Pastoral Water Development in Chad - Evaluation of AFD Interventions over the Last 20 Years

AFD Evaluation

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September 2014

Pastoral Water Development in Chad Evaluation of AFD Interventions over the last 20 years Saverio KRÄTLI, Marie MONIMART, Blamah JALLO, Jeremy SWIFT, Ced HESSE

Agence Française de Développement 5, rue Roland Barthes 75012 Paris < France www.afd.fr

n° 51

Saverio KRÄTLI, researcher and international consultant Marie MONIMART, researcher and international consultant Blamah JALLO, livestock engineer, Réseau Billital Maroobe Jeremy SWIFT, doctor in Economics Ced HESSE, geographer and principal researcher, IIED Coordination: Nicolas BRILLION, Evaluation and capitalisation Unit

Disclaimer The analyses and conclusions presented in this document are those of the authors.

They do not necessarily reflect the official views of Agence Française de Développement or its partner institutions.

Publication Director: Anne PAUGAM Editorial Director: Laurent FONTAINE ISSN: 1962-9761 Copyright: 3rd quarter 2014 Photo: Abdellatif FIZZANI Layout: Eric THAUVIN

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Acknowledgements

The IIED team would like to extend its warmest thanks to everyone in Chad, France and the UK who helped us with this fascinating and complex exercise. There are too many people to mention everyone by name here, so we will have to limit ourselves to those who bore the brunt of our repeated demands on their time and energy.

We are especially grateful to: - Abdellatif FIZZANI, the principal contact in MDPPA, for (among other things) the superb photo on the cover of this report!

- Ali DAOUD ADAM, Coordinator of the Almy Al Afia 2 project, for his determination and efficiency in arranging our trips around the region and organising the scenario planning workshops, which would not have been possible without his and Abdellatif FIZZANI’s invaluable assistance.

- The entire Almy Al Afia team, which was responsible for the organisational and logistical aspects of this mission, with a special mention for our inspired and indefatigable translator Tahir Al Issel.

- Khalil Hamid, the chief of the encampment where Au cœur de la transhumance was produced, for making such a long journey and spirited contribution to the scenario planning workshop in Mongo.

- Jean Laurent and all the staff in the AFD office in N’Djamena.

- The COPIL steering committee and its watchful chairman, André Marty.

- Everyone from the different ministries, the Platform, projects, PTF, IRAM, ANTEA, CIRAD, various resource persons and, last but not least, all those in AFD who gave us their time, attention and documents. Regardless of whether they were still working in this sector, had retired or moved on to other fields and different lives, everyone we spoke to was united by their shared interest in the pastoralists of Chad.

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

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INTRODUCTION 23 1. Context

29

1.1. Fundamental changes in knowledge about pastoralism between 1990 and 2013

29

1.2. History of AFD support for pastoralism in Chad: 20 years of projects

38

2. Findings and analysis: Looking back over the last 20 years

45

2.1. How sustainable is pastoral infrastructure?

45

2.2. Impacts on the complementarity of production systems and regional integration

61

2.3. Has the development of pastoral lands helped pastoral livestock rearing systems?

66

2.4. How best to support social dynamics?

76

2.5 The total economic value of pastoral livestock rearing

83

2.6. Influence on national and regional policies

86

2.7. Conclusions on the characteristics and limitations of the AFD approach

91

3. Strategic directions and recommendations

99

3.1. Main contextual factors

99

3.2. Arguments in favour of pastoralism

107

3.3. Proposed strategic directions

108

Abbreviations and acronyms

118

References

120

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Map 1: Location of pastoral water projects in Chad funded by AFD

Governorate capital Political capital National boundary Governorate Projects ALMY BAHIM ALMY AL AFIA BORKOU 1-ENNEDI 2-TIBESTI KANEM EXTENSION AREA Irriba Bilia area

Source: Reproduced by R. ABEGA, May 2012.

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Executive summary

In 2012 the Evaluation Division of AFD’s Research Department

ii) field visits to N’Djamena, eastern Chad, central Chad and

decided to evaluate and follow up 20 years of AFD Group

Lake Fitri (17 February-10 March 2013); iii) preparing the

interventions in the pastoral water sector in Chad. This exercise,

summary and recommendations (March-May 2013).

which covered 11 projects implemented in three areas of Chad between 1993 and 2013, was driven by the need for a global

Due to the scope of the exercise, it was decided to conduct a

analysis that would help the agency build on 20 successive years

meta-evaluation based on previous evaluations and the huge

of support – going beyond previous evaluation exercises

amount of documentation relating to the 11 projects. Another

undertaken in 2004, 2010 and 2012. Its three objectives were to:

priority was to gather the viewpoints of different actors in France

i) evaluate the overall relevance and coherence of AFD Group

and Chad, including both stakeholders and non-stakeholders in

interventions; ii) assess the performance of pastoral water

these interventions. The analysis of the interventions took account

projects; iii) propose strategies for continuing the process (with

of changing pastoral paradigms over the past two decades and

significant changes) or gradually winding it down.

the three (societal, economic and ecological) pillars of pastoral systems. Local actors in Chad had the opportunity to express

IIED1 was appointed to conduct this exercise. It established an

their views at three scenario planning workshops, which showed

international, multi-disciplinary team2 which carried out the work

that water and mobility are universally regarded as the main

in three stages, maintaining regular contact with the steering

drivers of change.

committee throughout the seven-month process of i) structuring the evaluation procedure (November 2012-February 2013);

1

International Institute for Environment and Development.

2 Ced HESSE, Blamah JALLO, Saverio KRÄTLI, Marie MONIMART and Jeremy SWIFT.

Context

Pastoral development theories and the understanding of

pastoral rangelands should be understood as non-equilibrium

pastoral ecosystems have changed radically over the last 20

ecosystems, and that mobile strategies are a reasoned

years. The unpredictable variability of rangelands can be a

response to their unpredictable variability. What is a constraint

valuable resource for food production, and livestock mobility

for intensive agriculture can be an advantage for mobile

is now recognised as a crucial strategy in the specialised

livestock rearing. Therefore, it is important to support rather

exploitation of drylands. More recently, pastoral systems have

than oppose it. This formal challenge to the orthodox model

also been seen as a means of allowing human society to

of rangeland management (Behnke et al., 1993) came two

occupy arid and remote areas that are at risk of becoming

years before the start of the Almy Bahaïm project. It is now the

no-man’s lands. In the mid-1980s, researchers showed that

accepted paradigm, although the tools and methodologies

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(such as statistics and indicators) have not yet caught up with

even in countries where most agricultural GDP is derived from

this change, and need to be adjusted accordingly.

livestock production in arid areas. Most investment is focused

In unpredictable environments it is essential to be in the right place at the right time to ensure that livestock get the best

on modernisation options that serve the logic of globalised agricultural production systems. Such solutions may be effective in their own field, but they go against the logic of

quality fodder. Quantity is no substitute for quality; therefore, mobility aids production. Various African countries now recognise the value of mobility, and are gradually reviewing

specialised animal production in drylands – to work with environmental variability rather than against it – and cannot match the economic and ecological efficiency of pastoral

their policies on pastoralism accordingly.

systems. Different production logics require their own

The strengths of pastoral systems have been underestimated and undervalued. They are often considered to be of little economic importance and labelled as illogical, archaic and limited to subsistence – although theoretical changes over the last 20 years have led to a re-evaluation of their contribution to local and national economies. In most African countries with robust pastoral systems, they account for a significant proportion of GDP and represent exceptionally high returns

modernisation processes (Krätli and Schareika, 2010; Krätli et al., 2013a).

In this general context, the objective of AFD’s first projects in Chad was to safeguard pastoral mobility. Projects like Almy Bahaïm were extremely innovative in the early 1990s, when Chad still followed the colonial policy of sedentarising and controlling mobile populations. Pastoral water was seen as a key instrument in sedentarisation, although many herders

on investment (African Union, 2010). They are also attracting

returned to transhumance as sedentary production proved

attention as examples of resilience to climate change. Part of

unsustainable.

the growing recognition of their economic value is associated with the management of rangelands as both ecological and

The first pastoral water project funded by AFD in northern

political spaces: so far the only systems that have proved

Chad in 1993 (Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, BET) was a water sector

capable of effectively managing the vast areas concerned are

project that not only aimed to provide water for herders in the

extensive pastoral economies. The real or perceived costs of

north, but also to make productive use of unexploited pastures

securing “ungoverned spaces” are generally astronomical

and install amenities along caravan routes.

(Ploch, 2011), as is tragically illustrated by the current situation

The Almy Bahaïm pastoral project in central Chad in 1994

in northern Mali.

marked the start of a new approach for AFD, with a focus on

Modernisation and pastoralism are generally regarded as

securing livestock mobility. Since then, AFD has provided

mutually exclusive, although this view is challenged by the

uninterrupted support for pastoralism in Chad in virtually every

relatively recent possibility of defining pastoralism in terms of

pastoral area (including BET projects), with an overall financial

its production strategies and way of exploiting the environment,

commitment of over EUR 60 million. Table 1 below summarises

rather than by simple subtraction. Agricultural modernisation

this support and its changing objectives over the last 20 years.

programmes still invest relatively little in pastoral systems,

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Table 1: AFD pastoral water projects in Chad, 1993-2013 Year

Location

1993 -1994 1995 -2000

BET

1995 -1998 1999 -2003 2003 -2004 2005 -2010 + 2000-2002

Tchad oriental

1999 -2003

Tchad occidental Kanem

Borkou, Ennedi, Tibesti

Ouadi Fira Ouadaï Sila, Salamat Est Batha + Irriba Bilia zone

Bahr el Ghazal

2004 -2007 2008 -2009 2010 -2014

Tchad central Batha Ouest Guera

Project

Rationale / Objectives

BET 1 BET 2

Improve the supply of good quality water in nomadic livestock rearing zones and along caravan routes Provide drinking water for herders Make productive use of unexploited pastures Install new permanent water points along caravan routes

Almy Bahaïm Phase I Phase II Phase III Irriba Bilia

Secure livestock rearing in eastern Chad

PHPK Kanem 1 + Kanem 2

Rehabilitate and construct wells to secure water supplies for livestock and herders

Almy Al Afia Phase I Phase intérimaire Phase II

Secure access to pastoral resources and their management

Improve access to water resources in order to secure herds, through combined efforts to: • Extend the pastoral water network • Secure the use of pastoral infrastructure Irriba Bilia i) complete the pastoral water network in Chad ii) support local people (Zaghawas) in order to reduce conflicts iii) test new structures (groundwater dams)

Ensure permanent access to water and resources Secure access to grazing Improve animal health

Facilitate access to groundwater with new wells Open up underused grazing through new water points, wells/ponds Secure existing water resources by rehabilitating old wells Safeguard livestock mobility by developing transhumance routes and creating intermediate water points (wells/ponds) Help secure pastoral use rights through: • Joint management of pastoral infrastructure • Joint management of common resources

Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.

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Rather than following the same standard procedures, these

have been no violent conflicts over the works funded within

projects were part of a continuous, flexible and innovative

this approach, although one issue that still needs to be resolved

process. AFD broke new ground and has been an inspiration

is the sustainability and funding of these structures and their

for all subsequent pastoral interventions in Chad. The main

management bodies. The projects were also technically

methodological change in the last 20 years has been the shift

innovative, sinking wells in very difficult areas, creating

from a sectoral approach in pastoral water development (in

strategically temporary pools, and combining the demarcation

BET projects) to using pastoral water as the entry point for a

of transhumance corridors with the creation of water points.

systemic approach to interventions aimed at supporting

In terms of human resources, the emphasis on continuity in both national and expatriate staff facilitated an exceptional

pastoral mobility. The emphasis has switched from water

process for learning, and building and developing expertise in

provision as the end goal to water provision as a means of

terms of pastoralism, especially among national actors.

safeguarding pastoral systems, governing pastoral spaces and achieving peace, and as a strategic decision to operate on a

AFD also started providing institutional support to the Ministry

scale that encompasses the main north-south transhumance

of Livestock in 2009. This culminated with the conference on

routes. The institutional setup has stayed the same, with the Ministry of Water responsible for project management, and the Ministry of Livestock and a team of expatriate operators

the sectoral policy for pastoralism in Chad in 2011, and the creation of a permanent platform composed of state and nonstate actors where actors from pastoral civil society are starting

assigned to implement two interrelated water and pastoral

to find their voice. Several series of national-level thematic

components. The projects have managed to reconcile their

studies have been undertaken, and a regional conference on

technical and social imperatives by prioritising social consensus

the theme “Pastoral livestock rearing: A sustainable contribution

and developing consultative methodologies and tools for

to pastoral development and security in Saharan-Sahelian

dialogue. They have always given precedence to customary

spaces” took place in late May 2013. Work is under way to

modes of management, and have established the principle of

identify a major project to support pastoral development, and

free pastoral water – unlike previous approaches where

a large-scale study on the Lake Fitri area has just been

structures were appropriated and people had to pay to use

completed. All this is evidence of the great vitality – and

water points. What is most striking is that in 20 years there

productivity – of AFD’s interventions in this domain in Chad.

Main findings of the evaluation Sustainability of pastoral infrastructure

and technical imperatives. The deliberately temporary ponds established along the livestock corridors have been hailed as

Over 1,100 pastoral water structures have been put in place

“the most useful contribution to herders’ daily lives”.

in the last 20 years. A large proportion of them are wells (76 per cent), most of which have been rehabilitated, and the rest are

No detailed assessment has been made of the condition of

ponds. These structures were installed in response to the high

these structures. Despite the technical innovations introduced

demand from herders, whose primary concern is being able to

by the projects, there seem to have been significant losses

access water as they move around. The decision to select the

among certain facilities – especially wells in Kanem, which were

installation sites in consultation with users represented a major

installed in very challenging areas. The sites in eastern and

methodological breakthrough in combining the projects’ social

central Chad have probably fared better (ERE, 2012).

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Although the technical choices have proved valid, some

systems (well managers). While these management systems

structures in areas with insufficient water points to meet the

have proved very effective in running the amenities peacefully

growing demand from both humans and livestock are suffering

(without violent conflict), the issue of investment finance and

from overuse. In addition to this, the quality of work has declined

the rehabilitation of pastoral water points in Chad has yet to be

while costs have risen sharply, more than doubling per linear

resolved – as has the question of how these management

metre. This trend started a good decade ago and has accelerated

bodies will be funded. The overall impact of the projects has

over the last few years. This has been ascribed to: i) declining

been positive, and action and work on pastoral water should

standards in national companies due to contracts being awarded

continue. However, these questions are a cause for concern

to the lowest bidder; ii) procedures and governance across the

and need to be viewed holistically as they cannot be resolved

procurement chain, which affect the entire chain and ultimately

by simply separating them into “hard” and “soft” issues or by

the quality of the works; iii) the fact that there are insufficient

changing procedures. What is needed are wide-ranging thought

installations to meet demand. Another issue that needs to be

processes involving multiple partners.

tackled is the level of local water resources and water tables – especially given that the most recent studies on water

Complementary production systems and regional integration

resources in Chad date back to the 1960s. This is not such a problem for ponds, although they cannot be routinely maintained

In environments that are characterised by unpredictable

by users (unlike wells), and there have been cases where they

variability, agriculture and livestock rearing can be integrated

have silted up or their shores become degraded. Questions

at a higher level than the family farm. Pastoral mobility en-

have also been raised about the quality of the water obtained from these installations (CIRAD, 2010). While transhumant

ables distinct and specialist groups of farmers and herders

herders are mainly concerned about being able to access water

to interact at the trans-regional level, which helps strengthen

along livestock corridors, its quality for domestic use is

the productivity, sustainability and resilience of both produc-

questionable, especially where ponds are concerned. However,

tion systems. It is worth noting that this added value for both

we should not forget that, strictly speaking, none of the water

production systems is specific to large-scale integration. The

from wells is potable. Continued efforts to seek new water

projects recognised the importance of operating on a large

extraction technologies and provide training on water hygiene

scale. However, their contribution to this critical level of inte-

are needed.

gration has been ambiguous, sometimes encouraging complementarity and interaction between crop farming and pastoral livestock keeping, and sometimes formalising separation.

In addition to installing water points, the projects also put in place discontinuous markers to demarcate the most threatened

Participants at the scenario planning workshops in the three

sections of transhumance corridors, developing very elaborate methodologies to build social consensus around these initiatives.

zones emphasised the importance of integrating local

The latest models in stone have proved the most durable.

agriculture and transhumant livestock rearing as a single system. Segregation is simply not an option for them:

The way that facilities are managed has a significant effect on

“Herders and farmers seek each other out” because they

their sustainability. These projects run counter to mainstream

need to live together. Nevertheless, the reality is that resting

systems for managing water installations, by opting to provide

areas and transhumance corridors everywhere are being

water free of charge and for amenities to be managed along

whittled away. This is not necessarily due to a lack of land

customary lines, either by existing bodies (like the joint committee

(as in peri-urban areas like the outskirts of Abéché), but more

in Abéché), bodies created with support (joint committees or

to the fact that pastoral use of the land increases its value in

conflict prevention committees) or other customary management

the eyes of farmers.

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Sedentary communities now own large numbers of livestock,

basis of rural development in Chad. In general terms, the

but most of them have to be kept on the move by transhumant

National Livestock Development Programme (PNDE)

herders. The macro system of crop-livestock integration

combines two visions: helping “secure pastoral systems”

within which these arrangements take place helps stimulate

through a mixed model of very small-scale family farming

trade and social exchanges, improve sustainable livestock

and sedentary or much less mobile livestock rearing; and

and soil productivity, and strengthen both systems in the face

investing in the kind of agro-industrial livestock rearing seen

of crises (resilience).

in Latin American countries, which is geared towards export and highly dependent on technological transfers. The most

AFD projects have been credited with supporting the

recent findings on pastoral production systems indicate that

complementarity between crop farming and pastoral systems,

there is a direct correlation between less mobile or smaller-

by committing to large-scale, long-term interventions.

scale livestock rearing and lower productivity and – above

However, their impact in this regard has at times been

all – reduced resilience (greater vulnerability to drought, for

ambiguous. While they have been careful to build local

example). In the case of Chad, where the large-scale

consensus and involve customary institutions in efforts to

integration of agriculture and livestock rearing has particularly

demarcate and secure transhumance corridors – in response

strong historical roots and economic relevance, this could be

to strong demand from both tribal chiefs and heads of canton

expected to have a negative impact on both agricultural and

– this process combined an aim of complementarity with tools

pastoral production systems. The interventions supported by

based on the logic of separation. These projects have

AFD have been highly pertinent efforts to secure mobile

succeeded in preventing conflicts (or at least violent conflicts

pastoral systems by working on a large scale with a view to

over the works), but have not halted the general erosion of

the future and modernisation.

pastoral resources. The current crisis in the joint committee

Developing pastoral areas and supporting pastoral livestock-rearing systems

in Abéché seems to suggest that peace has yet to take real root, and that their success may be based more on politics than on the economy or the strengthening and development

Water is the key entry point for developing pastoral areas. In

of common interests.

fact, it is the key to controlling land. Therefore, by using pastoral water as their entry point, these projects intervened

Support policies and cross-border issues also need to be

at the keystone of the whole macro system. The decision to

taken into account. These pastoral areas are too large and

keep the number of new wells in more northern areas to a

remote to be controlled by a sedentary population. This can only be achieved effectively by a dynamic and flourishing network of mobile pastoralists who are closely linked into the national economy and national institutions. A viable, extensive

minimum and invest more in temporary ponds (the innovative strategy in Almy Bahaïm) is consistent with support for pastoral mobility.

and prosperous pastoral economy that covers all these

As the key to developing pastoral areas, water should not be

regions but is closely integrated with the south would be the

seen as a commodity but as a de facto instrument of

first line of defence against the propagation of new forms of

governance, and treated accordingly. The projects addressed

insecurity. This kind of economy could provide economic and

these issues by focusing on the “heritage” aspect of the works

political stability, not just as a default activity, but as an

as common assets, and defending them against the “ownership”

effective and productive modern livelihood system capable

model promoted by other actors (mainly the World Bank),

of contributing to Chad’s development as a successful

sometimes just a few kilometres away. This “heritage” approach

modern state. There is still no clear long-term vision for multi-

is particularly interesting when the water points are designed

regional integrated agriculture and livestock rearing as the

for pastoral use (especially by transhumant herders) in

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territories under the jurisdiction of cantons and sedentary

of transhumance corridors. Paradoxically, demarcation

villages, and was very helpful in strengthening and consolidating

transforms well-established but constantly adapting itineraries

the spirit and logic of mobility based on secular relations of

of transhumance into fixed “roads”. While marking a limit to

solidarity and mutual aid.

the expansion of fields, demarcation also limits the “pastoral space”, it protects relatively modest areas of pastoral land

The large-scale vision of these interventions, coupled with

deemed to be particularly at risk, but at the price of formalising

the experience and knowledge of Chadian pastoral systems

the rest of the space as “non-pastoral”. Furthermore, the

acquired over the last 20 years, may be useful in addressing

deliberately discontinuous demarcation of the mourhâls3 covers

aspects of decentralisation policies (such as territorial division)

very few resting areas. The progressive loss of these key areas

that do not sit well with pastoralist land use strategies, which

is now a main concern for transhumant herders seeking to

assume that specific modes of management based on

safeguard their mobility. The lack of clarity in the law about the

intercommunality and the free circulation (non-taxation) of

legal status of the markers means that demarcation itself does

mobile livestock will be in place. In addition to this, building on

little to stop the loss of pastoral resources, despite customary

customary structures (mechanisms for managing water works,

rights. Mobility (a customary strategy) is both promoted and

preventing conflict and safeguarding mobility) also provides

discouraged, and the Abéché joint committee has been thrown

an opportunity to test a local approach to managing pastoral

into crisis by the continued obstruction or closure of corridors

mobility and promote effective mechanisms run by local actors.

by sedentary farmers using them to grow crops.

In terms of environmental impacts, the projects followed an

Along with general questions about pastoral land tenure and

“ecologically cautious” approach to limit the problems known

the effort invested in preparing a Pastoral Code, there is also

to be associated with pastoral water development programmes.

the issue of recognising pastoralism as a productive land use,

This resulted in some innovative and even brave technical

and the coherence of developments along the main routes.

choices, such as only using low-discharge structures to

For example, the wadis or rivers that travel from east to west

minimise the risk of overgrazing; designing water points that

impede north-south mobility, which is essential for livestock

can only be used on a temporary basis, to avoid sedentarisation

productivity. Nothing has yet been done to secure the crucial

in the surrounding areas; intervening in the south as well as

crossing of the river Batha, despite a study by Almy Al Afia

the north, by opening up unexploited pastures (via the creation

(AAA1) recommending the construction of a secure pastoral

of new water points) to facilitate a better distribution of the

passage to Koundjourou and specific funding from AFD for

pastoral herds spending the dry season there. Almy Bahaïm

this purpose.

and PHPK also put a lot of effort into ecological monitoring –

When considering the impact of water structures on peace

most notably with the study on the potential of rangelands,

and security, it is worth noting that while water, peace and

which involved a major mapping exercise. But despite the

physical security are closely inter-related, water is an

considerable resources invested in this aspect of their work,

ambiguous asset. Creating water points may reduce conflict,

neither project’s impact monitoring and evaluation system was

but may also increase it. AFD’s pastoral water projects in Chad

able to confirm or refute whether they helped regenerate plant

have greatly reduced the incidence and gravity of conflict and

cover or avoid its degradation.

are widely praised for their role in helping create political and

As well as working on pastoral water installations, the projects

institutional spaces to manage it. There have been no violent

also marked out at-risk sections along thousands of kilometres

conflicts (involving death or serious injury to humans) over the water points and markers installed by these projects. In this

3

A Chadian Arabic term for cattle corridors.

regard, the approach adopted over the last 20 years is

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universally acclaimed as a success by previous evaluations,

as the wider audience reached by the Platform’s website, the

diverse interviewees and subsequent developments. The core

book and film “Au Coeur de la transhumance”, everyone who

principle of providing water free of charge was pivotal in limiting

has read the studies... If these “beneficiaries” had to be

the risks of appropriation and exclusion associated with

counted, there would be tens or even hundreds of thousands

payment for water, and all the installations have been put to

of them, given the scale of the interventions. The projects have

priority pastoral use as intended. Nevertheless, it is important

been prudent and honest in not setting quantitative objectives

to be cautious on this point: “In the absence of sufficiently

for their expected beneficiaries, as counting “nomads” is

refined observatories of conflicts associated with pastoral

always a tricky business. Above and beyond the numbers

mobility and their evolution over time, it is difficult and

involved, they also seek to build on efforts that have generated

dangerous to make hard and fast judgements about whether

an unprecedented amount of knowledge about pastoral and

they have increased or diminished” (André Marty, April 2013).

rural societies in the three regions of Chad covered by the interventions. The book and eponymous film “Au Coeur de la

Questions about the impacts of these projects also need to

transhumance” (Marty et al., 2009) were produced as part of

take the size of their intervention area into consideration.

a rare and innovative procedure that involved two researchers

Having made a correlation between water installations and securing transhumance routes, they followed a dynamic

spending six months living in an encampment.

(odographic) approach to spatial planning, often operating on

While they undoubtedly affected huge numbers of different

a very large scale. While this decision was consistent with their

types of people, it is clear that the main beneficiaries of the

objectives, it raises the question of whether the considerable resources they were allocated were in fact adequate. The Almy Barhaïm projects covered over 200,000 km², leading some to

capacity building delivered by these projects were men, and among herders, predominantly mature or even elderly men. It was certainly appropriate and effective to prioritise working

argue that while they were strategically placed, the 120 wells, 160 pools and 7 micro-dams were still insufficient to meet demand. This issue will need to be addressed in future projects.

with this category of actor, given their knowledge and power in social and land matters, but it is regrettable that these interventions and the literature they have generated over the last 20 years are deafeningly silent about gender and generational issues. Women’s lack of visibility could ultimately jeopardise the whole process of support for pastoral mobility,

Support for social dynamics

as the strain of living under such harsh conditions may lead The “beneficiaries” or stakeholders of the 11 projects funded

them to push for sedentarisation.

by AFD over the last 20 years are extremely diverse and have been affected by activities at various levels. They include

Given that Chad has one of the highest demographic growth

mobile pastoralists and their families, sedentary agro-

rates in the world, it would also have been interesting to

pastoralists and farmers, local customary institutions and local

consider the links between urban and rural populations. The

administrative authorities, livestock traders and the private

population looks set to double over the next 20 years, and it

sector. On a broader level, there are all the actors involved in

is unlikely that all young pastoralists will be willing or able to

capacity building – in the ministries (MHUR and MDPPA), civil

stay in rural areas. The dynamics between “bushmen” and city

society (especially the Platform), senior staff in projects

dwellers are changing as new information and communication

supported by AFD and other donors, researchers and teachers

technologies (NICTs) narrow the gap between them, yet there

(LRVZ, universities, and so on). At the international level, we

are no studies or data to assess the impacts of AFD’s pastoral

have the community of experts and researchers involved in

water projects on social capital, professional structuring or

pastoral and rural development in sub-Saharan Africa, as well

gender and generational relations.

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Previous evaluations (CIRAD, 2010) have focused on the

and education services. Other technologies coming on stream

lack of inter-sectorality in the approaches adopted by AFD’s

include small motorised pumps that provide access to better

pastoral water projects (with the exception of PHPK Kanem),

quality water, satellite reconnaissance (hydrology, rangeland

arguing that they did not work on certain social components

resources, counting livestock) and Google Earth, all of which

that are important for the stability of pastoral systems, and

constitute entry points for helping supposedly “archaic” pastoral

which would have enabled them to focus on more social

systems (that have often already adopted NICTs) adapt to

concerns. We believe that the key question is not inter-

modernity.

sectorality, but taking account of the new demand from nomadic Total economic value of pastoral livestock rearing

herders for health and education services that are compatible with their mobile lifestyles. Although these projects did not

A growing number of international studies on livestock rearing

intervene directly in education and health, studies were

systems in arid and semi-arid zones show a positive correlation

conducted by specialists/experts in these fields (see studies

between livestock mobility and productivity, and reveal the

undertaken in the context of institutional support to the Ministry

importance of pastoral production systems for their respective

of Livestock and the Platform). Things could and should

national economies. Much of this knowledge has been

change for the new generation of projects (see the feasibility

incorporated into the literature generated by the projects covered

study on eastern Chad and education).

by this evaluation – for example, the study on taxation undertaken in the context of research for the Platform. Comments by MDPPA

In terms of health, the question of water quality at pastoral

technicians and producers generally confirm that slowing the

water points is a more direct concern for pastoral water

pace of transhumance (thanks to the installations) has a positive

projects. The health hazards associated with ponds are a

impact on production: the animals can gain weight while they

problem, but we should remember that transhumant herders’

are on the move. It has also been said that transhumance has

main priority is still access to water on extremely long stretches

a stimulating effect on local economies along livestock corridors.

of routes where people (and animals) may die of dehydration if there are no water points. Hygiene is a familiar issue in the

The glaring lack of knowledge about the economic contribution

water chain, and while pastoral and village wells may not be

made by pastoral systems is largely due to the fact that current

models of good drinking water, the quality of the water they

mechanisms of economic appraisal are insensitive to a whole

provide is not everything. The fact that there is no health

series of values that are seen as important within these systems.

support for herders is an issue that future projects will need to

These include the use of livestock products as a means of

address – especially, but not exclusively, with regard to women,

subsistence (animals born into pastoral systems have already

who are starting to demand better reproductive health services

provided years of economic services by the time they are taken

(delivery conditions, contraception). A good gender approach

to market) and the scale of the informal market. In addition,

would be helpful in this respect.

there are indirect values such as environmental services or contributions to other aspects of the economy – starting with

Finally, NICTs are now a key aspect of pastoral modernity

agriculture and including meaningful employment outside

and mobility. Mobile phones, motorcycle taxis, etc. are

primary livestock production (Krätli et al., 2013b). The official

changing the whole order of things, especially in terms of

figures often hide more than they reveal.

gender, generation, etc. These NICTs are too new to have been taken into account in previous interventions, but they will

Influence on national and regional policies

play a crucial role in the political mobilisation of pastoral producers, and have huge potential for innovative approaches

The projects supported by AFD have had an effect on policies

that will enable mobile communities to access basic health

at the national level. Changing the name of the Ministry of

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Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51

Livestock to the Ministry of Pastoral Development and Animal

other issues. The political actors and development practitioners

Production (MDPPA) represented a political advance and

we spoke to were very positive about the quality of the outputs

marked a positive shift in the perception of pastoral issues

designed to aid decision-making, such as the economic study

among senior staff within the ministry (unlike their counterparts

showing the extent to which livestock rearing contributes to

in neighbouring countries such as Niger and Burkina Faso).

GDP and the amount the State loses due to illegal practices.

These pastoral water projects have also contributed to the

However, there is still much to be done to ensure that help with

emergence of institutions such as the Centre for Nomadic

decision-making is effective and has the backing of Chadian

Education (Direction de l’Éducation Nomade), and the

civil society. The Pastoral Code offers considerable scope for

restructuring of the MDPPA with the creation of a General

this – especially in terms of recognising pastoralism as a

Directorate for Pastoral Development and Animal Production.

productive land use. Much has been learned from these

The main influence of AFD’s support can be seen in the

innovative pastoral water projects, which have helped support

creation of a department responsible for securing pastoral

Chad’s particularly dynamic pastoral sector. Their legacy is

systems within this general directorate.

acknowledged by projects like PROHYPA and PAFIB,4 Oxfam interventions in Kanem, and by Swiss Cooperation (SDC). By

Certain policy choices tie in with the direction taken by AFD-

filling the remaining legislative and regulatory gaps, Chad could

supported projects. For example, the national livestock

position itself as a leader in terms of support for pastoral

development programme (PNDE) includes a specific focus on

livestock rearing in the sub-region. The fact that the 2013

safeguarding pastoral mobility (in accordance with the

regional Conference on Pastoralism, Security and Development

restructuring of the ministry). A similar influence can be seen

took place in N’Djamena suggests that this may already be

in the regulatory framework for water resources, particularly

happening.

the Master Plan for Water and Sanitation (2003-2020) and the conferences held in 2005, 2011 and 2013.

Characteristics and limitations of the AFD approach

The Platform established after the conference in 2011 is now

AFD started implementing its pioneering approach in 1994.

recognised as a legitimate interlocutor in Chad’s institutional

Its objective was to combine the installation of sorely-needed

and organisational landscape, although it needs to be able to

pastoral water structures with efforts to secure the strategies

do more to support proposals put forward by the leaders of

for mobility developed by different categories of pastoralist,

pastoral organisations. Reflection on mobile pastoral citizenship

and to link water works with initiatives to secure transhumance

is needed to develop an approach that combines a vision of

routes (markers). This positive recognition of mobile pastoralism

peaceful cohabitation based on complementary production

as a relevant and effective mode of production, way of life and

systems with recognition of mobile herders as full citizens with

form of land occupancy was entirely innovative.

rights and responsibilities identified within the concept of “mobile citizenship”.

Although it was still called “a pastoral water project”, the new logic introduced with Almy Bahaïm centred around maintaining

In addition to all the multi-disciplinary reports on pastoralism

herders’ mobility, ultimately viewing the provision of water as

produced for the pastoral water projects, the institutional

a means to this end rather than an end in itself. This represented

support delivered from 2009 onwards generated various

a crucial shift from the traditional “water sector” approach to a

thematic studies on education, the economy, conflicts and

systemic one, a decision that itself represents a major achievement – one that must be safeguarded no matter

4

PROHYPA: Pastoral Water Project in Kanem financed by IFAD. PAFIB: Beef Sector Support Programme financed by the EU.

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Another key achievement was reconciling the technical and

generation of interventions. Tendering and procurement

social imperatives of these projects. Given the huge need for

procedures are by far the weakest link in the project chain.

water, using pastoral water works as an entry point to support

The preliminary procedure to build social consensus around

pastoral systems was and still is a highly relevant approach,

the works is threatened by lengthy delays in tendering

despite its inevitable limitations. Installing new water points

procedures, which also undermine the credibility of the

(especially surface water points and ponds) along the routes

projects. Questions about the transparency of the companies’

used by transhumant herders has helped secure a coherent

use of funds and the quality of the works also need to be

network over thousands of kilometres of land. These

addressed.

installations have helped slow the descent of transhumant

Tendering and procurement procedures will be more of a

herders at the end of the rainy season, benefiting herders,

concern for future AFD pastoral water interventions in Chad,

their livestock and sedentary farmers further south, and

which are still much needed. Dysfunctionality and corruption

reducing the risk of damage to fields and thus the incidence

along the chain are longstanding problems that need to be

of conflicts.

tackled effectively. Even though this is an issue that affects all

By prioritising support for customary modes of management,

the other technical and financial partners (TFPs) and the whole

this approach has helped strengthen priority use rights over

procurement chain, not just AFD and water interventions, we

the right of appropriation, maintain the spirit of reciprocity

believe that it constitutes the most serious threat to the future

between users and provide free access to water for livestock.

of these water projects and to “hard” and “soft” support for the

All these factors have contributed to more peaceful

sector (infrastructure, wells and ponds; institutional support

management of shared resources – although the situation

and capacity building).

does seem to be deteriorating in high pressure areas such as

The knowledge and national capacities generated by

the outskirts of Abéché. As a result of this approach, water is

these interventions also constitute a major achievement.

coming to be seen as an instrument of governance rather than

This wealth of experience and knowledge has had a significant

a commodity.

influence on pastoral livestock projects and programmes

Where the approach seems to fall down, however, is in

across the country. Chad now has a pool of senior national

putting in place the monitoring, maintenance and management

staff with proven expertise in pastoralism, with many of those

systems needed to ensure that these installations are

who learned at the “school” of Almy Bahaïm, PHPK Kanem

sustainable. Some management bodies seem ill-prepared to

and Almy Al Afia redeployed in various ministries, pastoral

take over when projects end, there is little local-level

development projects and civil society and research

involvement by the technical livestock rearing services, and

organisations (the Platform, university, LRVZ). While it is still

beneficiaries are not given any training on how to maintain

hard to say how much influence they will have on future policy

water points.

orientations, this still represents a considerable and lasting achievement.

Institutional setup/tendering and procurement procedures

One can only applaud this exceptional output of high quality

The institutional setup has hardly changed since 1994. The

knowledge and intense efforts to build on what has been

Ministry of Water still has overall responsibility for initiatives,

learned through this continuous and complementary process.

and an expatriate operator from a hydraulic company is

These excellent studies and documents should feed into

assigned to manage the projects. While this setup worked for

political advocacy in support of pastoralism – although it has

early pastoral water projects, it could be reviewed for the next

to be said that they are still too “expert” for general consumption,

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Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51

and need to be made more accessible (in every sense of the

The system for monitoring and evaluating these projects has

word) in order to reach a wider audience and be put to more

attracted a lot of criticism, including accusations that little or

concrete use.

nothing has been done in this respect. In fact, project activities have been monitored and evaluated, but not in a classic quantitative way that is easy for external evaluators to read,

Innovation and recognised added value: the passport to the future

particularly once the projects have ended. There have been studies, surveys and follow-up activities, but there are no

The support provided by AFD has helped put pastoral issues

numerical indicators or information on clearly established “pre-

at the heart of development strategies, and has thus opened the way for pastoral livestock rearing to be recognised and supported in Chad. Everyone has been very positive about this

project” situations that would allow post-project projects effects and impacts to be measured. We need to recognise that existing monitoring and evaluation systems are not suitable for large-

initiative. All the TFPs that we contacted said that they have

scale initiatives to support pastoral livestock rearing, mobile

followed the path forged by AFD, which has not only provided

actors and variability. Therefore, new systems need to be

a fertile seedbed for AFD’s own efforts (in eastern Chad, Kanem

developed for future interventions.

and central Chad), but also informed projects such as PAFIBEU, PROHYPA-IFAD, SDC and Oxfam, not to mention others

Despite these limitations, the three previous evaluations

that are still coming on stream. This is an exceptional and

recognise that the overall impact of these projects has been

remarkable achievement.

positive, and the present evaluation confirms the innovative, intelligent and positive aspects of the approach. While it does

While intervening on such a large spatial scale is no mean

have shortcomings that need to be addressed, the approach

feat, the impacts of these projects do raise questions about the

adds real value and deserves to be promoted and pursued right

adequacy of their resources, given that they do not provide

across sub-Saharan Africa, extending and deepening different

permanent solutions to problems with water, free movement

fields of knowledge and continuing to innovate with perseverance

and peaceful transhumance. It would seem desirable to gather

and intelligence. At a time when whole swathes of the Sahelian

a group of interested TFPs to provide more resources to

belt are descending into chaos, the vitality and modernity of

intervene on such a scale and try to resolve the procedural

mobile pastoralism in Chad make it an invigorating example of

issues that continue to hamper progress.

a production system.

