper prepares students for the SPM with the actual exam format.

Perform experiment

2 Full written report based on the result of the experiment must be clearly presented, accurate and honest.

3. Full report should consist of the following aspects: (a) Research objectives (b) Problem statement (c) Hypothesis (d) Variables (e) List of materials and apparatus (f) Procedure

B

Identify and control variables

14 Plan the investigation

Figure 1.14 Steps in carrying out

Figure 2

5 Sentosa sis C Rate of photosynthe from 6 am until 6 pm red D Percentage of burst blood cells in different concentrations of sucrose solutions

Construct a hypothesis

Analyse data

Ethidium bromide is a carcinogen, which can of the cause cancer. Which following warning symbols the is most appropriate for chemical?

6. Which of the following to be data is most suitable presented in bar chart?

A Caloric value of five types of food B Height of pupils in

is the 3. Which of the following correct personal protective

Form

C

Study of viruses

Identify the problem

Ethidium bromide

, a pupil 5. In an investigation l recorded the experimenta data in a table and plotted is in on the x-axis. What is the type of variable that represented by the data?

A Fixed variable B Constant variable C Responding variable D Manipulated data

Vacuole

Figure 2.2 The onion

4

bottle of

4

solution

(d)

1. Scientific investigation involves Cytoplasm step performed by scientist to collect data or information phenomenon. microscope to explain a cell structure under a light

Form

B

Histology

labelled

8. Figure 2 shows a ethidium bromide.

Iodine solution

Filter paper

Nucleus

wall Rules to Biology and Cell Laboratory

membrane

Form

A

Definition

n:1 Introduction BiologyObservatio SPM Chapter

1.4 Scientific Investigation in Biology Plasma Form

is the 2. Which of the following type correct match between its of biological field and definition?

Biological Field

shows Which of the following the mistake in the drawing?

A Presence of crossed label lines B Nucleus was not shaded C No title D Organelles are wrongly

4. While performing an experiment in a school laboratory, Prabitha eyes were splashed with first chemical. What is the to aid that can be given taken Prabitha before she is to the hospital?

A Apply eye drops wet B Dab her eyes with tissues with C Neutralise her eyes alkali acid or her D Cleanse and rinse eyes with eye wash

meaning 1. What is the correct of Biology?

A Study of human being B Study of plant nonC Study of living and living things and D Study of living things the interactions among living things and their environment

Rules

1

SPM Practice Objective Questions

conjugation

Biology and Laboratory

Cover slip Mounting needle Distilled water droplet (c) (b) an onion cell slide Figure 2.1 Steps in preparing

the following steps: With forceps, a thin cell slide is prepared with removed using a scalpel.

1. An onion epidermal of an onion is cut and leaf. (Figure 2.1(a)) (a) The fleshy scale leaf is removed from the scale transparent layer of epidermis slide. (Figure 2.1(b)) on the middle of the glass (b) Distilled water is dropped the distilled water droplet. slide. on when placed on the glass (c) The epidermis is placed does not fold over itself needle until it Caution: Ensure the epidermis 45° angle and slowly lowered with a mounting at a (d) The cover slip is positioned 2.1(c)) covers the epidermis. (Figure under the cover slip. air bubbles are trapped end, a filter paper is placed Caution: Ensure that no other the At slip. cover onto one side of the all over the entire that the iodine is distributed 2. Iodine solution is dropped solution and to ensure to capture excess iodine (Figure 2.1(d)) lens, then with a high epidermis (via irrigation). with a low power objective through the microscope 3. The slide is observed is also noted. power objective lens.

The magnification power is drawn and labeled. structure cell onion The 4.

Eight daughter cells are formed

Sexual reproduction – 1 Introduction to Biology SPM Chapter

20

SPM Practice provide sample questions to test students’ mastery of the chapter.

Exchange of genetic material

Two new cells are formed

Onion epidermis

Onion epidermis

Two Paramecium sp. stick together

Nucleus divides

Activity / Experiment helps students to master hands-on scientific knowledge and skills.

Form

A pseudopodium is a temporary protrusion of the surface of the Amoeba sp. for movement and feeding

of a nucleus, cytoplasm 3. All cells are consist 3 and plasma membrane. cell walls, chloroplasts 4. In plant cells, there are are not found and vacuoles. These structures in animal cells. can be seen under the 5. These cell structures microscope.

spaces.

in freshwater and ponds. shaped like a slipper.

3. Paramecium sp. contain two nuclei, a macronucleus which controls metabolic activities and micronucle us which controls reproduction.

