EXTRA INFRA

DESIGN STUDIO ERIK G L’HEUREUX (PHD) FAIA DEAN’S CHAIR ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

AY 2023/2024 M.ARCH THESIS, SEMESTER 1/2

EXTRA INFRA

LIU HENG

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE COLLEGE OF DESIGN AND ENVIRONMENT NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who have contributed to the completion of this thesis project. First and foremost, I extend my deepest appreciation to my thesis advisor, Professor Erik L’Heureux, for their invaluable guidance and insightful feedback throughout the research process. Special thanks to my friends and family for their encouragement and understanding during the challenging phases of this project.

Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the resources and facilities provided by the Department of Architecture. This thesis would not have been possible without the collective support of everyone involved, and I am truly thankful for their contributions.

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Jakarta Satellite Image | NASA Earth Observatory [1]

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JAKARTA AS A CASE STUDY As I approach the commencement of my thesis research, it is evident that existential crisis will be a central theme of my research. Yet, I am acutely aware that the philosophical nature of existence extends beyond the realm of architecture. To design based on such arbitrary and inexplicable conditions would undermine either aspect of this duality. Therefore, this research transcends the concept of existential crisis from an individual scale to that of the city. The philosophical contemplation of existence becomes palpable as the individual psyche transforms into the collective consciousness of the city’s populace, and personal crises evolve into a shared collective burden.

In pursuit of this exploration, I have turned to a city renowned for its vitality and economic resilience despite confronting severe environmental challenges that threaten its very survival. This city is Jakarta, a metropolis characterized by a multitude of urban fabrics intersecting, bordering, and overlapping with one another. While these urban fabrics may not share many commonalities, they all fall prey to a common adversary: the relentless tide. In a manner similar to an individual’s existential crisis, this city’s duress constitutes a constant, underlying hum beneath the ceaseless tapestry of events and emotions.

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STUDENT

ADVISOR

Liu Heng A0199606N

Erik G L’Heureux PhD (FAIA) Dean’s Chair Associate Professor

ABSTRACT This research by design explores the intricate urban landscape of Jakarta, a city grappling with the critical challenges of land subsidence and recurring floods resulting from unsustainable groundwater extraction and rising sea levels. Despite efforts to address subsidence, such as expanding the tapped water network and implementing infiltration wells, the outcomes have proven unproductive. The foreseeable future of Jakarta remains one of inundation and the increase of flood infrastructure, with the irreversible situation contributing to the recent decision to relocate the capital to East Kalimantan.

In the midst of these disasters, Jakarta’s economy continues to flourish, driving a constant increase in housing demand. With much of the available land exhausted, Jakarta is turning vertical, leading to the emergence of a phenomenon known as ‘apartmentalisation.’ This trend signifies the proliferation of middle-class apartment complexes, which directly threatens the kampungs, the homes of Jakarta’s urban majority. On top of that, the anticipated rise in flood infrastructure will result in the kampungs surrendering more autonomy. The fragmentation goes beyond income and territories; it encompasses different urban models, value systems, and cultures, leading to a city identity that is disjointed and, at times, contradictory.

This research asserts that fostering cross-pollination between urban typologies is essential to establish continuity within Jakarta’s unique local and plural culture. By viewing flood infrastructure as an opportunity for infrastructural urbanism, where infrastructure is a core component of urban development rather than just a platform, this research advocates for an anti-fragile and democratic approach to urbanism. It embraces the local and plural culture, using the shared duress of the tide as a catalyst for propagating architectural interventions. It does so by designating three encompassing sites in North Jakarta as laboratories for the larger city.

Keywords: [Jakarta], [Subsidence], [Infrastructure], [Urban Fragmentation], [Local Culture]

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CONTENTS RESEARCH BY TRAVEL

1.0

RESEARCH TOOLS

Sea wall construction

1.1

ITINERARY

1.2 Jakarta Roadside. | 27-09-2023

CHARACTERS

2.0

SINKING CONDITION

2.1

THREE PLAYERS

VII

Sea wall upgrading | 27-09-2023

3.0

BRIGHT COLOURS + COLOURFUL CULTURE

3.1

BRUTAL NOT BY CHOICE

Market stall | 28-09-2023

3.0

ARCHITECTURAL CONSEQUENCE

LOCAL PLURAL NON-NEUTRAL

3.1

ANTI FRAGILE

3.2

INFRASTRUCTURAL URBANISM

Re-purposed building | 28-09-2023

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SITES

5.0

PLUIT RESERVOIR PUMPING STATION

Flood reservoir pumps | 27-09-2023

5.1

PLUIT RESERVOIR WATER TREATMENT PLANT Water treatment plant | 27-09-2023

5.2

MUARA BARU SEA WALL (WEST)

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Sea wall | 28-09-2023

6.0

ARCHITECTURE INTERVENTION

SITE STUDIES

6.1

PUMP POOL

6.2

PLANT PATH

6.3

WALL COVE

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Pump Pool | 15-05-2024

7.0

COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE

7.1

NOTES + IMAGE NOTES+ BIBLIOGRAPHY

7.2 Alfamart | 28-09-2023

SELF DISCLOSURE OF RESEARCH

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1.0

RESEARCH TOOLS

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In the final week of September, during the prized recess week when all academic activities are paused, I embarked on a solo journey to great capital of Indonesia, Jakarta.

In addition to essential items, I brought along my trusty Fuji XE-4 camera, an 18-55mm lens, and a disposable film camera to meet my photography requirements. I also packed my iPad and notebook for reading and sketching purposes, as well as some Singaporean candy for engaging with and perhaps charming the locals.

The trip had three primary objectives. First, to employ photography in documenting my research. Second, to acquire informal knowledge through interactions with locals. Third, to identify three sites suitable for architectural intervention.

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1.1

ITINERARY

26-29 SEPTEMBER 2023

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DAY 1

DAY 3

0830 Changi Airport T4 1035 Board QZ263 to Jakarta 1125 Soekarno-Hatta International Airport T2 1215 Hostel 1230 Lunch 1300 Explore immediate site 1330 Jakarta History Museum 1430 Check-in to hostel 1500 Talk to fellow travelers 1640 Monas 1715 Istiqlal Mosque 1750 Jakarta Cathedral 1810 Lapangan Banteng Park 1900 Hostel 1920 Dinner 2020 Night Market 2200 End

0800 Wake 0830 Breakfast with ‘Uncle’ & fellow travelers 0945 Kalibata City 1025 Kampung Kalibata 1130 Lunch 1330 Komunitas Salihara 1400 Pasar Minggu 1500 Hostel 1530 Learn youth culture from Hidayat 1800 Dinner 1900 End