Directions for future AFD interventions in this domain

The context of interventions in this domain is highly topical.

contribute to economic development at both the national and sub-regional levels.

Although the crisis in pastoralism is often ascribed to economic, social or even ecological factors such as herd viability

Demographic growth and increased purchasing power have

thresholds, conflicts and degraded rangelands, scientific

created a large and growing market for livestock products in

research has shown that these problems are not so much due

Chad, especially in urban areas. This is largely due to the oil

to the failure of pastoral systems as the failure of public policies

economy. Climate change will increase variability, and thus the

that have undermined rather than supported these systems.

comparative efficiency of mobile modes of livestock rearing.

The context in Chad and the sub-region offers an opportunity

Although the institutional context in the sub-region is becoming

to redress this situation and capitalise on their potential to

more favourable to pastoralism, things have not moved on so

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

far in Chad (Pastoral Code). The country’s pastoral systems are at a crossroads, facing numerous constraints on the one hand and strong prospects for constant evolution on the other.

It is not a question of choosing between pastoralism and an oil-based economy or other types of livestock-rearing (including intensive peri-urban systems) or agricultural systems, but of developing a vision and policy for livestock rearing that is better able to embrace the integration of different livestock-rearing and agricultural systems on a large scale. Modernity and pastoralism are neither contradictory nor mutually exclusive.

Envisioning the future through scenario planning workshops Local participants identified future drivers of change during three scenario planning exercises where water and mobility were repeatedly classified as the most important factors in this respect. Participants at each workshop emphasised that in order to be of genuine use to mobile communities, basic services (and especially education) need to become “mobile” themselves, or at least not use modes of delivery designed for sedentary communities. The scenarios identified as the most

desirable were those that safeguarded pastoral mobility.

These exercises were used to extrapolate two extreme scenarios: one of continuing degradation accompanied by famine and war, with echoes of the very worrying situation in the sub-region (northern Mali); the other a vision of peace and economic prosperity where mobile herders have their rightful place and access to social services. As the current debate about the future of pastoralism lurches between these two extremes, it seems important to set out the main arguments in favour of pastoralism: • Its specialised form of land use and way of maintaining the environment; • Its complex and sound economic value, which is undervalued; • Its suitability to modernity and globalisation; • Its invaluable contribution to the governance of arid and remote areas.

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Strategic directions and recommendations

General strategic directions: Continue with a third generation of innovative projects

• Human resources: Ensure the continuity, diversification and sustainability of skills. Maintain a core level of national

Having established and consolidated some very solid achievements over the last two decades, AFD is now in a position to deepen its interventions to support mobile pastoral systems in Chad over the next 10 to 20 years. The combination of pastoral water works and efforts to secure pastoral resources is still a relevant entry point for a systemic approach (particularly in a highly strategic region like eastern Chad), but it must remain open to innovations at different levels (institutional, technical and financial) and other entry points need to be envisaged. In order to help achieve this

and international expertise, anticipate the dispersal of teams by ensuring that they are recruited for future projects, maintain focal points in parent ministries, reappoint effective operators, include new profiles (meeting criteria for gender and generational issues, NICT skills, and so on).

• Ensure the professional and institutional viability of project teams: Prepare for the future by transforming teams into NGOs or consultancy firms (see ADRB’s experience with Swiss Cooperation).

objective, six main strategic directions are proposed and

• Institutional setup: Consider appropriate setups for

separated into highly interactive recommendations. If adopted,

new types of project. Review the existing setup of projects

they should be implemented as part of a revised strategic

that use pastoral water as an entry point (such as eastern

approach to rural development.

Chad), while testing new setups with new partners (land use planning, decentralisation).

Direction 1: Renewed portfolio with third generation projects General recommendation

• Anticipate links/bridges with innovative action-research

General recommendation : Design third generation projects, with four types of inter-related projects that i) use pastoral water as an entry point (eastern Chad); ii) incorporate pastoral production systems into rural development (Lake Fitri); iii) provide institutional support for state and non-state actors involved in pastoral development (MDPPA and the Platform);

projects in social sectors (such as education, health and micro-finance) and avoid the multi-sectoral project approach. It should be noted that this evaluation is clear about the need to resist the temptation of multi-sectoral projects and the attendant risks of the multi-sectoral approach, a trap that has so far been avoided.

iv) conduct action-research projects/initiatives on education

• Monitoring and evaluation system: Broader participatory

and/or health and/or financial services for nomadic

reflection on all future projects is needed, making a

communities.

concrete start with the feasibility/ex ante evaluation phase of the project in eastern Chad. The following questions need to

Specific recommendations

be considered: How to adapt tools to monitor a system that

• Scale of interventions: Ensure that the geographic scale of the interventions is appropriate to the scope of north-south transhumance and synergy with east-west trade routes (see the pre-feasibility study on eastern Chad and study on Lake Fitri).

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functions on a large scale in unpredictably variable conditions; how to identify new indicators and monitoring measures that are relevant and appropriate to the scale and variability of the intervention areas covered by future projects; how to integrate the indicators of ecological impacts developed by the Comité

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Scientifique Français de la Désertification (CSFD) supported

teams are working on projects, as with the system introduced

by AFD.

by Almy Al Afia 2. Involve users in monitoring construction works.

Direction 2: Improve the sustainability of pastoral infrastructure – funding, maintenance, management bodies, governance

• Continue to consider and test sources of funding for bodies that will manage the works, without challenging the principle of free pastoral water. This is linked with

There are widespread problems with the quality, sustainability

mobilising financial resources for pastoral infrastructure

and financial governance of water works, which urgently need

(through taxes on livestock markets or other funds); responses

to be addressed.

will need to be adapted as decentralisation progresses (local taxes, etc.).

Specific recommendations • Improve quality and cost management by reviewing

• Reflect on the allocation by AFD and the Chadian

the entire chain with the actors concerned: Identification,

government of financial resources to fund pastoral

“integrated” feasibility studies, orchestrating concomitant and

infrastructure – investment and maintenance.

complementary projects, funding, agreements and their

• Develop an argument supporting the redistribution of

provisions, contractual procedures, application of tax and

oil revenues to the pastoral development sector. Chad

customs provisions, evaluating tenders, protecting actors and

could position itself as a modern leader in the sub-region by

their means of production, staff skills.

supporting a particularly dynamic and sustainable sector of its

• Fund a national-level study on the sustainability of

economy with revenues from a non-renewable resource.

water works, drawing on high levels of hydro-geological, economic/financial and sociological expertise (evolution

• Strengthen consultations between technical and

of costs, including water costs, quality of works, responsibility

financial partners to promote co-funding and partnerships

for maintenance).

in order to be able to continue to intervene on a large scale, but with more resources to achieve more visible impacts,

• Research/development to initiate new technical

especially in establishing networks of water points (eastern

responses to sets of constraints that need more work or have

Chad). Help harmonise approaches between different

yet to be addressed. Monitor prototypes and feedback, look

intervening agencies, especially at the regional level.

into diversifying different types of pastoral water works and new technologies such as bladders (portable tanks), mobile

Direction 3: Increase AFD involvement in shaping national/sub-regional policies through greater interaction between pastoral water projects and institutional support for state and non-state actors

pumps and satellite detection.

• Strengthen the technical capacities of national companies by reviewing quality/cost assessments and

AFD interventions have contributed to the emergence of state

mobilising sufficient funding to support the best bids and

and non-state structures that are favourable to pastoralism.

technical resources, in order to rebuild companies undermined

The institutional support to the Ministry of Livestock, the

by a decade of low bids. Optimise works (over-investment) to

Platform and the regional conference on security and

simplify maintenance and reduce maintenance costs.

pastoralism (May 2013) are evidence of more visible AFD support for national policies. Possible areas for this kind of

• Strengthen quality control, companies and users: Introduce self-monitoring quality assurance while the technical

action are outlined below.

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Specific recommendations

• Help increase the financial and technical autonomy of

• Better influence the policy environment and regulatory and legislative framework for the livestock rearing sector in Chad: Prioritise implementation of the Pastoral Code. Help

civil society organisations. It would be useful to develop alliances and partnerships with actors that have proven expertise in facilitating the creation of local NGOs (ADRB), such as Oxfam or the Swiss Agency for Development and

facilitate the adoption of the Pastoral Code and the formulation

Cooperation. Finally, promote greater openness and

and application of its implementing decrees. AFD’s role is not to

collaboration between producer organisations in Chad and

substitute for local actors, but to enable pastoral civil society

other African countries that have gone through similar

organisations to contribute meaningfully to the process.

experiences, such as AREN (Niger), RECOPA (Burkina Faso)

• Ensure that this work on pastoralism is incorporated

and Billital Maroobe (at the regional level).

into the overall policy for rural development in Chad. This

• Training on the concept of mobile citizenship: Knowledge

includes helping develop scenarios that include rural

of laws, rights and responsibilities, a concept of “mobile citizenship”

modernisation and development through the mobilisation of

that is both accountable (responsibilities) and respected (rights),

water resources (implementing the Master Plan for Water and

participation in informed debates … Develop a training module

Sanitation), territorial development through regional planning

on mobile citizenship (like the one on pastoralism in the Sahel

(see the work done by SIDRAT) and links with urban markets.

delivered by partners such as ARED and IIED).

The design of the future project for eastern Chad is very much Direction 4: Optimise knowledge generation and sharing through innovative action-research and the practical application of what has been learned and achieved

in accordance with this aim, and will constitute an immediate field for experimentation.

• Strengthen civil society capacities at the national and local levels: The Platform for actors, pastoral organisations,

Theme 1: Better share, develop and disseminate existing knowledge in Chad and across the Sahelian belt

conflict prevention/works management bodies, etc. This will involve ensuring that national actors take the lead in influencing

• Reorganise and prioritise knowledge and outputs;

policies and in lobbying and advocacy activities.

• Develop attractive and accessible new materials that link • Develop a programme of coaching for leaders of

in with NICTs.

producer organisations so that they can fully engage in Theme 2: Develop action-research on modernising

policy dialogue with decision-makers.

pastoral modes of production • Support the structuring of pastoral civil society. The pyramidal structuring procedure started by PAFIB should be

At the moment there is little or no investment in research that

continued and strengthened, and particular attention given to

specifically supports pastoral modes of production. Research

ensuring that women who make a living from rearing livestock

and/or action-research is needed in the following fields:

are represented and can make their voices heard through joint

• Taxation and fiscal matters;

bodies or women’s organisations.

• Technological innovations adapted to mobility;

• Increase the weight and autonomy of local bodies responsible for managing resources and preventing conflicts: Help create bridges between customary and formal institutions.

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Direction 5: Incorporate innovative approaches in the education/health/finance sectors into the systemic approach to pastoralism, without falling into the trap of the sectoral approach

(Batha, etc.), security conditions and so on, in conjunction with action-research (Direction 4).

• Training: use NICTs for education/literacy training.

This does not mean replicating the setup for integrated rural

Direction 6: Incorporate the whole AFD procedure into support for pastoralism to promote long-term cross-border peace and security/pastoralism involving fragile states

development projects or pastoral water projects like PHPK Kanem. Tackling issues such as access to social services (which are still largely inaccessible to mobile groups) should not involve planning one component for education, one for

AFD projects operate on a large spatial scale, but have so

health and so on, but establishing links with specialists in these

far reflected the logic of national mobility within country borders.

fields, as outlined in the 2011 pre-feasibility study on eastern

Given the size of its intervention area, the future project in

Chad (education sector).

eastern Chad will need to take account of cross-border logics (Central African Republic, Libya, Sudan). Initiatives that take

Recommendations:

account of cross-border mobility should incorporate the three • Finance pilot projects or action-research type education

following activities:

and health initiatives that are adapted to nomadic ways • Considering climate change and its possible impacts

of life. AFD is already committed to supporting studies on

on herd productivity (see NAPAs).

nomadic schools (Swift, 2011; Dos Santos, 2013). It could build on this by funding small innovative independent projects to

• Promoting and securing cross-border economic trade:

make social services more accessible, or supporting initiatives

Strengthen the chain by focusing on the total economic value

within pastoral projects. A link needs to be established with

of pastoral livestock rearing in order to respond to the growing

AFD’s Chad portfolio (14 per cent) for these sectors, and with

demand for livestock products in urban markets, with actions

actions in N’Djamena (on reproductive health, for example).

to develop services along caravan routes and (east-west)

There should also be interaction on improving water quality in

intersections between transport and transhumance routes.

pastoral areas, with work on infrastructure and education on water hygiene.

• Helping improve security in the sub-region: The conference on this theme in N’Djamena in May 2013 generated

• Pilot support for mobile financial services in pastoral

some very interesting responses drawing on experience in

areas through current efforts to develop new technologies

various countries. Funding will be needed for studies and

(possibly in conjunction with mobile phone networks such

cross-border analysis of the development and impacts of water

as Tigo), and monitor money transfers, impact on savings,

points on each side of the border (between Chad and Niger

etc. (this could be done through a PhD researcher, for

and Chad and Sudan, for example) to avoid creating

example).

infrastructure that might generate conflict over cross-border

• Use these NICTs to generate useful and accessible

movement under normal conditions, and particularly in times

information on markets, weather, human and animal health,

of crisis in states that are classified as fragile (such as the

the condition of pastures or water points, flood water levels

Central African Republic, Darfur, Libya).

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Introduction

The evaluation exercise presented in this report was

generated over the course of these two decades. All in all,

unusual in its broad scope, its historical sweep, and its remit

this initiative to determine how AFD and Chad may be able

to assess AFD support for pastoralism in Chad from 1993-

to move forward in an uncertain future represented quite a

2013 and determine its future direction. Twenty years

challenge, raising a whole range of issues and calling for a

amounts to one human generation and several generations

fresh evaluation approach.

of decision-makers, experts, policies, paradigms and projects.

AFD wanted nothing less than a critical review of past

This section begins by setting the scene for the evaluation

interventions and their spin-offs, along with strategic directions

exercise and describing its genesis, objectives, procedure

for future rural development initiatives across the vast sub-

and methodology. Particular attention is given to the scena-

Saharan belt. There was also a mountain of literature to trawl

rio planning workshops, as this was the first time they had

through – all the reports, studies, evaluations and follow-up

been undertaken in Chad.

Context and procedure for the exercise

In the second half of 2012, the Evaluation Division of AFD’s

The exercise had several objectives: i) evaluate the overall

Research Department prepared the terms of reference for

relevance and coherence of interventions by AFD Group; ii)

the “Evaluation and follow-up of 20 years of AFD Group

assess the performance of pastoral water projects; and iii)

interventions in the pastoral water sector in Chad”. This

propose strategies for continuing the process (with significant

exercise, which covered 11 projects implemented in three

changes) or gradually winding it down. The evaluation was

areas of Chad (see Map 1 above) between 1993 and 2013,

to proceed in two phases, the first involving ex post evaluation

was driven by the need for an overall analysis that would

and follow-up, and the second a prospective analysis of

help AFD build on 20 successive years of support – going

pastoral water in the medium to long term.

beyond previous cross-project evaluations undertaken by

The terms of reference specified that the work should be

IRAM (2004), CIRAD (2010) and ERE (2012), and detailed

undertaken in three phases: the first to determine the

follow-up by various projects (BET in the north, Almy Bahaïm

structure of the evaluation procedure and present it in a

in eastern Chad, PHPK in Kanem, and Almy Al Afia 1 in

framework document to be approved by a specially created

central Chad). What was wanted was a critical external

steering committee (COPIL); the second to implement the

review and summary that would provide the basis for

evaluation procedure through field visits in Chad; and the

strategic directions for a possible (but by no means definite)

third to prepare the summary and recommendations (interim

second generation of innovative interventions that would be

report, final report).

incorporated into the national development system.

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The procedure would take place in three stages over

the five-member team from IIED). The next step was to produce

seven months (November 2012 – May 2013).

a framework document (which was delivered in December 2012). This period was also spent consulting the documentation

Stage 1: Defining the structure for the evaluation procedure (November 2012-February 2013)

and contacting a whole range of actors in Paris, Montpellier, Avignon and elsewhere in France in order to draw on their invaluable experience and knowledge of interventions over

AFD appointed the London-based International Institute for

the last 20 years. The team was also given unrestricted access

Environment and Development (IIED) to conduct the

to all AFD’s available documentation. It took considerable time

evaluation, on the basis of the bid IIED presented in Paris at

and effort to establish a list of key documentary references

the end of October 2012 and a revised version submitted on 31 October 2012. It is important to note that the team included a hydrologist in its original proposal, but because AFD did not

covering this long period, as the documents were not presented in any order of priority, and some “old” ones were missing. A second COPIL meeting was held in mid-January 2013 to

see this as essential it was decided to ask ERE (a consultancy

validate the framework paper, restructure the evaluation

firm based in Cameroon that had overseen the most recent

questions around eight major points, and determine how the

crosscutting evaluation in 2012) to make a contribution on the sustainability of the water works. All five members of IIED’s international team had between eight and forty years’ experience in this domain, bringing a range of complementary skills and insights to the various assignments involved in the

field visit to Chad would be organised. Detailed minutes were taken at each meeting to strengthen the consensual process.

In view of the growing insecurity across the Sahelian belt, plans were also made to hold a regional conference in

evaluation:

N’Djamena in May 2013 on the theme “Pastoral livestock

• Ced Hesse, a geographer and principal researcher in IIED’s

rearing: A sustainable contribution to pastoral development

Drylands Department, Climate Change Group, based in

and security in Saharan-Sahelian spaces”, with support from

Edinburgh, led the exercise;

AFD. Although this activity had not been included in the terms of reference, AFD asked IIED to contribute to the conference

• Saverio Krätli, researcher and specialist in pastoralism,

as part of the evaluation exercise because it is well placed to

based in the UK;

facilitate contacts with actors and institutions from East Africa.

• Marie Monimart, sociologist and gender expert, head of mission in Chad, based in France;

IIED consented, and it was agreed that while this contribution would constitute an important output, it would be secondary to the main objectives of the evaluation/follow-up exercise.

Saverio Krätli presented this communication to the Conference

• Blamah Jalloh, Programme Officer for the Billital Maroobe

in May 2013.

herders’ and pastoralists’ network, based in Niger; • Jeremy Swift, pastoral expert and researcher, based in the UK.

Stage 2: Field visit to Chad (17 February-10 March 2013).

The first meeting of the steering committee (COPIL) took

Three members of the IIED team participated in this stage

place in Paris on 30 November 2012. It was chaired by pastoral

(Monimart, Krätli and Jalloh), with constant support from focal

expert Mr. André Marty, and attended by members of AFD’s

points in the two ministries involved in pastoral water projects:

Paris office, representatives from the Ministry of Urban and

Mr. Ali Daoud, coordinator of Almy Al Afia 2 for the MHUR, Mr.

Rural Water (MHRU) and the Ministry of Pastoral Development

Abdellatif Fizzani for MDPPA, and Mr. Jean Laurent from AFD.

and Livestock Production (MDPPA), the AFD office in

Mr. Yves Ficatier, from the EVA department in AFD Paris,

N’Djamena (by video-conference) and the Consultant (two of

accompanied the mission for the first week, when the scenario

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

planning workshop in Abéché took place, and Ms. Charlotte

great willingness to meet and talk to us. We would like to

Cheumani from ERE came for three days to advise on the

extend our warmest thanks to all the men (and the very few

sustainability of the water works. During this mission the team

women) who participated in this exercise.

made contact with various actors, ran a four-day launch Stage 3: Preparing the summary report and recommendations (mid-March to mid-May 2013).

workshop in N’Djamena, and went on field visits to Abéché in eastern Chad, and Mongo and Yao Fitri in central Chad (10 days), where they ran three scenario planning workshops. In

This period was devoted to producing the interim report,

the final week they made further high-level contacts, held a

which was discussed at COPIL’s third meeting in Paris in mid-

meeting in Kanem, produced a 20-page checklist and ran a

April 2013. Comments and observations made by the French

workshop in N’Djamena to report back on the exercise.

and Chadian parties were incorporated into the final report,

It is worth noting several points about this stage. Firstly, the

which was submitted to AFD in mid-May. COPIL then met for

field visit was far too short for the Consultant to make even a

the fourth and final time on 11 June 2013 – after the conference

minimal assessment of the diverse intervention contexts and

in N’Djamena – to obtain feedback on the evaluation

outputs involved, especially given the scope of the evaluation

presentation at the conference, validate the final report and

(20 years and 11 projects). Twice the time was needed, but

plan its distribution.

this was not possible due to budgetary constraints. Secondly,

All in all, the seven months of the exercise mainly went

it was not possible to visit the north (BET), the south (Salamat),

according to plan. The terms of reference provided a good

Kanem (for security reasons) or any encampments, and

framework for the process, which was built on consensus and

contact with herders was effectively limited to the scenario

close stakeholder involvement (AFD, Chad, COPIL). The

planning workshops. The mission was also constantly

overall timetable was respected, and the evaluation

accompanied by a special police force (ISD) vehicle, which

presentation at the conference in N’Djamena validated the

did try to maintain as discreet a presence as possible.

approach taken by both the Client and the Consultant.

Despite these considerable constraints, the three scenario

Evaluation teams invariably lament the lack of time allocated

planning workshops went ahead as planned thanks to the

for field visits, and sadly we did not make any great strides in

diligent efforts of the Chadian support team. Each workshop

this respect, despite the innovative aspects of this exceptionally

was attended by 40 to 50 people, and we were able to make

wide-ranging exercise. The question is, will it be repeated in

the best use of the short time available thanks to everyone’s

2033?

Methodology

Due to the huge scope of the evaluation/follow-up exercise

post evaluation methods. Instead, IIED opted for a meta-

(the time, space and number of projects involved), the

evaluation procedure, using a participatory process of critical

existence of several excellent evaluations (2004, 2010, 2012)

analysis that built on existing material and work. An enormous

validated by AFD, the sheer volume of related documentation

amount of time was spent organising and prioritising secondary

and the limited time in the field, the team avoided classic ex

data such as evaluations, follow-up reports and studies.

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Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51

The team’s researchers also broadened the documentary

Previous evaluations had already demonstrated the

field to include external literature on pastoralism, much of

fundamental need (in all 11 projects funded by AFD) for a

which was not written in French, the working language (see

monitoring and evaluation system with appropriate indicators

the references at the end of this document). Another priority

for a classic ex post evaluation exercise. We took a different

was gathering a very wide a range of (possibly contradictory)

approach to performance analysis, basing it on in-depth

views through interviews with resource persons, actors,

reflection on pastoralism, changing paradigms and approaches

experts, stakeholders and non-stakeholders in these projects.

(see section 1.1 of this report), and the “three pillars” analytical

Nearly 300 people were interviewed during the course of this

framework (see below and Figure 1). This sees pastoralism

exercise – individually, in interest groups, and during the five

as a complex socio-economic and ecological system made up

workshops held in Chad. Far from being cosmetic, COPIL

of three heterogeneous but interdependent components that

played a meaningful role in the process and made valuable

need to be in harmony and balance for the system to work

contributions throughout. Other major stakeholders such as

properly. The characteristics of each component influence each

the MHRU and MDPPA, the Platform and AFD Paris and

other, but their interdependence is not linear. All seven

N’Djamena were asked for their opinions at every key stage

evaluation questions relate to these three pillars, focusing on

of the process, and their comments taken into account. We

different ones according to the issue under consideration. The

would like to thank them all for their attentive and productive

final evaluation question, which is an overall assessment of

participation. The IIED team also drew heavily on the diverse

AFD’s intervention, covers all three pillars.

skills and experience of its five members, and held two residential workshops at key points in the exercise: one in December 2012 to prepare the framework document, and the

Figure 1: The three pillars of pastoralism

other in April 2013 for the interim report.

TY LI BI O M

TY

LI

BI

two over-arching questions: i) how has AFD provided systemic

O

and one prospective. The retrospective analysis had to answer

Society Institutions Social services, policy, laws, platform, ...

M

This exercise focused on two main themes, one retrospective

support for pastoralism in a period when understanding of the systemic approach has changed, and was it right to focus on one sector (pastoral water) as the entry point for pastoral

Economy Livestock Animal health markets, ...

support? and ii) was this support delivered in an appropriate manner? These two broad questions were broken down into the seven main evaluation questions, which are covered in

Ecology Pastoral ressources Water, pastures, salt, ...

section 2 of this report. The aim of the prospective analysis, which was based on our observations, was to determine the directions and recommendations for future AFD interventions on pastoralism in Chad. The scenario planning exercises described in this document were the lynchpin of this prospective analysis, which is considered in section 3 of this report.

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MOBILITY

Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Scenario planning workshops

The evaluation team used scenario planning methods to facilitate interviews with pastoralists and other local users, document their assessment and analysis of the projects objectives, activities and results, and seek their views on the future of pastoralism and its contribution to the overall economy and society in Chad.

project, and the third in Yao, in Fitri, which ran over two half days due to logistical reasons.

Each of these workshops was attended by over 40 people identified by AFD focal points and AAA3 staff, in accordance with the evaluation team’s recommendations. The aim was to involve different types of participant to ensure that transhumant

The “scenarios” developed during these exercises represent

herders, dignitaries (canton and tribal chiefs), women livestock

a whole range of possible favourable and unfavourable futures,

producers, livestock traders and officials from deconcentrated

which participants identify through a process of mechanical combination and logical analysis. They are particularly useful for medium- and long-term planning in unpredictable conditions,

agencies would be represented. The exercise was broken down into four main stages: i. Plenary session to discuss major changes in the locality

when the inevitable lack of information makes operational

over the last 20 years, and their causes (including ongoing

planning a less effective tool. The general aim of planning is to

changes);

minimise uncertainty. Scenario planning, however, uses uncertainty constructively by defining its limitations, identifying possible combinations of processes that will lead to different

ii. Key “drivers of change” identified and prioritised by participants;

outcomes, and then analysing how such alternative futures can

iii. Scenarios mechanically constructed using two selected

be pursued, influenced or avoided. IIED first started using

key drivers of change in four possible high- and low-intensity

scenario planning with pastoralists in Niger and Kenya in 2008-

combinations;

2010,5

where it proved very effective in helping local

communities articulate their vision of the future for pastoralism in the context of much bigger drivers of socio-economic change.

Scenario planning exercises can last for several months, depending on their context and objectives. In this evaluation, we ran three specially adapted one-day exercises during our visit to the region: the first in Abéché in eastern Chad (three years after the closure of the Almy Bahaïm 3 project); the second in Mongo as part of Phase 2 of the Almy Al Afia (AAA) Scenario planning was first tested with the Wodaabe Fulani in Niger (Krätli, 2008), then applied on a larger scale with Karamojong herders in Uganda (including children) as part of the review of the alternative basic education strategy for Karamoja – ABEK (Krätli, 2009), and in Kenya with Boran, Maasai, Somali and Turkana herders during consultations on the national strategy for nomadic education (SOS Sahel and IIED, 2009; Cavanna and Abkula, 2009). See: http://www.drylands-group.org/ Articles/1697.html.

5

iv. Logical description and discussion of the scenarios.

A full list of the drivers of change identified during these three exercises is presented in Table 7 in section 3.1 of this report.

This list is the product of joint reflection on the past and the present. It does not represent desired or ideal conditions, but real drivers of change observed by participants. It is worth noting that water and mobility constantly recurred as the most important factors throughout the process of developing scenarios through a mechanical combination of factors, using actors’ knowledge and experience to build arguments and logical sequences (“if x and y happen, then z will ensue”), and imagining and negotiating their details. The scenarios developed in Abéché are presented in Figure 2 to illustrate the methodology, and the content of the three scenarios is summarised in section 3.1 below.

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Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51

Although these three workshops were not held in the best

participants, providing an excellent translation service, and

conditions, the fact that they happened at all (especially in

running and reporting back on the process. We would like to

Abéché, which is no longer supported by a project) was quite

take this opportunity to thank them warmly for all their hard work.

an achievement given the constraints of the mission –– and a first in Chad. There was a good deal of active participation and lively debate, especially in Abéché and Mongo,

The scenarios developed during these workshops provided the basis for the directions and recommendations presented in section 3 of this report, where they are reviewed and

demonstrating that the future is a highly topical issue.

discussed in relation to other scenarios.

The most productive exercise was the workshop in Mongo.

This was held as an AAA2 project activity, and mainly attended

Arguments developed from the scenarios at Abéché:

by transhumant herders, some of whom had travelled several hundred kilometres to get there. There was also a significant

Peace and prosperity:

female presence as five of the participants were women. They

Mobility assured – Access to social services assured

were interviewed separately to enable them to express their

Peace prevails. Intense exchanges between farmers and

views more freely (see section 2.4 below). While they certainly did not constitute a critical mass at this workshop, it is worth noting that only one woman attended the workshop in Yao, and none went to Abéché. The whole team from Almy Al Afia were closely involved in the workshop, especially senior staff

integrated. Lower maternal mortality rates. Educated pastoralists invest profits from livestock rearing elsewhere. ral areas. Pastoralists engage with political decision-ma-

(AGRP) and the two ministerial focal points. They played a

king spheres.

crucial role in its organisation and logistics, identifying

Back to the wall: Mobility not assured – Poor access to social services

Figure 2: Scenarios from the workshop in Abéché

Widespread poverty and food insecurity in the country.

Falling state revenues. Mass emigration by pastoralists

STRONG Mobility Assured

cure land tenure. Education and pastoral activities are well

Young doctors and vets (male and female) stay in pasto-

from the pastoral resource management support component

Peace & Prosperity

herders and dynamic local and national economies. Se-

and/or explosion of conflicts and violence. Advantages of complementary production systems undermined. Loss of specialisation and low productivity in livestock rearing and

No change

agriculture: All pastoralists have fields, all farmers have livestock.

No change: Either Mobility not assured – Access to

Basic service (education, health) for nomadic communities

social services guaranteed or Mobility assured – Poor

WEAK

STRONG

No change

Mobility Assured

access to social services The combination of these two scenarios is already a

Back to the wall

reality: Those who are mobile have little or no access to basic services, while access to basic services entails a loss of mobility (with a negative impact on social and economic status, leading to a breakdown of the system).

WEAK

Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.

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1. Context

1.1. Changes in understanding of pastoralism over the last 20 to 30 years

Pastoral development theories and understanding of pastoral

growing recognition of the fact that (mobile) pastoral systems

ecosystems have changed radically over the last 20 years. It

can populate harsh and remote areas where the absence of

is now understood that the unpredictable variability of pastures,

citizens and civil society creates breeding grounds for socio-

which used to be seen as a barrier to development, can be

political problems, and which can rapidly turn into “ungoverned”

transformed into a valuable resource for food production.

spaces.

Environments that are regulated by unpredictable variability are fundamentally different from those in which globalised

1.1.1. Fundamental changes in knowledge about

intensive agriculture has developed. Their characteristic

pastoralism between 1990 and 2013

variability can either be regarded and tackled as an obstacle, or exploited as a resource. The former course of action had

The 1990s (when AFD projects began) were an important

been preferred in globalised agricultural production, but is

period for the study of pastoralism, especially in Africa. The

becoming increasingly expensive with climate change; the

famines of 1972-73 and 1984 had produced an image of

latter requires a very different approach – working with

pastoral systems on the edge of collapse. However, the

unpredictable variability rather than against it. Pastoral systems

international attention associated with these crises had also

are a particularly clear example of this approach. Livestock

triggered an unprecedented amount of research on pastoralism

mobility (in its various forms and functions) is then seen as a crucial strategy in a highly specialised system that exploits

from a variety of disciplines. From this new critical mass of

unpredictable environments for food production; a system that

field observations there developed a fundamentally different

carries an important lesson at a time when volatile weather

way of understanding pastoral systems and the drylands, and

conditions are becoming the norm worldwide. There is also

thus pastoral development.

Box 1: Ecological succession

Frederic Clements’ (1874-1945) theory of ecological succession (1916) combines mechanistic-Darwinian metaphors with a view of vegetation as a complex organism. Vegetation develops through stages of increasing complexity, until competition between species leads to a stable or self-perpetuating community (climax community), which describes the vegetation best suited to the local conditions. Once this equilibrium, or steady state, is reached, succession stops and, as in an organism, change is controlled by homeostatic mechanisms. Under “ideal conditions”, vegetation responds to a “disturbance” by growing back towards the steady state (Tobey, 1992).

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For more than half a century, development interventions in

rangelands might be better understood as “non-equilibrial”

pastoral areas of Africa had been dominated by a model of

ecosystems driven by unpredictable environmental

rangeland management that originated in the western United

perturbations rather than regulated by homeostatic

States (1900-1930). Although the model was backed up with

mechanisms (Ellis and Swift, 1988; Westoby et al., 1989).

Clementsian successional theory (1916-1920), its application

Development interventions aimed at “returning” the

centred around the pre-existing notion of carrying capacity

ecosystem to a stable state might have been the solution

(1880s) and the related focus on controlling grazing (Sayre

to a false problem.8

and Fernandez-Gimenez, 2003). 6 This model essentially

A formal challenge to the orthodox model of range

describes vegetation and ruminants as part of a self-regulated system that leans toward a state of equilibrium. Within this approach, an “optimal” livestock population could be

management soon came in the form of a collection of studies published just before the launch of Almy Bahaim: Range Ecology at Disequilibrium, which started from a critical

calculated for a given area on the basis of a simple set of

analysis of the tenet of carrying capacity (Behnke et al.,

ecological parameters (initially, only average rainfall). The

1993).9

imperative to “rationalise” grazing by controlling stocking and land tenure promoted a view of nomadic pastoralism as a natural enemy: a disturbance to both the equilibrium of the rangeland ecosystem and the task of managing it. If the Sahelian crises had seemed to provide evidence for this view, the principle that pastoral production needed “rationalising” had been in rural development circles since at least the 1930s.7

The notion that rangelands had a determinable “carrying capacity” (based on the average rainfall in the area) was developed to assist grazing leases in New Zealand and Australia, and this preceded the work of Clements by a good couple of decades (Sayre and Fernandez-Gimenez, 2003; Sayre, 2008). This research on the history of the concept of carrying capacity concludes that the power of this approach is to be found outside the ecological theory: “Clements (1920) explicitly rejected fixed carrying capacities, and his theory appears to have provided a post hoc scientific rationale for decisions shaped principally by economic and political considerations: Static, ideal, quantitative carrying capacities assigned to fenced and leased allotments facilitated bureaucratic administration for government agencies and gave bankers and ranchers a way to capitalise public lands” (Sayre, 2008: 124).

6

Box 2: Pastoralism and vulnerability

“A degree of vulnerability is inherent to pastoralism as it is inherent to any system operating by harnessing risk and instability (e.g. marine fishing or the military).

When addressing vulnerability in pastoralism it is therefore crucial to distinguish between this ‘baseline

For example, when the research station of Filingué, Niger, was created in 1931, this was “with the general aim of developing livestock rearing in the Sahelian region in a rational manner” (Agriculture Service, Annual Agriculture Report 1931, Central Government of French West Africa. Colony of Niger, cited in Krätli, 2007). See also Landais, 1990.

7

vulnerability’, which is strategic, and which the system is designed to manage, and the unnecessary and dysfunctional vulnerability that arises from the sudden or cumulative incapacity to operate the system due to

For example Ellis and Swift (1988: 457-458): “We have attempted to show that in Ngisonyoka Turkana and most probably in many other arid or semi-arid pastoral ecosystems, equilibrial conditions are not attainable. Rather, ecosystem dynamics are dominated by the stochastic perturbations of multi-year droughts. […] The obvious conclusion is that conventional development procedures are destabilising influences in ecosystems which are dominated by stochastic abiotic perturbations and which operate essentially as non-equilibrial ecosystems”.

8

structural changes triggered by external forces, internal adjustments, or disasters.”

Source : Krätli et al. 2013 b : 46.

The analysis of carrying capacity by Behnke and Scoones (1993) returned the concept to its original domain of economics, by showing that it can only be defined in relation to a given system of rangeland management: Different management objectives for the same ecosystem give different carrying capacities (depending on whether it is managed like a ranch or a natural reserve, for example).

9

By the mid-1980s, this model was unable to explain what a new generation of scholars working in pastoral contexts were observing. Some of them started to suggest that

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Box 3: A different way of using the environment for food production

Unpredictable variability in the environment can be an obstacle or an asset for food production, depending on the production strategy (the way of using the environment).

Livestock mobility in pastoral systems is a strategy for production. Livestock production of any significant scale in arid and semi-arid environments (whether by “nomads” or by “sedentary” communities) is usually mobile for at least a part of the year.

The most recent forms of “sedentary” production depend on mobile systems for their long-term existence.

Unpredictable environmental variability is a problem for the (now globalised) intensive approach to agriculture, which is native to temperate climates and specialises in exploiting the uniformity and stability of resources. Conversely, it is an asset for mobile livestock rearing systems native to environments dominated by variability, and which specialise in exploiting unpredictable and ephemeral concentrations of resources.

In a context where the availability of resources is unpredictable and unevenly distributed, the strategic mobility of livestock maximises exploitation by enabling timely and selective access to resources, and levelling up negative spikes (droughts) by increasing the scale of operation.

Mobile livestock obtain more nutrients and experience fewer droughts than the average values in each location they use.

Their experience of “drought” – i.e. serious insufficiency of pasture over an extended period – should be expected to increase in frequency as mobility is hindered and the scale at which pastoral systems operate is reduced.

In difficult production environments where social organisation and complex knowledge are extremely important, strategically mobile livestock rearing allows for large-scale crop-livestock integration across specialised production systems rather than at the farm level, therefore without sacrificing specialisation.

Pastoralism was seen in a completely new light once it was

across a series of environments […] with an emphasis on

considered outside the orthodox “equilibrium” model. Pastoral

exploiting environmental heterogeneity rather than attempting

strategies that had been hindered and discouraged as irrational

to manipulate the environment to maximise stability and

–especially livestock mobility – suddenly made sense. The

uniformity” (Behnke et al., 1993: 14-15).

unpredictable variability that had been treated as a disturbance to an equilibrium ecosystem, and regarded as something that

This realisation clearly had profound implications for the way

had to be corrected or neutralised, was understood as integral

that development policies and interventions should be

to the functioning of the rangeland ecosystem. Consequently,

approached, prompting a second series of research exercises

production systems like pastoralism that developed in

to analyse its ramifications (Scoones, 1995).10 These were

environments characterised by unpredictable variability could

also published in French (Scoones, 1999).

be understood as functioning effectively with it and not See Scoones: “The history of livestock development in Africa […] has been one of the equilibrium solutions being imposed on non-equilibrium environments”(1995:4).