4. Paramecium sp. is covered with cilia which aids in movement.

2. Paramecium sp. are

C Pseudopodium D Contractile vacuole

Organisation

and Function

are made of a basic unit 1. All living organisms known as a cell. from the Latin 2. The word “cell” originates rooms or small to word “cellular” which refers

1. Paramecium sp. live environments such as lakes

Q

Examinerʼs Tips:

Figure 1.3 Protective equipments and their functions

Paramecium sp.

Macronucleus

Cilium

Amoeba sp.

What is structure Q? A Nucleus B Cytoplasm

Laboratory shoes To be worn to avoid injuries from glass splinters and chemical spillage

Form

SPM Highlights provides exposure to the frequently-tested questions that appear in the actual exam.

Digested food

Undigested food Food vacuoles combine with Nutrients are lysosome. Food is digested absorbed. Undigested with the lysosome enzyme. food is excreted.

The pseudopodium envelopes the food particles turning them into food vacuoles.

Form

Form

4

Nutrition via phagocytosis.

Food vacuole

Food Amoeba sp. moves towards food particles using their pseudopodium.

4

2. Potential laboratory accidents include fire, explosion, electric shock, gas leak and chemical spillage.

Environment engineer

CUS

FO CHAPTER

• Amoeba sp. swallows

Form

Biochemist Careers in Biology

SPM Tips points out important tips for students to take note of.

1.1

Checkpoint

1. Describe three research fields in biology.

Ecologist

Agriculture officer

Distance apparatus containing chemicals from the eyes and other people.

Do not mix chemicals without teacher’s order.

Checkpoint provides questions to test students’ understanding of the subtopics and reinforce learning.

Biology SPM Chapter 1 Introduction to Biology and Laboratory Rules

6. Bioinformatics • This field aims to facilitate discoveries in fields such as agriculture, medicine and food production.

Form

Chapter Focus lists the learning objectives for an overview of the chapter.

4

Answers Enable students to compare their answers to the correct ones and evaluate their level of preparation.

K: Food vacuole L: Nucleus M: Pseudopodium N: Plasma membrane (b) Structure M is involved in the movement and capture of food.

Structure M is projected towards its target. Cytoplasm flows into the projected structure M to change its position. Structure M captures food and subsequently forms food vacuole. (c) Nucleus of a matured Amoeba sp. divides by shrinking along the middle. Cytoplasm divides into two parts after the nucleus has completely divided. Finally, two new cells are formed.

S1 Smooth muscle cell, cardiac muscle cell and skeletal muscle cell.

S2 Meristem cells at the tips of shoot and root require much energy to perform active cell division for growth.

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CONTENTS FORM 4 r

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Introduction to Biology and Laboratory Rules

1

1.1 Fields and Careers in Biology 1.2 Safety and Rules in Biology Laboratory 1.3 Communicating in Biology 1.4 Scientific Investigation in Biology SPM Practice 1

2 3 4 10 11

1

4.4 Lipids 4.5 Nucleic Acids SPM Practice 4 r

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5

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2

Cell Biology and Organisation

13

Cell Structure and Function Living Processes in Unicellular Organisms 2.3 Living Processes in Multicellular Organisms 2.4 Levels of Organisation in Multicellular Organisms SPM Practice 2

14

25 27

Movement of Substances across the Plasma Membrane

30

2.1 2.2

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3 3.1 3.2

Structure of Plasma Membrane Concept of Movement of Substances Across a Plasma Membrane 3.3 Movement of Substances Across a Plasma Membrane in Living Organisms 3.4 Movement of Substances Across a Plasma Membrane and its Application in Daily Life SPM Practice 3

4 4.1 4.2 4.3

Water Carbohydrates Proteins

52 53 56

77

Cell Division

Cell Division Cell Cycle and Mitosis Meiosis Issues of Cell Division on Human Health SPM Practice 6

78 79 84 89 91

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7

94

Cellular Respiration

7.1

37

51

65 65 73 74

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

32

Chemical Composition in a Cell

5.1 Metabolism 5.2 Enzymes 5.3 Applications of Enzymes in Daily Life SPM Practice 5

6

31

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Metabolism and Enzymes

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19

45 47

57 59 62

99 96 98 103

Respiratory Systems in Humans and Animals

105

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Energy Production through Cellular Respiration 7.2 Aerobic Respiration 7.3 Fermentation SPM Practice 7

8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Types of Respiratory System Mechanisms of Breathing Gaseous Exchange in Humans Health Issues Related to the Human Respiratory System SPM Practice 8

106 112 117 119 121

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9

Nutrition and the Human Digestive System

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7

Digestive System Digestion Absorption Assimilation Defaecation Balanced Diet Health Issues Related to Digestive System and Eating Habits SPM Practice 9