DAY 2

DAY 4

0700 Wake 0730 Breakfast with ‘Uncle’ 0830 Sunken Mosque 0915 Maura Bahru 1000 Rusunawa Waduk Puit 1030 Rumah Pompa Waduk Pluit 1100 Hostel 1200 Lunch 1500 Architecture exhibition @ Thamrin Nine 1600 Middle-class housing @ Tanah Abang 1700 Grand Indonesia Mall 1830 Dinner 1900 Learn local culture from ‘Uncle’ 2000 End

0700 Wake 0730 Breakfast with ‘Uncle’ 0830 Check Out 0900 Glodok tour with Jakarta Good Guide 1130 Hostel 1200 Lunch 1300 Kota Tua with Brett 1600 Soekarno-Hatta International Airport T2 1700 Dinner 1830 Board QZ268 to Singapore 2100 Changi Airport T4

Map of Jakarta

Jakarta travel map

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1.2

CHARACTERS

Hidayat & his father | 28-09-2023

The original travel itinerary underwent significant changes after engaging in casual conversations with three locals: Hidayat, Indra, and ‘Uncle.’ They generously shared an abundance of invaluable local knowledge that greatly contributed to my comprehension of the intricate local culture.

Various pieces of local research findings gathered during these interactions is scattered throughout this report.

Indra | 29-09-2023

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“Uncle” | 27-09-2023

“Uncle” has made the hostel his permanent residence and has become an indispensable part of the hostel’s lore. He spends most of his day in the air-conditioned common area, engaging in conversations with backpackers, and occasionally offering to guide them on their journeys.

During my four days of travel, ‘Uncle’ introduced me to numerous local eateries and facilitated visits to two crucial research sites: the Kalibata district, which contains one of the largest middle-class apartment complexes that borders an extensive kampung, and Pasar Minggu, which contains blocks of markets known for its concentrated local culture owing to the mix of official renovations and informal growth.

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Local Research Finding #01 Bule Translation: White Buffalo Originally a Javanese term for rare albino buffaloes, today an umbrella term to describe foreigners, particularly Caucasians.

[2]

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2.0

SINKING CONDITION

Sunken Mosque | 27-09-2023

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Jakarta is in the midst of a significant subsidence crisis, with some areas sinking at a rate exceeding 20 centimeters per year.1 This, coupled with a consistent annual sea level rise of 3 millimeters, paints a grim picture of the city’s future prospects. Currently, approximately 40% of the city is already below sea level, making it vulnerable to storm surges and monsoon floods.2 In certain regions, such as the outer fringes of Muara Bahru, the encroaching tides have already started to claim territory. The well-known sunken mosque serves as a poignant relic of the town’s past and a stark reminder of the imminent danger of inundation faced by coastal areas.

In 2019, President Widodo announced that the capital of Indonesia would be relocated to Nusantara in East Kalimantan.3 While the official reason for the move is to decentralize economic activity and reduce population and congestion in Jakarta, it is widely understood that Jakarta’s sinking condition is a critical factor motivating this move.4 Ironically, authorities appear to be actively concealing the sinking condition from the local population. During my visit to the sunken mosque, I was confronted by a uniformed guard.

With the assistance of Google Translate, I learned that he was employed by the state-owned company responsible for the sea walls surrounding the outer banks of Muara Bahru and was tasked with preventing people from photographing the sunken mosque. When I inquired about the possibility of buying him a coffee in exchange for a photo, he solemnly replied that it would cost me 500,000 Rupiahs, equivalent to almost 45 Singaporean Dollars, as that was the amount he would be fined if caught. For those curious about how I ultimately obtained the photo, let’s just say I found an alternative method.

Warning sign | 27-09-2023

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Land subsidence survey stations

High

Low

Severity of land subsidence

Land under sea level

Jakarta land subsidence map

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The issue of land subsidence in Jakarta is a seemingly straightforward problem that exists within a complex and, at times, contradictory context. The primary cause of sinking is unsustainable groundwater extraction and the lack of sufficient replenishment.5 The city’s extensive use of impermeable concrete, covering more than 80% of its metropolitan area, inhibits rainwater from naturally recharging the aquifers.6 So, why isn’t the government taking measures to control groundwater extraction? The answer to this question lies in the complexity of the issue. There are two main groups responsible for groundwater extraction: first, the traditional, informal communities (kampungs) with no access to tap water; and second, the construction sites of new mega developments.7 The use of groundwater has become a cultural norm in kampungs. While it’s not suitable for consumption, it’s widely used for washing and cleaning. On top of the 4,720 registered wells, many unregistered ones still have been found.8 Even after gaining access to tap water, many communities continue to use groundwater because it’s a free resource. The chaotic structure of kampungs makes them almost impossible to regulate effectively. Likewise, there are no incentives for industries to recycle water, resulting in industries disregarding groundwater conservation.9 However, the heart of the issue extends beyond the kampungs. The primary contributor to groundwater extraction is, in reality, the latter group — construction projects.10 These projects consume significant amounts of groundwater but are largely unregulated by the authorities. This is because developers align with the political agenda of “modernizing” Jakarta. In a twisted sense, the construction of “modern” mega developments directly facilitates the displacement of kampungs, which are the primary victims of flooding caused by land subsidence. Land subsidence, although framed as a major problem faced by the city, is, in reality, a dark political tactic.

To the northwest of Jakarta lies the Thousand Islands. Historically, these islands served various purposes, including navy outposts, shipyards, quarantine centers, and prisons.11 Today, they are predominantly recreational, featuring resorts, sunny beaches, and water sports.12 Over the years, these islands have experienced severe land inundation, with some islands now occupying only a fraction of their original area.13 They serve as an accelerated and exaggerated model for inundation issues faced by Jakarta.

Jakarta Thousand Islands

Supplementary info

Inundation of Pulau Onrust

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In the 17th century, Jakarta was known as Batavia, serving as the trading and colonial administrative center for the Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), a trading company backed by the Dutch East Indies colonial government, under the Dutch Empire.14 As part of Dutch urban planning, they established a system of canals that formed an efficient and compact urban grid. This planning laid the foundation for Jakarta’s river treatment.

However, unbeknownst to the temperate colonizers, river systems in Southeast Asia experience significantly different flows during the dry and monsoon periods, with highly sedimented water discharge. The narrow Dutch-style canals were not well-suited for the relatively extreme climatic conditions of Indonesia.15 Over the years of uncontrolled urban growth, the rivers and canals became congested with waste and debris, leading to frequent floods.16

to build a massive dike and a series of reclaimed islands to transform Jakarta Bay into a man-made lagoon, effectively isolating Jakarta from the ocean. However, this proposal faced numerous challenges, including its exorbitant cost, issues related to the time frame, water discharge, hygiene, and the impact on coastal livelihoods, making it an unattainable solution.

This thesis aligns with a similar approach. It acknowledges that the sinking condition is inevitable and that the realistic future of Jakarta involves increasing infrastructure to mitigate flooding and water accumulation in low-lying areas, similar to the Dutch or Venetian Terraferma model.