10

struggling ineffectively against it: “The producer’s strategy within non-equilibrium systems is to move livestock sequentially

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1.1.2. Timely access to fodder for selective feeding

Efforts to reconsider and understand arid lands and pastoral production have generated an impressive and ever-

Nutrients that are good for livestock accumulate in grasses

growing number of studies over the last two decades.11

as the plant grows, until they are used by the plant to

Theoretical elements of the literature on pastoralism now

complete its cycle. Scattered rainfall in arid areas means

engage with this paradigm shift in one way or another, and

that these nutrients become available in unpredictable and

the alternative outlook has spread beyond academia into

ephemeral concentrations. By allowing livestock to reach

national and international development circles.

At this

pastures as their nutritional content peaks, strategic mobility

general level, the framework for thinking on pastoralism has

can make the difference between abundance and scarcity

been transformed and now allows for more sophisticated

in the same environment.13

12

analysis – in principle at least.

Ruminants whose diet is poor cannot compensate by

In reality, replacing or adapting the tools we rely on as

eating more. In fact, they respond by eating less, leading

practitioners is a time-consuming and much more laborious

to rapid loss of weight. This is why pastoralists try to rear

process. This practical level ties in closely with development

animals that are particularly good at feeding selectively – in

interventions, from basic “technologies” in the broad sense

other words, which are capable of feeding on the “best bits”

(starting with the technical language, definitions and

of mixed quality pasture and ignoring the rest (Krätli, 2007).

typologies used to describe projects and their operational contexts) to the mechanisms used to measure and calculate performance (for example, indicators and statistics), and complex intervention methodologies. For the best part of this process, it is inevitable to have, so to speak, the “head” in one model and the “feet” in another. Teasing out the old

When pastoral systems are allowed to operate according to their underlying logic, the strategic mobility of competent selective feeders can produce a nutritional marvel: a diet whose quality exceeds the average nutritional value of the rangeland that has been grazed (observed for the first time

by N’Golo Traoré and Abdarahamane Diallo in 1978; see

from the new, and real change from ad hoc adjustment is

Breman and De Wit, 1983).14

just as important as re-qualifying the whole range of development problems and solutions.

Behnke et al. (1993); Scoones (1995); Niamir-Fuller (1999); Hodgson (2000); Homewood (2008); Krätli and Schareika (2010); Gertel and Le Heron (2011); Catley et al. (2012). Studies comparing the performance of (bovine) livestock rearing systems with different levels of mobility in dryland East and West Africa have found a positive correlation between mobility and productivity for all the main parameters, with fertility and milk production increasing and calf mortality declining as mobility increases (see, for example, Wilson and Clarke, 1976; Cossins, 1985; Colin de Verdière, 1998). A total of 26 independent studies on pastoralism in nine countries in East, West and southern Africa have found that livestock reared in pastoral systems yield several times more per hectare than those raised under ranching systems (Scoones,1995; Ocaido, 2009).

11

Including, among others, FAO (1997); UNDP-GDI (2003); Mortimore et al.

(2008); COMESA (2009); IIED and SOS Sahel (2009).

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A study looking at this issue in terms of the ecology of populations of wild ungulates in the Sahel found that “Wild ungulate populations migrate to make use of nutritious but very seasonal food supplies. In doing this, they maintain a higher population size than they could as sedentary populations.” (Sinclair and Fryxell, 1985:987).

13

Colonial veterinarians Paul Mornet and Kassoum Kone had hinted at this crucial point in their work on Bororo zebu raised by Fulani Wodaabe in Niger. Although they spoke in terms of “roaming” rather than “strategic mobility” (this was the 1940s!) and did not develop their intuition, they were right on the target: “in order to be able to keep their zebu in good condition, the Fulani […] continue this ceaseless roaming and every year win […] this challenge of keeping alive animals whose nutritional needs (given their size) are disproportionate to the capacity of the pastures” (Mornet and Koné, 1941: 179).

14

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Box 4: Refocusing the approach to policy formulation

Several West African states have promulgated legislative codes that are specifically designed to support pastoralism, acknowledging that mobility is an asset that needs to be secured, formally recognising pastoralists’ customary rights of access and communal management systems, and protecting “pastoral resources” (Islamic Republic of Mauritania, 2000; Republic of Mali, 2001; Republic of Niger, 2012). The African Union’s framework for a policy on pastoralism in Africa starts by declaring that “pastoralists are custodians of key national resources found in arid and semi-arid areas and, as a system, pastoralism helps to protect and safeguard these resources” (African Union, 2010:1).

A recent policy to develop arid and semi-arid areas in Kenya stipulates that “Pastoralism is the extensive production of livestock in rangeland environments [...] its principal defining features are livestock mobility and the communal management of natural resources […] until recently, most governments viewed pastoral areas as net consumers of national wealth that offered poor prospects of return on investment. Pastoralism was therefore less valued than other forms of land use and less well-supported. Recent studies have shown that these views were misplaced.” This policy also aims to “recognise through legislation, pastoralism as a legitimate form of productive land use and development on the same basis as farming” and “ensure that devolved structures accommodate mobility and resource-sharing across administrative boundaries and draw on the knowledge and experience of customary institutions” (Republic of Kenya, 2012:19).

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) recommends “Investment in pastoral livestock production based on the assumption that pastoralism is rational, and that it can be reinforced with appropriate technological and management adjustments, but cannot be sustainably substituted” (IUCN 2011:29). The International Livestock Research Institute’s (ILRI) research on payments for ecosystems services highlights the crucial role of pastoral systems (Silvestri et al., 2012), while a recent global study by FAO emphasises that pastoralism is a lowcarbon production system compared with intensive livestock systems (Steinfeld et al., 2010).

1.1.3. Undervalued assets The orthodox ecological model of pastoral development

economies and the aggregation of data, efforts are now

regarded pastoral production as having very little economic

being made to show what pastoral systems contribute to

importance. Pastoralism was viewed as illogical and even

the economy (Hesse and MacGregor, 2006; Krätli, 2013).

disruptive, limited to subsistence and stuck in the past. The

Pastoral systems are also attracting growing attention as

theoretical changes over the last 20 years have led to a

examples of resilience to climate change (AU-IBAR, 2010;

re-evaluation of its economic contribution. In most African

Brooks, 2006; Birch and Grahn, 2007). The fact that they

countries with robust pastoral systems their contribution

use land in a way that allows environmental instability to be

accounts for a significant proportion of GDP and represents

exploited for food production has come to be seen as an

exceptionally high returns on investment (African Union,

important lesson for a world facing increasing climatic

2010). Although its value tends to be masked by informal

volatility (Krätli et al., 2013a).

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Part of the growing recognition of their economic value is

Box 5: What is “pastoralism”?

associated with the management of rangelands as both ecological and political spaces. In the first case, the value

Pastoralism has usually been described in terms of

can be calculated in the form of payments for environmental

what it is not, and thus: defined “by subtraction”. The

services (see Silvestri et al., 2012, among others). In the

National Policy for the Sustainable Development of

second case, indirect values include social management of

Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands (Republic of

conflict (peace) and reproduction of the social fabric. Unlike

Kenya, 2012) departs from traditional subtractive

most production systems, pastoral systems come equipped

descriptions of pastoralism and commits to the

with “infrastructure”: the informal institutions and forms of

following “substantive” definition:

social organisation that enable citizens to inhabit political

“The term refers to both an economic activity and a

spaces in remote and inhospitable regions that state

cultural identity, but the latter does not necessarily

institutions find hard to reach. So far, the only systems that

imply the former. As an economic activity, pastoralism

have proved capable of effectively managing the vast areas

is an animal production system which takes advantage

concerned are extensive pastoral economies. This service

of the characteristic instability of rangeland

attracted very little attention in the past, but is now

environments, where key resources such as nutrients

recognised as increasingly valuable. Governments often

and water for livestock become available in short-lived

find it hard to keep control of this land, and where pastoral

and largely unpredictable concentrations. Crucial

systems are declining, the spaces they used to control

aspects of pastoralist specialisation are:

become “ungoverned”. The cost of securing “ungoverned areas” (be they real or perceived) is usually astronomical

1. The interaction of people, animals and the

(Ploch, 2011).

environment, particularly strategic mobility of livestock and selective feeding 2. The development of flexible resource management systems, particularly communal land management

1.1.4. A place in the future

institutions and non-exclusive entitlements to water resources.” (Republic of Kenya, 2012).

In the orthodox ecological model (of equilibrium), pastoralism has been associated with the past and seen as

Using a definition with a firm basis in reality allows to

the benchmark against which the future and development

recognise pastoralism as a system that has its own

is measured: an evolutionary stage that needs to be passed

internal logic and operates with actual production

or which has already been passed. Modernisation and

strategies. Now equipped with a description of its

pastoralism have been seen as mutually exclusive, not so

“content”, we can recognise pastoralism regardless of

much on the basis of empirical evidence as by definition.

how it is labelled.

This view echoed the “tripartite theory”, representing pastoralism as a transitional stage between hunter-gathering and farming.15 This model found fertile ground not only in the well documented socio-evolutionist renaissance of the colonial era (see, for example, Khazanov, 1984), but also in the contemporaneous theory of ecological succession, where different stages lead to a state of equilibrium through competition. 16 The representation of pastoralism as

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inevitably competing with agriculture as part of a “natural evolution” towards mixed farming – popular among old-school technicians and relaunched in the late 1990s – has its roots in this view.

This vision of pastoralism is also reflected in livestock development policies in Chad (see Barraud et al., 2001: 33).

15

In Saving the Prairies, Ronald Tobey analyses the influence of socioevolutionary theories – and of course the neoclassical economics – on the development of the theory of ecological succession (Tobey, 1981).

16

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

This representation is challenged by the relatively recent

consists of working with environmental variability rather than

possibility of defining pastoralism in terms of its production

against it. As a result, they have proved unsustainable in

strategies and particular way of using the environment, rather

these conditions and unable to match the economic and

than by subtraction. According to the most recent

ecological efficiency of pastoral systems.17

understanding of pastoral systems, the transformation of pastoralists and farmers into agro-pastoralists and mixed

Now that the new theoretical model allows us to see this

farmers looks more like a regressive rather than a progressive

fundamental difference, it follows that an alternative logic of

step, representing a loss of specialisation and complementarity

production requires its own process of modernisation (Krätli

often associated with impoverishment and greater vulnerability

and Schareika, 2010; Krätli et al., 2013a). Instead of relying

to ecological crises and conflict (see, for example, Banzhaf,

on ready-made “modernity”, genuine modernisation of a

2005).

predominantly pastoral livestock sector will entail mobilising scientific research and technological progress to generate

Better understanding how pastoral systems function enables

innovative solutions that are specifically designed (in dialogue

us to distinguish between production logics and daily

with primary producers) to fit the production logic of pastoral

practices. Specialising in the exploitation of the ephemeral

systems.

and unpredictable concentrations of resources typical in arid

1.1.5. How do AFD projects fit into this general context?

and semi-arid pastures (which is what pastoral systems do) is no more “traditional” than specialising in the exploitation

To our knowledge, Almy Bahaïm was the first development

of uniform and stable temperate settings, as in the so-called

programme specifically designed to safeguard pastoral mobility.

“command-and-control” model of globalised intensive

In 1995, this kind of objective represented a remarkable leap

agriculture. There is nothing intrinsically “anti-modern” in the

forward. The programme procedure was developed completely

logic of pastoral production systems; it is more that modern

independently of the parallel process under way in the theory

science and technologies have yet to provide pastoral

of pastoral development. Indeed, the shift in paradigm observed

producers with real opportunities to improve their practices.

in the Anglophone context did not appear in project documents or related papers until the mid-2000s (Barraud et al., 2001;

Agricultural modernisation programmes still invest relatively

Reounodji et al., 2005; Julien, 2006).

little in pastoral systems, even in countries where most drylands agricultural GDP is derived from livestock production.

Once integrated, this shift provided powerful support for the

Most investment focuses on ready-made modernisation

project approach, and has been used accordingly. But because

options that serve the logic of globalised agricultural

the projects were designed “ahead of the theory” as it were, a

production systems. Such solutions may be effective in their

lot of work was needed to systematically and coherently bring

own field, but they do not fit into the logic of specialised animal production in arid areas, which (as we have seen)

them into line with the new theoretical framework. One important

One example is ranching, which has existed for centuries but is still considered “modern” because of its roots in the market economy (Strickon, 1965). Ranching schemes were pioneered in pastoral areas of Africa in the 1950s to 1970s, often thanks to funding from USAID (Doornbus and Lofchie, 1973; Behnke, 1984; Boutrais, 1990; Rutten, 1992). The World Bank promoted ranching in pastoral areas from the mid1960s until the early 1980s, when it decided that this strategy was unviable and inefficient (de Haan, 1994). By the early 1990s, 25 independent studies conducted in nine countries in East, West and southern Africa noted that per-hectare yields in pastoral production systems were several times higher than those in ranching systems (Scoones, 1995).

implications of project objectives that had not been visible

aspect of this work was identifying and addressing the

17

outside the new framework. Another critical task (which also needed to be tackled in the more general context of the changing paradigm) was separating the old from the new in project design and implementation. As we will see, this work took a while to get off the ground and is still under way.

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1.2. History of AFD support for pastoralism in Chad: 20 years of projects

1.2.1. AFD interventions in Chad’s pastoral water sector

ranching. When these ranching systems failed in the late 1980s, sedentarised pastoralists gradually started returning

Context of pastoral water before BET

to transhumance, followed by numerous herders from sedentary communities (Barraud et al., 2001; Aubague and

The colonial policy of sedentarising and controlling mobile communities culminated in the Law of 31 October 1959

Grimaud, 2011).

regarding the regulation of nomadic behaviour in Chad (which was never applied, but remains the only legislative framework for pastoral issues). This law sets the start date and itinerary for transhumance, and only authorises movements and resting areas outside “home” districts for “groups” with

AFD appears on the scene The resumption of transhumance in the late 1980s and early 1990s called for a review of the way that pastoralism was regarded. In 1987, an identification study led by BURGEAP18

“passes” that have to be presented to the local administrative

paved the way for a future pastoral water intervention by AFD.

authorities. Failure to do so could result in heavy fines and

This took shape after the evaluation by J.M. Bellot in 1994,

penalties of up to six months’ imprisonment.

and resulted in the first project designed to secure livestock

The policy of sedentarisation continued to dominate pastoral

rearing in eastern Chad: Almy Bahaïm 1, which began in

development policies after independence. Barraud et al.

1995. A total of 11 pastoral water projects would be

(2001: 32) cite an issue of Tchad et Culture published in 1975, which describes nomadic behaviour as a burden and pastoral water as the key instrument in sedentarisation policies: “The

implemented in the 20 years between 1993 and 2013 (see calendar).

need for nomadism or transhumance can only be reduced

AFD interventions in Chad’s water sector before 1990

by developing pastoral water. This is the first condition to be

mainly consisted of support for village water projects in the

met in trying to sedentarise communities, which will help

south of the country (the Koros projects). It seems that the

contribute to human progress.”

first move towards funding pastoral water infrastructure in northern Chad (Borkou, Ennedi, Tibesti in Saharan-Sahelian

When BET was launched in 1993, pastoral water had been

areas near the Libyan border) was prompted by requests

used for over 40 years as an instrument to restrict and

from nomadic herders from these areas for AFD to undertake

ultimately dismantle transhumance systems. The aim was to encourage pastoralists to settle in “home territories” (defined by the colonial administration) and take up supposedly new market-oriented forms of livestock rearing, especially

We were unable to find this document. One of its authors, M. Steenhoudt, is now head of the pastoral water component for Almy Al Afia 2.

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water works in the south where they went on transhumance.

The first BET project ran in conjunction with the Koros project, of which it was a component.

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Table 2: AFD projects in Chad 1993-2013

Year 1993 -1994 1995 -2000

1995 -1998 1999 -2003 2003 /2004 2005 -2010 + 2000-2002

1999 -2003

Location

BET Borkou, Ennedi Tibesti

Eastern Chad Ouadi Fira Ouadaï Sila, Salamat Est Batha + Irriba Bilia zone

Western Chad Kanem

Project BET 1 BET 2

Central Chad Batha Ouest Guera

Improve the supply of good quality water in nomadic livestock rearing zones and along caravan routes Provide drinking water for herders Make productive use of unexploited pastures Install new permanent water points along caravan routes

Almy Bahaïm Phase I Phase II Phase III Irriba Bilia

Secure livestock rearing in eastern Chad Improve access to water resources in order to secure herds, through combined efforts to: • Extend the pastoral water network • Secure the use of pastoral infrastructure Irriba Bilia: i) complete the pastoral water network in Chad ii) support local people (Zaghawas) in order to reduce conflicts iii) test new structures (groundwater dams)

PHPK Kanem 1 + Kanem 2

Rehabilitate and construct wells to secure water supplies for livestock and herders Ensure permanent access to water and resources Secure access to grazing Improve animal health

Bahr el Ghazal

2004 -2007 2008 -2009 2010 -2014

Aims / Objectives

Almy Al Afia Phase I Phase intérimaire Phase II

Sécurisation de l’accès et de la gestion des ressources pastorales Facilitate access to groundwater with new wells Open up under-used grazing through new water points, wells/ponds Secure existing water resources by rehabilitating old wells Safeguard livestock mobility by developing transhumance routes and creating intermediate water points (wells/ponds) Help secure pastoral use rights through: • Joint management of pastoral infrastructure • Joint management of common resources

Source : évaluation IIED 2013.

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BET 1 and 2 were essentially pastoral water infrastructure

commercial livestock rearing”

19

(CIRAD, 2010 evaluation).

projects without a pastoral component. They were important

They created 67 wells – 18 of them in west Kanem where

because they “took account of the productive needs of the

BET2 was based due to security problems in the north – but

most marginalised actors (sedentary, nomadic and transhumant

did not intervene in the way that the installations were

herders) in major pastoral zones, as well as the needs of

managed. This was done using customary procedures, and

Table 3. Timetable of AFD pastoral water interventions in Chad 1990 / 1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Future

Support to Ministry of Livestock Central Chad Almy Al Afia

PHPK Phase 1 6 M€ + 1,8 (“Kanem 2”)

PHPK Kanem Eastern Chad Almy Bahaim + IrribaBilia

1987 Iden tification study TCO

Feasibility study AB

Évaluation AB Bellot

xxx

Almy Bahaïm Phase 2 EUR 7,5

EUR 6,5 AB2 + Irriba-Bilia EUR 2.8m

BET Phase 1 EUR5.2m (with Koros)

BET Koro HVA KORO HVA (village water & sanitation)

Almy Bahaïm Phase 1

Koro HVA

BET Phase 2 Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti EUR 5.2m

Projet Koro 2

These areas were also seriously affected by the conflict with Libya: Approaches to pastoral wells were mined and wells were filled in or poisoned (interview with J.M. Bellot, AFD, November 2011).

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2002

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

2003

no violent conflicts were reported. While these interventions

pastoral production systems through water, targeting access

used a decidedly sectoral approach to improve the coverage

to under-exploited grazing (mobility), supporting the pastoral

of water points in semi-desert areas, they were driven by some

economy (improving main caravan routes) and, albeit by

of the concerns behind second-generation projects like Almy

default, supporting the customary management of pastoral

Bahaïm, PHPK Kanem and Almy Al Afia: the desire to secure

wells. The total cost of BET 1 and 2 came to EUR 10.4 million.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Western Chad study

Fitri study

TA Ministry of Livestock Conference 2011

Almy al Afia 1

AAA1 Interim phase

EUR 8m

PHPK 2 Interim phase Almy Bahaïm

Almy Bahaïm Phase 3

PHPK

2013

2014

TA interim. + TA national Platform + Conference on security

AAA 2 EUR 11m + Fitri study

Voir : AAA 2 Et : PROHYPA FIFA AB capitalisation

Eval AB3 ERE

EUR 6.4m EUR 0.6m

Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.

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Almy Bahaïm: A revolutionary and productive “livestock water” project

component from the first phase, at their request). The projects created wells and ponds, marked out mourhâls as

The economic importance of livestock rearing was first

part of the strategy to secure access to water (AB2), and

recognised in Chad in the early 1990s. In his 1994 evaluation

promoted social consensus and customary management of

report, J.M. Bellot notes that it accounts for 30 per cent of

the installations through various management bodies. Almy

formal and informal exports, 13 per cent of GDP and involves

Bahaïm 1 involved a whole series of pastoral projects (AFD

40 per cent of the population. In addition to its economic importance, he also demonstrates that mobility is an efficient production strategy: “Mobility […] is the best strategy for

and non-AFD), and follow-up work in 2010 proved invaluable in building on all phases of the project, which cost EUR 23.8 million in total.

ensuring that the environment is used in a balanced way and that herds have enough to eat during the dry season.” This marked a major departure from previous perceptions and

PHPK Kanem: Geographical equity, technical and institutional innovations

practices, which focused on sedentarisation. In terms of space, the project focused on the “Sudano-Sahelian regions”

PHPP Kanem was designed in response to a request from

south of the 13° parallel, which had seen i) a substantial

the Directorate of Water Resources in late 1996 to rehabilitate

increase in livestock rearing among sedentary communities,

pastoral water points in Kanem (on the border with Niger)

and ii) large numbers of herders from pastoral communities settling in the south, occupying areas that transhumant

and Bahr el Ghazal in western Chad. Water works in this area are notoriously difficult due to the technical challenges

herders previously used for dry season stopovers. This huge

presented by saline water and loose sand, and the wells

area was then extended up to the border with Sudan in

were in particularly bad shape after 20 years of neglect. The

Phase 2 (which covered over 200,000 km²).

project included three components: i) work on the wells,

Almy Bahaïm aimed to address this situation by i) providing

which was a huge undertaking involving over 300 new or

some secure water supplies during transhumance for herders

rehabilitated wells; ii) support for pastoral groups, with

in the north and ii) opening up new grazing areas in the south

improved access to animal health services and protected

to make space for transhumant herders during the dry

fodder resources; iii) research-development on water and

season. The project targeted eastern Chad, which supports

natural resource conservation. PHPK also had a water

over 60 per cent of the national herd. Between 1999 and 2002, a fourth project20 executed by the Almy Bahaïm team

INADES, IRAM, LRVZ, VSF), many of whom were also

northeast of the zone (Irriba and Bilia in Ennedi and Biltine)

involved in Almy Bahaïm. This was an innovative project in

– this was essentially the water component. All three phases

many senses, not only in terms of its technical/water works

of Almy Bahaïm (and the interim phase between AB2 and

and monitoring and evaluation, but also in using customary

AB3) pursued the same aim of securing pastoral mobility.

modes of management and testing a multi-sectoral approach

Each project included a water component and a pastoral

(with environment and animal health). Because of the

component (apart from Irriba Bilia), worked with groups of consultants (BURGEAP-VSF, BURGEAP-VSF-AGRITCHAD, BURGEAP-IRAM-AGRITCHAD) and received support from

•

2 was transferred to the Kanem project to construct wells in cost of the project came to EUR 7.8m (EUR 6m for PHPK+ EUR 1.8m for BET).

In response to a request from the Government of Chad.

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security situation in the north (BET zone), funding for BET the north of its intervention area (EUR 1.8m). The overall

CIRAD and LRVZ (IRAM/A. Marty supported the pastoral

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strong team of facilitators (15 people) and numerous partners providing scientific and technical support (CIRAD, DDPAP,

worked to improve conditions for Zaghawas herders in the

20

component and a pastoral component. It had an unusually

40

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Almy Al Afia (“water for peace”): Geographic coverage, validation of achievements, new fields of research and activity

2011 conference on the sectoral policy for pastoralism in Chad was one of the major outputs of this project. AFD has also supported pastoralism in Chad through two institutional support

The Almy Al Afia (AAA) 1 and 2 projects in central Chad make

projects (2009-2011 and 2012-2013). While they do not exactly

up the third “family” of AFD pastoral water projects and

fit into the portfolio of this evaluation, as they were not pastoral

complete the geographic coverage between eastern Chad and

water projects, they were part of the procedure and are referred

PHPK Kanem. Their name, which means “water for peace”,

to in the next sub-section on methodological change.

clearly shows that they aim to go beyond water for livestock 1.2.2. Pastoral water as a conduit for support: 20 years of cut-and-paste or two decades of methodological change?

and humans. Their objectives (see Table 1) are in line with those of previous projects, with a particular focus on support for peaceful management of installations and resources. The programme started in 2004, and will run without interruption

This is one of the questions that was raised in the terms of

until 2014 (when AAA2 is scheduled to end) thanks to a two-

reference. We will start to answer it here, although section 2

year interim phase (mid-2008 to mid-2010) that kept the teams

(2.7.5) gives more details about the process approach, which

and actions going despite the serious troubles of 2008 (which

combined continuity, flexibility and innovation, and is

also affected Almy Bahaïm 3). The AAA projects use the same

summarised in Table 4 below. AFD’s pastoral support has

institutional setup as their predecessors and also include a

been characterised by the continuity of its projects’ innovative

water component and a pastoral component (AGRP). They

and relevant approaches, and the fact that each project built

have continued and deepened the technical and methodological

on the lessons learned from its predecessors in order to

aspects of the “AFD school” approach, and included two major

tackle the target issues in greater depth. This is why we talk

innovations: the study Au cœur de la transhumance, which

about the “AFD school” or learning process.

looked at pastoral systems at the camp and family level, and the huge inter-disciplinary study of the Lake Fitri region, which

The AFD approach aims to go beyond internal change and

paves the way for a possible future intervention by AFD in this

innovation by generating lessons and projects that are

crucial lakeland area.

themselves evolving and innovative. Even if the “marriage” between AFD and IFAD did not lead to a joint project in

Projects that support pastoralism, but not through pastoral water

Kanem or central Chad, the pastoral water project did continue the work started with PHPK Kanem in its own way,

In 2009, AFD used funding from the Federal Energy

and the future project in eastern Chad and study on Lake

Regulatory Commission (FERC) to provide institutional support

Fitri open the way for continuity and innovation in new fields.

for the Ministry of Livestock, delivering technical assistance on pastoral issues in Chad through IRAM, which had provided technical assistance for the AGRP component in AAA1. The

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Table 4: Methodological continuity and change in AFD’s pastoral water projects Continuity

Change

From a sectoral to a systemic approach

From village water and sanitation (HVA) to sectoral pastoral water (PW) BET/1993 From sectoral water to a systemic approach: Almy Bahaïm, PHPK, AAA1 (1994 – 2014) + institutional support projects for the Ministry of Livestock and civil society (Platform) (2009-2013) + future projects (eastern Chad, Fitri?) 2013 onwards

Pastoral water as the main but not exclusive entry point

From water for humans and livestock to water to secure pastoral mobility/pastoral modes of production + non-water works to support mobility: Marking mourhâls (AB2) To water to secure peace/water as a way of governing spaces PHPK: An attempt at multi-sectorality (animal health, environment) that was not followed up AAA1: Addressing the need to cross bahrs and wadis that run east-west when moving south-north: Koundjourou bridge, pedestrian/cattle crossings (unfinished)

Strategic level

Initially only pastoral areas in northern Chad, then eastern Chad (north-south, including Salamat), then Kanem (west) then central Chad = coverage of all pastoral areas in Chad Eastern Chad (2013 onwards): Restart on a large scale north-south + west-east trade routes (incorporating lessons from PAFIB)

Institutional setup/ project operators

Initially only water (BET), then same setup for all pastoral water projects Ministry of Water + Ministry of Livestock (all projects) Water component and pastoral component (which becomes support for pastoral resource management) Non-pastoral water projects: Ministry of Livestock, civil society (Platform)

Reconciling technical and social imperatives

Priority given to consultation and developing methodologies and tools for consultation and dialogue: Settlement on sites, social consensus/avoiding conflicts, preference for customary modes of management, reaffirming principle of free pastoral water. PHPK renounces EIG/World Bank approach.

AB: Support for the joint committee in Abéché, umbrella organisations tried and abandoned, strategy of diverse customary modes of management AAA: Relaunch mixed conflict management and prevention committees; securing pastoral use rights

Technical works: Wells, ponds

Permanent pastoral wells, rehabilitation of existing wells preferred, adapted and innovative techniques in difficult areas: Wells in Kanem, biseau sec,21 bedrock…

Short-term ponds along transhumance routes: AB, AAA Underground dams (Irriba Bilia)

Measuring environmental impacts

BET: Not documented Starting with AB: Principle of ecological prudence; SPOC coordinated observation sites tried with AB, then external global study (Geney) PHPK: Innovation with comparative observation of 3 types of well

Studies and follow-up

BET: Not documented. Starting with AB: Wide range of high quality studies in numerous (hard and soft) areas relating to pastoral systems AAA1: Publication and film Au cœur de la transhumance Institutional support projects: National-level thematic studies, conferences, website Starting with AB: Comprehensive follow-up work

Human resources: National and international

Continuity and diversity in teams to establish a skill base Retaining effective teams and operators in “hard” and “soft” areas from BET to AAA1: Learning process promoted for greater continuity and efficiency Building a productive national skill base, with focal points in the two supervisory ministries

Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

1.2.3. AFD contributions to overall support for pastoral development

July 2002: Joint agreement signed by the Ministry of Livestock and herders’ associations regarding joint actions to support pastoral mobility – including a national seminar

AFD’s work in Chad over the last 20 years has significantly

on “The issues and challenges for pastoral development in

contributed to broader understanding and support for

Chad” to be held in 2005;

pastoral systems. While it may initially have been a case of seizing the opportunities presented by the decline of cotton:

2005: Seminar on “The issues and challenges for pastoral

the devaluation of the CFA franc (brutally “liberating” funds

development in Chad” heralded as “one of the rare occasions

that were redirected to pastoralism), and visionary and

for different national sensibilities to voice their opinions on

committed actors who knew how to pass on the lessons

the main challenges to pastoralism” (Reounodji and

learned,22 it was not simply a matter of having “the right

Alfaroukh, 2011). This event brought together herders,

people in the right place” during this difficult period. AFD had

farmers, administrators, customary chiefs, researchers,

a long-term strategy, which it has pursued over a 20-year

development practitioners and civil society associations

programme of uninterrupted support at a cost of over EUR

seeking political and technical solutions to improve

60 million. Despite this, surprisingly little is known about this

pastoralists’ living conditions;

extremely unusual initiative outside Chad.

2011: Conference on the sectoral policy for pastoralism in

The so-called “pastoral water” projects supported by AFD

Chad: The culmination of institutional support for the Ministry

in Chad are part of a very much broader range of support

of Livestock, which led to the (unprecedented) creation of a

for pastoral systems and rural development across the

committee to follow up the conference recommendations – a

Sahelian belt. While AFD was leading the way with its

permanent Platform bringing together state and non-state

pioneering pastoral interventions, increasing attention from

actors, providing a real launch pad for pastoral civil society

other quarters also helped determine the course of

in Chad. Since then several series of studies have been

pastoralism in Chad over the last decade (with or without

conducted on major themes such as the economy, education

support from AFD interventions), with events such as:

in nomadic communities, funding for infrastructure, and so on;

1999: The national seminar in N’Djamena on conflicts between farmers and herders organised by Médiation

2013: Regional conference on the theme “Pastoral livestock

Nationale, which led to a formal recommendation for a review

rearing: A sustainable contribution to pastoral development

of Law N° 04 of 31 October 1959;

and security in Saharan-Sahelian spaces”.

2002: Proposed draft bill on the “Regulation of nomadic

Far from being unsystematic or sectoral, AFD’s involvement

behaviour, transhumance and livestock keeping in Chad”. A

with pastoralism in Chad over the last 20 years has addressed

national workshop decided that this had been hastily

the major current and future issues affecting the sub-region.

prepared and that a Pastoral Code needed to be developed;

An area of eastern Chad characterised by clayey-sandy subsoil on a crystalline substratum. Water resources are very limited – hence the decision to use ponds to collect rainwater for herds to drink.

21

Such as L. Authoserres, V. Barraud, J.M. Bellot and A. Marty, to name but a few of those who were in contact with senior Chadian actors, AFD, experts and researchers.

22

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43

AFD 2014

Secteur de l’Hydraulique pastorale au Tchad

2. Findings and analysis: Looking back over the last 20 years This section presents the main findings (observations and

production systems; support for social dynamics; the total

analysis) of the retrospective element of the evaluation. Each

economic value of pastoral livestock production; impacts on

sub-section is structured around a key evaluation question

peace and security; influence on policies. This retrospective

that emerged from the framework document validated by

part of the exercise ends with a discussion of the strengths

COPIL, namely: the sustainability of the infrastructure and

and weaknesses of AFD’s approach (sub-section 2.7).

development of pastoral areas; the complementarity of

2.1 How sustainable is pastoral infrastructure?

This sub-section deals with the vital issue of the sustainability

We will consider these issues in three ways, looking at: a)

of pastoral infrastructure, and considers AFD’s decision to use

the technical/physical quality of the works; b) how the

pastoral water as an entry point for its support for this sector over

installations are managed, especially in terms of maintenance;

the last 20 years. In this report, the term “sustainability” refers to

c) funding to maintain existing infrastructure (especially

both the physical permanence and functionality of the installations

major maintenance works) and invest in new installations.

(temporal dimension), and the viability of the mechanisms used to manage, maintain and fund them. It should also be remembered

2.1.1. Infrastructure: Technical achievements and

that AFD projects funded a range of pastoral infrastructure works,

track record

which are not all water-related. In addition to wells, ponds and micro-dams, they also marked out transhumance routes, and

At this point it is worth noting that we were not mandated

Phase 2 of Almy Al Afia includes work on the future bridge over

to evaluate the condition of the installations, and that the

the Batha. When assessing the sustainability of this infrastructure,

consultant was only able to take a quick look at various

three important factors need to be borne in mind: i) the extent to

ponds, wells and markers to get an idea of the types of

which the water points meet physical supply and demand; ii) the

infrastructure concerned. Therefore, the following

balance between levels of use and levels of water resources,

assessment is based on secondary data from previous

and retaining the original character of the installations; and iii)

evaluation reports, 24 interviews with users in Chad and

the cost of periodic maintenance and repairs and responsibility

France, and the three scenario planning workshops.

for their execution.

23

A total of 1,157 structures were created between 1993 and 23

Notes by the hydrologist for Almy Al Afia Phase 2, March 2013.

2013 (see Table 5 below). With the exception of the first

Especially the evaluation by ERE, as well as follow-up documents and assessments by ministers, AFD, project staff and experts.

24

Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti (BET) pastoral water project in 1993,

•

45

exPost exPost

AFD 2013

Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51

most of the structures were wells. These accounted for 76

from loose sand to bedrock and biseau sec. AFD is not the

per cent of water works, with over half of the wells (67 per

only intervening agency to have had problems in the Kanem

cent) rehabilitated. About a quarter of the water works

area,25 which is characterised by very fine-grained, unstable

involved ponds, with about 260 ponds created in response

sand that makes it difficult to sink and maintain cemented

to the (ongoing) high demand from herders. No detailed

well shafts. Despite these obstacles, the water components

assessment of the works has been made in the last 20 years.

of AFD projects have produced significant technical results

Previous evaluations say little about their technical

and innovations in various intervention areas, and their

sustainability, and none seem to have been able to make a

development has contributed to the exceptional body of

meaningful assessment based on a representative sample

knowledge generated over the last 20 years (see ANTEA

of the physical condition of the water points in the projects

follow-up on PHPK Kanem, 2003; BURGEAP/IRAM/

under consideration.

AGRITCHAD follow-up on the three phases of Almy Bahaïm, 2010, and Almy Al Afia Phase 1 – ANTEA/IRAM).

The most recent assessment by ERE (2012) only covers the last two projects: Phase 3 of Almy Bahaïm and Phase 1

Pastoral water has proved an effective and highly relevant

of Almy Al Afia. Although it states that “virtually all the

entry point for this kind of intervention, both in terms of users’

installations still work well”, it did not use a very representative

needs and government policy guidelines (see Master Plan

sample, and specialists do not regard site visits as a sound

for Water and Sanitation). However, commendations for its

evaluation methodology. When the consultant met with

undoubted achievements and continued relevance over the

people who had worked in the PHP Kanem area between

next two decades are tempered by concern about the lack

1999 and 2003, it was suggested that very few wells (less

of any overall assessment of the physical condition (and thus

than 20 per cent) in the Bahr el Ghazal zone were still

the sustainability) of the works undertaken by AFD-funded

functional 10 years after the project ended, due to water

projects. The three scenario planning workshops and many

quality (salinity, bitterness), silting or potential conflicts over

interviews held during this exercise clearly show that the

their management. If we took all the actors’ testimonies into

most pressing concern for herders is still the availability of

account, there would be a considerable difference between

water. This is due to a combination of demographic growth,

the coverage shown on maps and the wells that actually

estimated increases in herd size, and the fact that there have

function.

never been enough pastoral water points in Chad to meet their needs. No matter what form they take, the physical

It is worth remembering that the zones where these projects

sustainability of these facilities is a major challenge that must

operated present major hydro-ecological challenges, ranging

25

be addressed.

Interview with C. Eberschweiler, ANTEA, April 2013.

AFD 2014

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46

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Table 5: Pastoral water works undertaken with financial support from AFD between 1995 and 2010

Type of works

TOTAL works

Deep boreholes with pumps BET 1 Exploratory boreholes Total wells Rehabilitated wells New wells and borehole-fed wells Cleaned wells with covers Deepened ponds

Cleaned ponds from AB Phase 1 Micro-dams TOTAL water points created and rehabilitated

AB1

AB2

Iriba Bilia

Interim phase

AB3

AB Series

BET 1

BET 2

Kanem

AAA1

TOTAL

1995 / 1999

2000 / 2003

2000 / 2003

2003 / 2004

2005 / 2009

1995 / 2009

1993 / 1994

1995 / 2000

1999 / 2003

2005 / 2010

1995 / 2010

103

81

39

16

80

469

50

148

545

213

1 425

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 2

0

0

9

9

54

42

0

0

13

109

-

81

0

73

263

54

42

0

0

13

109

-

81

0

82

272

49

0

2

4

0

55

2

25

455

55

592

24

11

5

12

20

72

48

42

90

37

282

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

8

8

30

70

24

0

60

184

2

0

0

31

219

0

0

0

11

30

41

0

0

0

0

41

0

0

8

0

0

8

0

0

0

0

8

103

81

39

27

110

360

54

67

545

131

1 157

Source: ERE paper and various evaluation reports on these projects, supplemented by the Consultant (BET 1).

ExPost exPost

â&#x20AC;˘

47

AFD 2014

Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51

Map 2: Location of works undertaken by Almy Bahaïm

Figure 3: Distribution of different types of water point

ré

Séries 1 Microdams

8 0,73 %

Séries 1 Ponds

256 23,21 %

Séries 1 Wells

839 76,07 %

Source: IIED Evaluation 2013.