142 145

Transport in Humans and Animals

148

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124

10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6

Types of Circulatory System Circulatory System of Humans Mechanism of Heartbeat Mechanism of Blood Clotting Blood Groups of Humans Health Issues Related to the Human Circulatory System 10.7 Lymphatic System of Humans 10.8 Health Issues Related to the Human Lymphatic System SPM Practice 10

125 126 133 134 136 136

205

13

13.1 Homeostasis 13.2 The Urinary System 13.3 Health Issues Related to the Urinary System SPM Practice 13 r

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14

165 168 170 172

176

11.1 Body Defence 11.2 Actions of Antibodies 11.3 Types of Immunity 11.4 Health Issues Related to Immunity SPM Practice 11

177 180 181 183 184

Coordination and Response in Humans

187

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Immunity in Humans

12

12.1 Coordination and Response 12.2 Nervous System

188 189

196 197

206 211 215 217

220

232 234

Sexual Reproduction, Development and Growth in Humans and Animals

237

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Support and Movement in Humans and Animals

191 194

14.1 Types of Skeletons 14.2 Musculoskeletal System of Humans 14.3 Mechanism of Movement and Locomotion 14.4 Health Issues Related to the Human Musculoskeletal System SPM Practice 14

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Homeostasis and the Human Urinary System

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200 202

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149 155 160 161 163

12.3 Neurones and Synapse 12.4 Voluntary and Involuntary Actions 12.5 Health Issues Related to the Nervous System 12.6 Endocrine System 12.7 Health Issues Related to the Endocrine System SPM Practice 12

15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6

Reproductive System of Humans Gametogenesis in Humans Menstrual Cycle Development of a Human Foetus Formation of Twins Health Issues Related to the Human Reproductive System 15.7 Growth in Humans and Animals SPM Practice 15

221 221 227

238 239 242 245 248 250 251 256

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Organisation of Plant Tissues and Growth

1

1.1 Organisation of Plant Tissues 1.2 Meristematic Tissues and Growth 1.3 Growth Curves SPM Practice 1

5.3

260 261 263 269 277

Leaf Structure and Function

281

2.1 Structure of a Leaf 2.2 Main Organ for Gaseous Exchange 2.3 Main Organ for Transpiration 2.4 Main Organ for Photosynthesis 2.5 Compensation Point SPM Practice 2

282 285 289 293 302 305

6.1 6.2

Nutrition in Plants

3.1 3.2

Main Inorganic Nutrients Organ for Water and Mineral Salts Uptake 3.3 Diversity in Plant Nutrition SPM Practice 3

Transport in Plants

4.1 Vascular Tissues 4.2 Transport of Water and Mineral Salts 4.3 Translocation 4.4 Phytoremediation SPM Practice 4 er

8

5.1 5.2

Response in Plants

338

Types of Responses Phytohormone

339 341

Biodiversity

372

8.1

Classification System and Naming of Organisms 8.2 Biodiversity 8.3 Microorganisms and Viruses SPM Practice 8

373 379 382 388

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9

Ecosystem

391

9.1 Community and Ecosystem 9.2 Population Ecology SPM Practice 9 Ch

392 409 416

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5

364 369

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pt

a Ch

363

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313 315 317

321 324 329 331 334

350

7.1 Adaptations of Plants SPM Practice 7

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4

Adaptations of Plants in Different Habitats

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352 354 356 358 360

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308 309

Structure of a Flower Development of Pollen Grains and Embryo Sac 6.3 Pollination and Fertilisation 6.4 Development of Seeds and Fruits 6.5 Importance of Seeds for Survival SPM Practice 6 te

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3

349

6

pt

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

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344 347

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Application of Phytohormones in Agriculture SPM Practice 5

10

Environmental Sustainability

419

10.1 Threats to the Environment 10.2 Preservation, Conservation and Restoration of Ecosystems

420 429

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10.3 Practices in Environmental Sustainability 10.4 Green Technology SPM Practice 10

12

r

11

Inheritance

11.1 Monohybrid Inheritance 11.2 Dihybrid Inheritance 11.3 Genes and Alleles 11.4 Inheritance in Humans SPM Practice 11

441 442 448 450 450 461

Variation

12.1 Types and Factors of Variation 12.2 Variation in Humans 12.3 Mutation SPM Practice 12

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430 434 437

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464 468 471 478

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463

13

Genetic Technology

13.1 Genetic Engineering 13.2 Biotechnology SPM Practice 13

481 482 485 489

SPM MODEL PAPER

492

ANSWERS

503

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Form 4

4

Chemical Composition in a Cell

-

+

-

+

Lipid

Protein

+

+ Water

Carbohydrate

US

OC CHAPTER F 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Nucleic Acid

Water Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids

51

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

4. Thus, all biochemical reactions can occur at maximum rate.

4.1 Water

C Water is highly cohesive and adhesive

1. Cohesive forces allow water molecules to stick to one another.

2. This property allows small organisms such as water striders to walk on the surface of water.

Form

Form

4

1. Water is the most important inorganic compound for living organisms.

2. Water constitutes about 70% of our body particularly the protoplasmic cells which is 90% of the water content of a body.

