IB DP History Course Guide 2026

Oxford Resources for IB Diploma Programme

DP History Comprehensive coverage of the 2026 syllabus

Use this course guide to: • Explore the changes to the syllabus and assessment • Look inside the new Course Books • Find out how to evaluate and order

Choose Oxford Resources for IB Use both print and digital components for the best teaching and learning experience Published in cooperation with the IB Content is matched to the syllabus for first teaching 2026 so you can be assured the content is aligned, reviewed, and approved

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Exploring the changes to the DP History subject guide From David Smith and Alexis Mamaux Why has the course changed?

The IB History course, one of the most widely offered IB courses, has undergone minor changes over the past ten years, whereas this change is more comprehensive. The current curriculum review indicated that there were ways the course could evolve to better reflect the experience and meet the needs of teachers and students around the world. Reducing content, broadening the opportunity to use a wide variety of historic examples, and anchoring the course in conceptual understanding responds to these experiences and needs.

The skills and content in the course enable students to develop an understanding of historical concepts which can be transferred to other academic subjects and a variety of career paths.

Making informed decisions based on a variety of sources is increasingly important in a world where Artificial Intelligence and social media provide challenges to discerning accuracy and reliability. There is an inquiry-based approach to content and assessment to develop historical skills, and informed, independent thinking is a result of the process. The use of historical concepts frames events and trends to enable students to reach their own judgements.

What are the main changes to the content?

Figure 1: Curriculum model, from IB Diploma Programme Subject Brief Individuals and Societies: History

• The content, concepts and contexts are developed through skills development, and all link back to historical inquiry, which is at the centre of the course. These three ideas have been clearly defined in the subject guide.

• Skills in the history courses have been more clearly defined, with explicit reference to using sources, making connections, evaluating arguments and asking questions.

Paper 1 The five focused studies replace the five prescribed subjects, and schools still choose one. As in the past, there are two examples within each study, both of which are vehicles to practise sources skills and the work of historians. These studies are: • Climate and innovation • Independence and identity • Political and economic transitions • Conflict and displacement • Protest and change In each focused study, the two examples have three inquiry questions that guide the content.

The recommended amount of time for covering the focused study is 50 hours, which is 10 more than allotted to the prescribed subject in the previous syllabus.

Paper 2 In past iterations of the course, students were responsible for understanding and using two out of 12 possible world history topics. Students are now responsible for only one theme chosen from four: • Conflict (from 750 CE) • Innovation and transformation (from 750 CE) • Authoritarian rule (from 1750 CE) • Popular movements (from 1750 CE) It is completely up to teachers what and how many examples through which to teach their chosen theme. So long as examples are taken from at least two regions of the world, teachers may choose fewer, comprehensive examples, many smaller examples, or some combination of the two.

Paper 3 For Higher Level (HL) students, the regional study and the four regional areas (Africa and the Middle East; the Americas; Asia and Oceania; Europe) remain. However, the 18 sections have been reduced to 12, and the new curriculum requires covering two regional studies instead of 3 in 90 hours – the same amount of time currently allocated. Through this content, students evaluate historical perspectives through their detailed understanding of historical arguments and its content.

Internal Assessment The internal assessment remains an independent investigation in which students develop their own question and explain how they have used sources in the development of their arguments, analyse relevant evidence, and reach their own judgment. However, the reflection has been removed from the internal assessment, and there is a greater focus on an inquiry question, how it was developed, and with links to a concept.

What will students gain from the new courses?

• The opportunity to learn and use a variety of historic examples to address important and relevant issues • The opportunity to study history in a variety of contexts including focused study, thematic study, regional study, and self-study • Source-based skills that can be transferred to other disciplines • The ability to use conceptual understanding to critically examine both past and present circumstances • Evaluation of the views of others, weighing ideas and concepts to reach a reasoned decision • More time for each area of the curriculum, so that there is time to acquire knowledge; develop skills; and reflect upon the main themes of the course

How has the assessment changed?