Today, the immediate consequence of the city’s subsiding condition is increasingly severe floods.

Documented major floods have progressively worsened over the years. In 2007, extreme floods overwhelmed much of North Jakarta, affecting more than 70,000 homes and displacing half a million people, with damages amounting to approximately US$900 million.17 Efforts by the authorities are often perceived as superficial crowd-pleasers. While they have expanded tapped water coverage and attempted to widen and clean up rivers, these efforts have had limited effectiveness due to conflicts with the kampungs. Infiltration wells have been implemented to replenish aquifers and drain flood water, but their effectiveness is not well-documented.18 The only genuinely effective measures have been purely reactive, including infrastructure for discharging accumulated flood water and preventing sea water infiltration, such as pumps, dams, and sea walls.

Flood gate

Venice flood infrastructure

Flood gate

In 2014, the National Capital Integrated Coastal Development (NCICD) program, supported by the Dutch government, proposed an ambitious US$40 billion plan to save Jakarta, known as the Great Garuda Project.19 This project aimed The Netherlands flood infrastructure

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Water gate

River system

Flood canal

1997 floods

2002 floods

2007 floods

Jakarta flood map

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Leaky sea wall | 27-09-2023

Muara Bahru is one of the most inundated districts in Jakarta, its fringes are heavily reinforced with sea walls which defend the industrial zone and the kampungs from storm surges and high tides.

Coincidentally, it also contains the most critical water discharge facility of Ciliwung River, which pumps floodwater into the sea.

The threats of flood both via inland and the sea makes it a highly vulnerable area suited for a case study for this research.

Rubbish burner | 27-09-2023

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The immediate area is marked by various states of dilapidation, with derelict buildings, abandoned vehicles, life is drained away by the shore. The only notable human activities around the sea wall are fishing and jobs related to the infiltrating sea. Everyday life and activities only commence a few hundred meters further inland.

Abandoned lorry | 27-09-2023

Local activities | 27-09-2023

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2.1

THREE PLAYERS

Tradition informal (Kampung) | 28-09-2023

The “three players” refer to the three dominant modes of urbanism in Jakarta: the traditional informal fabric, commonly referred to as kampung; the regulated sprawl; and the high-rise apartment complexes. These three players collectively occupy the majority of Jakarta’s landscape.20 These modes of urbanism are vastly different from one another, each characterized by its unique approach to urban development. Consequently, they often find themselves in conflict, competing for boundaries and territories.

The primary conflict occurs between the kampungs and the high-rise apartment complexes. Jakarta, being a continuously expanding city with limited available land for development, is experiencing its first wave of significant “apartmentization.”

Middle-class apartment complexes are sprouting up across the city, sometimes at the expense of

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kampungs.21 This is possible due to the absence of official land ownership among kampung residents.

In addition to political motivations to “cleanse” kampungs, property boundaries are arbitrary, locally determined, and constantly changing, making accurate land ownership documentation nearly impossible.22 These three modes of urbanism remain segregated from each other. Fences, walls, and lined with barbed wire or shards of glass separate them.

This separation is the norm, even among players of similar socio-economic statuses. They exist within their own bubbles and seldom interact. For residents who, for any reason, wish to cross over to another mode, they must first navigate the chaotic traffic conditions and enter through a gate or a heavily congested junction from the main road. The positioning of these players strongly discourages any cross-pollination.

Regulated sprawl | 26-09-2023

High-rise apartment complex | 28-09-2023

Kampung vs High rise apartment complex

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PLAYER 1: KAMPUNG

Entrance to Kampung | 27-09-2023

Entering the depths | 27-09-2023

Narrow roads | 27-09-2023

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Kampungs represent the original urban fabric of Jakarta. They are characterized by high population density, low-rise structures, and unregulated housing, often associated with poverty and substandard hygiene. In reality, kampungs are home to the majority of Jakarta’s urban population, and they exhibit a wide range of living conditions, from lower-class slums to upper-middle class luxury villas. They are typically located around major river networks, which, while once a source of life, have now become a source of challenges. Consequently, kampungs have reorganized themselves, with the poorest slums often situated along the riverbanks and the wealthier homes on higher ground.23 Kampungs are usually organized around a few arterial roads wide enough to accommodate cars and trucks. Buildings facing these roads often house commercial establishments. As you move deeper into the heart of the kampung, the roads become narrow, allowing only motorcycles to pass, and they are often shaded by the overhanging structures of houses. The uniformity of the buildings gradually gives way to a more chaotic arrangement, and the road network takes on a more intricate, rhizomatic pattern. For outsiders like me, navigation becomes an intuitive exploration. If you take the right (or wrong) turns, you may eventually come across the slums that border foul river waters. The houses here are constructed on stilts and assembled from salvaged materials.

Slums | 27-09-2023

Apartments looming | 28-09-2023

Kampungs can be described as pluri-districts, a term popularized by A.M. Simone, to signify communities where residents come from diverse class and ethnic backgrounds and engage in various intra-district economic activities to supplement their primary sources of income.24 These activities can encompass running small family-owned shops, pooling funds to invest in business ventures, or cultivating vegetables for sale, among other pursuits.25 Kampungs are known for their strong support structures.

Conversely, individuals with poor reputations may find themselves excluded from numerous opportunities. A kampung resident once shared with me, “If you had a small argument with your brother, tomorrow someone living on the opposite end of the kampung might lecture you to not be violent with family.” While this statement may contain some exaggeration, it underscores the extensive and interconnected local information network that exists within kampungs.

Honda CBR | 28-09-2023

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Homes turned into shops | 28-09-2023

Food cart | 27-09-2023

Kampungs are incremental. In contrast to neighborhoods in Singapore, where housing often adheres to strict guidelines and regulations, kampung homes are adaptable and fluid. Residents determine when and what to build, move, or modify.26 Coupled with the lack of clear land ownership and the fear of eviction, developments in kampungs occur in gradual, small-scale stages. Large-scale construction projects are rarely seen, as houses are typically upgraded incrementally, resulting in the distinctive, textured, and layered landscape that characterizes these areas. In essence, kampung urbanism is a grassroots movement, largely devoid of government intervention, representing the organic expression of Jakarta’s human culture.

This thesis recognizes kampung urbanism as an invaluable element of Jakarta’s history and identity.

Despite the inherent challenges that kampungs pose for the city’s development, such as congestion, informality, and difficulties in regulation, they hold significant untapped potential that can enhance Jakarta’s image and contribute to its growth.

Girl sorting dried foods | 27-09-2023

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Multi-facade | 28-09-2023

Alleyway | 28-09-2023

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PLAYER 2: REGULATED SPRAWL Regulated sprawl urbanism represents the polar opposite of kampung urbanism. In contrast to the organic and diverse nature of kampungs, regulated sprawl areas are characterized by orderliness, homogeneity, and a strong emphasis on car-centric living. There are three main types of regulated sprawl in Jakarta: Shop Houses: These are characterized by a ground-level commercial space and upper-level residential units.