3. Water is also the most important component in blood plasma, lymphatic fluids and interstitial fluids.

4. The chemical and physical characteristics of water allow it to support life.

Properties of Water A Polarity of water

1. A water molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

2. The water molecule is polar molecule and act like magnets; one end is positively charged while the other end is negatively charged. δ–

Covalent bond

O δ+

O

δ–

H

Hydrogen bond δ+

H

δ–

H δ+

3. Adhesive forces enables water molecules to adhere to walls of xylem vessels, allowing the transport of water from the root to the stems of plants.

Xylem wall Adhesive forces

δ+ H

Figure 4.2 Water strider on the surface of water

H δ+

Cohesive forces

O H δ+

Figure 4.1 The polarity of water molecules

3. This property is important because water molecules attract one another as well as other charged ions.

4. This allows water to act as a universal solvent which can dissolve a lot of ionic compounds such as salts, as well as polar molecules such as sugars.

B Water has a high specific heat capacity

1. Specific heat capacity is the heat quantity required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of substance by 1°C. 2. This allows water to absorb a lot of energy without experience high temperature increase.

3. This allows water to maintain our body temperature at an optimum 37°C.

Figure 4.3 Cohesive and adhesive of water molecules

4. Cohesive and adhesive forces produce water capillary action so water can move in an unbroken column through xylem tissues in plants.

MEMORY TIPS! Cohesive forces – Water molecules

Water

Adhesive forces – Water molecules

Xylem wall

Checkpoint

4.1

1. Why is water considered a universal solvent?

2. Water molecules have cohesive forces and adhesive forces. What is the significance of the two forces?

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell Monosaccharide

4.2 Carbohydrates

Many molecules

Polysaccharide

Two molecules Disaccharide

Types of Carbohydrates

Form

Figure 4.5 Types of carbohydrates

Form

1. Carbohydrates are made up of the chemical elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).

2. There are three types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

4

Monosaccharides

1. Monosaccharides are simple sugars, monomers that make up the basic units of carbohydrates.

2. Monosaccharides cannot be broken down into smaller units.

3. Monosaccharides are soluble in water, taste sweet and form crystals.

4. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars and therefore can function as reducing agents.

5. Three types of monosaccharides are glucose, galactose and fructose.

Monosaccharides

Glucose • Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide.

• Glucose is synthesised by plants through photosynthesis.

• Glucose is found in sweet fruits.

Galactose • Galactose is found in milk.

• Galactose is not as sweet as glucose.

Fructose • Fructose is also known as fruit sugar.

• Fructose has a very sweet taste.

• Fructose is found in fruits and honey.

Figure 4.6 Types of monosaccharides

Disaccharides

1. Disaccharides are sugars produced from the condensation reaction between two simple sugars (monosaccharides).

2. Disaccharides are soluble in water and form crystals.

3. Three main disaccharides are maltose, sucrose and lactose.

4. Maltose and lactose are reducing sugars whereas sucrose is not.

Disaccharides

Maltose

Sucrose

Lactose

• Maltose is also known as malt sugar.

• Maltose is a product of the condensation reaction between two glucose molecules.

• Sucrose is a naturally occurring sugar found in sugar cane, beets and pineapple.

• Sucrose is a product of the condensation reaction between a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule.

• Lactose is a product of the condensation reaction between a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule.

• Lactose is a sugar found in dairy products such as milk, cheese and butter.

Figure 4.7 Types of disaccharides

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

Polysaccharides

1. Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of long chains of monosaccharides.

2. Polysaccharides do not taste sweet and cannot be crystallised.

3. Polysaccharides are insoluble in water because of its large molecules.

4. Three examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen and cellulose.

5. All three of these polysaccharides are formed from glucose monomers.

Form

Form

4

Polysaccharides

Starch

Glycogen

Starch

Cellulose

• Starch serves as storage for • Glycogen serves as the storage for • Cellulose is a main component in carbohydrates and is normally carbohydrates in animals and are plant cell walls. found in plants. usually present in liver cells andGlycogen • Cellulose provides support for muscle cells.