For both Standard Level (SL) and Higher Level (HL) students, all questions are marked using mark bands and a best-fit approach.

Paper 1 There are three sources instead of four; there is detailed context for each source in the exam; and concepts, context and perspectives are analysed. The questions are static – meaning that they are the same for all focused studies and for all exams: • Question 1: Explain how the content of both Source A and Source B can be used to answer the inquiry question.

• Question 2: Analyse how the context of Source C influences how it can be used to answer the inquiry question.

• Question 3: Examine how the perspectives in all the sources can be used to answer the inquiry question.

Paper 2 Paper 2 is still common across HL and SL but now consists of three distinct assessment tasks divided into two sections. In Section A students will be asked to analyse one of the historic concepts using an example they have studied. In Section B, students will use examples they have studied to examine the relationship of ‘lines of inquiry’ to ‘inquiry questions’ in one short answer task and one long response task. In each section students will have a choice of question.

Paper 3 (for HL students) The exam includes two questions for each of the 12 studies from their chosen regional study.

Students are required to answer two questions from two different studies.

• All questions use the ‘to what extent’ command term.

• Some questions will have a quotation, and students will be asked to what extent they agree, and others will ask students ‘to what extent’ they agree with a given claim.

• Essay responses should be evaluative in nature, with accurate and relevant knowledge as support; they should consider different perspectives and reach a clear judgement that answers the question.

Assessment summary SL

Hours

Weighting

Marks

External Assessment

3

70%

49

Paper 1

1 hour 15 minutes

30%

24

Source-based assessment on the five focused studies, linked by an overarching inquiry question.

Students respond to three static questions. Students answer all the questions for one of the focused studies.

Paper 2

1 hour 40% 45 minutes

25

Section A: two questions on the specified concepts. Students choose one question to answer.

Section B: two questions on each of the four thematic studies. Each question consists of two parts – a short response and an essay response. Students choose one of the two questions for their thematic study and answer both parts of that question.

Internal Assessment

20

30%

24

Historical investigation

20 hours

30%

24

This component is internally assessed by the teacher and externally moderated by the IB at the end of the course.

Students investigate a historical topic of their choice. They formulate an inquiry question, identify and choose sources, synthesize information and evaluate sources to produce a response.

Assessment summary HL

Hours

Weighting Marks

External Assessment

5

80%

79

Paper 1

1 hour 15 minutes

20%

24

Source-based assessment on the five focused studies, linked by an overarching inquiry question.

Students respond to three static questions. Students answer all the questions for one of the focused studies.

Paper 2

1 hour 25% 45 minutes

25

Section A: two questions on the specified concepts. Students choose one question to answer.

Section B: two questions on each of the four thematic studies. Each question consists of two parts – a short response and an essay response. Students choose one of the two questions for their thematic study and answer both parts of that question.

Paper 3

2 hours

35%

30

Separate papers for each of the four regions.

Two essay questions on each of the 12 regional studies within the selected region. Students choose to answer two questions, each from a different regional study.

Internal Assessment

5

20%

24

Historical investigation

20 hours

20%

24

This component is internally assessed by the teacher and externally moderated by the IB at the end of the course.

Students investigate a historical topic of their choice. They formulate an inquiry question, identify and choose sources, synthesize information and evaluate sources to produce a response.