Upper-Middle Class Residential: These neighborhoods are laid out efficiently in a rectangular grid, with consistent plot sizes.

Shop house regulated sprawl

Upper-Class Residential: Occupying vast, irregular plots of land, these areas are divided by winding, tree-lined roads and cul-de-sacs.

Unlike the shop house model, regulated sprawl areas typically lack commercial facilities within themselves. Instead, they rely on central super malls that offer a comprehensive array of entertainment, dining, and shopping options.

The stable income of regulated sprawl residents often comes from fixed sources, which eliminates the need for the pluri-culture and incrementalism seen in kampungs. For many professionals and business people in these areas, there is little time or inclination to pursue additional income sources. For those with the luxury of time, there’s no motivation to engage in small, local side businesses that yield minimal profits. Consequently, residents of regulated sprawl areas tend to lead independent, isolated, and inward-focused lives.

Upper-middle class regulated sprawl

Despite the potential sterilization of local culture, these areas are highly sought after by the general population due to their stability. Ownership rights are clearly defined in all houses within this category, making them ideal for long-term residences or investment properties.

Upper class regulated sprawl

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Storefront | 26-09-2023

Quiet roads | 28-09-2023

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PLAYER 3: HIGH-RISE APARTMENT COMPLEX

Upper class apartment complex | 26-09-2023

Once touted as the epitome of modern living, high-rise apartment complexes were considered a significant step up from kampungs. In the days before Jakarta approached its maximum capacity, living in a high-rise apartment was a symbol of luxury and affluence.27 Apartments distinguished themselves from traditional landed housing by offering a prescribed, lifestyle-focused living.

These complexes features shopping malls, private recreational facilities, round-the-clock security, and the literal and metaphorical “elevation” above the rest of the city.

Today, high-rise apartment complexes can be broadly categorized into three main groups: the upper class, the middle class, and ‘Rusunawa,’ which provides social housing for residents displaced from redeveloped kampungs.

Responding to population growth and limited land availability, more middle-class apartments are being constructed. Interestingly, they target two contrasting audiences. The first group consists

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of young working adults seeking a modern and convenient lifestyle. They often hail from satellite towns surrounding Jakarta and are typically renters. The second group comprises real estate speculators, in fact, over 90% of units in middleclass apartments are rented.28 Despite the commercialization, the spirit of pluri-culture and incrementalism continues to thrive in middle-class apartment complexes and ‘Rusunawas’, albeit in a more commercialized form, as many of their residents have their roots in kampungs.

Middle class apartment complex | 28-09-2023

Lower class apartment complex ‘Rusunawa’ | 27-09-2023

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Local Research Finding #02 Freelance Traffic Police At busy junctions with poor traffic control systems, a casually dressed man often stands in the middle road, directing the traffic with rigor. In his left hand clutches a few banknotes while his right hand directs the traffic.

He is a hero to the drivers.

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3.0

BRIGHT COLOURS + COLOURFUL CULTURE Jakarta is a city bursting with colours. If it had own colour scheme, it would be an artist’s palette over-casted by the dusty yellow beige of the smog. In Jakarta, colours play a significant role, serving both as attention-grabbers for businesses and as a means of expressing individual personalities. It’s common to see buildings adorned with a bold mix of primary and secondary hues; subtler variations in tint, tone, and shade are rare. The only variation of hues are the sun-bleached, faded tints of older paint. Sometimes, you’ll come across a landscape that’s a dynamic blend of both old and new paint, lending it a dynamic atmosphere. In a way, this lively mix of colours that characterizes Jakarta is a physical manifestation of its pluralistic culture and incrementalism.

Gas tanks | 27-09-2023

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Market stall | 28-09-2023

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House | 28-09-2023

Street cart | 29-09-2023

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Banana stall | 28-09-2023

Coconut stall | 28-09-2023

Truck with body kit | 27-09-2023

Behind Pasar Minggu | 28-09-2023

Car park | 27-09-2023

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Pasar Minggu | 28-09-2023

Fish monger | 28-09-2023

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Fish for sale | 28-09-2023

Jetty sequence 1 | 27-09-2023

Colour is most apparent in the kampungs. While I was taking photos, a group of giggling kids started running around me, curious about why I was photographing their home.

The adults sat around their doorsteps, watching the commotion with curious eyes. Whenever I said hello to them, their stern faces immediately turned into wide, smiles, followed by a genuine greeting. Because of the language barrier, communication with most of them was limited, but those who spoke a bit of English were happy to entertain my questions.

Jetty sequence 2 | 27-09-2023

Boys | 27-09-2023

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Colourful graves | 28-09-2023

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Pink sacks | 28-09-2023

Pink chair | 28-09-2023

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3.1

BRUTAL NOT BY CHOICE At the opposite end of the spectrum, or perhaps the saturation slider, Jakarta exhibits a form of ‘brutality’ that arises not from a deliberate design choice to embrace concrete or rawness but from an apathetic approach to disrepair. The most striking form of this ‘brutality’ in buildings can be observed in their indifference to shared walls. Throughout Jakarta, there are bare walls devoid of design or even left in their structural material.

Abandoned objects are simply left in place.

Abandoned buildings, cars, carts, appliances are scattered across the landscape. If they are not obstructing immediate pathways, they remain there until they gradually deteriorate. In some instances, building projects have been halted, like the one in Glodok during the recent pandemic,

its skeletal structures lie in the landscape almost naturally, as if they were always meant to be there.

The substantial number of objects existing in transitional states has become an integral part of Jakarta’s visual identity, contributing to the city’s unique ‘brutal’ landscape.

The reality is that the majority of buildings in Jakarta fall into an ambiguous region between being ‘brutal by choice’ and ‘brutal not by choice.’

They feature distinctive local motifs interpreted using modern materials, often accompanied by a layer of grime and dust, which collectively create a new and prevalent aesthetic.

Bare face 1 | 28-09-2023

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Bare face 2 | 28-09-2023

Abandoned cart | 28-09-2023

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Paused construction | 28-09-2023

Flaking paint | 28-09-2023

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Bare face 3 | 27-09-2023

Bare face 4 | 29-09-2023

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By choice 1 | 28-09-2023

The ‘brutal by choice’ buildings are a rarity. They are either relics from the 20th century or expensive contemporary projects that embrace the monolithic style. In both cases, these buildings tend to be privately owned and are frequently off-limits to the public. They are neither culturally relevant nor enhancing.