• Starch granules can be found in plant cells. chloroplasts, cereal, potatoes and Starch • Glycogen is also known as animal beans. starch.

• Rice, bread, cake and noodles Cellulose contain high starch content.

Glycogen

Starch

Glycogen

Cellulose Figure 4.9 Types of polyccharides

Experiment 4.1 Eksperimen 2.1 Aim: To test the presence of reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars Cellulose Problem statement: Are all monosaccharides and disaccharides reducing sugars?

Materials and apparatus: 5% glucose solution, 5% fructose solution, 5% galactose solution, 5% sucrose solution, 5% maltose solution, 5% lactose solution, Benedict’s solution, sodium hydrogen carbonate powder, dilute hydrochloric acid, test tubes, test tube holder, 250 ml beaker, dropper, tripod stand, Bunsen burner, wire gauze A Testing the presence of reducing sugars Procedure: 1. 2 ml of Benedict’s solution are added to 2 ml of 5% glucose solution in a test tube.

2. The test tube is placed in a water bath of boiling water for 5 minutes.

3. The colour of the precipitate that is formed (if any) is observed and recorded in a table.

4. Steps 1 to 3 are repeated using 5% fructose solution, 5% galactose solution, 5% sucrose solution, 5% maltose solution and 5% lactose solution.

Sugar solution + Benedict’s solution

Boiling water Wire gauze

Bunsen burner Figure 4.10 A water bath is used to heat the mixture in a test tube

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

Observation: Sample

Observation

(b) 5% fructose solution

Brick-red precipitate is formed

(c) 5% galactose solution

Brick-red precipitate is formed

(d) 5% sucrose solution

No changes observed

(e) 5% maltose solution

Brick-red precipitate is formed

(f) 5% lactose solution

Brick-red precipitate is formed

Form

Brick-red precipitate is formed

Form

(a) 5% glucose solution

4

Discussion: 1. Benedict solution contains copper(II) ions which are blue.

2. Reducing sugars are reducing agents that can reduce the copper(II) ions to copper(I) ions which form brick-red precipitate.

B Testing the presence of non-reducing sugars (based on observations in A) Procedure: 1. 2 ml of 5% sucrose solution and 1 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid are added into a test tube.

2. The test tube is placed in a water bath and boiled for 5 minutes.

3. The test tube is cooled under running water and sodium hydrogen carbonate powder is added to neutralise the excess acid.

4. When there are no more gas bubbles released, 2 ml Benedict’s solution are added to the mixture in the test tube.

5. The test tube is placed in the water bath again and boiled for 5 minutes.

Observation: Brick-red precipitate is formed in the test tube.

Discussion: 1. Sucrose is hydrolysed into glucose and fructose by boiling the sucrose solution with dilute hydrochloric acid.

2. Glucose and fructose are reducing sugars. When the solution containing glucose and fructose is boiled with Benedict’s solution, it produces a brick-red precipitate.

3. Non-reducing sugars are carbohydrates that cannot reduce copper(II) sulphate to copper(I) oxide.

This is due to chemical bonds inside non-reducing sugars that are different from those found in reducing sugars.

4. Acid is added to the solution to break those bonds. However, the presence of acid may influence the reaction. Thus, sodium hydrogen carbonate powder is added to neutralise the acid.

Conclusion: Glucose, fructose, galactose, maltose and lactose are reducing sugars whereas sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

Formation and Breakdown of Carbohydrates

6. Hydrolysis is the reaction which involves the addition of one water molecule when a large molecule is broken down.

1. Monosaccharides are the monomers that combine to form disaccharides and polysaccharides.

7. The following equation shows the formation and breakdown of disaccharides.

2. Disaccharides and polysaccharides can be broken down to produce monosaccharide monomers.

3. The formation of disaccharides and polysaccharides from monosaccharide monomers involve the condensation process.

Form

Form

4

Glucose + Glucose

4. The breakdown of disaccharides and polysaccharides to monosaccharide monomers involve the hydrolysis process.

5. Condensation involves the elimination of one water molecule when a bond forms between two monosaccharide monomers.

Glucose + Fructose

Glucose + Galactose

Water Condensation Monosaccharide

Hydrolysis

Condensation Hydrolysis Condensation Hydrolysis Condensation Hydrolysis

Maltose + Water

Sucrose + Water

Lactose + Water

Water Condensation

Disaccharide Water

Hydrolysis

Polysaccharide Water

Figure 4.11 Formation and breakdown of disaccharides and monosaccharides

Importance of Carbohydrates in Cells

1. Every day we obtain carbohydrates through the food we consume.

2. Carbohydrates are important: (a) As a source of energy Cells use carbohydrates, primarily glucose as the main source of energy.