Town Pond Micro dam Well Mourhâl

Relevant technical choices threatened by difficult conditions

Main route

E

IN

AFD projects have focused on two main technical options

A IC

R

F RA

since the pastoral water interventions started: wells and

NT

ponds (see section 1.2 on the history of AFD projects). The

Q

LI

B PU

eight micro-dams for the Irriba Bilia project were peripheral

UE

CE

RE

and have not been monitored, and pumping stations were

Demarcated section Irriba-Bilia area Extension area Project area Zakouma Governorate reserve Gouvernorat National boundary

not retained as an option – partly because the findings on

Source: Almy Bahaïm capitalisation projects.

existing examples were inconclusive about their maintenance, costs, management and ecological footprint, and partly because herders mainly requested wells and

liable to fill up with sand. Day-to-day maintenance of

ponds.

The decision to undertake certain works and install particular types of infrastructure (pastoral wells and ponds)

from pastoral water points is free of charge.

to the very high demand for water on livestock routes in

In order to meet the demand from users, some wells had

the three intervention areas. Priority was rightly given to

to be sunk in areas where it is very difficult to access water

rehabilitating existing wells, or creating new ones where

(Guéra, Kanem), which made them very expensive (see

rehabilitation was not possible. These wells are generally much used, with some seasonal variations (as in Salamat), and demand for them is still high despite the large number planning workshops). Some watering holes are not suitable for heavy use, making them more difficult to maintain and

•

Table 6 below). Most ponds were created in areas that were unsuitable for wells. These projects have been praised for making water available in such areas, but this

of installations that have been put in place (see scenario

ExPost exPost

and ponds is dealt with through customary management systems (see sections 2.1.2 and 2.1.3); access to water

was deemed to be a pertinent and appropriate response

AFD 2014

liable to fill up with sand. Day-to-day maintenance of wells

48

achievement is mitigated by uncertainty over the sustainability of these water points.

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Site selection procedures: A crucial factor for successful installations.

result of this process, many wells have been placed far away from fields and villages to reduce the risk of conflict. Although

Over time, Almy Bahaïm 1, 2 and 3, PHPK Kanem and Almy

some project managers and previous evaluations (CIRAD)

Al Afia 1 and 2 developed and refined comprehensive

have questioned the sites selected in order to maintain

preliminary procedures to be followed before any rehabilitation

peaceful relations, these tools provide an important

or construction works get under way. Members of the

methodological framework for social negotiation and shared

sedentary and transhumant communities concerned (or their

resource management across the country (see the examples

representatives) discuss and negotiate possible sites for the

of site selection procedures for PHPK Kanem and AAA1

water points, which are agreed through consensus. As a

presented in Figure 4 below). They represent an exceptional

Figure 4: Diagram of the PHPK site selection procedure

Inventory of degraded wells

1st survey

(April 2000)

Database of satellite images Field studies (August-September)

New proposals

Acceptable wells

1997 feasibility study

Questionnaire: Environmental, zoo-technical and social criteria (December 1999 to February 2000)

Wells requiring more detailed information

Maintenance guide (June 2000) & project manager survey

2nd survey

Evaluation of natural resources

At-risk wells

Accepted wells

Source: PHPK final report, ANTEA, October 2003.

contribution to the procedure for installing pastoral

be seen from the example of the methodology used by Almy

waterworks, by combining “hard” and “soft” technologies

Al Afia presented in Table 6 below. However, we believe that

(hydrogeology and societal) while reconciling the three pillars

the lack of violent conflict over the water works and installations

of the pastoral system – its societal (herders’ demands, risk

– which represents a considerable achievement – is largely

of conflict), ecological (water and grazing resources) and

due to the effort that the projects invested in these processes.

economic (livestock resources) aspects. This kind of complex

While they may not be perfect, the projects funded by AFD

procedure requires considerable time and expertise, as can

have generated some important lessons in this respect.

ExPost exPost

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49

AFD 2014

Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51

Table 6: Summary of the AAA1 methodology for siting wells Activities

Quantifiable elements

Implementation period

Bibliography

• 112 references

Project presentation

• • • •

governor prefects sub-prefects canton chiefs

April 2004

Rapid appraisal

• 3 sub-prefectures • 14 mission days

April 2004

Update inventory of water works

• 5 canton meetings

April 2004

Define operational strategy

• 1 road map

April 2004

Validate survey sheets, interview guides and classification criteria

• 1 well sheet • 1 managers’ maintenance guide • 1 herders’ maintenance guide

May 2004

LRVZ ecological study

• 1 study

June 2004

Develop GIS

• 1 database • 1 GIS

May 2004

Fact-finding tours

• 107 wells visited • 50 mission days

Summarise findings

• 152 wells analysed

Present findings for each canton

• 5 canton meetings with chiefs of Kashimbeyt kébir

October 2004

Specific procedure for “inter-canton” wells

• 5 heads of canton consulted • 2 sub-prefects supported

October 2004

Validation meeting

• 1 validation meeting for the whole department of Batha Ouest • 70 wells retained for repair

1 2 5 9

March 2004

May to November 2004

October and November 2004

November 2004

Source: Almy Al Afia project methodology for selecting wells to be rehabilitated in the pastoral area of western Batha, December 2004, ANTEA IRAM.

AFD 2014

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50

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Ponds: “The most useful improvement for herders’ daily lives”

Box 6: Ponds

The ponds that the projects have created along the

“Ponds are specifically designed to be used during and after

mourhâls are a traditional rectangular shape with earth

the rainy season. They are crucial for transhumant herders

banks and bottoms. They function during the rainy

travelling south after the rains, who use ponds rather than

season and dry up during the dry season, but need

wells. They are also the only pastoral works possible in

constant cleaning to prevent them from filling up with

hydrogeologically challenging areas on the edge of the

sand and to protect the banks from being damaged as

Central and Ouaddaï massifs (biseau sec) and certain areas of bedrock. Ponds need to be large enough for pastures to

livestock drink from them.

be used reasonably, but not so big that they encourage over-

The herders we spoke to said that each pond serves

exploitation. It seems that the size of the ponds used in this

between 100 and 500 animals per day during the

first phase of the Almy Al Afia programme (between 6,000

transhumance season. [Systematic counts by the

m³ and 10,000 m³) are at the lower end of the range, as some

projects show that the actual number of animals far

were used much more than anticipated” (ANTEA/IRAM,

exceeds these estimates, amounting to thousands of

2008).26

head of cattle per day]. Vegetation around the ponds is not badly degraded, and corresponds with typical levels

The temporary ponds created or deepened by the projects were

in the region concerned. This was one of the objectives

a genuinely innovative and appropriate response to both the

of the programme, and is linked to the relatively short

physical conditions of the area and the demand from herders:

period when these water points are used (3 to 4 months).

meeting the need for surface water, reducing the distances

However, new fields have been observed in the vicinity

between water points and securing north-south transhumance.

of certain ponds created by the AAA1 project.

Transhumant herders were very positive about the ponds,

Source: Adapted from the ERE document, March 2013.

calling them “the most useful improvement to herders’ daily

While the overall response to the ponds has been good,

lives.” 27 They indirectly help sedentary farmers in the south

there are still not enough of them, and they could be better

too, as transhumant herders arrive later, after the fields are

distributed along the transhumance routes and around the

harvested. The ponds thus help slow down and secure the

resting areas (as in Ouaddaï in eastern Chad). There have

passage of humans and livestock towards the south, easing

also been questions about their quality, in terms of their

shortages of extracted water and giving families and their

location, build-ups of sand, the condition of the banks, their

livestock time to rest. The decision to use temporary (shallow)

depth and size, drownings and the length of time they contain

ponds reduces the risk of settlement and over-exploitation of

water. Transhumant herders cannot be solely responsible for

surrounding vegetative and woody resources, helps replenish

major maintenance (cleaning), which is relatively expensive

groundwater, and contributes to the creation of catchpits that

(FCFA 5.1m). In addition to this, the colonisation of spaces

are also used by resident agro-pastoralists. However,

around the ponds by sedentary actors (for gardens, wells)

sedentary herders and small-scale transhumant herders in

could be a potential source of tension with transhumant

the north are less keen on them, as they would like to retain

herders.

exclusive use of these grazing areas.

26

Central Chad Pastoral Water Programme – Almy Al Afia N° A 50701, ANTEA

Personal correspondence, C. Bénard, IRAM, February 2013. Summary Report, 2008.

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AFD 2014

Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51

Constraints and threats to water works: Declining quality and rising costs

this is seriously affecting the quality of the works and damaging

Several sources mentioned this alarming trend, particularly

AAA2 was so late starting work, as selecting a good company

the whole chain of skills concerned. It also helps explain why

project operators and technicians. We were told that the wells

has become a lengthy task that further delays proceedings.

constructed in the 1960s and 1970s are still functional, and that large-diameter cemented wells can be expected to last

This trend is made all the more alarming by the fact that the

several decades. However, this no longer seems to be the

average cost of these works seems to be constantly increasing.

case, and some wells cannot be rehabilitated once they are

In order to provide a clearer picture of the situation, Table 7

over 15 years old. ERE notes that some of the wells constructed

below attempts to summarise the changing costs of water

during Phase 1 of AAA (2004-2007) are beyond repair, and

works in pastoral water projects funded by AFD over the last

one hydrologist we spoke to even raised the idea of “disposable

20 years – while recognising the inherent risks of reducing a

wells”.

very complex situation to a simple table. The cost of a well

Specialists say that it is not easy to measure the rate at which

depends on a large number of factors that vary according to

installations become degraded, especially without a detailed

the geographic area, hydrological constraints, the year that

assessment of pastoral water points in the three regions

the work was done, type of work involved, technologies used,

covered by AFD interventions. Their physical durability is affected by numerous factors, especially the hydrogeological

etc. The parameters retained here have been kept to the

characteristics of the site: a well dug in bedrock may last for

minimum: wells and ponds, projects, period when the work

30 years or more, while one sunk in the loose sands of Kanem

was done, unit cost of works and unit cost per linear metre.

is much more at risk even if it is technically well executed, with

This table does not take account of drilling costs (in themselves

a maximum lifespan of 15 to 20 years. It is also clear that a

and/or to be added to the final work). More technical and

well’s lifespan is largely determined by how it is used (especially

detailed work is needed to investigate and address this issue

over-used) and maintained.

(see section 3, Direction 2).

Conversations with hydrogeological experts in France and Chad suggest that the technical quality of these installations

As things stand, Table 7 confirms that water works have

(which obviously determines their sustainability) has declined

become more expensive over the last 20 years. The cost of

over the last ten years or so, with a marked deterioration in

wells seems to have increased considerably since Almy

the last three years. This problem is by no means particular

Bahaïm 1, rising from FCFA 450,000 per linear metre in 1995

to the projects funded by AFD, which seem to have a better

to FCFA 946,300 per linear metre in 2012, excluding taxes and

grip on it than some other interventions. During an interview

VAT (a good doubling), and to FCFA 1,452,000 when taxes

in March 2013, the Minister for Pastoral Development and

are included, which amounts to a threefold increase. This rise

Animal Production (MDPPA) noted that standards in Chad have declined as the markets have opened up to unreliable

was due to the cumulative effects of the economic situation

companies, and spoke of the need to tighten things up again

(the cost of living and materials rising as Chad became an

by avoiding the use of private contracts and “best bids”. There

oil-producing country) and the consequences of behaviour in

is a worrying tendency for good businesses to be overlooked

the informal economy. The highest costs shown here are those

or even outflanked by bad ones, with the risk that better

of PROHYPA, which intervened in Kanem with funding from

operators will ultimately disappear (one interviewee spoke of

IFAD.

a haemorrhage). Opportunistic businesses use the “lowest bids” and “under the table” offers to mop up the market, and

AFD 2014

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52

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Table 7: Summary of changes in the cost of waterworks between 1993 and 2012

Project/Year BET 1 1993

Average cost of new wells in millions of FCFA

Average cost of wells per linear metre in FCFA

Cost of ponds in millions of FCFA

20,2 – Tibesti

720 000

14.4 – Ennedi

648 000

BET 2 1995

17,8

536 000

-

Almy Bahaim 1 1995-1999

nd

450 000 (borehole-fed well)

23,9

-

475 000 (Salamat well) PHP Kanem 1999-2003

18,3 (24m) Nord

777 000

14,7 (B. El Ghazal)

592 000

Almy Bahaim 2 2000-2004

18 (22m intrusion zone)

818 000

24,5

16,2 (30 m Salamat)

540 000

27,6

29,2 (35 m Batha)

834 000

Irriba Bilia 2000-2003

34,1 (11m)

-

34,1 Micro-dam: 46,4 MF

Interphase AB2-AB3 2003-2005

23,8 (Extension)

852 000

20 (Salamat)

614 000

Pond cleaning: 5,1

AAA1 *** 2004-2005

27,3 for 37m (2006) *

723 332 WT **

32,6 (real final cost)

828 000 WT

Almy Bahaim 3 2005-2009

81,8 (94 m, Batha)

867 000

18,4 (36 m, Salamat)

504 000

AAA 2 **** 2010-2013

35,2 (37,2 m) WT

946 300 IT

54 IT

1 452 000 IT

AAA 2 **** 2010-2013

40 (30m)

1 330 000 WT

59,2 IT

1 973 000 IT

-

23

21,6

??

Sources: ANTEA, (PHP Kanem and AAA1 and 2), evaluations by IRAM (2004), ERE and CIRAD 2010. 28 * Average sedimentary and bedrock ** DF = duty free (30%) WT = without tax (18%) IT = including taxes + 48% *** AAA 1: A new 65m-deep well on sedimentary rock costs FCFA 37,020,000, or FCFA 569,500 per linear metre. It costs an average of FCFA 20,700,000 + FCFA 22,484,000 = FCFA 43,180, 000, or FCFA 828,000 per linear metre to connect a new well on bedrock to a borehole. **** 2012 costs.

We would like to take this opportunity to thank the resource persons who helped us produce Table 7, and the authors who guided us through this delicate task of assessing costs (AFD, ANTEA, IRAM, MDPPA, MHRU…).

28

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AFD 2014

Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51

AFD is not the only agency affected by rising costs, as

b) Falling standards in tendering and procurement procedures:

IFAD and the EU have also had problems in this respect.

The task of estimating costs is further complicated by the fact that customs duties (30 per cent) and VAT (18 per cent) on certain materials have contributed to price increases since AAA2 (2011). The services concerned should reimburse companies for these duties (which they have to

The most striking example of this is the AAA2 project, which had no work in progress on any of its sites in March 2013, some two years after it began (late, because of issues with the way that the operator had been selected). This was due to delays in signing the tender documents, which can

pay upfront), but this does not always happen and they are then reflected in the price. Another contributing factor is the increase in “financial arrangements” (amounting to 30 to 50 per cent of the market price) to get bidding documents through the system more quickly – which raises questions about how much of the subsidies actually go to creating water points and their end users (pastoralists and/or agro-

take over a year to pass through very complicated signing processes. To be blunt, this looks like a vicious spiral of delays and corrupt practices at various levels (such as “drawing down” money), which is stifling businesses whose inability to make a profit is reflected in the quality of their work… One commentator noted that “the whole project chain is shutting down”. Some reproach AFD for not taking

pastoralists). Such practices not only affect the “hard” aspects of this work, as contracts for “soft” works are also delayed and blocked.29 MHRU notes that this situation is not specific to the water sector and it has been recommended that Chad introduce a single window approach, which is something that should be borne in mind for future AFD

a stronger line on procurement procedures, but this is an issue that affects the whole community of technical and financial partners. They need to stop focusing solely on procedures, and make more visible and concerted efforts to get things moving so that the chain starts functioning again.

projects.

c) Insufficient installations to meet demand:

Summary of suggested explanations for the declining quality and rising cost of works

These projects operate on a huge geographic scale, which

a) Lack of capacity in the companies appointed to carry out works:

they need to do in order to serve the vast areas covered by transhumant pastoralists. However, they provide far fewer facilities than are requested or needed. “A drop in the ocean”

Some Chadian companies lack the expertise, materials and/

was how one tribal chief put it at the scenario planning

or cashflow required to do their job properly. There has been

workshop in Abéché; “Spread too thinly”. To compound the

a marked decline in the quality of bids, with dossiers that would

problem, the ever-increasing demand for these facilities is

have been rejected outright 10 or 20 years ago now deemed

shortening their life expectancy (as confirmed by ERE and

acceptable. The quality of materials cannot be guaranteed,

CIRAD): “Conditions for their use are very difficult and

control systems are sometimes questionable, and security

intense, and the technical problems involved in working on

conditions are unreliable. Yet MDPPA maintains that Chad’s

very sandy soils or bedrock reduces the expected lifespan

national corporations are among the most experienced in the

of the installation (10 to 15 years).”

sub-region. It would be interesting to compare the situation in Chad with neighbouring countries such as Niger, and see whether they are experiencing a similar decline in standards.

d) Suitability for available water resources: This is a crucial question for the future, which elicited various responses. Some think that Chad will not have a

The contract for institutional support for the Platform was delayed from November 2011 to November 2012.

29

AFD 2014

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problem with water in the medium to long term, while others

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

argue that it is becoming scarcer in certain areas, and that

routes that are threatened by cultivation (see section 2.3 of

universal access to water cannot be guaranteed in the

this report). In conjunction with the creation of water points,

medium term (10/15 years) in a context of very high

discontinuous markers were set out along about 2,000 km

demographic growth (population doubling in the next 20

of mourhâls to protect at-risk sections of the ancestral

years) and estimated increases in the size of the national

routes, especially at pinch points and in difficult areas. This

herd. 30 The most recent studies on hydrogeological

was done in various ways, ranging from simple paint marks

resources in Chad date back to the 1960s, although a huge

(joint committee in Abéché with AB1) to solid markers.

study is due to be launched under the auspices of Swiss Cooperation. Ponds, which capture runoff water, can help recharge outlying water tables (and thus facilitate well-

Box 7: Are wells drying out because of sand siltation or falling water tables?

digging). e) Quality of water for human and livestock consumption:

It could be a combination of both, as users do not remove sandy deposits if they cannot access the bottom of the

This was mainly an issue for certain wells in Kanem, which

well safely. If they could, herders would be more likely

were abandoned because the water was too salty or bitter

to start deepening rather than just cleaning less produc-

for either humans or animals to drink. Other projects have

tive wells (possibly using camels to remove the bottom

learned from this lesson and drilled preliminary test holes

slab), which would adversely affect their sustainability.

before digging wells. Although herders seem to regard the cleanliness of water as a secondary consideration, and are

Fluctuations in the level of water tables should have been

still mainly concerned about its general (quantitative)

monitored since the early 1960s (initialised by BRGM).

scarcity, they have highlighted the deplorable water quality

Water levels in wells fall several metres from the top of

in ponds at the end of the cycle and sometimes asked for

the drainage column, but it is impossible to tell from the

wells to be dug nearby. The immediate surroundings of

databases whether this is due to problems with the way

pastoral wells are a source of constant contamination from

that they were installed or to general lowering of the

ropes trailing on the ground or through the mud, especially

water table.

if quagmires develop around their edges. Women would probably have something to say on the subject if they were

Source: Paper by the hydrologist for AAA2, March 2013.

specifically asked about it.

Marking out transhumance routes In order to achieve its objective of securing mobility, the Almy Bahaïm project soon linked its use of pastoral waterworks to improve water availability with activities to secure sections of the main north-south transhumance

Numbers are estimated each year by extrapolating from the figures obtained from the last census (1976), using a multiplying factor corresponding to an estimated natural growth rate in the animal population concerned (Bonnet et al., 2004). Preparations are under way for a new national livestock census.

30

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Transhumance routes (such as the Mongo-Koundjourou axis)

Map 3: Overview of the works done in phases 1, 2 and 3 of the Almy Bahaïm project

sometimes follow roads for a while, and are particularly vulnerable when sections of the road are tarmacked. The decision to make the markers discontinuous is pertinent for various reasons, partly because of the need to develop pastoral areas (see sections 2.4 and 2.5), and partly because it would have been completely unaffordable to install continuous markers along thousands of kilometres of mourhâls. The project used complementary and consistent consultative methodologies to install both the discontinuous markers and the water points, although it has to be said that the process of securing these routes has not done enough to protect the resting areas along them. When we visited Abéché, tensions were running high because various resting areas and sections of the routes had been blocked. This triggered the mass resignation from the joint committee by the heads of nomadic tribes in June 2012, and is threatening the peaceful management of these facilities – which has been one of the key achievements of these AFD projects.

2.1.2. Management and lifespan of the works Main locations Wells Ponds Micro-dams

Demarcated sections Zakouma reserve

An AB3 follow-up document states that “The lifespan of the

Irriba-Bilia area

Main routes Mourhâls

Project extension area

works installed by the projects is undoubtedly linked to the way

Project

that they are managed.” In this respect, the projects are to be commended for promoting customary management systems and free pastoral water, an innovative approach that ran counter

Source: March 2009: Almy Bahaïm-Abéché projects.

to the practices and policies prevalent in the mid-1990s. The

Some types of marker are less hardwearing than others, and

dominant system for managing pastoral waterworks – the so-

some have been deliberately damaged or stolen for the

called “World Bank system” – was based on village waterworks

reinforced concrete. Cut stone seems to be the most durable

managed by “modern” committees, and payment for water.

and popular material: “69 per cent of respondents think the

Box 8: Should herders contribute to some of the costs of constructing pastoral wells?

stone and reinforced concrete markers are hardwearing and appropriate; all the markers made from galvanised tubes have disappeared now” […] 13 per cent of respondents thought that the markers were unsuitable for local conditions: many have Opinion is divided over who is responsible for their destruction, with some blaming “sedentary people who don’t want the markers” and others “transhumant herders who don’t like the way things have been done” (Ouadjonné, 2006).

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force them to stay in the vicinity and adversely affect their output. They would be reluctant to leave facilities

been destroyed,” although things did seem to stabilise in 2004.

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“Making pastoralists pay for one or more wells would

that they had paid for, and would also have to pay to use wells that others had funded. In short, making people pay to use wells would limit the scope and timing of their movements.”

Source: MONNIER, before 1995.

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

The approach developed by AFD-funded pastoral water

titles vary according to the area) are chosen by their community

projects differs radically from that of the World Bank in that i)

on account of their personal qualities, and their “nomination”

it is firmly committed to promoting the traditional/customary

is endorsed by the customary and/or canton chiefs. The

forms of managing water points used in the intervention areas,

plurality and complexity of these customary modes of

and ii) it upholds the principle of free use of pastoral water.

management have been studied in depth and followed up in

This is in order to avoid water points being appropriated by

various project intervention zones (with socio-land and

committee members (who are necessarily mainly sedentary)

historical studies, etc.). In central Chad, for example, the rules

and pastoralists being discriminated against or even excluded,

change radically according to whether one is east or west of

as this could ultimately create conflict. It is worth noting that

Bokoro: to the west, village committees control water and only

the AFD and World Bank approaches are opposed to and

herders pay for water; to the east there are no committees and

incompatible with each other.

water is free of charge.

The decision to work through customary management

Box 9: Customary management systems supported by AFD projects

systems rather than create “modern” committees to manage the water points has proved an appropriate and effective way of preventing conflicts over the last 20 years. Wherever we

• The joint committee in Abéché

went, we were told that there had been no violent disputes

• Joint well management bodies (Salamat)

(involving human death or serious injury) over the works

• Conflict prevention and management committees (joint)

associated with AFD interventions. Looking back over 20 years, it is clear that this is no coincidence, but a huge

• Person responsible for the well (various titles and rules), no committee (Kanem, Batha, BET)

achievement that can be ascribed to the approach adopted for these projects.

Source: Monnier, before 1995.

The AFD projects supported three types of management body: In all three intervention zones this approach was • The joint committee in Abéché, which was created in 1993

underpinned by a strategy of avoiding conflicts caused by

after the national conference, and which collaborated with the

people having to pay for water or management committees

Almy Bahaïm project from its first phase;

appropriating water works. It is particularly striking in the context of the PHP Kanem project, which was supposed to

• Joint well management bodies composed of equal numbers

create as many modern committees as new wells (90). While

of sedentary and transhumant members. This was an

recognising that this greatly contributed to the peaceful

experimental procedure that experienced some setbacks,

management of the works, previous evaluations, follow-up

partly because the wells were a long way away from the

work and numerous respondents have raised questions

villages concerned (20-30 km);

about the consequences (financial and otherwise) for the maintenance and physical durability of these facilities. The

• Joint conflict management and prevention committees:

status of individual water point managers is also somewhat

Mangalmé (AB + AAA) and other management bodies (the

problematic (see IRAM sociological report on Kanem): they

one in Goz Beida is thought to have fallen apart as it was given

are legitimate because they are appointed in line with the

too much money by humanitarian agencies).

canton chief and recognised by the local community, but are not legally recognised because they have no legal

Apart from these management bodies, the projects largely relied on customary well managers. These managers (whose

status.

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Box 10: Minor and major maintenance works

The two main concerns raised by IRAM, CIRAD and ERE regarding the sustainability of AFD water project

Small-scale rehabilitation

infrastructure are the general lack of maintenance and the

- In the north, in Batha, works are managed under the

link between durability and security. The CIRAD evaluation

customary management system, with a well manager

(2010) highlights the lack of general maintenance, and notes that outside PHPK “other projects have not put in place mechanisms to support or train actors in maintaining these

who functions independently and gets people to organise themselves (works, subscriptions, etc.) without any external intervention;

works. This means that herders are entirely dependent on the administration to maintain these public works.” This

- In the south, the same system applies to both wells and

raises several questions. It seems that despite the training

ponds; management rules are revised annually because

that was delivered, the wells in Kanem have not lasted any

wells are not used by the same groups every year.

longer than those in other intervention areas. Minor ongoing maintenance is undertaken and funded by well users,

Major rehabilitation work

through customary management systems. The problem lies

- NOTHING!

with major maintenance works, in terms of funding,

- No strategy for pastoral water in Chad

resources and know-how, especially because heavy-handed interventions can damage or even destroy installations.

There is also the question of their public status: should (private) users of these public works be responsible for maintaining them, and if so, what kind of maintenance should they undertake? AFD projects (especially through

- No finance or funds used - No AFD strategy for rehabilitation Source: Interview with technical assistant for the pastoral resource management support component of AAA2, February 2013.

the AGRP components) and IRAM are unequivocal on this

three years following the closure of Almy Bahaïm 3 in early

point: the state is responsible for maintaining these public

2010, and its members, led by the Sultan, stressed that its

works and users are generally responsible for minor ongoing

ability to function had been severely impaired by a lack of

maintenance. The fact that transhumant herders are

logistical and financial resources.

sometimes in the vicinity of the works for just a few days or

Moving from cyclical problems to structural concerns, one

weeks makes it difficult for them to either fund or undertake

might wonder at the lack of alarm over the mass resignation

major maintenance operations.

of the transhumant herders’ representatives (9 of the 22

Questions about the sustainability of management

of Abéché and growing competition between pastoral and

bodies: We know that the joint committee in Abéché is in crisis (see section 2.2) – the question is whether this is an economic or a structural crisis. It is worth noting that although this committee was not put in place by Almy Bahaïm (it was created in 1993), it did receive support during different phases of the project. It was also approached by emergency intervention agencies (Darfur crisis) and

2013, the committee had been left to its own devices for

•

model is being called into question. A system that worked in 1993 will not necessarily function in 2013. Relations between sedentary and transhumant actors are changing, as are their centres of interest (especially as the notion of territoriality gains strength), and the committee can no longer ensure that the land use rules agreed between

The letter of resignation written in June 2012 was

logistical assistance. When we visited Abéché in February

ExPost exPost

peri-urban land use could explain why the joint management

sedentary and transhumant actors are respected.

offered different kinds of support, such as per diems and

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members) in June 2012 – although the galloping urbanisation

accompanied by a list of the problems facing nomads in the

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

sub-prefecture of Abougoudam (development assistance,

AAA2 told us that “we’re still skating over the problem 20

sedentarisation, land claims and the closure of resting

years down the line. The canton chiefs are closely involved

areas, transhumance routes and water points). On 13 July

in requesting and monitoring new wells, and are fostering

2012, this was followed by a list of the sites that had been

a growing sense of territoriality around them. There are still

closed in each canton, and a reminder that “We resigned

unresolved problems with the way that new wells at resting

because it became apparent during our time on the

areas in sedentary areas are managed, which is something

committee that it is incapable of managing conflicts i)

that AAA2 will need to think about soon with regard to the

because certain committee members lack impartiality and

new works.” The administration (and especially MDPPA in

ii) because decisions taken by the committee were not

this case) should do more to fulfil its statutory role in land

executed.” Given that the customary and state authorities

services, and something needs to be done about getting

had still not resolved the matter in March 2013, it would be

legal recognition for these bodies as their decisions do not

useful to think about the future of the joint committee in

have the force of law. In order to secure pastoral routes

Abéché and suitable modes of support in the context of the

and facilities and move forward with decentralisation and

forthcoming project in eastern Chad.

a national system of local government, it is important to

While some conflict prevention and management

ensure that the customary structures promoted by AFD

committees (like the one in Mangalmé) complain about “not

projects are properly represented, and think about

having the resources to carry out their duties”, the joint

promoting consultative frameworks at the canton level and

bodies established by Almy Bahaïm in eastern Chad

above, based on the inter-communal model currently being

stopped functioning for very different reasons. Committees

tested in West Africa (Billital Maroobe sub-regional

composed of equal numbers of sedentary and transhumant

pastoralists’ network).

members were set up to ensure that pastoral wells were

Questions about exactly what the well management

managed in a peaceful manner. Most of these wells were

bodies are responsible for and how they will be funded also

located about 20 to 30 km away from the villages, and the

still need to be resolved – especially with regard to

committees did not meet because they had no reason to

monitoring wells and preventing conflicts in post-project

do so – there were no conflicts. They were therefore

situations (Kanem, Almy Bahaïm). They need to be able to

abandoned in the second phase of the project, and can be

travel, organise visits to check on installations and raise

viewed as a mistake or a success, depending on one’s

awareness about respecting pastoral spaces before the

viewpoint. There were many calls upon the joint committees

start of the cropping season. It would be worth considering

and similar bodies during emergency (humanitarian)

how the deconcentrated technical services for water and

interventions to assist refugees in Darfur, although some

livestock could participate in these monitoring exercises.

sources felt that this “spoiled” the way they worked because they got used to all the extra advantages that came with

Section 3 of this report (strategic directions) discusses

these interventions (per diems, vehicles).

possible future directions for work in this field. The

Setting aside their individual performance, the fact that

interviews conducted during this evaluation do not give

these management bodies are not financially (or even

much cause for optimism about the financial viability of

institutionally) viable is a cause for concern, because this

these commissions and committees, as they still rely on

undermines the sustainability of both the water points and

the projects to function and seem to have few alternative

the projects’ efforts to secure mobility. The manager of the

sources of funding to draw on (taxation, taxes from livestock

pastoral resource management support component for

markets).

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2.1.3. Investment and maintenance funding for pastoral water works

use and free water from these installations, the question of funding for pastoral water works still needs to be addressed at two levels: large-scale maintenance, and investment in new

Another much-debated issue is who will pay to maintain these water works. While MHRU confirmed that the approach adopted by AFD’s pastoral water projects supports the principle

works such as deep wells and ponds. Herders lack the technical and financial capacity to assume responsibility for either domain.

of free pastoral water promoted by the government,31 this does sometimes seem to have been subverted as certain water

In principle, the state should be responsible for maintaining

point management committees ask users to pay subscriptions.32

national water points (as it is for roads). Chad now generates

The situation is complex: certain canton chiefs control the fork

sufficient oil revenues to take it out of the poorest group of

and pulley systems used to draw water, which people have to

countries in the world, but does not seem to use them to fund

pay to use, and the committees sometimes, but not always,

its pastoral water points. The National Livestock Fund (FNE),

ask residents and non-residents (nomads and other actors)

which is fed by fees for veterinary procedures, amounts to

for “contributions”. Sometimes only non-residents are asked,

FCFA 400 million for the whole of Chad – a derisory figure

and sometimes they are only asked after they have been in

given how much this sector contributes to the national

the area for a certain time. The distinction between “paying for

economy. In addition to FNE, there is also the Water Fund,

water” and making financial contributions towards the

which has taken a long time to come on stream and could be

maintenance of wells is not always clear or well understood.

seen as a simple position of principle within the Master Plan

Paying for water is a controversial issue, especially in

for Agriculture. The creation of the National Livestock

intervention areas that are covered by several projects (such

Development Fund (FONADEL) should address this issue,

as Batha). This is something that needs to be addressed in a

providing its remit, sources of supply and governance are

much more coherent and coordinated manner.

clarified.

In the absence of an overall strategy for pastoral water in

The overall impact of the projects has been positive, and

Chad, some areas have adopted the rules used by village

work on pastoral water should definitely continue. However,

water and sanitation initiatives. Users are expected to make

the crucial question of funding to rehabilitate and invest in

contributions, and committees are set up to manage water

Chad’s pastoral water points remains unresolved, along with

point finances. Such practices not only fail to reflect the public

that of funding for their management bodies. This is not

status of the works and private management of water extraction

something that can be resolved by simply changing procedures

by herders,33 but also run the risk of water points being

or looking at the problem in terms of “hard” and “soft” issues.

undermined by poor financial governance or appropriated by

It needs to be viewed holistically, through wide-ranging thought

more powerful interest groups. While the Consultant supports

processes involving multiple partners (the Chadian state, civil

the AFD project approach in terms of guaranteeing pastoral

society, technical and financial partners, NGOs, etc.).

31

Comments on the provisional evaluation report produced by IIED, April 2013.

Especially in Kanem, for PROHYPA and SDC wells. See meeting on Kanem held in N’Djamena, 5 March 2013.

32

33

The system is different for mains water supply, pumps and pumping stations.

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

2.2. Impacts on the complementarity of production systems and regional integration

In environments that are characterised by unpredictable

production between crop-livestock systems in the south

variability, agriculture and livestock rearing can be integrated

Sahel and pastoral systems in the north Sahel also require

at a higher level than the family farm. Pastoral mobility enables

political action to set up the appropriate institutions that

distinct and specialist groups of farmers and herders to interact

can ensure livestock mobility” (Hiernaux and Turner,

at trans-national and trans-regional levels, helping strengthen

2002:146).

the productivity, sustainability and resilience of both production

This increase in scale also helps avoid some of the known

systems. While the projects recognised the importance of

problems associated with integration at the farm level: the

operating on a large scale, their contribution to this critical level

poor nutritional value of crop residues (which cannot

of integration has been ambiguous, sometimes encouraging

provide a balanced diet for sedentary animals); loss of

complementarity and interaction, and sometimes formalising separation.

nutrients following intensive recycling (which makes the

2.2.1. Adding value by operating on a large scale

degradation as plants are overgrazed during the rainy

“closed circuit” ecologically unviable in the long term); land season – when they are more vulnerable – due to pressure

Agricultural development circles have recently shown a

on land: land for livestock expands during the dry season

renewed interest in the value of crop-livestock integration.

as fields are opened after the harvest, but contracts during

However, “integration” is usually seen in opposition to

the rainy season when cropping resumes (IFAD, 2010;

specialisation and regarded as a “closed circuit” at the (mixed) farm level.

34

Hiernaux and Turner, 2002).36

The possibilities of integration at

different levels are also attracting increasing attention.35

We have already seen (section 1.1) that mobile pastoralism

Pastoral mobility has much to offer in this respect, because

is closely associated with the large scale: ecologically (in

integration does not preclude specialisation if livestock are

time and space), socially (large networks) and economically

mobile: when harvested fields are manured by transhumant

(for example, the transnational circuits of on-the-hoof

livestock as they feed on crop residues, specialist herders

livestock trade).

are interacting with specialist farmers in a form of large-

Production systems that use environments characterised

scale integration that spans several regions.

by variability perform best on a large scale, and the same

This interaction is particularly valuable in arid and semi-

logic applies when agriculture and livestock rearing are

arid areas of the Sahel, where the quality of pastures

integrated across several regions. Separate systems

usually declines from north to south, with less, higher

benefit from interaction at different times of the year, without

quality biomass in the north and more, lower quality

losing their specialised ability to exploit different and

biomass in the south (Breman and De Wit, 1983). Large-

far-flung resources (rather than producing crops and

scale integration is needed to capture the whole range of

livestock products in the same ecological space). The ability

benefits across this gradient: “Better integration of livestock

of this integrated super-system to function across different

34

ILRI, 2010; IFAD, 2010; FAO, 1997.

Vis-à-vis the policies that advocate replacing pastoralism with mixed farming, Hiernaux and Turner (2002: 135) conclude that “risks of environmental degradation are moderate and mainly climate-driven in pastoral systems at the drier edge, while they are serious and mainly management-driven in the crop-livestock systems of the southern Sahel.”

36

One of the objectives of the 2012 International Symposium on integrated crop-livestock systems (ICLS) in Porto Alegre was to “analyse how crop and livestock systems could become associated or integrated at different scales, i.e. field, farm, landscape, region, etc.” (http://www4.inra.fr).

35

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and distant geo-ecological spaces flows from pastoral

the same environment, but use it at different times and in

mobility, which is therefore the key to making productive

different ways. This not only means that they do not

use of the heterogeneous ecosystems in arid areas.

necessarily compete over the same resources, but also that they can interact in complementary and mutually beneficial ways.

2.2.2. Mutual benefits for herders and farmers

Demographic growth has added weight to the argument about the scarcity of resources, but here too there is a need

Producers are well aware of the value that can be added through large-scale integration (above the farm level).

Participants at all the scenario planning workshops

for more subtle analysis. Demographic growth is occurring in parallel with mass urbanisation, meaning that it is not necessarily a measure of a future lack of land in rural areas,

emphasised the importance of integrating local crop farming

especially in the relatively less attractive drylands.

and transhumant livestock rearing as a single system (often

Furthermore, while demographic growth in an agricultural

referring to it as “the lifeblood of Chad”) and the “need and

context may correspond directly to an increase in land under

desire to live alongside each other”. Some talked of integration as a matter of fact (Mongo, Yao-Fitri), while others described it as a process that has been distorted and

cultivation (where this is possible), demographic growth in a pastoral context has a much less clear-cut relationship with livestock numbers and herd size.

somehow put on hold, and which needs to be restarted as While the argument about land scarcity is more credible

soon as possible (Abéché, where the integrated system is

in areas closer to towns and cities, where people now prefer

in crisis).

to invest in land (as in Abéché), the phenomenon of We were also told that “herders and farmers seek each

cultivation encroaching onto pastoral lands is much older

other out”: the former attracted by the services on offer in

and more widespread. In reality, the fields on transhumance

urban centres, the latter by the prospect of large numbers

routes and resting areas that we saw during the evaluation

of livestock improving their soil fertility, and both by the

were not the expanding front of cultivation, but rather

commercial and social opportunities offered by this

isolated clusters in the middle of open rangeland.

interaction. While such proximity inevitably carries the risk

Transhumance routes and resting areas are not being tilled

of conflict, segregation has never been an option. As one

not because there is no other land available, but because

farmer in Yao-Fitri put it: “If they [the herders] don’t come

there is no better land available. As far as farmers are

to us, we’ll go to them!”

concerned, pastoral land use increases the value of land.