By choice 2 | 28-09-2023

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(?) choice 1 | 27-09-2023

(?) choice 2 | 27-09-2023

(?) choice 3 | 27-09-2023

(?) choice 4 | 27-09-2023

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Super container | 27-09-2023

Blank face 4 | 29-09-2023

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Someone’s backyard | 27-09-2023

(?) choice 5 | 28-09-2023

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Local Research Finding #03 Hijau Miskin Translation: Poor Green Houses under TMMD (TNI Manunggal Villages Improvement Program) were painted this shade of green.

It is now associated with poverty.

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#6CC24A

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4.0

LOCAL PLURAL NON-NEUTRAL

Gereja Santa Maria de Fatima | 29-09-2023

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Gereja Santa Maria de Fatima, a unique church with traditional Chinese architecture, is a notable landmark located in Glodok, one of Jakarta’s Chinatowns. It was originally the residence of a wealthy Chinese Capitan and was later acquired by the church. Instead of being rebuilt, the building was preserved and upgraded to suit the church’s requirements.29 Owing to the church’s philanthropic initiatives, Muslims, Buddhists, and Taoists often collaborate during church events, solidifying its relevance and influence in the broader context.

The interplay of cultures and religions is both a consequence of and a contributor to the city’s pluralistic culture. It acts as a self-reinforcing dynamic, strengthening the intricate and multifaceted society.

As such, this thesis positions itself as a direct response and outcome of its immediate surroundings.

It draws from the rich, diverse context to establish an icon that harmoniously integrates with the local environment while serving as a hub for addressing urban and social needs that are currently unmet.

The plural, non-neutral culture is deeply rooted in the traditional urban fabric of Jakarta, the kampung.

While it has, in some instances, permeated into other urban players, these occurrences are in the minority.

The overarching reality is one of dilution, particularly in regulated sprawls and high-rise apartment complexes. Instead, there is a predominance of imported, consumerist, and individualistic cultures that replace the local traditions.

This thesis critically examines the sterilization of local culture within modern urban contexts. It seeks to create opportunities at the crossroads of different urban fabrics, fostering reconciliation between contrasting cultures by presenting the local, plural, non-neutral culture in a more consumable form.

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4.1

ANTI-FRAGILE

Re-purposed house 1 | 28-09-2023

Anti-fragility, as defined by Nassim Nicholas Taleb, is not merely the ability to withstand a shock but also to improve from it.30 In Jakarta, being anti-fragile is a prerequisite. In a city where the built environment often takes on a life of its own, residents must constantly adapt and find ways to make the most of disadvantages.

In kampungs, half-built structures are a common sight. Their owners typically run out of funds after embarking on an over-ambitious ‘increment’. These partially completed buildings now serve as utility blocks for the neighborhood, housing communal water tanks, electrical transformers, satellite dishes, and spaces where the youth can gather in private.

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On a smaller scale, random niches in walls or spaces under staircases are re-purposed as small gardens, offering visual delight to the local community and passers-by.

This thesis positions itself to be anti-fragile. In the near future, as land inundation and flooding become more prevalent, the proposed interventions will serve as catalysts for discussions on how the city, especially vulnerable low-lying areas, can become more resilient to floods and evolve into improved urban models.

Garden in niche | 28-09-2023

Re-purposed house 2 | 28-09-2023

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Exhibition in incomplete building | 28-09-2023

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At times, the concept of anti-fragility extends into the commercial domain. For instance, the uncompleted Thamrin Nine, with its interior left bare and unfinished, became the venue for an architectural festival hosted on its top floor.

The drive to occupy underutilized spaces has evolved into a fundamental aspect of Jakarta’s diverse culture.

This thesis seeks to expand upon this desire to rejuvenate underutilized spaces that are inaccessible to the public and disruptive to the local context.

Unfinished | 28-09-2023

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4.2

INFRASTRUCTURAL URBANISM Urban infrastructure is commonly defined as the architectural framework that facilitates movement and circulation within a city. These elements are often described as “objects that create the ground on which other objects operate”,31 and regrettably, they are frequently overlooked in terms of their integration into the context of Jakarta. These vital components of the city are often regarded as mere ‘tools’ that blend inconspicuously into the urban landscape and only draw attention when they malfunction.32 Bridges, canals, roads, and other such structures, unlike many other aspects of Jakarta, tend to operate in isolation. They are self-contained and disconnected from the city. This separation is particularly noticeable in the case of water-related infrastructure. Sea walls, dams, pumping stations, and water treatment plants are recognized as critical installations, activated every year to combat the devastating floods.

Consequently, they are well-guarded and completely inaccessible to the public due to the potential risk of accidental damage.

Considering the ongoing and irreversible issue of land subsidence, this thesis postulates that the future of Jakarta will primarily entail inundation. Even more crucially, it anticipates a rise in water-related infrastructure designed to mitigate flooding and water accumulation in low-lying areas. Given the growing concentration of these infrastructure elements, there is a pressing need to reevaluate the prevailing model of isolating these spaces from the public. In this context, this thesis reinterprets infrastructure not solely as a support system for urbanism but as an integral part of urbanism itself. It delves into methods to pair infrastructure with architecture that aligns with the local context and offers valuable contributions.

In this light, the three selected intervention sites are envisioned as laboratories where a local, diverse, non-neutral, and anti-fragile model of infrastructural urbanism can be nurtured. The research investigates how small-scale, pinpoint interventions centered around infrastructure can impact broader urban challenges related to social fragmentation and inequality.

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Overhead bridge | 28-09-2023

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Local Research Finding #04 Glodok Originally an ethnic enclave for the Chinese during the Dutch rule, Glodok is now the Chinatown. The Temples here are encompassing of various Chinese religions and are built after the period of Chinese oppression. The name originated from the sound of a water wheel.

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5.0

PLUIT RESERVOIR PUMPING STATION

Major pumps | 27-09-2023

The Pluit reservoir, situated in North Jakarta, is a flood control reservoir positioned between the upper-class district of Pluit and the mixed district of Muara Bahru, which contains kampungs and industrial parks. This reservoir is unique in that its water level is below sea level, necessitating the use of a pumping station to artificially discharge excess water into the sea. In times of flooding, the reservoir serves as a crucial buffer zone, protecting the vulnerable low-lying residential areas that surround it.

In the January of 2013, the pumping station experienced complete malfunction, resulting in a sever floods in North Jakarta, affecting more than 200,000 people.33 It was only with foreign assistance that the immediate vicinity, which is situated below sea level, became more fortified against floods.34

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The pumping station serves as a symbol of the community’s fragility, as it relies on a single checkpoint for protection. This situation presents an ideal opportunity to explore anti-fragile urbanism. Moreover, the pumping station stands at the closest point between contrasting urban fabrics and socioeconomic classes, acting as a physical bridge between different urban identities and potentially serving as a metaphorical bridge of reconciliation.

The proposed intervention will utilize the existing pumping station as a foundation, re-imagining it as a public facility that extends beyond its original footprint. The goal is to create a heterotic hybrid that not only preserves the original function but also enhances it with new additions.