Comprehensive and engaging support for the 2026 syllabus Contents Guide to Paper 2 ................................................................................................. iv Introduction........................................................................................................ v Chapter 1 Why did popular movements emerge? .....................................................2 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Political factors......................................................................................................... 5 Economic factors ....................................................................................................17 The role of ideas .....................................................................................................29 Social factors ..........................................................................................................41

Chapter 2 How did popular movements create change? ......................................... 58 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

Fully aligned with the IB History syllabus for first teaching in 2026, and first assessment in 2028

Political participation ..............................................................................................62 Non-violent methods ............................................................................................. 72 Cultural influence ...................................................................................................82 Violent methods ..................................................................................................... 93

Chapter 3 How were popular movements challenged? ..........................................108 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

Political opposition................................................................................................ 110 Divisions within the movement .............................................................................. 123 Violent opposition .................................................................................................135 Resilience of traditional ideas .................................................................................147

Chapter 4 What was the impact of popular movements? ........................................162 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

Political change .................................................................................................... 164 Social change .......................................................................................................176 The experiences of women ................................................................................... 189 The experiences of marginalized groups ................................................................201

Chapter 5 Approaching the exam .......................................................................219 5.1 5.2 5.3

Paper 2, Section A ................................................................................................ 219 Paper 2, Section B ................................................................................................224 Practise putting it all together ...............................................................................228

Index ............................................................................................................. 230 Answers ...................................................www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib-hist-support

DP History: Popular Movements Course Book

Foster essential Approaches to Learning (ATL) skills - critical thinking, communication, research, and social skills - throughout each chapter

2.1 What led to the emergence of protest movements?

Discussion Is the claim that Ben Ali’s rise to power was a surprise to the Tunisian people accurate?

Do you have a different perspective after examining his rise to power?

Ben Ali promises change and reform 1987–1989 There was much hope in this early period that Ben Ali was going to deliver on his promises. Reforms were introduced that seemed designed to appeal to both the regime’s elites and opposition groups. Political exiles were encouraged to return to Tunisia and were promised a more open political process. Thousands of political prisoners were freed in 1988 and exiled opposition figures were encouraged to return home.

Approaches to learning Thinking and communication skills Create a table and organize your notes on Ben Ali’s reforms under the following headings as you read through these sections: Reforms

Nature of the reform

Reform’s influence on democratization in Tunisia

State party (PSD) Voting system Treatment of opposition

Key term Secularism: The separation of religion from civil affairs and the state so that no single faith controls or influences the state.

Dealing with members of the old regime Human rights Constitutional amendment Relationship with the UGTT Women’s rights and secularism

Initial attitude to Islam and Islamic political groups DP History: Protest and Change Course Book

Ben Ali was aware of the power religion had to shape public opinion and wanted the Islamist opposition on his side. In an effort at appeasement, Islam would be given its place in society, but its power would be limited.

Immediately after the coup d’état on 7 November, he declared Islam the state religion, he allowed the Islamic call to prayer to be broadcast on TV and Radio, and in March 1988 he went on a highly publicized pilgrimage to Mecca.

Key terms are defined throughout to help students understand important terminology

DP History: Conflict Course Book

Theory of Knowledge (TOK) link boxes are included so students can consider key TOK questions in relation to History

DP History: Conflict Course Book

Strengthen exam confidence with exam-style questions, extensive source skills practice, and practical tips throughout

DP History: The Americas Course Book

Paper 1 • Equip students with essential skills by teaching them to interpret historical sources in response to inquiry questions, analyse how context influences source utility and synthesize diverse perspectives into cohesive arguments • Support students with applying knowledge and understanding from the relevant focused study DP History: The Americas Course Book

2.1 What factors prompted innovation?

Key term Gregorian calendar: The civil calendar used worldwide today, introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. It is a solar calendar that accurately accounts the Earth’s orbit around the sun.

Theory of knowledge Research what makes a ‘myth’ and answer the following questions.

1. Do you think myths were early forms of history for ancient and medieval societies?

2. Can you identify a mythical narrative still in place today?

3. What kind of information can we infer about the Aztec Empire from myths, even though they aren’t accounts of real events?

2.1.1 The Triple Alliance and the establishment of the Aztec Empire

their calendar (1325 in the Gregorian calendar) when they arrived at a small island in Lake Texcoco. On this island, the elder members of the community saw what they believed was a message from the god Huitzilopochtli showing them the place where they were supposed to settle and where the city of Tenochtitlan was to be built.