The encroachment of fields onto transhumance routes and

However, the newly established fields soon lose their

resting areas is often understood from the assumption

relative advantage. This means that the real challenge in

(embedded in the theory) that farmers and herders compete

land management is not so much keeping different

over the same resources (see section 1.1.4), and that

production systems on different bits of land, but organising

encroachment is a response to scarcity of land for cultivation.

the inevitable (and sometimes even desirable) overlap in

This model is persuasive but fails to account for much of

temporary uses without losing the flexibility that makes the

the complex and sophisticated interplay observed amongst

system work. For example, in southern Maradi in Niger,

specialist crop-farming and livestock groups in arid and

where there is considerable pressure on land, an initiative

semi-arid areas, where different production systems share

has been launched to “exchange” sections of transhumance

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Box 11: The operational scale

Sedentary communities now own large numbers of livestock.

In arid or semi-arid areas where resources for animal

Most of these animals are kept on the move by transhumant

production become available in unpredictable

herders,37 in arrangements that numerous actors told us help

concentrations, the threshold between scarcity and

stimulate trade and social exchanges, improve sustainable

abundance often depends on the operational scale.

livestock and soil productivity, and better enable both systems

This is one of the reasons why “drought emergency”

to cope with crises (resilience). We are therefore dealing with

indicators based on (sedentary) crops – or even on

an economic reality of “trans-regional” crop-livestock

pastoral production at a small administrative scale –

integration. In the specialised pastoralism and crop-farming

register droughts much more often than indicators

systems involved, this generates added value in terms of

based on specialised pastoral production (mobile,

productivity, sustainability and resilience (see, for example,

large-scale). One argument recently presented with

Bonnet et al., 1989; Sougnabé, 2005; Ouadjonné, 2011).

regard to the emergency drought policy in Uganda states that “As humanitarian intervention in the region

What we wish to emphasise here is that there is a higher

has been hooked to agricultural indicators, for decades

order of organisation above the crop-farming and livestock

Karamoja has received significant quantities of food

systems in Chad (as in most other regions where nomadic

aid whenever the rains have not been good enough

pastoralism is practiced): a “system of systems” (or a macro

to support a viable crop harvest – which now appears

system) whose existence rests on successful livestock

to happen almost one year in two, and even for two

mobility. Although production takes place at a lower level

or three years in succession. Yet for decades,

(within each specialised system), it is this higher level of

Karamoja has not suffered the kind of prolonged

organisation that makes it possible to increase the productivity,

drought that causes ‘actual lack’ of water or pasture

sustainability and resilience of both systems in arid and semi-

(as different from ‘lack of access’)” (Levine, 2010:

arid environments.

147). Having access to a higher order of organisation allows producers to seize advantages that can only

When mobility is restricted, this higher-order organisation

be obtained at a large scale, and which are therefore

falls apart and both categories of producer try to maintain a

inaccessible in other circumstances. It is crucial that

form of integration by scaling down to the household level:

development interventions (and policies) recognise

herders take up farming and farmers start raising livestock.

the existence and functioning of this higher order of

The “equilibrium” model of pastoral development interprets

organisation in agriculture (or the possibility for it to

this process deterministically, as a necessary “evolution”

exist) and work with it in a productive way.

towards agro-pastoralism and mixed farming (see section 1.1.4), but it is usually nothing of the sort. The benefits of

Source: Levine, 2010.

centuries of complex co-evolution are lost, specialisation is

routes with portions of neighbouring fields that have become

weakened, and sophisticated complementary arrangements

infertile, for a limited period to be determined in consultation

give way to competition. One can expect both systems to

with stakeholders (farmers and herders). Local decentralised

become less resilient, sustainable and productive.

institutions and herder and farmer organisations are involved in what should be a “win-win” process for all concerned.

37

See Marty et al., 2010, and all three scenario planning workshops.

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2.2.3. AFD projects and support for large-scale integration

tools based on the orthodox ecological model of pastoral development. For example, the traditional geo-ecological

AFD projects have been credited with supporting the complementarity between these production systems, and considering both the positive and negative relationships between pastoralism and agriculture (manure contracts and

zoning by different fodder potentials – which serves a pastoral development logic centred on carrying capacity and controlled grazing – survived throughout the entire Almy Bahaïm project.

grain transport; cultivated land encroaching onto pastoral

Similarly, pastoral mobility has been supported as a

resources; disputes over crops damaged by livestock).

necessary coping strategy associated with managing risk,

This is apparent in the decision to create ponds along transhumance routes in order to slow down the herds’ journey south at the end of the rainy season (once the harvest is over), and the effort to promote peaceful cohabitation around water points by supporting the institutional framework for their management. It is also apparent in the commitment to work on a large temporal and spatial scale: over the last two decades AFD has funded support for pastoral mobility through the Almy Bahaïm project, which covered 215,000 km2 and lasted for 15 years; PKHP, with an intervention area of 124,500 km2, and Almy Al Afia, which covers 123,000 km2 and has now been going for 10 years. The large spatial scale of these projects is entirely appropriate to the nature of the issues with which

rather than a production strategy that generates value (see ANTEA, 2003, for example). In dealing with transhumance, the focus of the projects has tended to be on north-south movement (mobility as a means of coping with the dry season) rather than south-north movement (mobility to exploit better pastures). 38 Instead of a socio-economic perspective centred on pastoral production, this emphasis on the “north-south axis” reflects the administrative viewpoint that fixes nomadic pastoralists in a “home territory” in the north and sees transhumance as “starting” by going south.

In reality, pastoral herds spend most of the year in the south or along transhumance routes, and the “game” of livestock production in the drylands is played out and won in the northern pastures. This weighting of the transhumance cycle is apparent in the pastoral calendar, which starts at the

they have engaged, and their continuity over a long period has been a determining factor in their success (for example, in maintaining access to areas such as Salamat).

beginning of the rainy season, when the herds begin their journey to the north (see Bernard and Guibert, 2009, for example).

Nevertheless, it has to be said that the impact of the

It is interesting to note the way that different actors look

projects in this respect has at times seemed rather

at solutions such as slowing the herds’ movement south.

ambiguous. It was not always clear whether they have

Pastoralists and livestock traders at the scenario planning

promoted peaceful cohabitation between farmers and

exercises emphasised the impact on production (animals

pastoralists based on reciprocal agreements between the

have more time to feed), while project staff and documents

two groups, or by maintaining a certain distance between them and whether these interventions were supposed to act as “bridges” in promoting integration and complementarity,

the moment when they arrive in the south. The demarcation

As we saw in section 1.1, since Almy Bahaïm, these projects have broken new ground and often forged ahead Inevitably, their innovative elements were combined with

•

of transhumance routes raises similar questions. This began With the notable exception of efforts to address problems in crossing the River Batha and other wadis, which clearly reflect the economic pertinence of spending the rainy season in the north (Mannany and Aubague, 2007; Aubague et al., 2011).

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in advance of developments in the theoretical field.

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in the south. One group focuses on livestock producers having more time during the journey, the other on delaying

or as “borders” by encouraging or formalising segregation.

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with the AB1 project, as part of its support for ongoing

contributing to Chad’s development as a successful modern

activities by the joint committee in Abéché, and was then

state.

included in the portfolio of interventions by subsequent

There is still no clear long-term vision for multi-regional

projects. While one of the primary goals of this kind of

integrated agriculture and livestock rearing as the basis for

intervention has been to build local consensus and involve

rural development in Chad. There are certainly numerous

customary institutions in efforts to demarcate and secure

national strategy and sectoral policy documents (NPRS,

transhumance corridors, the process of demarcation, as

PMTRA, PNDE, SDA, SDEA, etc.), but some need to be

such, responds more to a logic of segregation than one of

updated (such as the national herd census, which is

complementarity between crop and livestock systems (see

essential for a coherent and viable strategy), and there is

section 2.3.6).

little coordination between public policies on development.

These projects have succeeded in preventing conflicts (or

In general terms, the National Livestock Development

at least violent conflicts over water points), but they have

Programme (PNDE) combines two visions: helping “secure”

not halted the general erosion of pastoral resources. The

pastoral systems through a model of combined crop farming

current crisis in the joint committee in Abéché, two years

and livestock keeping at the family level, sedentary or limited

after the end Almy Bahaïm, seems to suggest that peace

to very small-scale mobility, and investing in the kind of

has yet to take real root, and that the projects’ success may

agro-industrial livestock rearing seen in Latin America,

be based more on politics than economics, and more on

geared towards export and highly dependent on the transfer

persuasion and diplomacy (necessary but insufficient) than

of technology.

on the effective strengthening and expansion of common

With regard to the first vision, Chad’s comparative

interests between the parties.

advantage in developing the livestock sector certainly lies in securing pastoral systems (see section 2.5), but the line of action taken to pursue this vision (reducing mobility and

2.2.4. Support policies and cross-border issues

the scale of integration with agriculture) still seems to reflect

Security is often an issue in cross-border zones to the east

the old view of pastoral development.

and north of Chad. The lack of a strong state presence

The most recent findings on pastoral production systems

leaves these areas open to various forms of insecurity when

indicate that a decrease in livestock mobility or in the

the social fabric is damaged or seriously weakened and

operational scale of the pastoral system is correlated with

people’s sense of citizenship is challenged. These tracts of

lower productivity and – above all – reduced resilience

land are too large, remote and inhospitable to be controlled

(greater vulnerability to drought, for example). In Chad’s

by a sedentary population. This can only be done effectively

case, where the large-scale integration of crop farming and

by a dynamic and flourishing network of mobile pastoralists

livestock rearing has particularly strong historical roots and

who are closely linked into the national economy and

economic importance, this could be expected to have a

national institutions. A viable, extensive and prosperous

negative impact on both systems. Every group that

pastoral economy that covers all these regions, but is

participated in the scenario planning exercises (producers

closely integrated with the south, would be the first line of

from both specialisations, livestock traders, local dignitaries

defence against the propagation of new forms of insecurity.

and technicians) was adamant that allowing this complex

Such an economy could provide economic and political

system based on livestock mobility to “evolve” towards

stability not just as a fall-back activity, but as an effective

small-scale sedentary mixed farming would undermine it

and productive modern livelihood system capable of

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and slowly kill it off. The best way of securing pastoral

but so is investment to strengthen and modernise the well-

systems (and with them a significant part of agricultural

established production systems that account for most

production) would be to encourage mobility and promote

agricultural GDP. Therefore, it is crucial that investment in

large-scale integration, not as a way of preserving the past

the traditional model of modernisation (the kind of agro-

but as a path towards the future in a world dominated by

industrial livestock rearing found in Latin America) meets

climate change. The aim should be to better understand

two basic conditions: i) it does not divert resources away

and ultimately support these systems through scientific and

from the much needed, innovative model of modernisation

technological development (see section 1.1.4).

long awaited by pastoral producers and ii) more generally, it does not divert resources away from the production

The rapid pace of urbanisation in Chad and neighbouring

systems (or “system of systems”, see section 2.2.2) that

countries should create an important niche for the second

secure most rural livelihoods in Chad. If these important

agro-industrial vision in the PNDE, although not all the new opportunities in this direction automatically overlap with the public interest. Opening up Chad’s livestock sector to new

conditions are not met, investment in the agro-industrial vision of development seems unlikely to deliver the expected returns for the country as a whole.

economic players and new forms of production is important,

2.3. Has the development of pastoral lands helped pastoral livestock rearing systems?

2.3.1. Potential economic value in a relative lack of water

Water is the key entry point for developing pastoral areas.

In fact, it is the key to controlling land, enabling spaces that would otherwise not be put to any economic use to become productive, and linking vast geographically marginalised areas to the global economy. In this case, as in the one

Access to water (use rights and physical distribution in time and space) determines how an area can be used and by whom. Both the presence and the absence of water can

discussed in the previous section, a model that is sensitive to complex dynamics – capable of recognising temporal and spatial variability as a potential advantage rather than something to be overcome while concentrating on increasing uniformity and stability – has wide-ranging implications. A radically different way of using the environment for food production needs a correspondingly new approach to land management: one capable of recognising the special characteristics of the production system in question and

provide the opportunity that opens up land to specialist producers. For example, mobile pastoral production systems are better able to exploit the relative absence of water than agricultural systems, and certain groups within pastoral systems specialise in exploiting pastures that are particularly far from water. These niches may have been left vacant by stronger or less specialised users.

Most cattle- and sheep-rearing systems can exploit

embracing the relevant scale of exploitation.

pastures located up to 10 km from water, some can stretch to 25 km or 30 km, and camels can cope with being 60 km

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from the nearest water source. This kind of stratification is

different production systems and temporary and partially

not cumulative. Users that specialise in exploiting the most

overlapping rights on which it is based.

distant pastures do not necessarily enjoy access to pastures

This not only applies to the “production areas”. The

nearer water points. Specialist strategies are costly in terms

strategic availability of water along transhumance routes,

of expert labour, livestock selection and social organisation,

or the routes used by traders moving livestock to markets

and usually involve living in difficult conditions for much of

on the hoof, allows for a more selective diet along the way,

the year. Yet it is precisely these costs that create the

thus making the journey (time and space) part of the

window of opportunity for those who are willing and able to

production process (Corniaux et al., 2012).

face them. Consequently, reducing the physical and temporal gaps in water availability may help specialist users

In using pastoral water as their entry point, these projects

by reproducing the conditions of their niche in newly opened

intervened at the keystone of the whole macro system.

areas, but may also exclude them altogether from access

However, they also had to work with a legacy of pastoral

by eliminating their niche.

development interventions that had tampered with the macro system since the late 1950s, encouraging pastoral communities

In order to safeguard the greatest stratification of use (i.e.

to settle in northern Chad by introducing permanent water

increase diversity, complementarity, overall productivity and

points and services for sedentary populations in those regions

resilience) when planning water development interventions,

(Barraud, 2001; Aubague and Grimaud, 2011).40

the minimum gap in the availability of water (in terms of both time and space) should be defined in relation to the highest

AFD’s early work coincided with a resurgence in the

level of specialisation. In practice, the opposite usually

importance of transhumant livestock rearing, which partly

happens, as the most powerful and least specialised users

prompted the launch of Almy Bahaïm in 1994 and has informed

tend to live nearer urban areas and exert more influence

its subsequent support for mobile pastoralism.

over decision-making processes.

The decision to keep the number of new wells in the north to 2.3.2. Ephemeral concentrations of water and pastures

the minimum, and invest in temporary ponds instead (the innovative strategy in Almy Bahaïm) was consistent with this

The relative lack of rainfall in the northern Sahel results in

approach. On the other hand, the projects also invested

ephemeral pastures with exceptionally high nutritional value

significantly in rehabilitating old water points in the north41 at

(see section 2.2.1). Within Chad, the ecological differences between the north and south are so marked that the country

The Almy Al Afia projects regard “the north” as the area north of the River Batha (Batha region) and Guéra, while Almy Bahaïm always divided the country into three distinct zones: “the north” where livestock spend the rainy season (Batha and northern Biltine), the “intermediate” or crossing zone, which is more densely populated and dotted with fields and their attendant problems, and “the dry season zone”, which includes southern Quaddaï and Salamat (comments by C. Bernard, May 2013).

39

is often described as two agro-ecological zones divided by the 13th parallel north.39 These differences have shaped its main transhumance systems (see Banzhaf, 2005) and led to the large-scale integration of agriculture and livestock

Sinclair and Fryxell (see section 1.1) found that the ecological sustainability of mobile livestock rearing in the Sahel had been “disrupted in the 1950s and 1960s by i) the settlement of pastoralists around wells, and ii) the expansion of agriculture north into the pastoralists’ grazing lands» (1985: 987).

40

rearing discussed in the previous section.

It is important to recognise the complexity and value of

Almy Bahaïm 1 and 2 sank new wells north of Batha. Almy Bahaïm 3 and the two Almy Al Afia projects have not opened any more new sites in Batha, but have dug “replacement wells” several hundred metres away from degraded old wells, some of which were sunk in the 1950s and 1960s. Most date back to the 1970s and 1980s, and were constructed by projects such as Sawa, GTZ/Saudi Fund and, more recently, BADEA (comments by C. Bernard, May 2013).

41

this “pendular” use of the environment by pastoral systems – which exploits the social, economic and ecological benefits of moving livestock north for the rainy season and south for the dry season – and the levels of organisation between

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a time (the 1990s) when their progressive deterioration was

a simple commodity, and treated accordingly. Both the

one of the factors persuading sedentarised herders to resume

presence and the absence of water, and any change that

transhumance. These included permanent water points created

affects rights of access to water, should be expected to have

in the 1950s-1980s to serve the policies of sedentarisation.

an impact on the way that land is used (who, what, when and

While the projects used participatory decision-making

how), the configuration of users and their power relations, and

processes with local users to decide which wells to rehabilitate,

the ecological sustainability of the production systems involved.

it should be remembered that these “local users” were in the

The projects engaged with these issues by choosing to

area as a result of 50 years of sedentarisation policies, and were therefore not necessarily engaged in the pastoral mobility that the project aimed to support (Bellot, 1994).

institutionalise the new or rehabilitated water points within a “heritage” model, as common assets, and protecting them from the “ownership” model promoted by other actors (mainly the World Bank), sometimes just a few kilometres away. This “heritage” approach is particularly interesting when the water

2.3.3. “Heritage” and “ownership” models

points are designed for pastoral use (especially by transhumant

The question of access to and charges for pastoral water should be understood not so much in relation to the management of the water points, but more in terms of its direct

herders) in territories under the jurisdiction of cantons and sedentary villages, and was very helpful in strengthening and consolidating the spirit and logic of mobility based on secular relations of solidarity and mutual aid. Rather than allocating

and profound implications for the development of pastoral lands. Water creates access to land, hence the comparison between water and road networks, sometimes used to argue

water points to a particular category of user, the projects made the different users concerned responsible for them. Of the three studies funded by AFD in 2013 as part of its support for

its status as a public good for which the state is responsible.

This is more than a simple analogy, as the network of access rights to water (in time and space) does indeed shape the

the Platform,42 one considered the question of “territorial development” and another focused on the “sustainability of public works systems”.

socio-political, economic and ecological configuration of arid and semi-arid lands. In Chad, where the large-scale integration of crop farming and livestock rearing is based on livestock mobility (see section 2.2), pastoral water policies affect the entire macro system on both sides of the 13th parallel.

2.3.4. Decentralisation and pastoralism Decentralisation has provided fertile new ground for the

Being the key to developing pastoral lands, water should be

legacy of the old ecological model of pastoral development

regarded as a de facto instrument of governance rather than

and its compartmentalised vision of rural production systems (see Hesse and Trench, 2000; IIED, 2006). Decentralisation should come with the warning “To be taken in moderation”

Committee responsible for following up the recommendations of the national conference on pastoralism (CCSRCNP), see section 2.7.4.

42

in a country like Chad, which is composed of cantons (apart

For example, pastoralists have to pay local governments and Sudanese localities every time they cross the border with their herds (Krätli et al., 2013).

A paper on “Pastoralism and Decentralisation” presented at the 2005 seminar summarised the issue in these terms: “The creation of decentralised territorial constituencies seems to add yet another difficulty to the problems that pastoralists and agro-pastoralists experience with mobility in extensive pastoral livestock rearing systems […] nomads and other categories of herder may find themselves automatically excluded from the process of reshaping the role that local communities play in managing their territories …” (Neldita, 2005: 155).

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from Arada) and where mobile livestock rearing is closely linked with the economy, the ecology and the socio-political situation. Analysts have talked of territorial “subdivision” and “fragmentation” and the risk of multiplying the number of points at which mobile livestock are taxed (see Neldita 2005,43 among others).

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Conversely, the interventions by AFD-funded projects have

unexploited pastures has been applied in the north as well

been consistent with a large-scale perspective. Coupled

as in the south, implying that there was not only a need for

with the experience and knowledge of Chadian pastoral

“better herd distribution” when these areas were used by

systems acquired over the last 20 years, this could help

transhumant herds (to support pastoral mobility and the

address aspects of decentralisation policies (such as

macro system of crop-livestock integration), but also

territorial subdivision) that do not sit well with pastoralist

between the north and south on a permanent basis (to

land use strategies, which assume that specific modes of

support sedentary livestock keeping, undermining the macro

management based on intercommunality and the free

system of integration).

circulation (non-taxation) of mobile livestock will be in place.

When Almy Bahaïm conducted a follow-up exercise to

Building on customary structures (mechanisms for managing

evaluate the risk of degradation in pastures that would be

water works, preventing conflict and safeguarding mobility)

affected by the new installations, it used theoretical

also provides an opportunity to test local approaches to

calculations based on the principle of equilibrium between

managing pastoral mobility and promote effective

the water network and carrying capacity vis-à-vis estimated

mechanisms run by local actors (see section 3.3.1).

fodder resources. This approach was entirely based on the old ecological model, which subsequent critical analysis has found to have significant gaps (see, for example, Bonnet et

2.3.5. Environmental impacts

al., 2004). This study also concluded that the ecologicalimpact hypotheses for Almy Bahaïm and PHPK (knowing

In order to limit the problems often associated with water

whether the projects helped regenerate plant cover or avoid

development in pastoral areas, the projects followed an

its degradation) “could not be confirmed or refuted by either

“ecologically cautious” approach. This resulted in some

project’s impact monitoring and evaluation system” (Bonnet

innovative and even brave technical choices, such as only

et al., 2004: 91).

using structures with low discharge rates to minimise the risk of overgrazing; designing water points that can only be used on a temporary basis to avoid sedentarisation in the

2.3.6. The paradox of demarcation

surrounding areas; intervening in the south as well as the north; opening up unexploited pastures (by introducing new

As well as working on pastoral water installations, the

water points) to facilitate better distribution of the pastoral

projects also marked out at-risk sections along thousands

herds spending the dry season there.

of kilometres of transhumance routes (mourhâls). As there

Almy Bahaïm and PHPK also put a lot of effort into

were no plans to do this in 1994, the markers or beacons

ecological monitoring – most notably with the study on the

were initially put in place by the Almy Bahaïm project

potential of rangelands, which involved a major exercise to

“outside the programme”, following a request for assistance

map out the pastoral resources in the Almy Bahaïm area in

from the joint committee in Abéché. Demarcation

1996-1997 (VSF-BURGEAP, 1999), and several studies

subsequently became an integral element of the projects’

analysing the dynamics of degradation in the area covered

portfolio, as an important tool for safeguarding pastoral

by PHPK.

mobility.

We have already noted that the projects have often mixed

Demarcation affects and changes pastoral-land use, as is

old and new approaches to pastoral development. The

inevitable when dynamic and variable practices are

strategy of using permanent water points to open up as yet

formalised. This has had two recognised “perverse effects”.

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Firstly, it transforms well-established but constantly adapting

Africa also use strategic mobility as part of the production

transhumance itineraries into fixed “roads”: “A transhumance

process, to fatten their stock on the move while taking them

route is not a water course and even less a tarmacked road.

to market during the rainy season (Corniaux et al., 2012;

These routes emerge or disappear in response to the

Krätli et al., 2013a).

opening of markets or spread of disease. The two main characteristics of pastoral systems are mobility and flexibility, so what are pastoralists supposed to do if they have to follow

If pastoralism is a system for fattening livestock “on the move” (more effectively and reliably than by keeping them in one place), territorial development should consider

a set route and discover that there’s a foot-and-mouth

“pastoral routes” or transhumance corridors as an integral

epidemic ahead and there’s no other way to go …” (Pabamé

element of pastoral production. Reducing them to simple

Sougnabe, May 2013). Secondly, while marking a limit to the expansion of fields, demarcation also limits the “pastoral space”, protecting relatively modest areas of pastoral land

axes that allow livestock to move between different production zones reflects a sedentary outlook that cannot help focussing on what happens before and after

deemed to be particularly at risk, but at the price of formalising the rest of the space as “non-pastoral”. This could be called the “paradox of demarcation”.

displacement, thus failing to grasp the underlying logic of mobile pastoralism. Although used with the overall objective of supporting pastoral mobility, this reductive (if common)

The irony is that the lack of legal recognition for markers

notion of transhumance routes frames pastoral production

means that demarcation in itself does little to protect

as a sedentary activity (undertaken between periods of

transhumance routes. In northern Abéché, “trap fields” have

movement), and in doing so makes the overall objective

appeared in the middle of the transhumance route just at

vulnerable to the forces that limit pastoralism’s capacity to

the end of the demarcated sections, in order to generate

function. While pragmatically recognising that certain areas

fines from the damage done by “trespassing” livestock.

along the routes are more densely populated, the zoning

Although the markers are intended to protect key pastoral

adopted by Almy Bahaïm, which includes an intermediary

resources from the general spread of cultivated fields,

“transit” zone between “the north” and “the south”, is still

farmers actually target transhumance routes and resting

straitjacketed by this “sedentary vision of mobility”.

areas precisely because they have been used by livestock

Apart from rare exceptions, the deliberately discontinuous

and are therefore more fertile (see section 2.2).

demarcation of the mourhâls does not include resting

The notion of “transhumance” is also rooted in the

areas, whose occupation and “encroachment” now seem

European (sedentary) tradition that sees “displacement” as

to be the main concern for transhumant herders seeking

a switch between moments of production (rural workers

to safeguard their mobility. Some mourhâls in eastern Chad

move from one field to another, office workers travel between

have been blocked and even closed, mainly as a result of

different branches of their company…). In these contexts

competition for peri-urban land. Pastoralists in eastern and

“transhumance corridors” are effectively routes that link one

central Chad and Fitri have complained about the complicity

moment of production to another. But this view does not

or laxity of canton chiefs, which may extend to selling these

really fit with pastoralism in drylands. Once pastoral systems

spaces to external investors. In Abéché, transhumant

are understood as being based on mobility (see section

herders no longer go near the town. The situation has

1.1), animal production and strategic mobility should not be

recently been exacerbated by canton chiefs using pastoral

treated as distinct activities but as one. In pastoral systems,

lands to absorb demographic growth in agricultural areas

mobility along pastoral routes is not an interlude between

and accommodate migrants returning from Libya and

periods of production. Livestock traders in East and West

Sudan, or transhumant households that have turned to

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2.3.7. The legislative gap and “legal tourism”

sedentary lifestyles in order to secure land and access to basic services only available in villages, or who have been

The continued lack of legislation on demarcation is

driven to do so by poverty.

symptomatic of the general situation regarding the development of rural land, and pastoral areas in particular.

These practices sparked a major crisis in the joint committee in Abéché, spontaneously set up in 1993 and

One of the key issues here is confusion over the respective

for years the flagship for peaceful resource management

roles of legislation and customary and formal institutions. 44

in eastern Chad. In June 2012, the nine tribal chiefs

Although the transhumance routes were demarcated

representing transhumant herders resigned in mass protest

according to customary norms, the overall effect of

over repeated failure to act on their reports of farmland

demarcation has been to contribute to the reduction of

encroaching onto pastoral spaces (both demarcated and

pastoral space. Resting areas are still encroached upon at

undemarcated). They compiled a long list of routes and

a rapid rate despite customary rights, mobility (a customary

resting areas that had been closed or occupied, which was

strategy) is both promoted and discouraged, and sedentary

copied to us. Having rumbled on for several years, the

chiefs are allocating land to external investors. It should be

crisis had been finally taken before the Governor of

remembered that it is not only farmers and land investors

Ouaddaï, but was still unresolved when this report was

who are benefiting from this confusion between customary

written in March 2013. This issue was widely debated with

and formal institutions: absent landowners, investors in

the evaluation team in Abougoudam, at a meeting attended

livestock (who exploit the shared transhumance routes,

by about 30 very concerned representatives of transhumant

knowledge and pastoral networks), and even impoverished

herders.

pastoralists who settle to work the land, also use this confusion to their advantage.

Finally, it should be remembered that demarcation was undertaken by the projects in response to pressing demands

The worst outcome is when the two systems neutralise

from both nomadic tribal chiefs and sedentary cantons

each other and activities are allowed to develop in a legislative and regulatory void, which is what has happened

chiefs, and instigated by the joint committee in Abéché.

where mourhâls and resting areas have been used to grow

Some wells had become inaccessible because the mourhâls

crops (in the Salamat area, people are even using ponds

were blocked, creating a potentially conflictual situation that

to grow rice). The key here is to discourage “legal tourism”,

seems to be being repeated today. This is where theoretical

where actors exploit the existence of parallel institutions

analysis collides with practical reality, raising a number of

and authorities, strategically choosing only the norms that

questions. What concrete action can be taken at the local

favour their claims (Lund, 1998; Toulmin, 2009).

level when mobility is threatened? How does the theory of variability fit with the desire for peace? How can large-scale

On a more general level, the issues associated with

complementarity be reconciled with local realities? What is

pastoral land and efforts to formulate a Pastoral Code also

clear is that 20 years on, we need a detailed study on the

need to be considered. While it is now understood that the

impacts of demarcation (intended or otherwise) that reflects

discontinuous use of space characteristic of pastoral

the theoretical developments in our understanding of

systems is best able to maximise the use of resources that

pastoral systems.

become available in unpredictable and ephemeral concentrations, the concept of “productive land use” remains

We prefer to use the terms “customary” and “formal” rather than “traditional” and “modern”.

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rooted in regular and prolonged occupation of space by communities. Although one of the objectives of the PNDE

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is to “recognise pastoralism as an equally productive activity

pastoral land in particular. The evaluation team discussed

as agriculture and forestry” (Republic of Chad 2008: 43),

this issue during the meeting with MDPPA.

five years after the plan was launched, productive land use

Our field interviews revealed that tensions over land and

was still defined by the law of 1967.45 In the absence of a

resources have increased due to the growing sedentary

clearly defined category of pastoral “productive land use”,

population (including settled pastoralists who have turned

the notion of “productive use” is synonymous with land-use

to farming) and rising number of livestock (not as a linear

conversion where pastoral land is concerned. Pastoral land

consequence of demographic growth among pastoralists,

loses its pastoral status when “used productively” for

but due to greater concentration of wealth and the arrival

agricultural or forestry activities, and even when it is pastoral activities that generate added value, for example, by increasing soil fertility along transhumance routes and in resting areas (see section 2.2.2). Like pastoralism itself, pastoral resources are defined by subtraction: just an empty category waiting to be filled.

of external investors). The progressive colonisation of pastoral land assets is a clear illustration of how traditional alliances weaken in these conditions.

AFD’s projects have focused on marking out transhumance routes, and have not always taken adequate measures to

Local people increasingly regard pastoral areas as agrarian land reserves, a short-term view that can sometimes lead

protect pastoralists’ access to natural resources and key grazing reserves – not only pastures along the mourhâls where animals can rest and feed, but also strategic water

to contradictions between different development

and grazing reserves around ponds and lakes in wetlands

programmes. In the race “to identify needs and resolve

and floodplains, which are increasingly used for commercial

problems”, development work can easily disrupt local interdependencies and complementarities that may have

gardening or to grow sorghum. The immediate and individual

taken decades to refine. This is particularly true when

gains associated with these supplementary crops will

development is left to operate in a self-regulating market

probably be eclipsed by the costs to the integrated crop-

model (an equilibrium model), without being framed by a

livestock system as a whole in terms of productivity,

systemic vision and well-coordinated planning, and without

sustainability and resilience, and the loss of resources which

a proper understanding of existing production systems or

are essential to pastoralism.

close dialogue with their stakeholders.

Fallow land is affected by a similar lack of legislation and

Farmers are now being encouraged to think that they no

planning. The poor organisation and/or regulation of crops

longer need pastoralists. This mindset creates a potentially

grown by both sedentary and transhumant producers create

uncontrollable social dynamic, undermines the conditions

avoidable costs. In principle, fallow fields are pastoral

for large-scale integration of specialist crop-farming and

resources, but they often go unused because they are

livestock systems (above the farm level), and impairs the

surrounded by cultivated fields and are therefore inaccessible

productivity, sustainability and resilience of both production

by livestock.

systems (see section 2.2). The gravity of the situation in Abéché highlights the medium- and long-term need for a legal and legislative framework on rural land in general, and Law n° 24 of 1967 (Article 17) states that “at the very least, productive use should entail a permanent and visible presence on the land that may include crop rotation or analagous procedures.”

2.3.8. Crossing the Batha and wadis

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The coherence of the works undertaken along the main routes is another issue that needs to be considered. Mobility is the key to livestock productivity, but the seasonal wadis and

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

rivers that travel from east to west impede south-north

(geological or logistical opportunities, economies of scale at

movement due to lack of bridges and crossing points, the

the programme level).

occupation of shores and wetlands by cultivations, and the

The most visible impact of pastoral water projects funded by

Bahr Azoum becoming clogged up. The crossing of the River

AFD in Chad is their positive contribution to peace. The

Batha is crucial in allowing herds, especially camels, to travel

projects have not entirely eliminated conflicts, but have

north at the beginning of the rainy season (July), and there

certainly reduced their incidence and gravity and are widely

have been reports of problems crossing other wadis.

praised for their role in helping create political and institutional

In January 2007, a study by Almy Al Afia (Mannany and

spaces to manage conflict. It is surely no coincidence that

Aubague, 2007) recommended the construction of “a secure

there have been no violent conflicts (involving death or serious

pastoral crossing in Koundjourou” – a livestock crossing with no

injury to humans) over the water points and markers installed

provision for vehicles – to supplement the Oum Hadjer bridge

by these projects: the approach adopted over the last 20 years

200 km upstream (a bridge funded by AFD in the early 2000s

is universally acclaimed as a success by previous evaluations,

and the only crossing over the Batha at the time of this evaluation).

diverse interviewees and subsequent developments.

In March 2013, the project for the pastoral crossing in Koundjourou

The Almy Bahaïm, Almy Al Afia and Kanem projects also

had vanished, replaced by more ambitious plans for a large road

developed processes that aim to recognise shared heritage

bridge that is more likely to compete with pastoralists’ needs rather

and a vision of common space in order to counter the erosion

than meet them. Pastoralists are still blocked in the south by the

of bygone understanding and solidarity. They put a lot of effort

arrival of the waters, suffering great losses.

into supporting local institutions at a time when three sets of

In terms of lost productivity in the camel system alone, the

overlapping rights (customary, religious and formal) were

estimated cost of not having a crossing at Koundjourou stands

undermining the ancient edifice of traditional chiefdoms –

at around FCFA 1.88 billion per annum (EUR 2.74 million).

something that could be exacerbated by the new sub-

According to this estimate, the losses since January 2007

prefectures and land registration that territorial division will

(again for the camel system alone) amount to FCFA 11.28

bring. The provision of free water, a core principle of the

billion (EUR 17.19 million), which is more than three times the

projects’ approach, has played an important role in limiting the

estimated cost of resolving the problem in 2007. In the

risks of appropriation and exclusion associated with payment

meantime, the prospect of a road bridge has set off a wave of

for water. Overall, priority pastoral use has been respected.

land speculation around Koundjourou, as people secure plots

Another key feature of these projects was the decision to

of land to build houses “along the road” or in expectation of

prioritise traditional management of water points, rather than

handsome profits to be made from compensation.

follow the common practice of creating new management committees. The study on conflicts conducted in 2010 indicates that the traditional management system used by the PHPK

2.3.9. Developing water for peace and security

project (Kanem) has proved effective in maintaining peace around the wells and still works: “Abandoning the idea of

Water, peace and physical security are closely inter-related.

setting up management groups for each facility allowed existing

However, as we have seen with regard to the pastoral economy

management systems to function satisfactorily” (Marty et al.,

(2.3.1), water can be an ambiguous asset. Creating water

2012).

points can reduce conflict, but may also increase it – especially when logics that are foreign to pastoral production are used

Another important factor in peaceful resource management

to justify the installation of water discharge installations

has been securing the mourhâls (see 2.3.6), especially with

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durable markers: “There have not been any [violent] conflicts

to lack of logistical support. At a committee meeting the very

over the closure of livestock routes or stray livestock since the

next day, we learned that it had long stopped operating

permanent markers were installed [by Almy Bahaïm] between

altogether following the resignation of all the nomadic tribal

March 2001 and May 2003. However, there are still conflicts

chiefs (see section 2.1.2), which was largely prompted by

over access to resources (water points, grazing, crop residues)

failure to respect the transhumance routes.46 The trouble had

in undemarcated areas” (Ouadjonne, 2006: 33).

started in Abougoudam, and a meeting there with about 30 nomadic chiefs on 24 February 2013 confirmed that things

Previous evaluations of AFD interventions are unanimous

were “hotting up”. They acknowledged that “the Almy Bahaïm

about the positive role the projects played in improving peace

project has put a lot of effort into this, and the mourhâls that

and security through two vectors: installing wells, ponds and

were closed have re-opened; but the situation started to

markers along the mourhâls, and organising the management

deteriorate again, especially in 2011” as a result of unhelpful

of these facilities. The IRAM evaluation (2004) notes that “The

policies and sedentary canton chiefs who break their promises

goal of the AFD projects was to prevent social conflicts over

and are losing their authority. The future looks grim, with the

land. This required upstream actions with considered decisions

expectation that there will be “war”. The chiefs called upon the

about where to install the water points, and downstream sup-

authorities (prefects and governors) to resolve the problem,

port establishing equitable and sustainable systems for ma-

and had been waiting impatiently for nearly a year when this

naging the pastoral water points”. The CIRAD evaluation

report was written.

(2010) confirms this hypothesis in its crosscutting summary: “Adopting approaches based on preliminary studies of socio-ecosystems, using participatory procedures before the

2.3.10. Retaining a sense of scale

facilities were installed, and choosing modes of management based on traditional practices, helped to reduce the incidence of serious conflict almost completely despite the high-risk conditions, especially in the AB2 and PHPK projects.”

made a correlation between water works and securing transhumance routes, they followed a dynamic (odographic)

However, these positive observations on peace and security

approach to spatial planning and often operated on a very

matters are qualified by an important proviso: “It has to be said that in the absence of sufficiently refined observatories of conflicts associated with pastoral mobility and their qualitative and quantitative evolution over time, it is difficult and dangerous to make hard and fast judgements about whether they have increased or diminished” (comments by André Marty, April 2013).

large scale. This decision was entirely consistent with the projects’ objectives (see section 2.3), but it did mean that their substantial resources were severely stretched.

For example, about EUR 20 million were invested in the three successive phases of the Almy Bahaïm projects. Over a period of 15 years (1995-2010) they delivered 160 ponds (new or

When we went to Abéché at the end of February 2013, we had an interview with the Sultan of Ouddai, who mentioned

The evaluation team received a copy of a document of complaints, dated 13 July 2012, including the updated list of resting areas, transhumance corridors and water points that had been closed due to encroachment.