Site

1.Kampung

2.Regulated sprawl

3.Market

4.Police outpost

Pluit Reservoir Pumping Station map

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Pumping station | 27-09-2023

Upper-class regulated sprawl on the left | 27-09-2023

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Fence | 27-09-2023

Kampung on the right | 27-09-2023

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5.1

PLUIT RESERVOIR WATER TREATMENT PLANT

Water treatment plant | 27-09-2023

The Pluit Reservoir Water Treatment Plant is located on the Pluit side of the reservoir, surrounded by an open-air car park, Apartemen Laguna (a middleclass apartment complex), a school, a mega office block, an upper-middle-class regulated sprawl, and a construction site for a new government building. This facility processes the contaminated river water and serves as the primary source of tap water for the immediate region.

Despite its location in a more affluent area, the plant is often perceived as undesirable due to the street beside it being lined with parked food carts and litter, a stark contrast to the well-maintained residential zones just a few meters away.

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The proposed intervention seeks to leverage the gap between the perceived and actual significance of the plant. It envisions a redesign that integrates the plant with a public waterfront park, compensating for the loss of greenery resulting from the new construction project.

Site

1.High-rise apartment complex

2.Regulated sprawl

3.School

4.Office

5.Commercial

Pluit Reservoir Water Treatment Plant map

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5.2

MUARA BARU SEA WALL (EAST)

Water treatment plant | 27-09-2023

On the eastern side of the Muara Bahru peninsula stretches a kilometer-long seawall, designed to protect the land from tidal forces. Despite its grandeur, this seawall is surprisingly ineffective, as significant seepage occurs, resulting in numerous pools of water forming within the wall.

Consequently, the kampung community has been forced to retreat from the lowest-lying areas. In recent history, the space was primarily used for warehouses until 2020 when the severity of the floods became untenable. Today, the area remains a desolate swampland, featuring wild grasses during the dry season and stagnant pools of water during the monsoon season.

To unlock the potential of this vast piece of land, it is imperative to enhance the seawall. The proposed intervention seeks to integrate the seawall into an architectural project, transforming it into a sea-front

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residential development that gazes inwards. This development stands in contrast to the kampung situated across the empty land, presenting itself as a formal project that embraces the rich, diverse, and non-neutral culture of the context.

Instead of constructing a completely impermeable seawall, the intervention redirects the water into a tidal channel positioned between the intervention and the kampung. This approach creates a new community space that celebrates the previously absent coastal qualities of the near-shore communities.

Site

1.Kampung

2.Warehouses

3.Sunken Mosque

Pluit Reservoir Water Treatment Plant map

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6.0

SITE STUDIES

Final Layout

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ABSTRACT II Jakarta, home to over 10 million people, boasts diverse urban landscapes, from densely packed sprawls to gated estates and towering skyscrapers. Each element fits into the city like pieces of a puzzle, creating a myriad of interfaces, yet many of these interfaces resemble literal and metaphorical walls. From a boarder perspective, Jakarta faces a common threat, water. The sinking land and rising sea levels, compounded by historically inadequate canal systems and annual monsoons, foretell an escalating series of climate-related catastrophes. Discordant political agendas surrounding national development and disaster mitigation have yielded superficial, ineffectual remedies.

This thesis adopts the stance of inevitability, envisioning a future where Jakarta undergoes a surge in water-related infrastructure development. Extra Infra questions the prevailing infrastructural paradigm, introducing spaces that either dominate or are invisible to the immediate locality, spaces that fragment communities, and spaces that, while logically and functionally designed, overlook potential cultural and natural opportunities beneficial to both communities and the city as a whole in the long term. Extra Infra explores three water-related infrastructures encircling a vital flood control reservoir in North Jakarta: a pump house, a purification plant, and a sea wall.

It suggests either additions to or alterations of the existing structures, integrating the prevailing architectural vernacular while drawing from the colours and motifs of the local environment. This approach proposes a redefined, contextually sensitive model of infrastructural urbanism suited to the equatorial region.

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Site Massing of Site 1: Pluit Reservoir Pumping Station

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Worms Eye Axonometric of the Pumping Station

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Site Massing of Site 2: Pluit Reservoir Water Treatment Plant

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Worms Eye Axonometric of the Water Treatment Plant

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Site Massing Site ofMassing Site 2:of Pluit SiteReservoir 3: Muara Water Bahru Treatment Sea Wall (East) Plant

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Worms Eye Axonometric of the Sea Wall

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6.1

PUMP POOL

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Worms Eye Axonometric of Proposed Addition

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Iteration 1

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Iteration 2

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Iteration 3

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Plan of Iteration 3

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Elevation/Section

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Physical Model

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Physical Model

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6.2

PLANT PATH

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Worms Eye Axonometric of Proposed Addition

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Iteration 1

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Iteration 2

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Iteration 3

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Plan of Iteration 3

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Elevation/Section

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Physical Model

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Physical Model

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6.3

WALL COVE

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Worms Eye Axonometric of Proposed Addition

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Iteration 1

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Iteration 2

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Iteration 3

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Physical Model

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7.0

COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE The realm of infrastructural urbanism has long intrigued the field of architecture academia, spanning from the visionary concepts of Archigram’s Walking City to the intricate practice of micro urban acupuncture. This phenomenon, however, is not a recent development; examples date back centuries, illustrated by medieval urbanized bridge houses like London Bridge and Ponte Vecchio. These structures, acting as vital links over rivers, evolved into bustling commercial streets, connecting communities on either side.

Over time, these parasitic buildings expanded in size and functionality, transforming into landmarks that defined the surrounding urban landscape.35 Steven Holl conceptualized the Bridge of Houses — proposals that envisioned series of residences erected atop bridges in Melbourne and Manhattan, the latter eventually hosting the High Line. These projects exemplify how bridges contribute an additional layer to the urban fabric, bridging the transitional and private realms, serving as extensions or alternatives to traditional streets.36 The subsequent High Line metamorphosed into an urban park, offering a serene escape from the clamor of the city streets. As a pioneer of contemporary infrastructural urbanism, the High Line inspired subsequent projects, including the SEOULLO 7017 Skygarden and the Singapore Rail Corridor, both rejuvenating abandoned infrastructure into green spaces.

Diverging from re-purposing existing infrastructure, the Marina Barrage adopts an alternative approach to infrastructural urbanism. Designed around the core program of water pumps and gates, this large-scale public complex, situated in a tabula rasa context, stands as a destination independent of its surroundings. On the contrary, interventions in Jakarta, an overcrowded city, must integrate with the immediate urban fabric and respect local culture, lacking the luxury of complete autonomy.

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Infrastructural urbanism, rather than being a localized intervention, is sometimes employed as a model for transit-focused urban schemes.