Aztec calendar system The Aztecs used a complex calendar system with two cycles: a 260-day cycle for ritual purposes, and a 365-day cycle for civil events. Days and years were signified with a number and a symbol, so a day could be called One Jaguar or Five Flower, and a year could be called Two House or One Rabbit, for example.

Understanding the Aztec calendar helps historians date events according to the Gregorian calendar, which is the calendar many countries use today.

Stories about the migrations The tales about the migration from the mythical Aztlán to Tenochtitlan represent the origins of the people who would be known as the Aztecs. The stories describe their blessing by the gods, the key events of their history, some of their heroes and leaders, and, finally, their building of Tenochtitlan, from where they would eventually dominate large portions of Mesoamerica. Although some of the stories may be myths, they help us understand how the Aztecs viewed themselves and their world.

Source skills Source G In this extract from a textbook on mythology, historians Jessica Mellenthin and Susan O. Shapiro describe how myths about a people’s history can help us understand how they view the past.

“Historical myths are told about a historical event, and they help keep the memory of that event alive. Ironically, in historical myths, the accuracy is lost but meaning is gained.”

migrants lived and was called Chicomoztoc. The Mexica were one group of people who lived in Chicomoztoc before they began their migration.

Some codices state that the Aztec ruler Moctezuma assembled an expedition of 60 sorcerers and magicians to search for Aztlán. The travellers were given gold, precious stones, feathers, cacao, vanilla, and cotton from the royal treasure to be offered as gifts to the people of Aztlán. In the stories, the travellers arrived at a place named Coatepec after wandering for ten days.

There, they transformed themselves into birds and animals to make the last part of the journey to Aztlán. When they arrived, they re-assumed their human forms and reached the hill in the middle of the lake. There they met an old priest, a guardian of the goddess Coatlicue, and an ancient woman, the mother of the god Huitzilopochtli. The old man declined the gifts, explaining that the consumption of cacao and the rest of the luxurious items was the reason why the people in Tenochtitlan were no longer immortal. Before they left, he gave the travellers some waterfowl and plants native to Aztlán to take back with them to Tenochtitlan.

The sun god One of the most important deities in Aztec religion was the sun god Huitzilopochtli (see Figure 2.3). Every day, he moved across the sky. At night, he returned to the bosom of the earth, his mother, to renew his strength and re-start the fight against darkness.

The Aztecs considered themselves the “people of the sun”, and believed that it was Huitzilopochtli who ordered them to start their migration to the central valley of Mexico, and to establish the city of Tenochtitlan. According to the legends, the god sent a message to the Mexica through an eagle perching on a nopal cactus with a serpent in its beak. When the Mexica people saw this, they knew that that place was the site of the city they should build.

This story is still significant as a legend today: five centuries later Tenochtitlan’s foundation story was depicted and memorialized on Mexico’s national flag (see Figure 2.4).

▲ Figure 2.3 Huitzilopochtli, as shown in the Codex Borbonicus, which was written by Aztec priests. He is shown with hummingbird feathers on his head, and a sceptre in the shape of a snake.

Theory of knowledge The modern Mexican flag shows how the Aztec Empire is still important to the people of the region.

1. Think about the history of your own country. Are there any important historical stories or mythical narratives that still play a role in its culture?

2. Why do you think historical stories and myths are important to study?

Questions Hold a classroom discussion about these questions: 1. Why would it be ironic that myths help us gain meaning?

2. Think of some traditional myths from your own culture or country. They can focus on people, places, or important events. What do they mean?

How do they help you understand the culture or country?