•

and identified and marked out about 1,000 km of transhumance Bahaïm covered around 215,000 km² for most of its life-cycle

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deepened), 120 wells (53 of them rehabilitated), 7 micro-dams, routes (on the sections at risk from encroachment). Almy

that the joint committee was finding it difficult to function due

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– almost the surface area of the United Kingdom or a little less than a third of France. If we look at all the water points installed by the Almy Bahaïm projects (287, including those that were

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

rehabilitated and deepened) in relation to the size of their

economic terms), and the water points might seem to be

intervention area, it amounts to about one installation every

“spread too thinly” given the scale of the projects, it has to be

750 km². This issue was raised in Abéché, where the three

said that they were strategically sited in consultation with

Almy Bahaïm projects were accused of being little more than

stakeholders, and have had more impact at both the local level

“a drop in the ocean”. While these figures certainly help us put

and over all the routes concerned than one would suppose

the question of impact into context (in both environmental and

from this abstract calculation.

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2.4. How best to support social dynamics?

The Consultant sought to investigate three issues in

(which was broadcast on television), and everyone who has

answering this question. Firstly, the extent to which the

read the studies… If these “beneficiaries” had to be counted,

approaches used by AFD’s pastoral water projects took

there would be tens or even hundreds of thousands of them,

account of the diversity of the actors involved and the

given the scale of the interventions.

dynamics of change in gender and generational relations.

The projects have been prudent and honest in not setting

Secondly, how they dealt with access to basic social services

quantitative objectives for their expected beneficiaries. The

(education, health) for mobile populations – an issue that

sociologists and pastoral experts who actively collaborated

sectoral approach pastoral water projects have sometimes been accused of failing to address. And thirdly, the increasing importance of new information and communication

in this approach know that counting “nomads” is a very tricky business. Although they are often lumped together as “Arabs”, these groups are in fact extremely diverse and

technologies (NICTs) such as mobile phones, the Internet and motorbikes, and their possible implications for pastoral support projects, given their widespread use among pastoralists.

complex (see Map 4 below showing the distribution of social groups in Kanem). In addition to this, the projects affected many other categories of actor apart from “herders”. The quality, scope and consistency of the sociological studies (in the very broad sense of the term) that have been

2.4.1. The difficulty of accounting for large numbers of very diverse actors

produced since Almy Bahaïm began in 1995 is to be commended, including the most recent study on Lake Fitri and its environs. They constitute an unprecedented body

The “beneficiaries” or stakeholders of the 11 projects

of knowledge on pastoral and rural societies in the three

funded by AFD over the last 20 years are extremely diverse

intervention areas, which cover almost half of Chad. It

and have been affected by activities at various levels. They

should be noted that the national and international

include mobile pastoralists and their families (water points,

researchers that worked on these projects have produced

mobility, way of life, production systems, revenues, security),

a set of detailed and sophisticated knowledge about the

sedentary agro-pastoralists and farmers (peaceful

societies with which they worked that represents an

management of facilities, some access to water points),

exceptionally valuable resource for all future pastoral

local customary institutions and local administrative

interventions – not just in Chad, but in the whole sub-region.

authorities (especially the joint committees and conflict

The projects’ success in reducing conflicts is in large part

prevention and management committees), livestock traders

due to the insights these researchers provided into their

and the private sector (businesses). On a broader level,

ethno-political roots in the history of Chad and across the

there are all the actors involved in capacity building – in the

whole Sahelian belt.

ministries (MHUR and MDPPA), civil society (especially the Platform), senior staff in projects supported by AFD, and other donors, researchers and teachers (LRVZ, universities, and so on). Outside Chad, at the international level, we have the community of experts and researchers involved in

website, the book and film “Au Coeur de la transhumance”

•

intervention areas include Introduction à l’histoire du Kanem – des origines à nos jours (Marty, 2003), which comes with studies such as the Etude agro-sociologique (Descotes,

well as the wider audience reached by the Platform’s

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and historical studies undertaken in the various project

a comprehensive bibliography and complements other

pastoral and rural development in sub-Saharan Africa, as

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The most notable examples of the numerous sociological

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2002) and the Etude sociogéographique (Donnat et al.,

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

Map 4: Geographical distribution of the major social groups in Kanem

Social groups

Arabes du Kanem, Arabes Fezzan Goranes du BET Goranes du Sultanat Goranes Kercheda Goranes Kreda Goranes Nord Kanem Kanembous Well managers

Arabes du Kanem Arabes Fezzanais Goranes du BET Goranes du Sultanat Goranes Kecherda Goranes Kreda Goranes Nord Kanem Kanembous Mixte

Source: ANTEA PHPK final summary report.

2001-2002). Almy Bahaïm features particularly prominently

ongoing processes of cohabitation and dialogue that persist

in L’Elevage transhumant au Tchad oriental (Barraud et al.,

to this day” (Marty et al., 2010: summary). This builds on

2001), and the projects in central Chad produced several

the work of Chapelle, Le Rouvreur and Tubiana, to cite just

series of studies and references (see Box 12 below) that

a few authors. Finally, Almy Al Afia used numerous

are brought together in the follow-up document. Most

documents (see below) as the basis for the major publication

recently (2012), the huge study on Lake Fitri and its

Au cœur de la transhumance (Marty et al., 2009). It is

surroundings commissioned by AFD dedicates a long

extremely rare for sectoral “pastoral water” projects to

chapter (50 pages) to social questions: “The analysis of

produce so much research and information about the

social parameters allows us to retrace the long history of Fitri and the traditional organisation of the Sultanate and

societies with which they work. The fact that they have done

relations between transhumant and sedentary actors, before

so is further illustration of the advantages of the systemic

showing the progressive deregulation of access to natural

approach, which were repeatedly affirmed during the course

resources, the rise in conflicts between different users, and

of this evaluation exercise.

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Box 12: Sociological documents that build on Almy Al Afia 1

The 2011 conference on pastoralism (and its proceedings), the creation of the Platform, high quality, national-level

SETTLEMENT HISTORY AND CURRENT POPULATION

thematic studies, and the transfer of full-time international technical assistance to a Chadian university testify to the

• List of tribes in the canton of Batha (PHPTC, 2006)

emergence of solid national expertise in pastoral matters.

• Traditional sedentary settlements in Fitri (Hagenbucher, 1968)

However, it is clear that the main beneficiaries of the

• Languages in the intervention area (Chapelle, 1986;

capacity building delivered by these projects were men, and

SIL, 2006)

among herders, predominantly mature or even elderly men.

• Between Ouaddaï and Baguirmi: The history of the

It is these actors – the tribal, canton and encampment

Guéra and Fitri (Carbou, 1912; Chapelle, 1986; Devallée,

chiefs, and members of the customary and administrative

1925; Doungouss, 1994; Fuchs, 1997; Hagenbucher,

authorities – who constitute the front line in social negotiation,

1968; Vandame, 1975)

hold the knowledge, and wield the power in socio-land

• History of settlement and religion in Guéra and Fitri

matters. While it was certainly appropriate and effective to

(Fuchs, 1997; Vincent; Vandame, 1975)

prioritise working with this category of actor, it is regrettable

• Traditional political organisation of the Bilala (Hagen-

that these interventions and the literature they have

bucher, 1968)

generated over the last 20 years are deafeningly silent about gender and generational issues. The only commendable exception in this respect is the magnificent publication and

Source: AAA2 hydrologic document, March 2013.

eponymous film Au cœur de la transhumance, which shows (by default) that youth and women are major actors. It should

The Consultant was struck by the scope of the national

be noted that all the current project staff are (and almost

capacity building delivered by the project teams in Chad,

always have been) male (national and expatriate staff alike).

and through certified training courses and participation in

Project staff have contributed widely to the works and

studies (which included students at regional universities like

studies, and have received solid training in return, but little

Abéché). Ministries such as MDPPA and other pastoral

specific attention seems to have been paid to groups such

water and support projects (PROHYPA, PAFIB) will greatly

as young herders, and even less to women.

benefit from the knowledge about pastoralism that has been

It is not a case of advocating a relentless focus on “gender”

developed through this support. The quality of the analysis

or “youth”, but of recognising that a new generation has

and level of commitment shown by participants at the three

come through in the last 20 years, and that little is known

scenario planning workshops was also striking, especially among herders, deconcentrated state services and committee members. This may not be captured by the counting systems and numerical indicators used to monitor

about how this generation differs from its predecessors, its visions for the future (within or outside pastoralism), aspirations for “modernity” (the big issue!) or its role in the

the projects, but it represents a very substantial achievement.

adoption and application of new technologies that have the

From 2009 onwards, the capacity building and institutional

need to promote the argument that women play a key role

support for the Ministry of Livestock (2009-2011) underlined

in livestock rearing and mobility: it is a fact. It is women who

the methodological shift in AFD’s approach, supplementing

bear the heavy burden of dismantling and re-erecting their

and complementing the use of pastoral water as an entry

homes every time they move, women who master the art of

point for efforts to secure pastoral mobility in the region.

loading the animals efficiently, and women who are

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capacity to revolutionise nomads’ daily lives. There is no

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

responsible for ensuring that young humans and livestock

devastating effects that the exodus of rural women had on

travel safely. And as men at the Mongo scenario planning

French farming several decades ago.

workshop pointed out, it is they who run the risk of giving

Without fundamentally challenging the methodological

birth on camels because the group cannot stop moving

approach that pastoral experts have developed in diverse

without endangering everyone. The strain of living under

projects, it has to be said that it needs to adapt to a more

such harsh and iniquitous conditions could eventually deter

detailed scale of analysis, shifting from an “intercommunity”

them from continuing to lead mobile lives, and thus threaten

level with its own dynamics to that of the family unit, which

the whole pastoral system. It is worth remembering the Box 13: Au cœur de la transhumance

“Since their arrival in Chad in 1995, the pastoral water programmes have constantly striven to find out more about the actors concerned, the circuits used, the distances covered (often several hundreds of kilometres), results achieved and difficulties encountered, using multiple interviews and visual observations to do so…” In order to obtain a fairly general overview of the routes used during the annual cycles, they had to use meso- and macro-geographic scales capable of covering trans-regional movements. The micro-level, observable at the level of an encampment through prolonged observation, was still missing. This could only be studied through total immersion in the transhumant herders’ environment, which was exactly what this study attempted to do for the very first time … It was decided to start by following an encampment from the end of the rainy season in the north to the start of their cold season stay in the south. The encampment that the project identified for the study, that of Khalil Hamid, was mainly composed of camel herding families from the Arab canton of Salamat Siféra… Two students (one Chadian and one expatriate) were chosen on the basis of their disciplines (geography and sociology), knowledge of the country (and Arabic language), and above all their motivation. The study began at the end of August 2006 and ended eight months later.”

Source : Marty et al., 2009 : Introduction.

has other dynamics – including gender and generation. Au

from their counterparts in 1993, as they live in a country

coeur de la transhumance opened the way for this, but

whose population has doubled, which is starting to generate

nothing seems to be have done to follow it up.

oil revenues and which aspires to modernity. The challenge for new generations will be knowing how to reconcile their

Some of the people we spoke to said that AFD’s approach

realities and legitimate hopes for change, and to build

would have favoured large-scale livestock owners over small

modernity and mobility.

producers. Although we have no means of verifying this, we do not believe that this was the case – but it is worth mentioning

Given that Chad has one of the highest demographic

because it highlights the need to monitor the beneficiaries of

growth rates in the world, it would also have been interesting

these interventions in more detail (disaggregated by gender,

to consider the links between urban and rural communities.

generation, wealth, pastoral production system), and for a

The population looks set to double over the next 20 years,

qualitative study to supplement previous studies on pastoral

and it is unlikely that all young pastoralists will be willing or

societies. The men and women of today are bound to differ

able to stay in rural areas. The dynamics between “bushmen”

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and city dwellers are changing as new information and

had multiple components and followed a procedure similar

communication technologies (NICTs) narrow the gap

to the integrated rural development projects that were in

between them, enabling people running businesses in the

vogue in the 1980s, did not influence the new approaches

city to facilitate mutually beneficial exchanges with relatives

to support for social dynamics, and for various reasons did

in rural areas. The economic analysis of the evaluation

not have the same continuity as AFD’s other pastoral water

undertaken in 2004 concluded that “the best option for

projects. The key question is whether they take account of

Chad’s nomadic pastoralists is to keep going for the next

nomadic herders’ new demands for access to health and

two or three decades”. The lack of studies and data that can

education services that are compatible with their mobile

be used to evaluate the impacts of AFD’s pastoral water

lifestyles. This demand was clearly articulated at the three

projects on social capital and professional structures for

scenario planning workshops, even though Abéché was the

various categories of actor were noted back in 2004,

only scenario planning workshop to retain social services

demonstrating the need for future action-research in this

as the second priority theme for change in the scenario

field.

planning exercises. While greater priority was ultimately given to water and mobility – confirming the relevance of “pastoral water as an entry point” – this does open up an important field for future consideration.

2.4.2. Pastoral water, education and health

AFD’s past and present (AAA2) projects have not

Previous evaluations have noted the lack of inter-sectorality in the approaches adopted by AFD’s pastoral water projects (with the exception of PHPK Kanem). In its crosscutting

intervened directly in education and health in nomadic settings. The teams have developed skills and excellence in pastoralism in order to respond to fixed priority objectives,

analysis, CIRAD (2010) states that the projects were “clearly technically and financially effective and efficient, but lacked an inter-sectoral approach” and consequently failed to

but do not have the same levels of competence in education or health, and it was only later that specialists/experts were commissioned to conduct studies in these fields (see studies

address certain social components that are important for

undertaken in the context of institutional support to the

the stability of pastoral systems. According to CIRAD, “this

Ministry of Livestock and the Platform). While this was a

leads to an overly technical and ‘water-based’ output that

wise decision given the dangers of “tinkering” in areas that

does not allow the projects to deal with more social concerns

one is not qualified to work in, things could and should

(human development) […] The PHPK project was the only

change for the new generation of projects.

one that initially offered a broader range of activities covering most herders’ needs (animal health and nutrition, food

Health issues arise at two levels: the quality of the water

security for families, training, maintaining water points).

that is made available, and demand for access to health

Even though pastoral water works constitute social hubs,

services, especially for reproductive health. Much more

none of the projects dealt with questions relating to human

thought and action-research should be devoted to designing

health, education, economic activities or even human

accessible health services for mobile populations (which do

drinking water supplies. These are all strategic issues in

not involve sedentarisation).

these contexts, which one would have expected the projects

Water quality at pastoral water points is a more direct

to have specifically addressed.”

concern for pastoral water projects. Previous evaluations

We believe that the key question is not inter-sectorality.

have questioned the differences in the quality of water for

To the best of our knowledge, the PHP Kanem project, which

livestock and for humans. CIRAD emphasised the fact that

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Almy Bahaïm 2 took no account of the health risks posed

would have been interesting to work with women and youth

by ponds: “While the works have made it easier to meet the

on the question of conflicts. One woman at the Yao scenario

animals’ need to drink (the newly available water reduces

planning workshop noted that women sometimes play a very

the time spent watering livestock and extends their grazing

negative role in conflicts, but they are rarely (as in

time), there is a problem with the way that human needs

Mangalmé), if ever, involved in conflict prevention and

have been addressed.” There is no denying that work needs

management bodies. Despite our requests and the efforts

to be done on the quality of water for human consumption,

of our support teams, no women attended the strategy

but we should also remember that the main priority for

planning workshop in Abéché, one went to the workshop in

transhumant herders is still being able to access enough

Yao, and five to the one in Mongo. Women’s and mixed

water on extremely long stretches of routes where people

herder organisations are gradually starting to make their

(and animals) may die of dehydration if there are no water

voices heard, but they have little space to do so on the

points. Ponds generate more health problems (dysentery,

Platform, and more needs to be done to open up this area

digestive haemorrhages) than traditional wells, which are

for the future. This is an opportunity for AFD to synergise

hardly models of water hygiene themselves.

the excellent studies it has funded (on demography, education and so on) with health practices in future projects

But we need to be careful here, and remember that strict

in both rural areas and N’Djamena.

application of WHO standards for drinking water (such as zero faecal coliforms) would result in the closure of all village and pastoral wells. While it is important to endeavour to

2.4.3. NICTs: The key to modernity and mobility

improve water quality and ultimately aim to provide potable water, this will not solve every problem. Upstream, there is

The approaches adopted by these projects seem to take

the familiar issue of hygiene in the water chain: drawing,

little account of major changes, either the anticipated

transporting and storing water in clean conditions, which is

galloping demographic growth in Chad, or the less expected

usually “women’s work”. Future projects need to take

but equally spectacular changes in information and

account of the fact that herders receive little health support

communication (NICTs, mobile phones, the Internet, social

– not only in their work with women, but also with young

networks) and transport (motorbikes, including the so-called

men, those responsible for managing the forks and pulleys

“clandestine taxis” mentioned by women (yes!) at the Mongo

on wells, and children. When the women who participated

scenario planning workshop). Yet NICTs are changing the

in the Mongo scenario planning workshop were asked about

given order of things before our very eyes, especially in

their needs during an interview, they listed clean water and

gender and generational relations. They will also have a

contraception. If pastoral societies are to be able to move

huge effect on education and health in mobile settings, and

forward as a whole, it is not a “gender kit” that is needed,

on economic exchanges (with phones used as “mobile

but female insights into these issues. Given the danger that

wallets”, according to the current slogan for money

the strain of living under such harsh conditions could

transfers).

ultimately lead women to push for sedentarisation if it is the only way they can access services, the answer is surely to

These technologies are too recent to have been taken into

see how the services can go to them.

account by the interventions featured in this evaluation, but they are crucial nonetheless – for example for the political

We believe that it is better not to deal with gender issues

mobilisation of pastoralists (see interview with CASSET).

at all than to do so badly. In addition to addressing the urgent

They also have huge potential for innovative approaches to

need for water and secure mobility for all pastoralists, it

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improving access to basic health and education services in

between herders and between herders and farmers in areas

mobile settings (Chadian telephone networks regularly

at risk from overgrazing.” (Comments by J. Laurent, April

broadcast health messages). The fact that mobile phones

2013). It will also affect the prestige value of herds, and help

can now be used to transfer money (Tigo) represents an

address the lack of knowledge about the economic value

economic and financial revolution for pastoralists and

of pastoralism, which is discussed in the next chapter.

livestock dealers, and changes the way that pastoralists can

NICTs can also come into play at other levels, providing

save money: “If the savings function is transferred from the

economic information on market movements, the weather

herd to the telephone this will have consequences in terms of rationalising herd sizes, which will impact on relations

and security. The speed with which phones have been

Box 14: Herders in northern Kenya use Google Earth

Boran herders in northern Kenya use Google Earth to map the pastoral resources they rely on for their production strategies – dry and rainy season grazing areas, reserve areas in times of drought, livestock itineraries and salt cures. These maps are made with the aid of local government planning staff and used to put in place local agreements based on customary rules, to protect and manage pastoral resources, and to plan investments in public goods likely to support pastoral societies and economies. Google Earth provides a highly interactive and spatially precise tool that allows pastoral communities to articulate their detailed knowledge of their environment. This can then be processed quickly and cheaply through a medium that is easily accessible to technical government staff – “bridging” the gap between customary and formal knowledge and thus facilitating dialogue, understanding and joint planning to support pastoralism.

For more information see: http://www.iied.org/community-maps-reveal-rich-resources-land-policymakers-think-empty

adopted in mobile pastoral areas is astonishing (as we saw

Thinking about modernity and mobility, one cannot help

in the scenario planning workshops, which were punctuated

being struck by the contrast between the very high value

by various ringtones). The mobile phone is changing social

placed on mobility in communication and at work (phones,

relations, access to information, and relations between men

computers, professional flexibility, travel and movement,

and women in Chad, Niger and everywhere else in the

clandestine taxis, ATVs, etc.), and its almost systematic

sub-region. The smart phone no longer belongs to another

devaluation where pastoralism is concerned. The

world, and will soon be mastered by the young.

possibilities offered by modernity and mobility could be a

Applications like Google Earth can be used in training exercises to raise awareness about decentralisation and

hygienic process.

These technologies did not exist 20 years ago, but are now part of herders’ daily lives and could be a lever for future projects.

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small pumps that can be transported on camels’ backs and used to make drawing water from wells an easier and more

territorial development issues (as in Kenya, for example).

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2.5. The total economic value of pastoral livestock rearing

A growing number of international studies on livestock rearing

Box 15: The economic value of pastoral production

systems in arid and semi-arid zones of West and East Africa show a positive correlation between livestock mobility and

NIGER: The livestock sector is the second largest source

productivity, and demonstrate the importance of pastoral

of export revenues after uranium (Republic of Niger, 2011),

production systems for their respective national economies.

with pastoral/agro-pastoral systems estimated to represent

Much of this knowledge has been incorporated into the

over 80% of production (Rass, 2006). Transhumant herds

literature generated by the projects covered by this evaluation

score 25 per cent higher than those for sedentary livestock

– for example, the study on taxation undertaken in the context

for all parameters of productivity (Colin de Verdière, 1995).

of research for the Platform. This study is a valuable contribution

CHAD: With nearly 80% of the national herd estimated

to national and international efforts to fill the gaps in knowledge

as belonging to pastoral systems, livestock contributed over

about the economic value of pastoral systems.47.

18 per cent of national GDP, 53 per cent of GDP from the primary sector and 30 per cent of official exports in 2004, with a value of FCFA 134.7 billion – although only 35 per cent of exported livestock were declared (Saleh, 2011).

2.5.1. What is the total economic value of pastoralism and why do we need to know it?

SUDAN: The livestock rearing sector generated USD 3.7 billion in 2009, with most livestock believed to come from

The fundamental reframing, during the 1990s, of the approach

pastoral/agropastoral systems (Behnke and Osman, 2011).

used to study pastoral systems, and its subsequent redefinition

ETHIOPIA: It is estimated that 80 per cent of exports come

of the theoretical categories and methodological tools used to

from pastoral systems. Working camels provide transport

analyse them, also raised questions about the way that the

services worth USD 46 million per annum. The collective

economic value of pastoral production systems was assessed

insurance value of pastoral herds is estimated at USD

compared with other food production systems. The wave of

340 million, and the return on investment at 25 per cent

specialist research that followed this path shows that we know

to 30 per cent per annum (Behnke and Metaferia, 2011;

much less about pastoral systems than we thought we did a

Behnke, 2010).

few years ago.

KENYA: About 70 per cent of the national herd live on arid and semi-arid lands. Its estimated value stands at USD

This lack of knowledge is particularly serious when it comes

800 million, with an annual return of about USD 70 million

to the economic contribution made by pastoral systems, which

(Republic of Kenya, 2012; Davies, 2007). Over 80 per

is largely ignored by standard analytical tools and economic

cent of the beef consumed in Kenya is produced in

appraisal mechanisms. These tools and mechanisms are

pastoral systems (Behnke and Muthami, 2011).

designed to be receptive to market-based values (which are

UGANDA: The per-hectare return on land in pastoral

often hidden in aggregated data where pastoral production is

systems is estimated to be 6.8 times higher than that of

concerned), but are insensitive to a whole series of values

ranching systems in the south-west of the county (Ocaido

expected to be important within pastoral systems. These

et al., 2009).

include the use of livestock products as a means of subsistence

Source: Authors.

There are very few studies on taxation and pastoral production.

A similar study is being undertaken in Sudan in the context of a programme of collaboration between IIED and Tufts University.

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(animals born in the pastoral system have already provided

countries: namely, a lack of disaggregated data on pastoral

years of economic services by the time they are taken to

production, and data on livestock numbers extrapolated from

market) and the scale of the informal market, and indirect

a herd census conducted several decades ago (in 1976, in

values such as environmental services or contributions to other

Chad’s case). The literature produced in the context of AFD

aspects of the economy – starting with agriculture and including

interventions could go some way towards resolving this lack

meaningful employment outside primary livestock production

of knowledge, thanks to the much-used estimate of the

(Krätli et al., 2013b). Official figures are often based on flawed

proportion of the national herd raised in pastoral systems

methodologies, hiding more than they reveal, and most aspects

calculated by Barraud et al. (2001); a detailed discussion of

of the economic contribution made by pastoralism are left

the contribution that pastoralism makes to the Chadian

outside the general political equation because they are not

economy, in Bonnet et al. (2004); papers on the economy

captured by national statistics or official surveys. Research on

and pastoralism presented at the seminar of 2005 and

the “total economic value” (TEV) of pastoralism undertaken

conference of 2011;

since the mid-2000s has tried to highlight these values, and

Guibert et al. (2009); the recent study on the economy and

in doing so avoid the danger of leaving it out of policy

taxation of pastoralism produced as part of the studies for

formulation: “There are clearly hidden values to pastoralism

the Platform, which also includes important information on

that may not be noticed as they go, but will be missed when

the marketing of livestock products (Mian and Aubague,

they are gone. It is prudent to make the public and the

2010).

48

appropriate government ministries aware of these values whilst they still exist” (Davies 2007: 22).

49

an analysis of livestock marketing in

In this type of approach, the costs of failing strategic mobility have been measured for camel herds stopped by

Some of these values have already started to emerge from the

the River Batha at the start of their northern migration (see

mass of research documents, which suggest that the real economic

section 2.3.8). Herds that are obliged to spend the rainy

contribution made by pastoralism could be much greater than was

season south of the Batha are only half as productive as

previously thought (IIED and SOS Sahel, 2010).

those that manage to cross it and reach the northern pastures. This affects around 100,000 head of livestock every year, and hundreds of cattle and small ruminants die trying to swim across the river (Aubague et al., 2011).

2.5.2. Has AFD influenced our understanding of the total economic value of pastoralism in Chad?

We found that senior MDPPA staff in all the areas we visited are well aware of the crucial economic importance of mobility

Information on the economic value of pastoral systems in

in pastoral systems. General comments by MDPPA

Chad suffers from similar structural problems as that of other

technicians, project staff, and producers and livestock dealers in eastern and central Chad and Kanem confirm that

Current work on the total economic value of pastoralism began with a number of studies by IIED and the IUCN World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralism (WISP) (http://data.iucn.org/wisp/wisp-publications.html; also http://www.iucn. org/fr/wisp/), which includes a flagship document by IIED proposing the TEV framework as a strategic means of moving forward (Hesse and MacGregor, 2006). More recently, the IGAD livestock policy initiative produced five studies under the stewardship of R. Behnke. These look at the contribution that livestock rearing makes to economies in IGAD member countries, and contain important information and methodological reflection that is equally relevant for pastoral systems. For a recent overview, see Krätli, 2013.

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slowing the pace of transhumance (thanks to the installations) has a positive impact on production: the animals can gain weight while they are on the move. The comment “Hats off to Almy Al Afia!” made during the scenario planning workshop in Mongo acknowledges AFD’s contribution in this respect, but we can only observe its effects at the local level, because

The national seminar on the issues and challenges for pastoral development in Chad, held in N’Djamena, 28 June – 1 July 2005, and the national conference on the direction of the sectoral policy for pastoralism in Chad, held in N’Djamena, 1-3 March 2011.

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We were also told that transhumance has a stimulating effect

women, based on drying and selling beef. In order to maximise

on local economies along livestock corridors. Everywhere we

the returns from this activity, every year the project waits for

went, the arrival of transhumant herders corresponded with a

the transhumants to buy its meat.

significant fall in the price of livestock on local markets. This biennial fluctuation in prices provides opportunities for local

Conversely, not being able to profit from the passage of

meat sellers, gives people who cannot afford to eat meat for

transhumant herders has direct negative impacts on the local

the rest of the year a chance to vary their diets, and facilitates

economy. The progressive distancing of transhumant herders

a series of related activities. For example, the PADL-GRN

from the town of Abéché, due to the obstruction of nearby

project in Mongo runs an income-generating programme for

mourhâls and resting areas, has led to a permanent increase in meat and milk prices on the local market (milk rising to FCFA 2,000 per litre). The women who participated in the scenario

Box 16: The economic value of pastoralism in Chad

planning workshop in Mongo told us that poor mobility and lack of water on the mourhâls reduce the quantity and quality of available milk, which is no longer fatty enough to make

“All the macro-economic parameters of livestock rearing

butter. In Abéché, we were told that a camel reared by transhu-

(number of herders and livestock, production and added

mant herders could sell for FCFA 600,000 to FCFA 700,000,

value, exports, price) are only estimated within ranges

while one reared in a sedentary system would only fetch FCFA

of 1 to 1.5 or even 1 to 2. The zootechnical parameters

300,000 to FCFA 350,000. There was a similar price differen-

of the herds [and] micro-economy of herders’ families

tial with cattle.

(income from different sources, types of expenditure, livestock-rearing strategies) are all very approximate,

The farmers that we met at the scenario planning workshops

and average figures do not differentiate between different

in Mongo and Yao-Fitri told us that although nearly all farmers

livestock rearing practices” (Bonnet et al., 2004:10).

in their area raise livestock, agricultural production is dependent on the manure from transhumant herds. They emphasised that

Analysis of the official statistics indicates that “in theory,

farmers do not own and could never keep enough livestock to

the resources generated by the livestock rearing chain

manure their fields properly (due to lack of space and grazing

in 2003 were equivalent to oil revenues of FCFA 349.1

in the area), and even with existing livestock, those who have

billion [...] put on the international market by the oil

a significant number of animals rely on transhumant herders

consortium, and over three times that of the cotton

to take them north during the rainy season.

sector” (Danna, 2005: 105).

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2.6. Influence on national and regional policies

AFD programmes have not really had any influence on

technical assistance. Officials in this ministry seemed

local policies in Chad. The Ministry of Water is responsible

particularly aware of pastoral issues and more receptive to

for managing these programmes, and is represented in the

them than their counterparts in Niger and Burkina Faso.

field by its deconcentrated services – in this case the regional delegations created by Decree N° 833/PR/PM/ME 2011. The Ministry of Pastoral Development and Animal Production (MDPPA) also has regional delegations. It is worth noting that including a budget line to support the two

2.6.2. Restructuring and better adapting the ministry to pastoral concerns

ministries’ deconcentrated services could have alleviated

The ministry was not only renamed, but also radically

this limitation in the AFD approach, especially in terms of

restructured, with specific functions that reflect a real desire

securing investments and sustaining actions after the

to address pastoral concerns. This can be seen in the

projects ended. In the event, each ministry is responsible

creation of a General Directorate for Pastoral Development

for fulfilling its regulatory prerogatives on the ground: MHRU

and Animal Production, a technical structure within the

for implementing and monitoring water works, and MDPPA

ministry that is responsible for coordinating, running,

for selecting sites and managing facilities. At the national

designing and monitoring the ministry’s policy on pastoral

level, the projects generated results and had a direct and

development and animal production.

indirect influence on policies by providing close ongoing The main influence of AFD’s support can be seen in the

technical support for the Ministry of Livestock. This section

creation within this general directorate of a department

will concentrate on the national level.

responsible for securing pastoral systems. It oversees the implementation of initiatives to secure pastoral mobility, which are clearly laid out in the national livestock 2.6.1. Changing the name of the ministry

development programme (PNDE) for 2010-2017. In other

Changing the name of the Ministry of Livestock to the Ministry of Pastoral Development and Animal Production (MDPPA) represented a political advance and marked a positive shift in the perception of pastoral issues among senior staff within the ministry. This was particularly noteworthy because the Ministry of Livestock has always

words, this is the “technical arm” responsible for thinking about the coherence and pertinence of the ministry’s policy for securing pastoral mobility. In addition to this notable step forward, a department has also been created to train herders and organise professionals in the livestock sector.

2.6.3. Policy choices that reflect pastoral issues

had an interest in animal health issues. The pastoral water projects helped establish institutions that are sensitive to

The National Livestock Development Strategy provides

pastoral issues (such as the Direction de l’Education

the frame of reference for policy orientations in the livestock

Nomade – the Centre for Nomadic Education), contributed

sector, through the PNDE validated by the Ministry of

to the emergence of a core group of officials who have

Livestock in 2008. The influence of AFD projects can be

received training on pastoralism, and provided close

seen in the fact that implementation of this plan has evolved

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

to take account of a specific element to secure pastoral

assistance to the Ministry of Livestock, which helped dispel

mobility, in accordance with the ministry’s new structure.

unfavourable stereotypes and prejudices against

This development can partly be ascribed to the interventions

pastoralism. Participants also adopted a road map and an

by AFD’s pastoral water projects, and especially its technical

action plan that helped them define future strategic

assistance to this ministry.

directions.

Influence of AFD projects on the regulatory framework

Putting in place a Platform for actors: During the extended

for water resources

conclusion of the national conference on pastoralism, a committee was established to follow up the conference

The Water Code is the only law that regulates water,

recommendations (CCSRCNP). This committee has now

although not all of its enforcement orders have been

become a platform for exchange and meetings, bringing

promulgated. The 2003-2020 Master Plan for Water and

together technical directorates for rural development from

Sanitation (SDEA), which was adopted in 2002, defines the

different ministries, technical and financial partners (AFD,

water policy and medium- and long-term actions in this

EU, FAO, Swiss Cooperation, UNDP, etc.) and

domain. It is also used as a framework document to guide

representatives of herder organisations and socio-

the design of ongoing and planned assistance and

professional associations. The Platform can be credited with

international public aid programmes.

the following results, achieved with support from AFD:

The SDEA consists of a main document and six thematic

• Creating the Directorate for Nomadic Education (Direction

dossiers (one for each sub-sector, including pastoral water).

de l’Education Nomade);

The influence of AFD projects can be seen in the way that this thematic document was formulated, describing the

• Questioning the government about the worrying lack of

characteristics of pastoral systems, listing pastoral

education for children in pastoral areas;

infrastructure and identifying the types of conflict encountered.

• Undertaking three thematic studies relating to pastoralism

This thematic dossier also highlights the need for actions to

(conflicts, education in pastoral areas and taxation).

improve knowledge about mobility in relation to herd size and pasture carrying capacity before commencing major

Members of the Platform that we spoke to say that it is

works to construct pastoral water points. It estimates that a

now recognised as a legitimate interlocutor in Chad’s

total of about FCFA 32 billion will be needed for the period

institutional and organisational landscape, although few of

2011 to 2020, or FCFA 3.2 billion per year.

its recommendations have been implemented, especially those of a political nature. This can be explained by the fact that its main mission is closely linked with following up and implementing the recommendations of the conference. As

2.6.4. Influence of instruments (studies, conferences)

a result, it has tended to focus on the technical work of

Conference on the future direction of Chad’s sectoral

generating knowledge (studies on conflicts, tax) and quality

pastoral policy, held in N’Djamena in March 2011: This was

outputs to feed reflection and discussion, but has not helped

a pivotal and extremely successful event in terms of the

facilitate the emergence and development of pastoral

diversity and quality of the presentations and the level of

organisations or promote their leaders’ proposals. It needs

representation by participants. AFD presented papers on a

to become more visible and affirm its status as the

series of studies undertaken as part of its technical

mouthpiece for actors and state institutions on matters

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Box 17: Support for mobile pastoral citizenship

The label “pastoralist” includes groups of producers and specific cultural communities, and encompasses diverse realities.

These groups have amassed a substantial body of knowledge about pastoral resources, herd management and social organisation within and between communities. Some have also acquired huge social capital by developing alliances and solidarity during pastoral crises or livestock-related conflicts.

Many livestock support projects have tended to regard “pastoralists” as the standard-bearers for a community or a link in the production system, and had little regard for the social dimensions of pastoralism. This ignores their status as citizens of a geographical space where they have right rights and responsibilities, whether they occupy it on a temporary or permanent basis.

Although all citizens are supposed to be treated equally, the reality is that farmers occupy a position in the national political arena that gives them access to decision-making and control over issues related to natural resource management.

Pastoralism is tolerated but given little recognition, and because of the lack of sustainable instruments to ensure that the rules established through community consensus are enforced, social agreements are challenged. Their particular value system exposes pastoralists to increasingly intense and frequent physical or moral violence, despite the rule of law.

There is an urgent need to develop an approach that combines a vision of peaceful cohabitation based on complementary production systems with recognition of mobile herders as full citizens with rights and responsibilities identified within the concept of “mobile citizenship”.

The entry point could be to develop instruments to aid policy decision-making that automatically incorporate mobility and issues like home territory/mobile habitat, foster a shared perception of transhumant livestock rearing as a common heritage, and promote social services that are adapted to pastoral mobility – all of which will require a strong pastoral civil society.

Source: B. Jallo,Billital Maroobe Network.

pertaining to pastoralism. This issue is discussed in the

effective, but as Almy Bahaïm 1 got under way (see section

recommendations presented in section 3 of this report.

2.4), the focus shifted to improving the understanding and characterisation of pastoral systems, and defining and calibrating the scope of mobility so that an effective water network that reflected pastoral realities could be put in

2.6.5. Influence of the outputs and studies produced with AFD support

place. Anthropological and social research revealed more about current customary practices and local structures and how they function, environmental studies helped better

AFD has produced an enormous amount of information on

identify the types of work needed to protect the environment,

pastoral issues in Chad over the past 20 years. The first generation of projects (such as BET) were mainly concerned with ensuring that pastoral water interventions were

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and exploratory wells were used for a detailed evaluation of the number of livestock that can use an area at given

Pastoral Water Development in Chad

times. These studies also had unexpected effects, as they

network put in place by the pastoral systems support project

fed into discussions and policy consultations, especially the

(PSSP), which served as a framework for exchange and

Master Plan for Water and Sanitation (SDEA) and the draft

has helped define the different principles of the current draft

Pastoral Code.

Pastoral Code.

A second generation of studies was undertaken within the

The current process of drafting the Pastoral Code is led

framework of policy dialogue and debate. These were driven

by the main donor, FAO – which brings us to the issue of

by the need to feed reflection on forums and consultative

broader and more systematic collaboration between partners

frameworks where decision-makers are involved in debates

(and the length of time it is taking to get off the ground).

and discussions, and intended to help dispel prejudices and

Learning from experiences in Niger and Mali, this process

answer certain questions, especially about the relationship

aims to find a strategy for codifying herders’ rights to access

between pastoralism and the economy, pastoralism and

and use natural resources. It has helped identify and explore

access to basic services, and pastoralism and peace.

alternative ways of securing pastoral areas developed by AFD projects (common good approach) in order to protect

The political actors and development practitioners we

them from future privatisation and usurpation by mining and

spoke to were very positive about the quality of the outputs

oil companies and major development projects.

intended to aid decision-making. For example, participants at the conference were individually and collectively struck

The database and knowledge generated by AFD and other

by the economic study showing the extent to which livestock

partners played an invaluable role in this process, which

rearing contributes to GDP and the amount the state loses

had to be completed within a very short timeframe (it was

due to the illegal treatment of herders. However, much more

supposed to take two years, but some of the work had to

still needs to be done to make help for decision-making

be done without the international expert). The work on

more effective and visible, and ensure that it is appropriated

pastoral dynamics done by AFD projects fed into thinking

and politically backed by Chadian civil society.

on: i) securing pastoral mobility by recognising and safeguarding the movement of herds across large areas; ii) identifying ways of resolving conflicts over the use of pastoral resources, and promoting the use of local bodies

2.6.6. Influences on the formulation and content of the draft Pastoral Code

whose intervention helps restore peaceful relations between different parties to the conflict; iii) outlining the rather timid recognition of pastoralism as a productive land use.