The Elephant and Castle regeneration program, for instance, seeks to revitalize an area rich in old, under-utilized railway infrastructure.

Beyond commercial and housing development, adaptive reuse of structures, greenification, and cultural enrichment, the scheme ingeniously incorporates old brick arches as a unifying theme for redevelopment.37 However, this large-scale approach is not easily translatable to Jakarta due to the city’s diverse urban players and its resistant, pluralistic culture, which hinders extensive urban redevelopment efforts.

Presently, infrastructural urbanism appears predominantly in highly developed cities as enhancements to already thriving urban landscapes. In essence, they serve as passive improvements to objectively good cities, elevating the quality of life for their residents. This thesis, however, proposes a more proactive model of infrastructural urbanism for the comparatively less mature and more anarchic city of Jakarta. The envisioned interventions aim not only to address immediate on-site issues but also to enhance cultural connectivity and draw attention to deeper societal challenges.

Walking City | Archigram, 1964 [3]

Bridge of Houses | Steven Holl, 1979 [4]

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London Bridge | Claude de Jongh, 1632 [5]

High Line |

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James Corner, Diller Scofidio + Renfro, 2009 [6]

[7]

SEOLLO 7017 Skygarden before/after | MVRDV, 2017 [8]

Elephant and Castle regeneration map |

Lendlease, 2010 [9]

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7.1

NOTES 1. Lisa-Michéle Bott et al., “Land Subsidence in Jakarta and Semarang Bay – the Relationship between Physical Processes, Risk Perception, and Household Adaptation” 2. Charlotte Owen-Burge, “Jakarta: The Sinking City” 3. Ayman Falak Medina, “Indonesia Passes Bill to Build New Capital City, with Deadline Set for 2024” 4. Hannah Beech, “What’s a President to Do When a Nation’s Capital Is Sinking? Move It.”

19. Philip Sherwell, “$40bn to Save Jakarta: The Story of the Great Garuda” 20. Ratih Fitria Putri, Aji Wijaya Abadi, and Utia Kafafa, “The Correlation Analysis between Urbanization Phenomena and Landuse Change in Jakarta Special Province” 21. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, Jakarta: Drawing the City Near 22. Ibid

5. Nicola Colbran, “Will Jakarta Be The Next Atlantis? Excessive Groundwater Use Resulting From A Failing Piped Water Network”

23. Henry Ismail, “Down by the Riverside - Kali Ciliwung”

6. Al Jazeera, “Why Indonesia Is Abandoning Its Capital City to Save It”

24. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, Jakarta: Drawing the City Near

7. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, Jakarta: Drawing the City Near 8. The ASEAN Post Team, “Managing Jakarta’s Water-Related Risks” 9. Robert M Delimom, “Groundwater Management Issues in the Greater Jakarta Area, Indonesia”

25. Ibid 26. Ibid 27. Amalinda Sarivani, “Jakarta Is Still the Oligarchs’ Turf” 28. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, Jakarta: Drawing the City Near

10. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, Jakarta: Drawing the City Near

29. Pingkan Palilingan, “Manual Excursion: Gereja Santa Maria de Fatima”

11. Emily Gilbert, “Ghosts of Dutch Colonialism in the Thousand Islands”

30. Nassim Nicholas Taleb, Antifragile: Things That Gain from Disorder

12. Wonderful Indonesia, “10 Islands to Plunge into in Jakarta’s Thousand Islands”

31. Darren Gill et al., “Infrastructural Urbanism”

13. CNA Insider, “Goodbye to Jakarta’s Sinking Islands? | Insight: Behind the Story” 14. Marsely L. Kehoe, “Dutch Batavia: Exposing the Hierarchy of the Dutch Colonial City” 15. Ibid

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18. Tim VOI, “Pro-Contra Sumur Infiltration Jakarta, How Effective? How Come Anies Asks to Continue”

32. Ibid 33. Niek van der Sleen , “An Analysis of the Pluit Polder, Jakarta” 34. The Jakarta Post, “Ri, Japan Launch $15 m East Pluit Pump to Prevent Flooding”

16. Adam Voiland, “As Jakarta Grows, so Do the Water Issues”

35. Current Archaeology, “Life across the Water: Exploring London Bridge and Its Houses, 1209-1761”

17. JBA, “A Retrospective View of Floods in Jakarta”

36. Hidden Architecture, “Bridge of Houses” 37. Darren Gill et al., “Infrastructural Urbanism”

IMAGE NOTES [1] NASA Earth Observatory. Jakarta satellite image. May 14, 2021. Jakarta Is Increasingly Threatened by Flooding. https://www.earth.com/ image/jakarta-is-increasingly-threatened-byflooding/.

[2] Passarkorn14. Albino buffalo isolated on white background. Freepik. Accessed November 12, 2023. https://www.freepik.com/ premium-photo/albino-buffalo-isolated-whitebackground_35589735.htm.

[3] Deutsches Architekturmuseum. Archigram, Walking City (Project 064), 1964 . April 29, 2016.

Yesterday’s Future: Visionary Designs by Future Systems and Archigram. https://www.archdaily. c o m / 78 6 5 0 4 / ye s te rd ay s - f u t u re - v i s i o n a r y designs-by-future-systems-and-archigram.

[4] Holl, Steven. Bridge of Houses section.

March 26, 2017. Bridge of Houses. https:// hiddenarchitecture.net/bridge-of-houses/.

[5] Yale Center for British Art. London Bridge in 1632 Claude de Jongh. February 15, 2022. 30: Old London Bridge: Part 1. https://buildinglondon. blog/2022/02/15/30-old-london-bridge-part-1/ comment-page-1/.

[6] Hartman, Hattie. In its previous incarnation as a motorway flyover. January 2016. https:// www.architectural-review.com/buildings/seoulloperformance-seoullo-7017-skygarden-seoulsouth-korea-by-mvrdv.

[7] Duivenbode, Ossip van. Aerial view of SEULLO 7017 SKYGARDEN. SEOULLO 7017 SKYGARDEN. MVRDV, 2017. https://www.mvrdv. com/projects/208/seoullo-7017-skygarden.

[8] DS+R. THE HIGH LINE, NEW YORK, NY. DS+R. Accessed November 12, 2023. https:// dsrny.com/project/the-high-line.

[9] Lendlease. Zoning map. Elephant Park  Regeneration Factsheet. Lendlease, March 2018. www.lendlease.com.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Al Jazeera. “Why Indonesia Is Abandoning Its Capital City to Save It.” Al Jazeera, November 9, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/11/9/ hldwhyindonesia-is-abandoning-its-capitaljakarta-to-save-ithld.

Gilbert, Emily. “Ghosts of Dutch Colonialism in the Thousand Islands.” Jakarta Globe, August 9, 2019. https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/ghostsof-dutch-colonialism-in-t he-t housandislands.