The myth of Aztlán According to some Aztec stories, Aztlán, also known as “the Place of Whiteness” or “the Place of the Heron”, was an opulent place located on a large lake. Its inhabitants were immortal and lived happily among abundant resources. In the middle of the lake where Aztlán was believed to be located, there was a steep hill called Colhuacan with seven caves in it; this was where the ancestors of the

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DP History: Climate and Innovation Course Book

▲ Figure 2.4 The modern Mexican flag includes the image of the serpent, eagle, and cactus that was central to the founding of Tenochtitlan

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Paper 2 • Engage learners with in-depth coverage of relevant historical examples, helping students build a strong foundation of contextual knowledge and analytical insight across their thematic study in Paper 2 • Develop synthesis and argumentation skills, encouraging students to connect diverse historical examples and construct analytical, evidence-based responses

2.3 How did authoritarian rule affect people’s lives?

2.3 How did authoritarian rule affect people’s lives?

2.3.1 Economic relations with the Soviet Union The shift from economic reliance on the United States to economic reliance on the Soviet Union after 1960 brought with it political, economic and social shifts, as Cuba drew ever closer to communist ideology. Although Cuba did not declare itself to be a communist state until after the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961, loud cheers from the Cuban delegation had punctuated Premier Khrushchev’s speech at the UN General Assembly in New York in November 1960. At the same time, photographs of a grinning Castro embracing an equally cheerful Khrushchev outside the former’s hotel in Harlem were seen all over the world (see Figure 2.11).

Concept connections Cause and consequence • How do authoritarian policies shape society’s long-term economic and social conditions?

Significance • Explain the significance of authoritarian policies in shaping the lived experiences of marginalized groups.

While Cuba’s alliance with the Soviet Union was growing stronger on the world stage, internal debates continued over what form socialism should take within Cuba itself.

Both Castro and Che Guevara had doubts about the communist model favoured

by Lenin, preferring instead to create a system more suited to the Latin American environment in which they lived. However, by 1968, Guevara was dead, and Castro was increasingly dependent on the Soviet Union for Cuba’s economic survival. The Cuban state, therefore, began to adopt many of the structures of the Soviet state.

2.3.2 Economic problems and solutions Revolutionary land reform and nationalization As promised in his Moncada Programme of 1953, Castro was keen to implement reforms that would improve the lives of landless rural workers. His initial reforms negatively affected only the wealthiest landowners, while providing shortterm economic benefits for the vast majority of the Cuban population; the macro-economic impact would only be felt in subsequent years. The reforms involved nationalizing major industries (for example, public utilities, the power companies and the telephone company—all US-owned), drastically reducing rents, and breaking up large landholdings (with some exceptions such as sugar plantations) into smaller units and turning them into cooperatives similar to those in communist China in the 1950s. Nationalizing in Cuba refers to the government taking control of privately owned industries and businesses, especially those owned by foreign companies, to redistribute wealth and assert economic independence. This process accelerated after 1960 as part of Castro’s efforts to reduce foreign influence and align the economy with revolutionary goals.

▲ Figure 2.11 Fidel Castro embracing Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in 1960 when the two leaders met at the UN General Assembly in New York

Key term Macro-economic: Relating to the branch of economics concerned with large-scale or general economic factors, such as interest rates and national productivity, rather than micro-economics which is concerned with the behaviour of individuals and businesses.

Land was confiscated from large companies and then redistributed to often landless, rural workers. More than 200 000 people were given the title deeds to land on which they had previously worked for wealthy landlords. Compensation was paid to the former owners, but—in a move that highlighted the corruption of the previous government—the value of the land and, therefore, the level of compensation paid was calculated by using tax office records. To escape paying taxes, the US corporations had severely undervalued their land in their official tax returns. It was now this same value that was used by the Castro government in calculating the compensation that they would receive for the land that was

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DP History: Authoritarian Rule Course Book

Paper 3 • Support Higher Level (HL) learners in building evaluative thinking and deep historical insight through comprehensive regional content • Deliver comprehensive regional content that enables students to explore key themes, developments, and debates within The Americas, deepening their historical insight and argumentation skills for Paper 3

1 The Mexican Revolution (1884–1940)

Approaches to learning Thinking and communication skills Using the IB Learner Profile in the Introduction, evaluate David Siqueiros on LP areas of strength and areas of needed growth. Then, discuss with your group how he became successful because of his strengths and despite his areas of growth.