Although the projects had little direct involvement in the process of formulating the Pastoral Code through the technical assistance to the Ministry of Livestock, their work promoting consultative frameworks on pastoralism has

2.6.7. Continuity and the learning approach in AFD experiences and interventions

better enabled stakeholders to influence this process.

Participants at the national seminar on the issues and challenges of pastoral development in Chad (11-14 October

Although various institutional and procedural problems still

2005) rejected the draft law of 2002 regulating nomadic

make it difficult to put the principle of joint initiatives into

practices, transhumance and livestock keeping in Chad.

practice, the field mission did find forms of implicit

The national workshop to amend and validate this draft law

collaboration between partners that reflect the innovative

also criticised its proposed content, and it was ultimately

aspects of AFD’s approach, procedure and instruments.

rejected by civil society groups. This was thanks to the

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The PROHYPA pastoral water project is the best example

associations, which reflect the philosophy behind broader

of the continuity and development of the AFD approach,

efforts by AFD projects to secure mobility. This overall

especially in exploring and adapting new forms of local

dynamic, and PAFIB’s specific focus on the pyramidal

governance in order to manage and maintain water works.

structuring of actors in the sector (herders, livestock dealers

PROHYPA looked at the lessons learned from PHPK, and

and other players), is an appropriate response to a problem

focused on two key issues: whether to allow motorised

that AFD projects could have done more to address.

access to water resources, and the sustainability and financial autonomy of local management structures and mechanisms. It is now piloting new forms of management

Other partners are trying to combine humanitarian aspects of their work with AFD initiatives. In the Mongo area, Oxfam gives members of the Mangalmé committee cash for work

and access to water resources, which will be discussed with

to deepen ponds created by Almy Bahaïm 1. This is a real

partners at workshops. This initiative underlines the need

example of the possibilities for synergy between different

for broad stakeholder consultation on the sustainability of

actors working in the same area. The challenge will be

local management structures, the long-term future of water

devising a permanent strategy of simultaneous support that

works, and the thorny issue of paying to use pastoral water

meets the needs of local communities, rather than one-off

points.

initiatives. Greater consultation and collaboration between

The legacy of AFD’s learning approach can be seen in the

technical and financial partners and actors is needed, and

model used by the PAFIB cattle sector support programme,

it is to be hoped that Swiss Cooperation’s request for IRAM

especially its work installing water points along trade routes

to think about the next generation of projects to be

to enable transhumant herders to walk to different markets,

implemented over the coming decade bodes well in this

and in moves to organise actors through interprofessional

respect.

2.7 Conclusions on the characteristics and limitations of the AFD approach

AFD started implementing its pioneering approach in 1994.

Its objective was to combine the installation of sorely-needed pastoral water structures with efforts to secure the strategies for mobility developed by different categories of pastoralist, and to link water works with initiatives to secure transhumance routes (demarcating mourhâls and transhumance routes).

Francophone areas at the time).

In concluding the retrospective analysis of 20 years of intervention, this section will consider the following key issues with regard to AFD’s work: i) the nature of the approach used by AFD: sectoral or systemic?; ii) reconciling technical and social imperatives and contribution to peace

This positive recognition of mobile pastoralism as a relevant

and security; iii) institutional setup; iv) knowledge generation

and effective mode of production, way of life, and form of

and capacity building; v) innovation, added value and

land occupancy was entirely innovative (especially in

relevance for the future.

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The BET project is a case in point. Its objective “to help

2.7.1. Sectoral or systemic approach?

meet rural populations’ water needs” (Felix, 1993b: 1) was

AFD pastoral support projects in Chad have been described

a direct expression of the government’s water policy. The

as “sectoral”. In such analysis, a “sectoral approach” is

project sought to achieve this in accordance with the national

understood as one that does not cover the whole range of

policy on rural water, which “determines the priorities

needs: “A broader view of the development of these

according to the population and existing facilities, based on

livestock-rearing systems and the social groups associated

the equivalent of one water point for every 500 inhabitants”

with them shows that the sectoral approach taken by these

(Felix, 1993b: 2). This sectoral slant is evident in the first

projects was too limited […] Only the PHPK project offered

evaluation of BET, where

a broader range of initial activities that took account of most

setting” and “other elements of the regional context” are

herders’ needs (animal health and nutrition, household food

allocated only three out of 51 pages (Felix, 1993a).

questions about the “human

security, training, maintaining water points).” (Ickowicz et The feasibility study for Almy Bahaïm conducted in 1993

al., 2010c: 9).

describes it as a “pastoral water project” like BET. However, A sectoral approach follows a reductive logic, and its main

there was a subtle but profound difference between the two

operational motive is simplification. Development deals with

projects. The ex ante evaluation of Almy Bahaïm by Jean

complex systems where all the components are linked by

Marc Bellot (who also designed the project) based the

interdependent relationships that are neither linear nor

programme logic on protecting herders’ mobility. Rather than

predictable, and which are also influenced by factors outside

being an end in itself (as in the “water sector” approach),

the system. The choice of a sectoral approach often follows

the provision of water became a means to an end: “The

from an awareness of this paralysing complexity rather than

project intends […] to help promote efforts to secure the

a failure to take it into account. On the other hand, while

dynamics of mobility among transhumant herders in the

simplification can facilitate action, excessive simplification

regions of eastern Chad […] with the construction of wells,

leads to actions that have little to do with reality and, insofar

ponds and surface water points and accompany support for

as they are blind to it, can be useless and even damaging.

local livestock rearing” (Bellot, 1994: 5).

There are no rules for determining the extent to which Working simultaneously on several sectors (such as water,

complexity can be externalised without running the risk of

health and education) is no guarantee against falling into

losing touch with reality – it all depends on the context.

the sectoral trap. Public administrations have shown that The danger of sectoral approaches is not so much in being

even the broadest multi-sectoral approaches are not immune

based on simplification, but in forgetting that this is the case.

to this danger, which is easily replicated in each of the

This is easily done, especially when sectoral simplification

sectors concerned.

(water, health, environment, education) is masked by operational mechanisms and enshrined in the institutional

It is important to recognise that the approach that AFD

framework of central administrations or international

adopted in the projects covered by this evaluation

development actors. The danger then is that the concerns

(essentially post-BET) differed from previous approaches.

associated with a specific category of needs (the “sector”)

It may be that it was not fully translated into practice (we

become an end in themselves. In the interests of brevity,

have seen that it was not entirely reflected in the institutional

we will call this “the sectoral trap”.

setup), and that the details of its design were perhaps not always correct (there was room for improvement in

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understanding of the links between different elements of the

can itself be seen as a major achievement, and one that

systems, capacity to grasp the processes of change, and

must be safeguarded as long as this trap remains in

recognition of the ways that pastoral systems interact with

place, no matter what direction AFD interventions in

the whole of society and are influenced by national and

Chad take over the next decade. Whatever its limitations,

global processes). Nevertheless, the decision to treat

it would be a shame to abandon the current systemic entry

pastoral production as a system and avoid the sectoral trap

point offered by pastoral water in the name of integration,

Box 18: Ponds: The idea of temporary water resources

The Almy Bahaïm project diverges most clearly from a “water sector approach” in its introduction of “ponds” along transhumance routes. Unlike wells, ponds are temporary water resources where the presence of water does not really depend on the season and is only partly linked to how they are used. Ponds fill up at the beginning of the rainy season and dry out when or even before it ends, depending on their capacity and how much they are used. For a given capacity, the “lifecycle” of a pond is determined by the rains and by users’ strategies.

By controlling capacity, the project created “time-regulated ponds” that could serve the needs of transhumant herders and dry up soon after they had moved on. This would avoid settlement around ponds and discourage non-seasonal use of pastures. As “temporary” water resources, artifical ponds are highly systemic by design – although this does not necessarily mean that they are always good. There is still a wide margin for error, as understanding of the pastoral system or estimated calendar may be flawed, and changes in the system could make their timing all wrong.

The important point is what these choices tell us about the project approach: while a sectoral approach would have tried to create permanent water points, Almy Bahaïm used water works as the entry point to pastoral water and as a means of supporting pastoral systems rather than an end in itself. In this respect, we think that it would be preferable to describe this approach – and by extension the approach used by other projects based on this model – as a “systemic” rather than a “sectoral” approach.

only to fall into the sectoral trap of health or education (i.e.

resources (water, space), society (families, chiefdoms,

treat health or education as ends in themselves). This would

institutions), and the economy (livestock). While this

be tantamount to disregarding the last 20 years of experience

approach may not be perfect, its ability to reconcile the

and turning the clock back to the BET era, but turning our

projects’ technical and social imperatives is an important

attention to a new sector.

factor in its overall success.

The main drivers of change identified during the three

2.7.2. Reconciling technical and social imperatives

scenario planning workshops show that water and mobility

The approach that has been developed using pastoral

are still key concerns for herders. Given the huge need for

water and infrastructure as an entry point is based on

water, the use of pastoral water works as an entry point to

respect for the pastoral system and its three pillars:

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support mobile pastoral systems was highly relevant.

weaker? It might be worth considering an approach that not

Installing new water points (especially surface water points

only targets producer and user organisations, but also

and ponds) along the main transhumance routes (mourhâls)

focuses on citizenship (regarding Chad’s mobile population

has helped create a coherent water network across

as full citizens), and involves beneficiaries more closely in

thousands of kilometres of land, with each water point

decision-making processes. ERE highlighted the lack of

managed according to its location and use. These

mechanisms to ensure that the projects and their legacy

installations have helped slow the descent of transhumant

are sustainable, noting that “consultative bodies are ill-

herds at the end of the rainy season, benefiting herders,

prepared to take over when projects end”, the lack of local-

their livestock and sedentary farmers further south, and

level involvement in project implementation by the technical

reducing the risk of damage to fields and thus the incidence

livestock services, the absence of training for beneficiaries

of conflicts.

on how to maintain water points, and the need for more

50

activities to protect the environment around water points.

AFD’s approach also offers an alternative to the economic interest group/inter-village group (EIG/GIV) approach. This is adapted to sedentary communities and can work against

2.7.3 Institutional setup/tendering and procurement procedures

pastoral communities as it encourages actors around water points to organise and appropriate them, often leading to limited access for nomads and the obstruction of

Some thought also needs to be given to the institutional

transhumance routes.

setup, which has hardly changed since 1994. The Ministry of Water still has overall responsibility for the projects, which

By prioritising support for customary modes of management,

are managed by an expatriate operator from a hydraulic

AFD’s approach has helped strengthen priority use rights

company. The Ministry of Livestock (now MDPPA) is still the

over the right of appropriation (the heritage model versus

“poor relation”, despite its upstream and downstream

the ownership model), maintain the spirit of reciprocity

interest in water works and close involvement in marking

between users, and provide free access to water for

out the transhumance routes. Each ministry retains control

livestock. All these factors have contributed to more peaceful

over areas determined by the government when the projects

management of shared resources – although the situation

first started, but there are bound to be overlaps and grey

does seem to be deteriorating in high pressure areas such

areas. This setup has worked for the projects that use

as the outskirts of Abéché. As a result of this approach,

pastoral water as an entry point, but it could certainly be

water is coming to be seen as an instrument of governance

reviewed for the next generation of interventions.

rather than a commodity. This is surely the reason why there have not been any violent conflicts over these facilities in

The pastoral resource management support component

the last 20 years, despite the huge areas involved. This is

(AGRP) for Almy Al Afia 2 now receives intermittent technical

a remarkable contribution to peace and security, and has

assistance from expatriate consultancies (component

been recognised as such.

operators), and the pastoral water component has had continuous technical support throughout the project (despite

Nevertheless, serious consideration needs to be given to

the works being delayed due to the contracts not being

the sustainability and long-term future of these facilities.

signed). Given the increasing national expertise in Chad, it

How will they be monitored, maintained and managed in Herders also benefit from sorghum crop residues, which are very rich and can help cows that failed to conceive in the north come into season again (PIRT).

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would seem appropriate to think about technical assistance

approach. These problems are not new, but they have yet

to support the process (as with the support for the Platform).

to be addressed effectively by AFD or by Chadian agencies.

Even though (and perhaps especially because) this is an

Tendering and procurement procedures are by far the

issue that affects all the other technical and financial

weakest link in the project chain. There are lengthy delays

partners and the whole procurement chain, not just AFD

in the tendering procedures, and some contracts sit in the

and water interventions, we believe that it constitutes the

same ministry for up to five months waiting to be signed.

There are also questions about the transparency of the companies’ financial procedures and quality of their work.

most serious threat to the future of these water projects and to “hard” and “soft” support for the sector.

All these issues need to be addressed – and soon, as they undermine the preliminary procedure to build social 2.7.4 Knowledge generation and capacity building

consensus around the works, damage the credibility of the projects and their staff, and pose a risk to social harmony

Having noted various concerns about a lack of interest in

and peace.

capacity building during the literature review, we were

ERE Développement noted that the companies hired to

pleasantly surprised to find that Chad does have a

deliver the infrastructure for the Almy Bahaïm project lacked

substantial core of national staff with proven experience in

the necessary material, human and logistical capacity to do

pastoralism. The experience and knowledge that they have

this work, which was therefore delayed. In 2008, the

amassed has had a significant influence on pastoral

company BURGEAP also observed this problem in the first

livestock projects and programmes across the country.

phase of Almy Bahaïm, noting that “the works did not present

People who learned at the “school” of Almy Bahaïm or PHPK

any particular technical problems, but there were

Kanem have been redeployed in various ministries, pastoral

complications and delays in their execution due to

development projects, civil society (the Platform) and

irresponsible behaviour by the directors of the contracted

research organisations (university, LRVZ). While it is still

companies.” CIRAD points to over-dependence on the

hard to say how much influence they will have on future

Ministry of Water: “The organisation of these projects is too

policy orientations, this still represents a considerable and

dependent on the Ministry of Water, which is both the

lasting achievement.

contracting authority and executing organisation. While this is technically and financially more efficient and effective, it

We found that local institutions are now better able to

has not allowed these projects to develop a satisfactory

manage pastoral water works and prevent and manage

inter-sectoral approach.”

conflicts. Greater inter-community dialogue has been a major factor in helping keep the peace, despite ongoing

We have seen that tendering and procurement procedures

tensions within and around the country (Central African

will be more of a concern for future AFD pastoral water

Republic, Libya, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan). It is also heartening

interventions in Chad.

The lack of transparent financial

to see that the Ministry of Livestock has been renamed the

governance represents a very serious challenge for AFD’s

Ministry of Pastoral Development and Animal Production

use of pastoral water infrastructure as an entry point to

(MDPPA), and to note the emergence of institutions that are

pastoral support, despite the continued relevance of this

sensitive to pastoralism, such as the General Directorate

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systems, and the Centre for Nomadic Education (although

projects in eastern Chad, Kanem and central Chad, but also

this is still very under-resourced).

informed projects such as PAFIB-EU, PROHYPA-IFAD, SDC and Oxfam, not to mention others that are still coming on

The exceptional output of high quality knowledge generated

stream. This is an outstanding and remarkable achievement.

through continuous and complementary processes and intense efforts to build on what has been learned should

The AFD approach developed out of opportunistic and

also be noted. The huge bibliography and wealth of

intelligent use of the funding that was available in early

information now available on the Platform website and in

1994. Its success can mainly be attributed to a combination

the follow-up work are testimony to progressive efforts to

of committed actors in the North and South, flexibility and

produce knowledge that reflects the needs of the target

exceptional continuity (20 years of almost uninterrupted

audience and is designed to maximise the effectiveness of

“classic” projects lasting four years or less), rather than any

the interventions. The institutional support to the Ministry of

long-term strategy. Having built on the commitment of its

Livestock and the Platform intensified and targeted this

“founding fathers” in AFD, Chad and IRAM, adapted to

output with thematic and prospective studies. These should

diverse contexts and drawn on the lessons learned from

feed into political advocacy in support of pastoralism and

each intervention,52 it now needs to be consolidated through

help dismantle persistent negative clichés about this

sound planning and policies.

particular way of life and production system, showing that

The most visible methodological change occurred after

it is neither contemplative nor archaic, but modern, efficient

the crucial evaluation of 1994, when AFD shifted from the

and mobile. However, while there is no denying the

“straight” pastoral water approach used in the BET projects

excellence of these studies and documents, it is worth

(which grew out of village water projects in Koros) to a new

noting that they are still too “expert” for general consumption,

way of securing pastoral mobility in Almy Bahaïm 1. The

and need to be made more accessible (in every sense of

second major shift also involved the projects in eastern

the word) in order to reach a wider audience and be put to

Chad, where the focus switched from installing water points

more concrete use.

in particular areas to providing them along transhumance routes and marking out these routes. Even though it came from the same design stable and was implemented by the

2.7.5 Innovation and recognised added value: The passport to the future

same family of operators, the PHP Kanem project seems set apart from the others by its (admittedly innovative) multisectoral procedure. It was the only project that did not lead

The support provided by AFD has helped put pastoral

to a second phase in direct conjunction with AFD, although

issues at the heart of development strategies, and thus

it could be argued that IFAD’s PROHYPA project worked on

opened the way for pastoral livestock rearing to be

its launch. The institutional support to the Ministry of

recognised and supported in Chad. Everyone has been very

Livestock in 2009 and subsequent support for the Platform

positive about this initiative (“Hats off to Almy Bahaïm!”,

represent another major shift, using human resources and

exclaimed one participant at the Abéché scenario planning

studies to inform and guide new generations of actors,

workshop). All the technical and financial partners that we

interventions and events (such as the regional conference

contacted said that they have followed the path set by AFD,

in 2013).

which has not only provided a fertile seedbed for AFD’s own 52

We also need to consider the impacts that these projects

Except where the institutional setup is concerned.

have had in relation to their scale of intervention. AFD has

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supported the complementarity of different production

pastures in the north, where fodder is more diverse, also

systems by working on a large scale (Almy Bahaïm covered

deserves more consideration. Nothing has been done to

around 200,000 km²) and helping secure mobility in the vast

ease the crossing of the bahrs and wadis that flow east to

areas of eastern Chad served by the north/south

west and whose high-water levels have a profound impact

transhumance routes. However, working on such a huge

on the herds’ movements north. The file on the bridge over

scale actually dilutes the impacts of its interventions, and

Koundjourou, which was advocated by AAA1 and is partially

only provides intermittent solutions to problems with water,

funded by AFD, still languishes in a drawer despite the

free movement and peaceful transhumance. It would seem

number of livestock that drown every year. However, the

desirable to gather together a group of interested technical

innovative feasibility study for the project in eastern Chad

and financial partners – after thinking about the lessons to

does give some indication of the new direction that work on

be learned from the failure to conclude the “marriage”

the intersection of north-south transhumance routes and

between PROHYPA (IFAD) and Almy Al Afia 2 (AFD), which

east-west livestock marketing routes could take (especially

raises questions about the compatibility of their procedures and even their leadership.

in the wake of PAFIB).

The system for monitoring and evaluating these projects

This kind of alliance is being sought for projects in eastern Chad (with the World Bank and EU), and is a strategy worth considering at a time of economic crisis and restricted public funding for development – although certain actors and intervening agencies will need to better coordinate their efforts (see the experiences with AAA2, PROHYPA, SDC/ ADRB and Oxfam in Batha and Guera). Without wishing to

has attracted a lot of criticism, including accusations that little or nothing has been done in this respect. In fact, project activities have been monitored and evaluated, but not in a classic quantitative way that is easy for external evaluators to read, particularly once the projects have ended. There have been studies, surveys and some remarkable follow-up activities, but there are no numerical indicators or information

overdo the consultation process, it would seem a good point

on clearly established “pre-project” situations that would

to bring the relevant actors together at the regional level to harmonise their approaches, while ensuring that such initiatives include local institutions (joint committees, conflict management and prevention committees, deconcentrated

allow the projects’ effects and impacts to be measured when they come to an end. Attempts were made to put in place sophisticated monitoring and evaluation systems, especially for the projects’ ecological impacts (Almy Bahaïm 1 used

services and actors in N’Djamena).

coordinated observation sites with CIRAD and LVRZ), but

Much attention has been paid to the main north-south

they did not produce the expected results. IRAM’s

transhumance routes, and north-south mobility. Less thought

operational evaluation raised questions about monitoring

seems to have been given to the pressures created by larger

and evaluation in 2004, which were echoed in ERE’s

numbers of livestock spending longer periods in the south,

crosscutting evaluation of 2012. But the harshest criticism

or to their subsequent journey north. “Southern Chad” is not

came from CIRAD’s crosscutting evaluation of 2010, which

a homogenous zone, and the challenges associated with

was particularly negative about the monitoring and

accommodating growing numbers of livestock vary from

evaluation system in PHPK Kanem and other projects.

place to place, intensifying as their stay extends and

Nevertheless, all three evaluations recognise that the overall

increasing the risk of conflicts over water and grazing. When

impact of these projects has been positive, and the study

they do head north again, their passage may be impeded

by Genay (2006) did provide reassurances that the principle

by early floodwaters or fields that have appeared on the

of ecological prudence was taken into account with regard

transhumance routes. The comparative attractiveness of

to the water works’ ecological impacts on the environment.

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AFD will certainly need to think about logical frameworks

sectoral approach that uses pastoral water as a simple (but

and indicators, and future projects could perhaps incorporate

far from simplistic) entry point adds real value to project

new technologies for monitoring and evaluating impacts, such

interventions. While the approach does have shortcomings

as satellite technologies and drones to assess herds and

that need to be addressed, it deserves to be promoted and

changes in grazing. But it is worth remembering that

pursued across sub-Saharan Africa, extending and

evaluation systems are not the only basis for a fair and

deepening different fields of knowledge and continuing to

detailed assessment of a project’s high-level impacts, and

innovate with perseverance and intelligence. At a time when

that a good monitoring and evaluation system does not make

whole swathes of the Sahelian belt are descending into

a good project. In any case, existing monitoring and evaluation

chaos (and requiring military interventions that cost far more

systems are not appropriate for pastoral support projects that

than development actions), the vitality of mobile pastoralism

work with mobile actors, variability and large scales. We need

in Chad makes it an invigorating example of a modern

to innovate for future projects – and work with IFAD, which

production system. There are still many challenges to tackle

has already started thinking about this issue.

in the coming years, not least in policy formulation and

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dispelling negative images of transhumant pastoralism. It

In concluding our findings, we can report that we found

will be interesting to see how Chad reconciles its new status

widespread evidence that AFD has led the way in Chad with

as a “modern” oil-producing country with perceptions of

its innovative, intelligent and positive approach to support

modernity and mobility in its pastoral livestock production

for mobile pastoralism. Adopting a systemic rather than a

systems.

During an interview in March 2013, the IFAD project officer for Chad said that it would be difficult to justify further funding for pastoral water because it had not been possible to determine PROHYPA’s impacts with the kind of monitoring and evaluation system used in other projects. Looking beyond IFAD, this raises serious concerns about the need to measure impacts being seen as more important than the actions that are measured. However, according to the latest information received in June 2013, it seems that a request for an extension might be favourably received following an improvement in PROHYPA’s results and their documentation.

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3. Strategic directions and recommendations

3.1 Main contextual factors

In the last 30 years, scientific research has recognised

Scientific research shows that these difficulties are not so

that pastoral systems are both ecologically and economically

much due to the failure of pastoral systems to adapt, but to

effective. Yet there are still some who regard pastoralism

poor public policies (on land, water, livestock, health,

as an archaic and unviable mode of production, and point

education) that have tended to undermine rather than

to the problems that pastoral societies have experienced in

support pastoralism. The context in Chad and the sub-region

recent decades to argue that it should be replaced by

offers a broader opportunity to redress this situation and seize on the potential that pastoral production systems have

intensive â&#x20AC;&#x153;modernâ&#x20AC;? livestock rearing in order to meet the

to contribute to economic development in the country and

growing demand for livestock products in local and regional

the sub-region.

markets.

Demographic growth and increased purchasing power

Difficulties certainly exist, not just in Chad but in every

have created a large and growing market for livestock

pastoral area of Africa and Asia. Their causes are diverse,

products in Chad, especially in urban areas. Chad has one

complex and mutually reinforcing, creating a vicious circle

of the highest population growth rates in the world, standing

that is difficult to break. These problems are ably described

at 3.4 per cent per annum. At current rates, the overall

and analysed in the many documents that have been

population is expected to double and the urban population

produced in conjunction with pastoral water projects in Chad

to treble in the next 20 years.55 While feeding, employing

and in the general literature on pastoralism. They are 54

and providing health and education services for all these

described as economic when increasing numbers of families

people will certainly be a huge challenge, it also constitutes

have herds that are too small to be viable, as social when

a huge opportunity for pastoralism.

relations among herders and between herders and sedentary producers deteriorate over land use issues, or when

On the one hand, demand for livestock products is

pastoralists cannot access social and educational services,

expected to increase by 250 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa,

and as ecological when certain sections of transhumance

and especially West Africa, between now and 2020.56 On the other hand, although there is no scientific consensus

routes become more degraded, usually as a result of

on the scope and trajectory of climate change in the Sahel,

agricultural clearance and forestry rather than pastoral

different models agree that temperatures will rise and rainfall

activities.

will become increasingly variable. 57 As its production strategies are based on the exploitation of ecological

Including Reounodji et al., 2005; Banzhaf, 2005; Alfaroukh et al., 2011; Catley et al., 2012; IIED and SOS Sahel, 2009.

54

55 56 57

variability, pastoralism is better placed to meet this growing

Guengant and Guealbaye, 2012.

urban demand and provide livelihoods for a growing rural

Club du Sahel/OECD, 1998; Delgado et al., 2001.

population than other less mobile livestock production

Christensen et al., 2007.

systems that are more dependent on external inputs.

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Scientific studies confirm that pastoralism is more profitable

ranching systems, where there is real economic

per hectare than ranching and sedentary livestock rearing

complementarity) or different agricultural systems, but of

systems in similar ecological contexts. In addition to being

developing a vision and policy for livestock rearing that is

efficient, it is also recognised as being better adapted to

better able to embrace the large-scale integration of different

climate change and producing fewer greenhouse gas

livestock and farming systems. This vision should use

emissions than intensive livestock rearing (see section 1.1).

territorial development to build on the advantages that these differences offer in the production base and across the

Despite notable political and legislative advances in

supply chain, while seizing on the investment opportunities

several countries, and in Africa and the sub-region as a

and demands of an economy in the throes of modernisation.

whole,58 it will be hard to build on these opportunities in the

Modernity and pastoralism are neither contradictory nor

current institutional context because little has changed in Chad. When the political authorities eventually adopt the

mutually exclusive (see section 1.1.4).

Visions of the future identified by actors on the ground

draft Pastoral Code (which has already been two years in

at the three scenario planning workshops

the making), they will still need to prepare its enforcement orders and formulate a Land Code to secure land tenure,

The future for pastoralism is neither certain nor clear. The

in order to stimulate private investment in the livestock

evaluation team conducted three scenario planning

sectors.

exercises with diverse actors from the field in order to

Pastoral systems in Chad are at a crossroads, facing

explore with them potential future directions for pastoralism

numerous constraints on the one hand and strong prospects

in Chad. Having described the methodology at the beginning

for change on the other. It is not a question of choosing

of this paper, we will now concentrate on the content of the

between pastoralism and an oil-based economy, other types

workshops, in terms of identifying drivers of change and

of livestock rearing (including intensive peri-urban and

different scenarios based on a combination of trends.

Such as the African Union policy framework for pastoralism in Africa, a policy to support cross-border mobility between ECOWAS member states; the Pastoral Law in Niger (2009), Pastoral Charter in Mali (2001) and Pastoral Law in Burkina Faso (2003).

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Table 7: Summary of drivers of change identified during the three scenario planning workshops DRIVERS OF CHANGE Abéché

1. Mobility

Mongo

Yao-Fitri

1. Availability of water along transhumance and trade routes

1. Conflict/mobility (transhumance routes and access to water from Lake Fitri).

2. Increased need for education and animal and human health services.

2. Mobility.

2. Increased agricultural production.

• Separation of interests/reduced complementarity

• Education for nomadic herders’ children

• Education for children in nomadic communities

• Changing relations between producer groups

• Climate change/drought

• Demographic growth

• Secure routes across River Batha and Wadis

• Clandestine taxis, mobile phones

• Clandestine taxis, mobile phones

• Management of fishing resources (fishermen converting to agriculture) • Increased livestock productivity and prices • Clandestine taxis, mobile phones

Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.

This table shows that mobility and water were repeatedly

The discussion in Abéché was dominated by concern that

classified as the most important drivers of change. In Yao-

the separation of interests and declining complementarity

Fitri, secure transhumance routes and access to the lake

between producer groups is affecting relations between

were associated with reduced conflict, while participants in

them. In trying to identify the processes behind this driver

Abéché emphasised the importance of mobility and access

of change, participants pointed to various factors: the

to basic services, especially education and health. It is worth

practice of dividing agricultural and pastoral production in

noting that no one discussing the implications of this abstract

development and administrative work, the promotion of

scenario regarded the combination of guaranteed mobility

sedentarisation and agriculture (and lack of support for

and services for transhumant herders as intrinsically

those who wish to remain in the pastoral system), frantic

impossible. On the contrary, participants agreed that this

land speculation around the city, and the appearance of

scenario – which we called “Peace and prosperity” – would

powerful new actors in the livestock sector who keep their

be best for everyone.

animals in the transhumant system, but do not depend upon customary arrangements and are able to function without

Participants at every workshop emphasised that if basic

any complementarity. The same observations were made

services (especially education) are to be genuinely useful

in Mongo, where participants reported that the transhumance

for mobile communities, they need to offer more than the

system has been distorted over the last decade by the

current options and become “mobile” themselves, or at least

appearance of huge herds belonging to external investors

not be restricted to modes of delivery designed for sedentary

(mainly camels), some of which include several thousand

communities.

“undisciplined” but “untouchable” animals.

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Figure 5: The scenarios in Abéché

The scenarios in Abéché

STRONG

guaranteed access to social services)

Mobility assured

Peace & Prosperity

Peace and prosperity (guaranteed mobility and Peaceful atmosphere. Intense exchanges between

No change

farmers and herders, and dynamic local and national economies. Secure land tenure. Well-integrated education and pastoral activities. Reduced maternal mortality.

Basic services (education, health) for nomadic communities

Educated pastoralists invest profits from livestock rearing

WEAK

No change

Mobility assured

STRONG

elsewhere. Young doctors and vets (male and female) remain in pastoral areas. Pastoralists engage in political decision-making circles.

Back to the wall

Back to the wall (mobility not guaranteed, lack of access to social services)

WEAK

Widespread poverty and food insecurity across the country. State revenues reduced. Mass emigration by

Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.

pastoralists and/or explosion of conflicts and violence.

Fragile benefits from complementary production systems.

Figure 6: The scenarios in Mongo

Loss of specialisation and reduced productivity in livestock rearing and agriculture: all pastoralists have fields and all

Full speed ahead

Mobility assured

STRONG

farmers have livestock.

No change (either access to social services assured

Scénario 2

but mobility not guaranteed, or mobility guaranteed but little access to social services) The combination of these two scenarios is already a

Water available on transhumance & marketing routes

reality: those who are mobile have little or no access to

WEAK

Full tank but no wheels

Mobility assured

STRONG

basic social services, and access to social services involves a loss of mobility (with an overall negative impact on herders’ social and economic status, leading to a

Running on empty

breakdown of the system).

WEAK

Source: IIED 2013 evaluation

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Figure 7: The scenarios in Yao-Fitri

The scenarios in Mongo

STONG

Full speed ahead (plenty of water on routes and high Herders stay on transhumance routes and do not go near

Mobility assured, conflicts managed

mobility) Enough food, plus complementarity

villages. Fewer conflicts. Livestock benefit from slower movement south, with fewer illnesses and greater productivity. Safe passage across the Batha and other wadis. Less competition with sedentary producers over resources; better herd distribution across pastures, with

STRONG

Agricultural production

Mobility assured, conflicts managed

no concentration of herds. Livestock rearing is easier, reducing the need for child labour and creating Enough food, but no complementarity

opportunities for education.

Famine & segregation

Running on empty (lack of water on routes, lack of

WEAK

Famine & conflict

mobility) WEAK

If there is no water, there is no mobility and herders spend the dry season here (in Guera). Sedentary herders enjoy

Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.

more advantages than transhumant herders, including access to basic services and education for their children.

Pastures become degraded, livestock lose their appetite

The scenarios in Yao-Fitri

and productivity declines. Animals stray onto fields causing conflict with farmers. Milk and butter production decline.

Enough food, plus complementarity (mobility

Camel rearing disappears (and herders?).

assured/conflicts well managed – strong agricultural production)

Full tank but no wheels (plenty of water but lack of

Livestock are highly productive because mobility

mobility)

is guaranteed. More animals are available for

Livestock for export are blocked, leading to widespread

export. Free movement for all, but known routes are

economic losses. If pastures in the north are inaccessible,

respected and livestock no longer stray into fields.

camels die and cattle will also have problems. If

Conflict management and prevention committees

transhumance declines the situation for sedentary herders

are in place, monitoring the situation. Peace reigns:

will improve but there will be more conflicts.

no human deaths. Travel on foot is also peaceful.

Scenario 2: Impossible (little water, high mobility)

Herders now ask permission to enter the lake and no longer allow their livestock unsupervised access to islands during the dry season. Rains are good, state tractors are used and there are “more fields for everyone, even the Arabs”, but far from the lake.

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...

...

Famine and segregation (mobility assured/

Enough food but no complementarity (mobility

conflicts well managed – poor agricultural

assured/poor conflict management – strong

production)

agricultural production)

Virtually impossible. As there is famine one would

A full belly is not enough. Transhumant herders will

expect tension between groups to be higher, since

not come if they hear of conflicts in the area, which

social links and dialogue are strengthened by a full

has a very negative impact on economic and social

belly. Herders come to Fitri for the aquatic grasses,

life in Fitri. Herders buy our cereals, sell us animals

but there are none due to poor rainfall and low water

and their products, and manage our livestock: “If they

levels in the lake. Herders do not come to Fitri any

won’t come to us, we’ll go to them!” Animals cannot

more because they have water points in their home

always live outside of Fitri. Women stir up conflicts

territories. Agricultural production is low, and farmers

between sedentary and transhumant producers at the

migrate towards N’Djamena. Villages are empty.

markets and water points.

The poorest people are also worst affected by the agricultural deficit.

Extrapolation: two extreme scenarios

Famine and conflicts (lack of mobility/conflicts – poor agricultural production)

The evaluation team used the analysis produced by

The tributaries of the lake (Batha) come from far

participants during the scenario planning workshops to

away but the lake will not fill up if rainfall is poor.

develop the two scenarios presented below. Both incorporate

Combining rainfed and flood-recession crops (rice,

general drivers of change that form the backdrop for the

sorghum) has not resolved the lack of agricultural

whole pastoral system in the Sahel, which therefore need

production. There is no training on using irrigated

to be taken into account in the Chadian context. To keep it

lands (rice and wheat) and no coherent strategy for

simple, the exercise was limited to two extreme scenarios

supplying them with water. They are not used due to

(shown in the upper left- and lower right-hand quadrants of

lack of seed. Children who look after livestock are

the scenario planning workshop diagrams): one is good for

less attentive, which causes conflict and complaints

the country, the other not.

to the chief and Sultan. If fields are damaged In accordance with the scenario planning approach, these

the children are beaten, aggravating conflicts.

Malnourished children cannot go to school. Falling

scenarios are not predictions but “possible futures”

incomes reduce the use of “clandestine” taxis and

constructed using logical analysis based on a mechanical

phones.

(cold) combination of a given set of drivers of change.

...

Therefore, they do not attempt to predict the future accurately. Using them as part of long-term planning simply recognises the fact that while the distant future is irreducibly unpredictable, planning can help make this uncertainty less paralysing by delineating it and drawing the landscape with logical constructions based on what we know.

The reality will probably fall somewhere between these two extremes, reflecting some of the characteristics of each

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scenario. It is not so much the scenarios themselves as the

livestock prices and household incomes triggers a food

way they evolve that is important. Poor policies or a lack of

crisis in many areas. People migrate in search of work or

imaginative/innovative solutions will push reality towards

aid, with growing numbers moving to Nâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Djamena or cities

the negative Scenario 1, while good policies and judicious

along the West African coast.

interventions will make the positive Scenario 2 more likely.

The downturn in mobile pastoralism increasingly leaves Scenario 1. Continuing degradation

huge swathes of arid land devoid of human presence. These

Climate change continues and increases. Episodes of drought and flooding become more extreme, with more frequent runs of good years followed by bad ones. The cumulative effects of bad years force large numbers of people to abandon pastoralism. As resilience declines and vulnerability increases, small incidents can have very farreaching impacts.

depopulated areas are taken over by Jihadist and other dissident groups, which quickly establish bases there. The national army makes periodic incursions into these areas, but is poorly trained and equipped for operations on the edge of the desert and easy prey for dissident units.

Dissidents initially avoid confrontation with the national army, but having spent some time observing its tactics, they attack and overwhelmingly defeat it. France intervenes at

Pastures are insufficient and always seem over-grazed; dry season reserves are soon whittled away and exhausted.

Herd productivity falls to the point where livestock no longer reproduce and herd growth slows.

There are increasing disturbances and conflicts between herders over access to grazing and water resources, and between herders and farmers over crop damage by livestock that have left the transhumance routes. Livestock rearing becomes a less and less attractive occupation, especially for the next generation of youth; herders emigrate in search of other forms of employment. Pastoral productivity declines.

The economic advantages of combining livestock rearing and agriculture diminish. There is less specialisation: farmers keep more livestock and herders start cultivating fields. The economy gradually slides into subsistence production, and economic potential dwindles as trade and economic specialisation decline. National livestock product prices increase, especially in large urban centres, becoming unaffordable for the less wealthy and requiring recourse to imports. The country and its citizens lose out in various ways.

the last moment to prevent the insurgents from taking the capital city.