(b) As a food reserve Excess glucose will be converted through condensation to form glycogen as a form of food reserve. (c) For forming macromolecules Some glucose will be assimilated into ribose and deoxyribose sugars to form DNA and RNA molecules.

Checkpoint

4.2

1. State the difference between hydrolysis and condensation.

2. You are asked to prove that solution P is a reducing sugar. You are provided with dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium hydrogen carbonate powder. Give reasons for the use of both materials.

4.3 Protein 1. Proteins are complex and large organic compounds.

2. Proteins are organic macromolecules found in all organisms.

3. Proteins are vital components in a body cell.

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

4. Apart from aiding growth, proteins also form bone, cartilage, hair, nails, muscle, skin and red blood cells.

2. Two amino acid molecules linked together by a peptide bond through the condensation reaction to form dipeptides.

5. This molecule contains the elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some proteins contain sulphur and phosphorus.

3. Condensation of amino acids can occur repeatedly to form a polypeptide chain, which could consist from around 100 to several thousands amino acids.

Water

Amino acid

Hydrolysis

4

Water

Condensation

Form

1. Proteins are polymers that formed when amino acid monomers undergo condensation.

4. There are 20 types of amino acids found in cells. These form to produce polypeptide chains or proteins.

Form

Formation and Breakdown of Dipeptides and Polypeptides

Condensation Dipeptide

Hydrolysis

Water

Polypeptide Water

Figure 4.12 Formation and breakdown of dipeptides and polypeptides

Importance of Proteins in a Cell

1. Proteins are important: (a) For the formation of cells for growth and for replacing damaged cells or tissues (b) For producing enzymes to catalyse biochemical reactions (c) For producing hormones to regulate a balanced internal environment in the body (d) Actin and myosin proteins are involved in muscle contractions whereas collagen proteins provide structural support in tissue (e) For forming DNA to regulate chromosomal structure and determine genetic characteristics (f) As a replacement source of energy when carbohydrates are not enough (g) For the production of antibodies to eliminate pathogens and fight infections (h) For forming haemoglobin to carry oxygen to the whole body

Checkpoint

4.3

1. Compare the molecular structure of dipeptides and polypeptides.

2. State three importance of proteins in organisms.

4.4 Lipids 1. Lipids are organic compounds that are found in organisms.

2. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in other organic solvents, such as oil and alcohol.

3. Phospholipid is a type of lipid that forms the plasma membrane in cells.

4. Lipids contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Lipids have a hydrogen to oxygen atom ratio that is higher than that found in carbohydrates.

5. Some lipids contain phosphorus and nitrogen.

6. There are four main types of lipids which are fats and oils, waxs, phospholipids and steroids.

Fats and oils

1. Fats and oils are lipids that are commonly found in our diets.

2. Both are rich in energy.

3. At room temperature, fat exists in solid form while oil exists in liquid form.

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

4. Fats and oils are triglycerides formed from a condensation reaction between a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules.

Condensation + 3H2O

+ Hydrolysis Glycerol 3 molecules of fatty acids

Water

Figure 4.13 Formation and breakdown of a triglyceride

Form

Form

4

Triglycerides

5. Every fat and oil molecule contains one molecule of glycerol which combines with three molecules of fatty acid.

6. Fatty acid molecules consist of long hydrocarbon chain with different number of carbon atom for different fatty acid.

7. There are two types of fatty acid namely saturated fatty acid and unsaturated fatty acid.

8. Fat that contains saturated fatty acid is called saturated fat while fat that contains unsaturated fatty acid is called unsaturated fat.

9. Table 4.1 shows the comparison between saturated fat and unsaturated fat.

Table 4.1 Comparison between saturated fat and unsaturated fat Similarities • Both consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements.

• Both are non-polar molecules.

• Both contain glycerol and fatty acid.

Differences Saturated fat

Aspect

Unsaturated fat

Only have single bonds.

H H s s 9C9C9 s s H H All bonds between carbon atoms are saturated. Hence, cannot react with additional hydrogen atoms.

Solid Butter, margarine, ghee and cheese

Have at least one double bond.

Bonds in fatty acid

H H s s 9C"C9

Ability to react with additional hydrogen atoms

Carbon atoms are not saturated. Double bond can still receive one or more additional hydrogen atoms.

Condition at room temperature Example

Wax

1. Wax is a simple naturally occurring lipid that is found in the cuticle layer that covers the epidermis of leaves, fruit and plant stems.