Approaches to learning Research and social skills Examine a revolution-inspired artwork. Analyse the work’s themes and context, and identify any aspects of culture from the past and any cultural aspects that are aspirational or have changed. Swap your ideas with someone else in your class who has chosen a different artwork.

Discussion Muralists shared their perceptions, realities and knowledge of the revolution through their art.

1. In what ways did the arts help others understand the history of the revolution?

2. In what ways did muralists use culture to understand the revolution and portray it in their murals?

1.6 Impact of the revolution

From here, he left for South America, where he started to develop the processes and techniques that would make him famous. He believed in continual experimentation with different techniques and new technologies.

He returned to Mexico in 1939 at the end of Cárdenas’ tenure in office and painted Portrait of the Bourgeoisie, a visual struggle between the evils of fascism and democracy. Siqueiros created works that were full of political and social content, which later in his career included the struggle against emerging fascism.

David Siqueiros’ murals were always a powerful voice for the marginalized and oppressed (see Figure 1.23). His art was ingrained with political activism, showing labour exploitation, critiquing imperialism and celebrating racial unity.

Through his works, he forced audiences to question systemic injustices, inspired oppressed labourers to unite and continued the cultural legacy of the Mexican Revolution.

Music Music during and after the revolution very much reflected the ideals and sacrifices made by the soldiers and their loved ones during the fighting. Musicians used the various ideas and themes of the revolution and coupled them with the new emergence of mass media after the revolution, namely radio and production.

During the revolution brass bands followed the armies, reflecting the regional traditions of music and instruments. Music and dancing were a significant component in the revolutionary armies as they would play music after wins, losses and even during battles to motivate the soldiers.

Corridos, or Mexican ballads, were around before the revolution but their association with the fighting brought them to the forefront. They incorporated simple language and became a communication tool to share stories and news of the revolution throughout the country. These narratives of social events were sung by soldiers around the fire at night—and usually had political undertones, themes of land reform, nationalism and women as a romantic theme. They used authentic and traditional musical instruments to accompany the songs.

The revolution certainly popularized this style of music (see Figure 1.24), but when it ended and technology entered the world of music, it all started to change. Styles started to change in the 1920s and 1930s. Girls started to cut their hair short, raised their skirt lengths and discovered the dance floor. This type of girl was known as “Chica Moderna”, the modern girl.

Mariachi was traditional rural music that used only stringed instruments and the voice. In the 1930s, it gained national popularity. The mariachi bands began to tour the country, and even the United States. A mariachi band accompanied President Cárdenas across Mexico on his campaign tour. The mariachis soon adopted trumpets because of the influence of big band music in the United States.

Music helped heal a torn nation during and after the revolution. It was a way for opposing groups to meet on common ground. Much of the music development was pushed by technology, which improved the style, sound and delivery, but Mexico’s most famous music stems from the influence of the revolution.

▲ Figure 1.24 Folk musicians in Mexico, around the time of the revolution

Literature A new literary genre emerged from the revolution known as “Novels of the Revolution”. This genre included hundreds of novels by as many authors who were inspired by the events of the revolution. One of the most famous authors of this genre is Mariano Azuela. He was a doctor during the revolution and saw many of the tragedies that took place. He wrote The Underdogs, one of the first and most popular stories of its time.

Most of the novels, like Azuela’s, are based on the revolution and real events.

They are often dark, showing the loss and disorder that took place, but also trying to show the heroic side of the revolution. Other novels in this genre are: They Gave Us the Land by Juan Rulfo, The Edge of the Storm by Agustin Yáñez, The Shadow of the Caudillo by Martin Luiz Guzman. Nellie Campobello wrote titles including Cartucho and Notes on the Military Life of Francisco Villa.