Beech, Hannah. “What’s a President to Do When a Nation’s Capital Is Sinking? Move It.” The New York Times, May 16, 2023. https:// www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/05/16/ headway/indonesia-nusantara-jakarta.html.

Gill, Darren, Cristian Gil-Sanchez, Nayab Jan, and Nabeela Malik. “Infrastructural Urbanism.” LSE Cities Program, 2016.

Bott, Lisa-Michéle, Tilo Schöne, Julia Illigner, Mahmud Haghshenas Haghighi, Konstantin Gisevius, and Boris Braun. “Land Subsidence in Jakarta and Semarang Bay – the Relationship between Physical Processes, Risk Perception, and Household Adaptation.”

Ocean & Coastal Management 211 (2021): 105775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ocecoaman.2021.105775.

CNA Insider. “Goodbye to Jakarta’s Sinking Islands? | Insight: Behind the Story.” YouTube, March 11, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=5rCh0IK5wY4.

Colbran, Nicola. “Will Jakarta Be The Next Atlantis?

Excessive Groundwater Use Resulting From A Failing Piped Water Network.” Law, Environment and Development Journal 5 (June 2009).

Current Archaeology. “Life across the Water: Exploring London Bridge and Its Houses, 1209-1761.” The Past, September 1, 2022. https://the-past.com/feature/life-acrossthe-water-exploring-london-bridge-and-itshouses-1209-1761/.

Delimom, Robert M. “Groundwater Management Issues in the Greater Jakarta Area, Indonesia.”

Bulletin of the Terrestrial Environment Research Center, the University of Tsukuba, International Workshop on Integrated Watershed Management for Sustainable Water Use in a Humid Tropical Region 8, no. 2 (February 2008): 41.

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Hidden Architecture. “Bridge of Houses.” Hidden Architecture, March 26, 2017. https:// hiddenarchitecture.net/bridge-of-houses/.

Holl, Steven, Mark Janson, and James Rosen. Bridge of houses. New York: Pamphlet Architecture, 1982.

Ismail, Henry. “Down by the Riverside - Kali Ciliwung.” Inside Indonesia, April 5, 2009. https://www.insideindonesia.org/archive/ articles/down-by-the-riverside-kali-ciliwung.

The Jakarta Post. “Ri, Japan Launch $15 m East Pluit Pump to Prevent Flooding.” The Jakarta Post, March 27, 2014. https://www.thejakartapost. com/news/2014/03/27/ri-japan-launch-15-meast-pluit-pump-prevent-flooding.html.

JBA. “A Retrospective View of Floods in Jakarta.”

JBA. Accessed November 12, 2023. https:// www.jbarisk.com/products-services/eventresponse/a-retrospective-view-of-floods-injakarta/.

Kehoe, Marsely L. “Dutch Batavia: Exposing the Hierarchy of the Dutch Colonial City.” Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art 7, no. 1 (2015). https://doi.org/10.5092/jhna.2015.7.1.3.

Medina, Ayman  Falak. “Indonesia Passes Bill to Build New Capital City, with Deadline Set for 2024.” ASEAN Business News, November 11, 2022. https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/ indonesia-passes-bill-to-build-new-capitalcity-deadline-2024/.

Owen-Burge, Charlotte. “Jakarta: The Sinking City.” Climate Champions, August 22, 2022. https://climatechampions.unfccc.int/jakartathe-sinking-city/#:~:text=A%20sprawling%20 c i t y % 2 0 o f % 2 0 m o re , ex p o s e d % 2 0 t o % 2 0 rising%20sea%20levels.

Palilingan, Pingkan. “Manual Excursion: Gereja Santa Maria de Fatima.” Manual Jakarta, July 27, 2018. https://manual.co.id/article/manualexcursion-gereja-santa-maria-de-fatima/.

Putri, Ratih Fitria, Aji Wijaya Abadi, and Utia Kafafa.

“The Correlation Analysis between Urbanization Phenomena and Landuse Change in Jakarta Special Province.” E3S Web of Conferences 200 (January 2020): 05003. https://doi. org/10.1051/e3sconf/202020005003.

Sarivani, Amalinda. “Jakarta Is Still the Oligarchs’ Turf.” New Mandala, June 13, 2017. https:// www.newmandala.org/jakarta-still-oligarchsturf/.

Sherwell, Philip. “$40bn to Save Jakarta: The Story of the Great Garuda.” The Guardian, November 22, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/ cities/2016/nov/22/jakarta-great-garudaseawall-sinking.

VOI, Tim. “Pro-Contra Sumur Infiltration Jakarta, How Effective? How Come Anies Asks to Continue.” VOI, October 18, 2022. https://voi. id/en/news/219491.

Voiland, Adam. “As Jakarta Grows, so Do the Water Issues.” Earth Observatory, May 12, 2021. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ images/148303/as-jakarta-grows-so-do-thewater-issues#:~:text=Also%2C%20many%20 r i ve r % 2 0 c h a n n e l s % 2 0 a n d , s h a l l o w % 2 0 waters%20of%20Jakarta%20Bay. Wilmar, Salim, and Siwage Dharma Negara.

“Shifting the Capital from Jakarta: Reasons and Challenges .” Perspective, Researchers ISEAS, Yusof Ishak Institute Analyse Current Events 2019, no. 79 (October 1, 2019).

Wonderful Indonesia. “10 Islands to Plunge into in Jakarta’s Thousand Islands.” Indonesia Travel.

Accessed November 12, 2023. https://www. indonesia.travel/gb/en/trip-ideas/10-islandsto-plunge-into-in-jakarta-s-thousand-islands.

Simone, Abdou Maliqalim. Jakarta: Drawing the city near. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 2014.

Sleen , Niek van der. “An Analysis of the Pluit Polder, Jakarta.” Universiteit Twente, August 16, 2013.

Taleb, Nassim Nicholas. Antifragile: Things that gain from disorder. New York: Random House, 2016.

Team, The ASEAN Post. “Managing Jakarta’s Water-Related Risks.” The ASEAN Post, August 22, 2018. https://theaseanpost.com/ article/managing-jakartas-water-relatedrisks#:~:text=In%202016%2C%20there%20 were%20as,lack%20of%20clean%20 surface%20water.

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7.2

SELF DISCLOSURE OF RESEARCH

I certify that except where due acknowledgment has been made, the work is that of the author alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other academic award; the content of the project is the result of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research program, any editorial work, paid or unpaid carried out by a third party is acknowledged, ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed.

Intellectual Property Rights are retained by Liu Heng, who asserts moral rights and all other rights to be identified as the author of this work. I have acknowledged all copyright holders on the images and other references used.

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EXTRA INFRA YEAR 5 HOT AIR ERIK G L’HEUREUX MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE PROGRAM AY2023/2024 DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE COLLEGE OF DESIGN AND ENGINEERING

College of Design and Engineering