Liquid Cooking oil, olive oil, fish oil and corn oil

2. Wax is waterproof. This helps prevent excessive loss of water from plants as well as pathogenic attacks.

3. Wax also exists in sebum, a substance that is excreted from the oil glands inside the skin epidermis.

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

4. Sebum provides protection to our skin by preventing excessive loss of water, preventing bacterial growth and it softens the skin.

Phospholipid

1. Steroids are complex organic molecules.

2. Steroids are found in plants and animals.

3. Cholesterol is a form of modified steroid.

Cholesterol

(f) For the production of hormones Cholesterol is needed in the production of estrogen, testosterone and progesterone, necessary for the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Checkpoint

Form

Steroids

(e) For transport Lipid is needed to transport the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.

Form

1. Phospholipids are a major component of plasma membrane.

2. Phospholipids are formed through the condensation reaction between one phosphate molecule and two fatty acid molecules.

(d) For building the plasma membrane The presence of cholesterol within the plasma membrane gives flexibility to an otherwise rigid structure.

4

4.4

1. Name the elements found in lipids.

2. Fats and oils are triglycerides. Explain the formation of triglyceride molecules.

3. Cholesterol is a modified form of steroid. Name the pros and cons of taking steroids.

4. An overweight person is often associated with having a problem with cholesterol. Do you agree?

Explain.

Phospholipid Figure 4.14 Cholesterol molecules are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer

4. Apart from cholesterol, the hormones testosterone, estrogen and progesterone are also steroids.

Importance of Lipids in Cells

1. In cells and multicellular organisms, lipids are important: (a) For storing energy If taken in excess, the extra available energy will be stored in the adipose tissue. (b) For protection and as a heat insulator Lipids under the skin layer (subcutaneous fat) regulate body temperature and absorbs shock from impact. (c) For digestion and absorption Bile juices is made up of lipid. It emulsifies fat and aids in the digestion process.

4.5 Nucleic Acids 1. Nucleic acids are small polymers that are very important to all organisms.

2. Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information.

3. The basic unit for nucleic acid is nucleotide.

4. Each nucleotide is made up of a 5-carbon pentose sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.

Phosphate group Pentose sugar

Nitrogenous base

Figure 4.15 The structure of nucleotide’s molecule

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

5. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

3. RNA can be found in the cytoplasm, ribosomes and nucleus.

4. Nitrogenal base for RNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil which replaces thymine in DNA.

Form

Form

5. There are three main types of RNA which are messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). The three types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis.

4

6. RNA synthesises proteins based on the genetic information found in DNA. DNA

RNA

Figure 4.16 DNA is a double-stranded helix structure; RNA is single-stranded

DNA

1. The DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide strands twisted around each other in the form of a double helix.

2. The phosphate group and pentose sugar make up the backbone the molecular structure of DNA. 3. Both strands are connected together by nitrogenous base.

4. The nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G). A always bond with T, and C with G. 5. DNA is found in the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts.

6. DNA stores the hereditary information of an organism in the form of genetic codes that are passed from one generation to the next.

RNA

1. RNA consists of single-stranded polynucleotides that are formed in the process of DNA replication.

2. The nitrogenous bases in RNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil.

7. Some viruses carry genetic information in the form of RNA. The Importance of Nucleic Acid

1. Apart from carrying and transmitting genetic information, nucleic acid also forms chromosomes in the nucleus.

2. Inside the nucleus, DNA molecules are packaged into chromosomes, which are thread-like in structure.

3. DNA contains genetic code which are carried by nitrogenous base (A, G, C and T) for polypeptide synthesis which can form protein.

4. Chromosomes are formed from DNA polynucleotide molecules that are wound around a protein called histone proteins.

5. Histone proteins provide support to the structure.

6. Nucleic acids are also involved in the process of protein synthesis in a cell to produce enzyme.

7. Information required to synthesise proteins are copied by the RNA from DNA. 8. Messenger RNA will leave the nucleus and stick to ribosomes.

9. The ribosomes will use the information received from the messenger RNA to synthesise proteins for producing enzyme.

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell DNA

Gene

Gene

DNA and folded protein Histone

Form

Homologous chromosome

Form

Nucleosome Chromosome

4

Tightly packed coils Figure 4.17 Formation of chromosome from DNA and proteins

Checkpoint

4.5

1. State the main function of nucleic acid.

2. Name two types of nucleic acid and state their differences.

CONCEP T MAP cO CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN A CELL

Amino acid Dipeptide

Polypeptide

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

4

SPM Practice Objective Questions 1. Figure 1 shows the polarity of a water molecule.