A later generation also wrote stories based on the events from the revolution, like Carlos Fuentes’ The Old Gringo. This literature was a reflection of, and was inspired by, the events of the Mexican Revolution. While it was very much intended to bring people’s attention to the dark but very real side of the revolution, it also revealed the authentic source of nationalistic pride the revolution inspired.

Exam-style questions 1. “The arts played a significant role in uniting a deeply divided society after the revolution.” To what extent do you agree with this claim?

2. Historians argue that the social reforms of the Mexican Revolution fell short of addressing systemic poverty and inequality. To what extent do you agree with this?

Key term Corridos: Mexican folk ballads that narrate historical events, social struggles and heroism, like Villa and Zapata’s actions. They were often used as oral history to share stories of revolution, rebellion and resistance.

The radio was now delivering music to almost everyone across the nation and recording studios started to refine the sound quality. Radio stations not only helped the popularity of songs, artists and types of music but also helped foster a night life among young professionals, hence the Chica Moderna.

Reference For more on Nellie Campobello, refer to the Using sources box in Section 1.6: Impact of the revolution.

Evaluating arguments “The Mexican Revolution inspired a cultural renaissance that redefined Mexican national identity.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

3. To what extent do you agree with the argument that “The participation of women in the Mexican Revolution challenged traditional gender roles but failed to bring lasting change”?

4. “The experiences of marginalized groups during the Mexican Revolution highlight the limits of revolutionary ideals.” To what extent do you agree with this claim? ▲ Figure 1.23 Del Porfirismo a la Revolución by David Siqueiros

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DP History: The Americas Course Book

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Comprehensive digital support 2.1 What factors prompted innovation?

2.1.1 The Triple Alliance and the establishment of the Aztec Empire

Ultimately, its forces reached as far as the province of Chiappan, on the border with what is today Guatemala.

Lake Zumpanca

Tlacaelel

Lake Xaltocan

Azcapotzalco Tlacopan

Lake Texcoco

Texcoco

Tenochtitlan

Lake Xochimilco

Lake Chalco

▲ Figure 2.5 A map showing the members of the Triple Alliance and the lake system in the Mexican basin

Itzcoatl did not achieve everything alone. He had the invaluable advice and military aid of one of the most influential men in Aztec history: Tlacaelel.

According to some indigenous sources, Tlacaelel’s father was Huitzilihuitl, who was the ruler of Tenochtitlan before his brother, Itzcoatl, took power.

This made Tlacaelel the nephew of Itzcoatl. Other accounts suggest that Tlacaelel was the son of Acamapichtli, the first ruler of Tenochtitlan and founder of the Aztec dynasty. Neither of these claims can be supported with conclusive evidence.

Born around 1398, Tlacaelel served several Aztec emperors, including Itzcoatl, Moctezuma, Axayacatl, and Tizoc, mostly as cihuacoatl, a title that could translate as “chief advisor” or “chief minister”. Tlacaelel played a vital role in the creation of a new political and religious alliance, and was also responsible for the implementation of educational, political, and religious reforms. Together, Itzcoatl and Tlacaelel shaped a new governing structure that became more hierarchical and structured.

Succession The Aztec emperors were related, but succession was not strictly hereditary. In other words, the son of an emperor was not guaranteed to become the next emperor. A council of nobles selected the next emperor, and they generally chose a son, male cousin, or nephew of the emperor, basing their decision partly on the candidates’ experience or proven leadership.

Source skills Source H Itzcoatl as shown in the Tovar Codex. His name-glyph, an obsidian serpent, is shown over his shoulder.

A variety of engaging content including interactive activities, vocabulary exercises, sources, teacher guidance and videos are included in the digital offer

Approaches to learning Self-management skills The IB DP History Guide specifies four historical concepts that “focus historical inquiry with powerful, persuasive and debatable ideas”.

