Hydrogen applications

relevant, as the demand for capacity and production increases. Future restrictions on the use of toxic solvents (e.g. NMP) in electrode fabrication are likely to be imposed, creating a need for fabrication methods based on more environmentally benign solvents. Introduction of larger battery packs in ever more demanding applications requires more advanced battery management systems to ensure good battery life, performance and safe operation. Efforts aimed at increasing of volumetric capacity for automotive and portable applications, as well as more environmentally friendly manufacturing and recycling methods is foreseen.

The existing Norwegian processing and metallurgical industries, as well as manufacturers of binder materials for potential use in electrodes can fill niches early in the value chain for batteries. To ensure flexibility in application, materials should be optimized for battery usage, for example through nano-structuring. In particular, the production of silicon, aluminium and magnesium, as well as mineral extractions stands out as relevant industries for further research into this field.

Norwegian researchers should establish themselves as attractive partners for international research by developing expertise in strategic niches along the value chain, in collaboration with partners with broader expertise. Such cooperation will again demand longterm initiatives.

R&D recommendations:

• Development of environmentally friendly material and component manufacturing solutions and recycling technologies.

• Development of battery chemistries for extreme temperature and pressure conditions.

• Development of methods for lifetime prediction and testing.

• Development of battery technologies

for large-scale energy storage.

• Optimization of materials for higher performance, longer life battery solutions.

hgydroren applications

A key to the utilization of intermittent renewable

energy

Renewable energy could be stored as hydrogen, and used as fuel in vehicles or in stationary power production. However, the full implementation of hydrogen applications on an large scale still asks for further research and demonstration activities.

Internationally leading auto manufacturers and European energy companies agreed that hydrogen will play a key role both as fuel for transportation as well as an energy storage medium for a steadily increasing share of renewable energy sources in stationary power production. According to IEA’s Blue Map scenario hydrogen must be implemented as fuel in transportation in order to achieve the IPCCs 2oC goals. Moreover, the European Commission’s SET-plan concludes that hydrogen and fuel cells constitute key enabling technologies to reach the vision of a low carbon society.

Hydrogen exhibits high gravimetric energy density and can provide the required flexibility with respect to both medium and long term (seasonal) energy storage and long driving range when hydrogen is used as fuel for transportation applications. Hydrogen may be produced by splitting water utilizing e.g. wind energy during periods when power supply exceeds demand. When there is less wind (or sunshine), hydrogen is reelectrified in fuel cells (FCs) and the power delivered to the grid. Alternatively, hydrogen is mixed into e.g. biogas and burned in combined heat and power plants or used as pre-cursor for production of synthetic fuels (e.g., methane or methanol) or various chemicals.

Technology status

The technological challenges which ten years ago were identified as critical for the successful implementation of fuel cells (FC) in vehicles have all been solved. Startup and operation in temperatures down to -30oC has been demonstrated, the driving range of today’s FCEVs prototypes is 400-800 km and the refuelling time is reduced to 3 minutes. Moreover, the volume of the FC systems has been reduced to a level at which the complete power train can be implemented without reducing the space in the vehicle. FCEVs have also shown operability in the harsh Nordic winter climate and since the FC in addition to electricity also produces some heat (at ~80 °C) the driving range is not significantly reduced in cold climate. According to US DoE FC systems for automotive applications (typically 80-100 kW) are already cost competitive with combustion engines when the number of produced units reach half a million. Hyundai started production of the first 1000 FCEVs already in January 2013 and Toyota and Honda recently reconfirmed that their FCEVs will be launched in the market in 2015 at an affordable price.

Although the main driver for the development of FCs has been the use in vehicles, many of the FC types are best suited for stationary applications. Common for these FC types is that they usually operate at higher temperatures and that the systems are designed for the heat to be utilized. FCs for stationary applications can also operate on various fuels such as natural gas, LPG, biogas, and methanol, featuring high electric efficiency (50-60%

even for small units), high grade heat utilization, and CO2 separation and concentration as an integral part of the energy conversion process. Thus, carbon capture is simplified considerably compared with conventional combustion technologies, where CO2 is emitted in diluted gas mixtures. Several 10.000 FC units (kW) have been installed in Japanese households, MW-sized power plants are in operation in e.g. California and a 60 MW FC based power plant is under construction in Korea. In Germany large scale hydrogen production from wind for grid stabilization is being pursued, facilitating increased utilization of renewable energy.

Challenges

In general, hydrogen technologies have reached the maturity level needed to facilitate large scale introduction of renewable energy sources in stationary power supply as well as hydrogen as fuel in transportation. Current prototype FCEVs are still somewhat heavier than conventional cars. However, more auto manufacturers confirm that the FCEVs to be launched in the market in

2015 will have the same weight and load capacity as comparable cars with combustion engines.

The remaining challenges for hydrogen technologies are in general durability and cost, leaving the focus of R&D activities towards new materials. The lifetime of e.g. FCs for cars and buses today ranges from 2500 to 4000 operating hours, corresponding to 100.000-160.000 km. Hence, the lifetime must at least be doubled before FC technology for automotive applications is competitive.

The production cost of FCEVs is, as for most other technologies, very dependent on production volume. Thus, in the initial phase of deployment the cost of FCEVs is expected to be significantly higher than that of cars with combustion engines. Similarly, for electrolysers and hydrogen storage technologies cost reduction is required for commercialization.

Moreover, there are needs for further development and adaptation of system components, as the efficiency and reliability of today’s hydrogen systems suffer from the use of of-the-shelf components (pumps, heat exchangers, valves, etc.) developed for other applications. Tailor-made components are required to fully exploit the potential of these novel technologies.

Outlook

Particularly interesting for Norwegian stakeholders is hydrogen production from unregulated renewable energy (wind and small-scale hydro) and from natural gas in power plants with carbon capture and sequestration (CCS). The use of hydrogen and FCs in maritime transport and energy systems for remote areas with limited or no network access also represents a viable niche market segment.

Norway has played a pioneering role in hydrogen production since the late 1920s, as basis for large scale fertilizer production. Based on industrial as well as academic competence Norway can play a central role as supplier of technology to the growing market for hydrogen technologies, early market for FCEVs based on the world’s most effective incentives and exporter of hydrogen in a 2030-perspective.

R&D recommendations:

• Development of new materials for lower cost and durable hydrogen technologies, including electrolysers, storage solutions and fuel cells.

• Development of customized system components tailor-made for hydrogen applications. policy recommendations:

• Pilot- and full scale demonstration of cost-effective system-integrated hydrogen production and reelectrification.