SPM 2016

Form

Form

B Amino acid → dipeptide → polypeptide → protein C Polypeptide → protein → dipeptide → amino acid D Protein → polypeptide → dipeptide → amino acid

7. Which of the following pairs is correct?

Figure 1

What is the effect of the differently charged hydrogen and oxygen atoms?

A Water molecules are known as universal solvents.

B Water has the same density when it is a solid and when it is a liquid.

C Water does not dissolve other polar molecules, for example salt.

D Water is suitable as a medium to transport blood.

2. Which of the following is not an organic compound?

A Nucleic acid B Sodium nitrate C Phospholipid D Wax 3. Which of the following compounds are carbohydrates?

A Cellulose and steroid B Cellulose and glycogen C Phospholipid and steroid D Phospholipid and cellulose

SPM 2018

4. Which of the following is the SPM correct sequence for protein 2018 hydrolysis?

A Protein → dipeptide → amino acid → polypeptide

Example

Lipid

Albumen

A B

5. Figure 2 shows the hydrolysis of a disaccharide sugar into simpler molecules.

4

Chemical compound

Carbohydrate Galactose

C

Protein

Wax

D

Nucleic acid

Amino acid

Y

Hydrolysis

Y

X Figure 2

What are X and Y? X

Y

A

Maltose

Glucose

B

Sucrose

Fructose

C

Maltose

Galactose

D

Maltose

Fructose

8. Which of the following is the similarity between carbohydrate, protein and lipid?

A Contain peptide bonds B Contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen C Contain the elements nitrogen and phosphorus D Are found in bone, nails and hair 9. Figure 4 shows the structure of a nucleotide.

P

6. Figure 3 shows a plant cell.

Q

R

Figure 4 M

Which of the following are the phosphate group, pentose sugar and nitrogenous base?

N

Figure 3

Which of the following is true about the compound that forms structures M and N?

Phosphate Pentose Nitrogenous group sugar base

A

P

R

Q

B

Q

P

R

M

N

C

P

Q

R

A

Phospholipid

Cellulose

D

R

Q

P

B

Cellulose

Protein

C

Cellulose

Phospholipid

D

Phospholipid

Protein

10. Which of the following macromolecules contain polynucleotides?

A Glycogen B Protein C Cholesterol D Chromosome

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Biology SPM Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell

Subjective Questions Section A 1. Figure 1 shows food samples that contain carbohydrates.

SPM 2018

Form

Form

4 X

Y

Z

Figure 1

(a) Based on Figure 1, name the types of carbohydrates in X and Z.

[2 marks]

(b) Why are people with heart problems advised to not take Y excessively? Explain.

[3 marks]

2. (a) Figure 2 shows the formation of molecule R inside food sample X. + P

+ H2O Q

R Figure 2

Based on Figure 2, explain the: (i)

formation of molecule R

[2 marks]

(ii) breakdown of molecule R

[2 marks]

(b) When sucrose solution is heated with Benedictʼs solution, the solution does not change colour. Explain why.

[3 marks]

Section B 3. (a) Water is one of the inorganic compounds found in body cells. Water has special property such as high specific heat capacity. Explain why this property is important to humans.

[4 marks] (b) Water molecules have high cohesive and adhesive forces. Explain how these two forces aid in the survival of plant species.

[6 marks] (c) Explain the importance of protein in human life.

[10 marks]

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Cell Biology and Organisation

IC F IHK I N FO G R A P Chapter 2

4

Form Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

• Cytoplasm contains small structures called organelles such as mitochondrion, ribosome, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, endoplasmic reticula, vacuole and chloroplast.

• Most organelles can be seen by using electron microscope.

• Record from electron microscope is known as electron micrograph.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondrion Nucleus Cytoplasm

Centriole

Ribosome

Electron micrograph of animal cell Lysosome

Golgi apparatus Plasma membrane

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Ribosome

Vacuole

Golgi apparatus Chloroplast Cell wall

00 Infographic.indd 1

Plasma membrane

Electron micrograph of plant cell

Mitochondrion

2/11/21 10:30 AM

00 Infographic.indd 2

Chloroplast

Mitochondrion

1

Cell respiration produces ATP

Photosynthesis produces glucose and oxygen

Chlorophyll in plant cell’s chloroplast traps light energy from the Sun and produces glucose through photosynthesis.

3

2

Glucose is broken down and energy in the form of ATP is generated by mitochondrion through respiration.

For animals and humans, glucose is obtained from digestion of carbohydrate.

The Main Substrate in Energy Production Cellular Respiration IC F IHK I N FO G R A P

Chapter 7

Form

4

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