Find out what the IB DP History Guide has to say about the concept of “significance”. Then consider how significant the role of individual Aztec leaders is in our understanding of Aztec history.

Question Tlacaelel, as shown in the Codex Mendoza

In most of these cases, the conquerors established an additional layer of leadership and a tribute system over the local authorities and communities that already existed. However, in some cases, like the city of Xaltocan, the archaeological evidence indicates that the Triple Alliance replaced some of the population, perhaps because the defeated people fled.

With the entire valley under control, Itzcoatl established new titles and districts.

The rulers of the newly formed Aztec Empire became known as the Huey Tlatoani, which means “Great Speaker” or “Supreme Leader”. This title was first given to Itzcoatl, and then the later leaders of Tenochtitlan, who were all members of Itzcoatl’s family. The emperor’s status grew as the altepetl of Tenochtitlan became more established as the dominant city-state in the alliance.

What elements and items in the image show us that Itzcoatl was a significant person?

Power relations within the Triple Alliance The Triple Alliance was initially a military agreement, and the three city-states sometimes operated independently and sometimes together (see Figure 2.6). By 1431, each group controlled certain city-states. Tenochtitlan dominated the south, Texcoco the north-east, and Tlacopan the north-west. Each of the partners was politically independent and each ruler acted as the head of their own altepetl.

However, it soon became clear that the three partners were not equals. The division of the loot obtained through wars marked a first difference: while Tenochtitlan and Texcoco shared equal parts, Tlacopan received smaller portions because it joined the alliance later. Although Texcoco and Tenochtitlan began as equals, Tenochtitlan soon became the dominant military power.

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Enable learning anywhere with mobile-optimized access to student resources and offline access to the seven digital Course Books via Kerboodle

Our digital platform Kerboodle, contains Reports, which can be used to monitor students’ performance at both class and individual level and identify gaps in knowledge at a student, group, or topic level

Meet the authors Designed to build both knowledge and skills, our 2026 DP History resources are created by an international team of IB experts

Alexis Mamaux

Mariam Habibi

History Teacher and Dean of Academics USA

Teacher and Workshop Leader France

Avinash Kashyap

María de la Paz Estevez

History, TOK and Global Politics Teacher and Head of Humanities Indonesia

Researcher, Workshop Leader and Content Developer Argentina

Brian Gray

Matt Borgmann

Principal Examiner for History and Extended Essay, Workshop Leader UK

DP History Teacher, Paper 3 Examiner, and MYP Coordinator USA

Chiel Mooij

Sheta Saha

History and Global Politics Teacher and Workshop Leader The Netherlands

School Visit Team Leader and Programme Leader for the IB India

David M Smith

Sudeshna Bhattacharya

History and TOK author and Workshop Leader Canada

History and TOK Teacher and Workshop Leader India

Kariman Mango

Verity Aylward

DP History, World Religions and TOK teacher, and MYP and IB Individuals and Societies Department Coordinator Jordan

Teacher of History and Politics UK

Choose resources that fully support the subject guide for IB DP History, for first teaching 2026 Paper 1

Paper 2

Paper 3

Oxford Resources for IB DP History: Climate and Innovation Course Book

Oxford Resources for IB DP History: Conflict Course Book

Oxford Resources for IB DP History: The Americas Course Book

9781382070478

9781382070553

9781382070591

Oxford Resources for IB DP History: Conflict and Displacement Course Book

Oxford Resources for IB DP History: Authoritarian Rule Course Book

9781382070492

9781382070539

Oxford Resources for IB DP History: Protest and Change Course Book

Oxford Resources for IB DP History: Popular Movements Course Book

9781382070515

9781382070577

Oxford Resources for IB DP History: Kerboodle* Including seven digital Course Books * The price of this subscription depends on the size of your cohort.

Please contact your local educational consultant for more information.

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