Scenario 2. Life becomes easier Climate change is less serious than expected. Several years of good rainfall enable pastoral and agro-pastoral economies to regroup and invest in measures to increase their resilience. The availability of well-planned and wellmanaged new water sources along the mourhâls and trade routes, and judiciously sited facilities in dry season pastures enables households to move at opportune moments without the risk of conflict with agro-pastoral communities over land use. Because their rights are not threatened, transhumant herders move more slowly. This helps fatten their livestock, and also means that households can plan and coordinate their movements in order to make the most of the scattered rains and extensive grazing. This reduces the prevalence of disease and increases productivity (also helped by the new mobile veterinary programme). The workload of women who are responsible for watering livestock lessens, allowing them to spend more time with their children and helping reduce infant morbidity and mortality. After several years,

Basic food items become expensive and hard to find.

better childhood survival rates translate into a modest but

Dealers and better-off households stockpile cereals. The

measurable reduction in the final number of offspring and

combination of increasing food insecurity and falling

pastoral population growth.

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A creative mixture of fixed facilities and use of the radio

Few areas remain completely uninhabited for long periods

allow over 90 per cent of school-age children in pastoral

as pastoral mobility is increased by older family members

families to follow the primary school programme and pass

and some children going to small dry season camps.

exams, achieving better annual exam results than children

Unknown groups passing through or attempting to set up

in sedentary households. Various radio learning programmes

camp are noted, and rapid border intervention teams

for adults also encourage some parents to start studying

(composed of young men from the same ethnic group as

again, even if their results are not as good as those of their

local residents) soon arrive on the scene. If they cannot deal

children.

with the situation, national army units based in the region’s

New technologies are rapidly adopted: use of mobile phones, rugged tablets and other electronic devices

main town are called in. This indigenous security system makes it difficult for terrorists to use drylands to hide kidnap victims or traffic illegal substances.

becomes more widespread with the development of more robust models and appropriate applications. Many herders’

Renewed peace in the north of the country encourages

encampments have small solar-powered televisions and

more intrepid tourists to visit, with direct flights from France

video players, enabling them to keep up with national and

using landing strips in the north previously reserved for the

international news and affairs. Boys and girls increasingly

army. Northern Chad soon becomes a well-known tourist

use motorbikes to look after their herds, and their parents

destination, with the economic impact amplified by numerous

travel to market on them.

small businesses springing up to serve the influx of tourists (tour guides, mechanics, hotels, restaurants and bars).

The new drought warning system can accurately predict the arrival and potential impacts of drought. This enables

Current debates about the future of pastoralism lurch

households to sell livestock while they still fetch a reasonable

between these two extremes. Some see pastoralism as an

price, giving them enough money to buy basic foodstuffs

archaic and unviable sector that should be replaced by

released onto the market by the authorities in order to

modern intensive livestock rearing geared towards trade, if

control prices. NGOs run a rapid response livestock

it is to make an effective contribution to greater food security

purchasing programme to keep livestock prices within a

and meet the growing demand for livestock products in local

normal range despite the larger numbers of animals coming

and regional markets. They maintain that pastoralism is

onto the market. At the beginning of the drought, the

unable to deal with drought and climate change, and

livestock bought by this programme are marketed in the

therefore needs to change

south, then processed into dried meat that is distributed to

This is countered by the argument that pastoralism is the

local institutions such as schools, hospitals and prisons.

These market interventions enable herders to sell their livestock at stable and reasonable prices, and pay stable and reasonable prices for the foodstuffs and other products they need to buy.

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best land use system for arid lands when it is allowed to function according to its basic principles and follow its own management strategies. The key elements of this argument are presented below.

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3.2 Arguments in favour of pastoralism

Pastoralism as a form of land use

In some countries (mainly developed countries or

Pastoralism is not a primitive form of land use that preceded and was replaced by agriculture. It evolved in most places as a specialised ramification of agriculture capable of producing relatively high returns from resources with low or zero opportunity costs for crop farming. It still fulfils this function.

economies that are dependent on tourism, such as Kenya and, more recently, Chad), pastoralism fulfils an essential function in maintaining the savannah landscapes that are important to both tourists and most of the local population.

It would seem perfectly legitimate to provide subsidies for rural people to create and maintain the landscape, like those received by European farmers. Although there is little

In Chad, pastoralism is the backbone of the rural economy, the common language that makes interdependence between different production systems possible. Pastoral livestock link different land uses, making them more important and

chance of such payments being approved and made in Africa, the extent to which pastoralism helps create this landscape should be included in any detailed economic calculation of the value of pastoral production systems.

more productive. In fact, recent analysis shows that they make a considerable contribution to national economic activity. But above all, pastoralism brings the land alive. An area occupied by pastoralist encampments is a living entity, unlike the landscapes blighted by ranching.

Pastoralists are not opposed to modernity or globalisation Pastoralists have accepted a number of changes in recent

Economic value of pastoralism

decades, often with great enthusiasm, giving pastoralism a Pastoralism is a complex economy composed of multiple

modern dimension not found in other rural subsistence

inputs and outputs. Because most of these inputs and

systems. This is due to pastoralists’ dependence on markets,

outputs are not mobilised through a market mechanism, it

their level of specialisation, the scientific basis for their

is hard to put a price on them, meaning that they are rarely

livestock-rearing strategies, the way they take account of

fully recognised and are often purely and simply ignored.

unpredictability and risk, and their approach to innovation.

When they are estimated correctly and given a virtual price,

They make their own innovations and are quick to adopt

it is clear that pastoralism generates a good deal of hugely

external ones such as mobile phones (the most recently

profitable economic activity.

adopted innovation in Chad).

The economic value ascribed to pastoralism largely

Their mobility is often regarded as proof of pastoralists’

depends upon what is measured and how this is done. It is

rejection of modernity. This is quite simply wrong: pastoral

not easy to estimate the value of this widespread and multi-

mobility is not the product of an atavistic longing for freedom,

dimensional production system. Transactions that are already covered by economic records or which are easily measured can provide minimum estimates, but much of its value is far more difficult to estimate – such as milk and meat produced for domestic consumption, or the draught

but the result of logical and scientifically proven thinking about the relative productivity of different ways of using pastures, and an intrinsic element of an effective strategy for fattening livestock (see section 1.1).

power of carts in home fields.

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Pastoralists and “ungoverned” space

so we have a situation where expanses of northern pastoral lands are not so much “ungoverned” as governed by ad hoc

It is increasingly recognised that the problem of terrorism

alliances of criminal and corrupt national elites. In certain

in Sahelian countries is closely linked to the existence of

respects, as with natural resource ownership, customary

“ungoverned areas” – tracts of land that the government is

rules apply, which makes it very difficult to take action

unable to control. They are regarded as being outside the

against them.

governance process whereby rules are negotiated, formulated and agreed. As such, the remedy is clear: extend

The solution could lie in the survival of a viable nomadic

the authority of the national government to include these

pastoral economy. Vast stretches of unoccupied land are

areas.

certainly attractive to groups that wish to pursue illegal activities, and the Sahara is so huge that it is impossible for

The problem here lies in the diagnosis, for in reality very

national security services to patrol them closely. But the

little land is genuinely ungoverned. Smugglers, hostage-

presence of nomadic pastoral camps that move unpredictably

takers and traffickers operate in pastoral areas in the north

around the edges of the desert would be a very effective

of most Sahelian countries. So far Chad seems to have

deterrent to this type of group. If the military drones that will

escaped this trend, but it is unlikely to do so completely and

inevitably be used in this type of operation could be

there is a high risk that oil production will accelerate this

reprogrammed to identify islands of greenery in the desert,

process. The signs from other Sahelian countries seem to

they would serve the dual purpose of dealing with illegal

suggest that the urban elites have colluded with this traffic,

incursions and identifying viable pastures.

3.3 Proposed strategic directions

There are many reasons why AFD should continue to

N’Djamena galloping ahead as the flagship metropolis) and

support the development of pastoral livestock rearing in

rural development in this huge country. Chad also represents

Chad: because its support for pastoralism in this country

a crossroads between the changing faces of West, North,

over the last 20 years has been appropriate, innovative and

East and Central Africa, which have much to learn from the

generally well run; because the social, economic and

advances it has made in terms of mobile pastoralism. This

environmental risks will increase if this support stops (a

section will consider how AFD can use the increasingly

point made very forcefully at the scenario planning

closely counted funding for French public aid to help Chad

workshops); because Chad is at a major crossroads in its

seize new opportunities, engage with new actors (such as

history where oil revenues, the government’s decision to

China), and move towards a desirable future for the nation

promote rural development, and exceptionally favourable

and its pastoralists.59

market trends are opening up unparalleled opportunities.

This support is one of a number of challenges that the country needs to address, including the new complementarities between urban development (with

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Cf. CIRAD prospective paper, Magrin et al., 2011.and Pastoral Law in Burkina Faso (2003).

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Pastoral Water Development in Chad

A major achievement that needs to be secured

that will need to harmonise third generation pastoral support

In taking pastoral water as the single, simple entry point to its interventions, AFD aimed to move from a sectoral to a systemic approach and do much more than simply provide water: the intention was nothing less than to secure pastoral mobility. This approach constitutes a crucial innovation that is appropriate to both the logic and the operational scale of

projects in the region (future projects in eastern Chad and the Lake Fitri area) with national-level projects (institutional support to the Platform and Ministry of Pastoral Development) and possible innovative thematic projects (education in nomadic settings, health or financial services for mobile communities).

pastoralism. It could and should be continued, whether or

These projects tie in with AFD’s main objectives in fragile

not AFD decides to invest in other aspects of pastoral

states: i) support the emergence of non-governmental

development, such as delivering education and other basic

development actors; ii) support the elaboration of public

services. It would be extremely regrettable if this pioneering

policies; iii) take action to prevent conflicts and crises. Work

approach to pastoral water were not used as an alternative

on the third objective includes long-term support for

to the sectoral approach in education and health.

pastoralism, the 2013 conference in N’Djamena on the

General strategic directions: Persevere and innovate with the third generation of projects

extent to which pastoral livestock rearing contributes to peace and sustainable development in the Sahel, and support for the Platform. In early 2013, the rural/pastoral

Having established and consolidated some very solid achievements over the last two decades, AFD is now in a position to deepen its interventions to support mobile pastoral systems over the next 10 to 20 years, in a country whose population looks set to reach 25 million by 2035. The combination of pastoral water works and efforts to secure pastoral resources is still a relevant entry point for a systemic approach (particularly in a highly strategic region like eastern Chad), but it must remain open to innovations at different levels (institutional, technical and financial). Other entry points also need to be envisaged (see section 3.3.1).

As part of its support for rural development in Chad, AFD is continuing its interventions to secure mobile pastoral systems, which are the backbone of rural development and

development sector accounted for 30 per cent of sectoral funding allocated to each sector (compared with 42 per cent for N’Djamena and its region, 14 per cent for support for SMEs, and 14 per cent for various interventions on health, education and other areas).

The six proposed strategic directions developed in this section are broken down into recommendations. These should be part of a flexible process that can be adapted to different timescales, spatial scales and levels at which resources can be mobilised for their implementation. They are all based on our observations, and are not intended to challenge an approach that has so far been largely successful, but which nonetheless requires some major methodological changes.

the second largest sector of the national economy after oil.

Pastoral water will remain a valid entry point, at least in the medium term, as water is still a pressing and priority need for rural actors (pastoralists and agro-pastoralists alike).

3.3.1 Direction 1: Renewed portfolio with 3rd generation projects

In order to help achieve this objective, six main strategic

The retrospective section and argument developed in the

directions are proposed, and separated into highly interactive

introduction to this prospective section both confirm the

recommendations. If adopted, they should be implemented

relevance and consistency of continuing AFD interventions

as part of a revised strategic approach to rural development

through pastoral support projects.

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General recommendation:

scenario from the scenario planning workshop in Yao). A very thorough study on Lake Fitri has already been

The next step is to design third generation projects, with

completed and validated by local people (2012), and a study

four types of interrelated project that: i) use pastoral water as an entry point (eastern Chad); ii) incorporate pastoral production systems into rural development (Lake Fitri); iii)

on the effects of climate change is being finalised. The project is scheduled to start at the beginning of 2015 to ensure continuity with Almy Al Afia 2 (human resources,

provide institutional support for state and non-state actors

including local conflict management and prevention bodies,

involved in pastoral development (MDPPA and the Platform); iv) conduct action-research projects/initiatives on education and/or health and/or financial services for nomadic

the end of PROHYPA, an area with high potential for agropastoral development, but also conflict).

communities. These could include:

• Capacity building for state and non-state actors: design a third generation project to follow up two phases of

• A project to support pastoral development in eastern

innovative institutional support for MDPPA and the Platform

Chad. A pre-feasibility study for this was completed at the

(see section 3.3.3). This project will be an accompaniment

end of 2011. It will use pastoral water as an entry point and

to other projects, and form part of the support for public

incorporate all the lessons learned from Almy Bahaïm, PHPK, Almy Al Afia and PAFIB (the “cousin project” supported by the EU that combined elements of the

policy formulation. It should run continuously from 2014 to 2019, in two-year phases.

procedure with its own innovations in the livestock supply

• One or more action-research projects/initiatives on social

chain). The current situation in eastern Chad and

services adapted to nomadic societies, starting with

neighbouring countries (CAR, Darfur, Libya) and the crisis

education but not excluding possible initiatives on health or

in the joint committee in Abéché fully justify the rapid

microfinance (see section 3.3.5).

implementation of this kind of project, whose main themes are already clearly defined, pertinent and innovative (urbanrural dynamics, local planning [CAR], markets, education).

Specific recommendations

It should also be possible to incorporate some of the recommendations proposed in this report without any radical

Scale of intervention: Ensure that the geographic scale

procedural changes. This project should aim to start at the

of interventions reflects the scope of north-south

end of 2013/beginning of 2014 and last for four years

transhumance and synergy with east-west trade routes

(ending in 2017).

(see follow-up work on PAFIB, the pre-feasibility study on

• Fund a national-level study on the sustainability of water works, using a combination of hydrogeological, economic/ financial and sociological expertise to consider issues such as changing costs, quality of works and responsibility for

eastern Chad and the study on Lake Fitri). Interventions should tie in with territorial development and progress on decentralisation, urban-rural relations and land issues, as competition over resources between mobile pastoralists and sedentary agro-pastoralists is growing (peri-urban land,

maintenance.

Lake Fitri, occupation of wetlands and the banks of wadis).

• In anticipation of the end of Almy Al Afia 2, launch a rural development project in central Chad (Lake Fitri region) that clearly targets i) the integration of mobile pastoral systems

interventions lies in the creation of a pool of national and

and ii) territorial development that incorporates support for pastoralism and agricultural production systems (see

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Human resources: Ensure the continuity, diversification and sustainability of skills. One of the strengths of AFD international expertise. This needs to be maintained, by

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anticipating the dispersal of teams before projects are

Ex ante and pre-feasibility studies should consider

scheduled to end and recruiting members for future projects

innovative institutional setups for projects such as the one

(see prospects for eastern Chad and Lake Fitri versus Almy

in Lake Fitri. Their entry point need not necessarily be

Al Afia 2), maintaining focal points in parent ministries,

pastoral water, and they could involve new partners working

reappointing effective operators and providing technical

on land use planning, decentralisation, agriculture, and so

assistance. Team skills could also be broadened to include

on. The thorny issue of tendering procedures, which is not

experienced hydrologists, pastoral experts and new profiles

only limited to infrastructure, is discussed in point 3.3.2.

to work on gender and generational issues, NICT skills and so on. The new projects will need senior staff who are able to facilitate dialogue with other specialist agencies intervening in sectors such as education, health and new technologies, and who are open to new approaches that pay more attention to gender and generational issues, in order to help bring about changes in behaviour/lifestyle values in pastoral systems (young couples). This is a potentially productive field for innovation.

Anticipate links/bridges with innovative actionresearch projects in social sectors (such as education, health and microfinance) and avoid the multi-sectoral project approach. This evaluation has already clearly stated the need to resist the temptation of multi-sectoral projects and the attendant risks of the multi-sectoral approach, a trap that has so far been avoided. The provisional logical framework for the project in eastern Chad avoids these pitfalls (see result 4). Specific recommendations

Ensure that project teams are professionally and institutionally viable. This will require some thought and support from the project design stage onwards, and involve rethinking the process of transforming teams into national consultancy firms or NGOs (thereby strengthening civil society in accordance and conjunction with Direction 3 – strengthening civil society and pastoral expertise). The experience initiated by Swiss Cooperation and ADRB should be studied with the actors concerned.

for these initiatives are developed in section 3.3.5.

Monitoring and evaluation system: Broader participatory reflection on all future projects is needed, making a concrete start with the feasibility/ex ante evaluation phase of the project in eastern Chad. Questions about the monitoring and evaluation system itself have yet to be satisfactorily addressed (like the issue of funding to maintain pastoral water installations and their management bodies).

Despite being raised at the start of the process and

Institutional setup: Consider appropriate setups for new types of project. Combine an AGRP component with

mentioned in numerous studies and follow-up works, information on this issue is still patchy.

a substantial water works component to support pastoral

We also know that existing monitoring and evaluation tools

resource management in projects that use pastoral water

are not suitable for pastoral support projects, especially in

as an entry point (such as the one in eastern Chad). Review

terms of quantitative indicators, establishing “pre-project”

the proposed setup combining MHRU and MDPPA (each

situations, “counting” beneficiaries, etc. IFAD has started a

retaining the attributions determined by the government at

major investigation into this area, and the time has come

the beginning of the project) and the operator (ANTEA-

for AFD to review its approach to monitoring and evaluating

IRAM) according to the proposals set out in the pre-feasibility

pastoral projects. It needs to consider how to adapt tools

study. Study the possibility of periodic or variable support

to monitor a system that functions on a large scale in

on pastoral water and pastoral resource management during

unpredictably variable conditions, and how to identify

peak periods of project activity (see AGRP in AAA2) in order

new indicators and monitoring measures that are relevant

to help broaden the skill base.

and appropriate to the scale and variability of the intervention

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zones covered by future projects. The provisional logical

provisions, evaluating tenders, protecting actors and their

framework for the future project in eastern Chad offers some

means of production, improving staff skills. This not only

interesting fields of measurement, but they need to be

concerns AFD, but also different technical and financial

supplemented and diversified to include ecological,

partners, ministries, project operators and the private sector.

economic, social, gender and generational impacts. With

National- and regional-level consultations between partners

support from AFD, the Comité Scientifique Français de la

and stakeholders need to be organised.

Désertification (CSFD) recently (February 2013) produced

Research/development to initiate new technical

a set of indicators for ecological impacts as part of a broader

responses to sets of constraints that need more work or

request by AFD to improve the monitoring and evaluation

have yet to be addressed (depending on the already

of all its projects.60 This opportunity should be seized and

considerable achievements with pastoral water, especially

used in interventions to support pastoralism in Chad and the Sahel, opening up another field for innovation where

PHPK, Almy Bahaïm and Almy Al Afia). Monitor prototypes

AFD has much to offer.

and feedback, look into diversifying pastoral water works

3.3.2 Direction 2: Improve the sustainability of pastoral infrastructure: Funding, maintenance, management bodies, governance

consider solar or thermal pumping stations (see PAFIB and

and new technologies. In addition to wells and ponds, livestock markets, eastern Chad), micro-dams, mobile tanks, bladders (see Kenya, Sudan) 62 and small portable pumps, which are already used by pastoralists and which

Pastoralists’ primary need is still water – for both livestock and humans. Therefore, pastoral water is still a relevant entry point for projects such as the one in eastern Chad.

Access to water in the Lake Fitri region is an issue in terms of both pastoral water infrastructure and developing pastoral and agricultural land use: water in the lake, areas where

help provide better quality water for domestic use. The issue here is using the possibilities offered by new technologies to combine access to water with pastoral production strategies. Can water be made available in the right place at the right time?

sorghum grows, wadis, wetlands and irrigated areas (see

Strengthen the technical capacities of national

national food security programme). Work on infrastructure includes marking out transhumance routes and resting areas, and working on bridges and passages across bahrs

companies by reviewing quality/cost assessments and mobilising sufficient funding to support the best bids and technical resources. This will help rebuild companies

and wadis. Other types of initiative will be needed to enable

undermined by a decade of low bids. Optimise works (over-

new projects to tackle livestock marketing (markets) and social services. This will require a greater focus on improving the quality and sustainability of works and

investment) to simplify maintenance and reduce maintenance costs.

Strengthen quality control by companies and users:

establishing good financial governance.

Specific recommendations

Introduce self-monitoring quality assurance while the 61

Improve cost management and the quality of works by reviewing the entire chain with the actors concerned, from orchestrating concomitant and complementary projects, funding, reviewing the provisions of agreements and contractual procedures, applying tax and customs

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Bladders are made from the same material as inflatable boats, and come in different sizes, the largest holding enough water to supply 300 sheep for a month in the dry season. They are often used in north Kordofan (see Krätli et al., 2013b).

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technical teams are still working on projects, as with the

agencies, especially at the regional level (see recent and

system introduced by Almy Al Afia 2. Involve users in

ongoing initiatives by IFAD, the World Bank and EU, and

monitoring construction works – provide information on the

support for the decentralisation process).

nature of the works, estimated quantities, observations on their execution and so on.

Continue to consider and test sources of funding for bodies that will manage the works, without challenging the principle of free pastoral water (the institutional viability of these bodies is discussed in point 3.3.3 below).

3.3.3 Direction 3: Increase AFD involvement in shaping national/sub-regional policies through greater interaction between pastoral water projects and institutional support for state and non-state actors

This is linked with using taxes on livestock markets or other

AFD interventions over the last 20 years have helped

funds to mobilise financial resources for pastoral

change perceptions of pastoralism in Chad, influenced the

infrastructure. Responses will need to be adapted as

approaches used by other donors, and contributed to the

decentralisation progresses (local taxes, etc.).

emergence of state and non-state structures that are

Reflect on the financial resources allocated by AFD and the Chadian government to fund pastoral infrastructure (investment and maintenance). A roundtable with other technical and financial partners might be useful in order to consider using oil revenues to support pastoralism in Chad and redress historical state neglect for

favourable to pastoralism. The institutional support to the Ministry of Livestock, the Platform, and the regional conference on Security and Pastoralism (May 2013) are evidence of more visible AFD support for national policies.

Possible areas for this kind of action are outlined below.

Specific recommendations

this sector. The evaluation does not recommend that AFD suddenly stops funding pastoral infrastructure, but that it

Strengthen influence on the policy environment and

provides support for better governance of “hard” and “soft”

regulatory and legislative framework for Chad’s

resources, with civil society closely involved in governance

livestock rearing sector: Prioritise implementation of

processes. Look at the mobilisation and governance of

the Pastoral Code. Facilitate the adoption of the Pastoral

funds such as the Water Fund, National Livestock

Code and subsequent formulation and application of its

Development Fund, etc.

implementing decrees. AFD’s role is not to substitute for local actors, but to help pastoral civil society organisations

Build arguments supporting the redistribution of oil revenues to develop the pastoral sector. Chad could

contribute meaningfully to the process:

position itself as a modern leader in the sub-region by

• Support a joint procedure to build the policy formulation

supporting a particularly dynamic and sustainable sector of

process, by establishing a platform for herders and other

its economy with revenues from a non-renewable resource.

actors in the rural world to discuss and formulate consensual

Strengthen consultations between technical and financial partners to promote co-funding and partnerships in order to be able to continue to intervene on a large scale, but with more resources to achieve more

proposals for different aspects of the implementing decrees.

These could draw on the wealth of knowledge accumulated during previous phases of work to secure pastoral livestock systems;

visible impacts, especially in establishing networks of water

• Put in place a range of pedagogical tools in national

points (eastern Chad). These consultations could also help

languages to ensure that agents can keep up to date with

harmonise the approaches used by different intervening

developments, using preparatory documents in local

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languages and working closely with herder organisations

critical mass of capacities in prospective analysis and

and the Directorate for professionals in the livestock sector;

forward thinking, preparing proposals, negotiations, and lobbying and advocacy;

• Help civil society organisations understand the process of producing legislation, with information and

• Assistance in structuring pastoral civil society.

training on the different stages involved in formulating and

Producer organisations have little influence on policymaking

implementing a lobbying and advocacy plan.

or in debates and consultative frameworks because there

Ensure that this work on pastoralism is incorporated into the overall policy for rural development in Chad.

This includes helping develop scenarios that combine mobilising water resources for rural modernisation and development (implementing the Master Plan for Water and

is little articulation between their local- and national-level organisations. The pyramidal structuring procedure started

by PAFIB should be continued and strengthened, with a national confederation of herders, traders, butchers and tanners. It is also important to ensure that women who make a living from rearing livestock are represented and can make

Sanitation) with regional planning for territorial development

their voices heard, through joint bodies or women’s

(see the work done by SIDRAT) and links with urban

organisations;

markets. The design of the future project for eastern Chad ties in closely with this recommendation and will constitute

• Increasing the weight and autonomy of local bodies

a field for immediate experimentation, while the project in

responsible for managing resources and preventing

the Lake Fitri region should contribute to progress on these

conflicts. Help create bridges between customary and

issues in another key region of Chad. The continuity of

formal institutions (such as the joint committee in Abéché).

institutional support for the Ministry of Livestock (MDPPA)

This is important, as the implementation of plans for

and the Platform has created an interesting synergy that

territorial development, administrative reorganisation and

builds on the different forms of support delivered by AFD,

decentralisation could strengthen or undermine the bodies

while opening up new opportunities to argue for the

responsible for managing works and preventing conflicts

modernity of mobile livestock rearing.

that AFD projects have supported, and which have proved very effective in preventing conflicts;

Strengthen civil society capacities at the national and local levels: Platform for actors, pastoral organisations,

• Helping increase the financial and technical autonomy

conflict prevention and works management bodies, etc.

of CSOs. In the short- and medium-term, it would be useful

Ensure that national actors take the lead in influencing

to develop alliances and partnerships with actors that have

policies and in lobbying and advocacy activities. This will

proven expertise in specific areas, such as Oxfam (capacity

ultimately strengthen social capital and create a critical

building on advocacy) and the Swiss Agency for Development

mass of knowledgeable and trained staff in state institutions

and Cooperation (phased withdrawal and helping set up

(ministries, deconcentrated services). More specifically, this

local NGOs such as ADRB). Project teams supported by

could involve:

AFD could follow this route, changing their status to become

• Developing a coaching programme for leaders of producer organisations so that they can fully engage in policy dialogue with decision-makers. Technical assistance could develop a process based on “coaching advice” and “coaching training” for herders’ leaders on the

BETs or NGOs. Finally, promote greater openness and collaboration between producer organisations that have gone through similar experiences in Chad and other African countries, such as AREN (Niger), RECOPA (Burkina Faso) and Billital Maroobe (at the regional level); • Training on the concept of mobile citizenship:

Platform. Particular attention should be given to creating a

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Knowledge of laws, rights and responsibilities, a concept of

• Reorganise and prioritise knowledge and outputs

“mobile citizenship” that is both accountable (responsibilities)

(with key points for each theme, for example). It can be

and respected (rights), participation in informed debates …

difficult to find one’s way through the mass of material on

Develop a training module on mobile citizenship for policy-

the Platform website (and 20 years’ worth of documentation!).

makers and development practitioners (like the one on

A clear database for national and international researchers

pastoralism in the Sahel delivered by partners such as

and experts would be helpful. This would require periodic

ARED and IIED). The active nucleus of resource persons

specialist expertise delivered through institutional support

trained over the last 20 years with support from AFD (which

(FERC);

included some certified courses) should form the basis of a training of trainers network.

• Develop attractive and accessible new materials that link in with NICTs and contribute to academic and school curricula (see nomadic schools) and training (see work with the film and book Au cœur de la transhumance). This will

3.3.4 Direction 4: Optimise knowledge generation and sharing through innovative action-research and the practical application of what has been learned and achieved

also require periodic specialist expertise (via field projects and institutional support). It would be interesting to work on photo stories and short videos with young people and women (see IIED website for examples of this type of work

This direction is concerned with developing and sharing

in India, Peru and sub-Saharan Africa). This is something

AFD’s considerable achievements and innovations in

that can be done in the field and through projects (Almy Al

pastoral interventions over the last 20 years. Little is

Afia 2, eastern Chad, Lake Fitri), with the outputs

known about them outside Chad, which is increasingly

disseminated via NICTs and used in training (see Direction

seen as leading the way in support for pastoralism.

3). Other materials to raise awareness about policies such

Activities in this field should aim to make it easier to

as the Pastoral Code could include newsletters, teaching

access the exceptionally rich and abundant material that

materials, information sheets, “prompts” and messages for

is now available, but which is difficult to use in its

informed debate. There is enormous potential to generate

present, scattered form on the Platform website and in

huge returns at very little cost, and to reach illiterate

dense follow-up documents. The form and content of

audiences (especially women).

these outputs need to be adapted to their target audience (readers and users) so that they can be used for capacity building (civil society) and to influence decision-makers (particularly in conjunction with Direction 3).

Theme 2: Develop action-research on modernising pastoral modes of production At the moment, there is little or no investment in research that specifically supports pastoral modes of production.

Specific recommendations

Much is invested in developing genetically improved

The specific recommendations presented below are divided into two themes:

livestock, but very little in research on pastoral livestock selection systems, or ways of supporting and improving their capacity to respond to the demands of pastoral production.

Theme 1: Better share, develop and disseminate

Here too, Chad has plenty of potential that could be explored

existing knowledge in Chad and across the Sahelian

by teachers and researchers, the Laboratoire de Farcha

belt. In East and West Africa, use bilingual publications

and LRVZ. Research and/or action-research is needed in

(such as Nomadic Peoples) in order to:

the following fields:

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• Taxation and fiscal matters: Pastoralists would have

3.3.5 Direction 5: Incorporate innovative approaches in the education/health/finance sectors into the systemic approach to pastoralism, without falling into the trap of the sectoral approach

to pay extra taxes for any additional resources or services they receive from the state (as a result of reallocating oil revenues, for example). Will this be done through taxes on access to grazing, per head of livestock, sales or exports?

This does not mean replicating the setup for integrated

Research in this field should determine the possible impacts

rural development projects or pastoral water projects like

of these different options and examine other possibilities;

PHPK Kanem. Tackling issues such as access to social

• Technological innovations adapted to mobility: Mobile pumps or water points, water quality, tanks, communication and information (mobile phones, messages about human and animal health), access to different kinds of data (weather, security, resource conditions, market prices);

services, which are still largely inaccessible to mobile groups, should not involve planning one component for education, one for health and so on, but linking up with specialists in these fields, as outlined in the 2011 prefeasibility study on eastern Chad (education sector).

Specific recommendations

• Processing livestock products: Dried meat, milk products, skins. This should be considered in conjunction

Finance pilot projects or action-research type

with other projects and with the Association pour le

education and health initiatives that are adapted to

Développement de la Région du Batha (ADRB), as it could

nomadic ways of life. AFD is already committed to

be an entry point for work with women and youth (gender

supporting studies on nomadic schools (Swift, 2011; Dos

and generational issues);

Santos, 2013), and could build on this by funding small innovative independent projects, or initiatives within pastoral

• Ecological impacts: Initial evaluations of the pastoral

projects working on access to social services. A link needs

projects’ impact on resources suggested that this was one

to be established with AFD’s Chad portfolio (14 per cent)

of their weak points (see coordinated observation sites for

for these sectors, and with actions in N’Djamena (on

Almy Bahaïm), until PhD research by G. Geney identified

reproductive health, for example).

the impacts of the principle of ecological prudence rightly advocated by these projects. This important field should be

Partners could include:

reviewed through research into the impact of permanent • The Ministry of Education, Department for Nomadic

water points in the north (see comment on monitoring and

Education, and the Ministry of Health for general health

evaluation indicators, and section 2.2.2 of this report);

issues and reproductive health in nomadic communities (see • Detailed evaluation of the impacts of demarcation in

Guengant and Guealbaye, 2012). Male and female staff will

various intervention zones. As discussed in section 2.3.6

be needed to act as interfaces in field projects and with civil

of this report, the demarcation of pastoral spaces (mourhâls,

society groups (such as women’s organisations). This

resting areas, grazing areas) raises complex questions and

should also link into efforts to improve water quality in

has ambiguous effects. A detailed study needs to be made

pastoral areas, work on infrastructure and education on

of the impacts of demarcation (or non-demarcation) in

water hygiene.

different project intervention zones.

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Pilot support for mobile financial services in pastoral

changing weather conditions and rainfall patterns will affect

areas through current efforts to develop new technologies

grazing areas, increase the risks for animal health and

(possibly in conjunction with mobile phone networks).

probably lead to changes in cross-border movements. This

Monitor money transfers and the impact on savings, social

will affect Chad as the crossroads between North, West,

relations (including gender and generational) and mobilising

Central and East Africa, but is also a broader sub-regional

organisations (possibly through a PhD researcher). This is

issue;

a highly innovative field.

• Promote and secure cross-border economic trade:

Use these NICTs to generate useful and accessible

Strengthen the chain by focusing on the total economic

information on markets, weather, human and animal health,

value of pastoral livestock rearing in order to respond to the

the condition of pastures and water points, flood water levels

growing demand for livestock products in urban markets

(Batha, etc.), security conditions and so on, in conjunction

(projected demographic and urban growth over the next 20

with action-research (Direction 4).

years in N’Djamena and African megalopolises like Lagos).

Training/education/ literacy training through NICTs…

The future project in eastern Chad will include actions to develop services along caravan/trade routes towards Libya (north), taking account of the intersections between north-

3.3.6 Direction 6: Incorporate the whole AFD procedure into support for pastoralism in order to promote longterm cross-border peace and security for pastoralism and fragile states

south transhumance routes and east-west marketing/export routes. These should be encouraged and monitored elsewhere (to supplement existing studies);

AFD projects operate on a large spatial scale, but have so

• Help improve security in the sub-region: The

far reflected the logic of national mobility within country

conference on this theme held in N’Djamena in May 2013

borders. The size of the intervention area for the future

generated some very interesting responses based on

project in eastern Chad is entirely appropriate to these

experiences in various countries. Funding will be needed

cross-border logics (Central African Republic, Libya, Sudan).

for studies and cross-border analysis of the development

Cross-border mobility is a sensitive political issue,

and

and impacts of water points on each side of the border (with

initiatives that take account of cross-border mobility should

Niger and Sudan, for example) to avoid creating infrastructure

incorporate the three following activities:

that might generate conflict over cross-border movements

63

under normal conditions, and particularly in times of crisis • Consider climate change and its possible impacts on

(for example, Central African Republic, Darfur, Libya).

herd productivity (see NAPAs): It is anticipated that

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See government policy programme of 25 January 2013.

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Abbreviations and acronyms AAA

Almy Al Afia

AB

Almy Bahaïm

AFD

Agence Française de Développement

ADRB

Association pour le Développement de la Région du Batha (Association for the

Development of the Batha Region)

AGRP

Appui à la gestion des ressources pastorales (Support for pastoral resource manage

ment) ARED

Associés en Recherche et Education pour le Développement (Associates for Research

and Education for Development)

AU-IBAR

African Union Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources

BET

Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti

BRGM

Bureau de Recherche Géologique et Minière (Geological Research Mining Bureau)

BURGEAP Bureau de Recherche Géologique Appliquée (Applied Geological Research Mining Bureau) CAFOD

Catholic Agency for Overseas Development

CASSET

Collectif des Associations d’Éleveurs du Tchad (Collective of Stockbreeders

Associations of Chad)

CIRAD

Centre International de Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (Centre for

International Research on Environment and Development)

COPIL

Comité de pilotage (Steering committee)

CSFD

Comité Scientifique Français de la Désertification (French Scientific Committee on

Desertification) DEN ERE

Directorate for Nomadic Education

Development Ltd

EU

European Union

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations

FNE

Fonds National Elevage (National Livestock Fund)

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FONADEL

Fonds National de Développement de l’Elevage (National Livestock Development Fund)

HVA

Hydraulique villageoise et assainissement (Village water and sanitation)

IFAD

International Fund for Agricultural Development

IGAD

Inter-Governmental Authority for Development

ILRI

International Livestock Research Institute

IRAM

Institut de Recherche et d’Applications des Méthodes de Développement (Institute for Research and Application of Development Methods)

ISD

Integrated Security Detachment

LRVZ

Laboratoire de Recherche Vétérinaire et Zootechnique (Veterinary and Zootechnical Research Laboratory)

MDPPA

Ministère du Développement pastoral et des productions animales (Ministry of Pastoral Development and Livestock Production)

MHUR

Ministère de l’Hydraulique urbaine et rurale (Ministry of Urban and Rural Water)

ME

Ministère de l’Élevage (Ministry of Livestock)

NAPA

National Adaptation Plan of Action

NICT

New Information and Communication Technologies

NSPR

National Strategy for Poverty Reduction

PADL-GRN Programme d’appui au développement local et à la gestion des ressources naturelles (Local development and natural resource management support programme) PAFIB

Programme d’appui à la filière bovine (Beef sector support programme)

PMTRA Plan à moyen terme de la recherche agronomique (Medium-term agricultural research plan) PNDE Programme national du développement de l’élevage (National livestock development programme) PROHYPA Projet d’hydraulique pastorale (Pastoral Water Project) PW

Pastoral water

SCBF

Study and Capacity Building Fund

SDA

Schéma directeur de l’agriculture (Master Plan for Agriculture)

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SDC

Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation

SDEA Schéma directeur de l’eau et de l’assainissement (Master Plan for Water and Sanitation) SIDRAT

Système d’Information Développement Rural et Aménagement du Territoire (Information System for Rural Development and Land Planning)

SP

Scenario Planning

TFP

Technical and Financial Partners

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

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Réhabilitation des marchés centraux – Les leçons tirées des projets de Ouagadougou, Mahajanga et Phnom Penh Bilan des évaluations décentralisées réalisées par l’AFD en 2010 et 2011 Étude sur la facilité d’innovation sectorielle pour les ONG (FISONG) Cartographie des prêts budgétaires climat de l’AFD Méta-évaluation des projets « lignes de crédit » Bilan des évaluations de projets réalisées par l’AFD entre 2007 et 2009 Impacts des projets menés dans le secteur de la pêche artisanale au Sénégal L’assistance technique résidente – Enseignements tirés d’un appui au secteurde l’éducation en Mauritanie Évaluation partenariale des projets d’appui à la gestion des parcs nationauxau Maroc AFD Municipal Development Project in the Palestinian Territories Évaluation ex post de 15 projets ONG à Madagascar Analyse croisée de vingt-huit évaluations décentraliséessur le thème transversal du renforcement des capacités Étude des interventions post-catastrophe de l’AFD La coopération française dans le secteur forestier du Bassin du Congosur la période 1990-2010 Suivi de la réalisation des objectifs des projets de l’AFD : état des lieux Cartographie des engagements de l’AFD dans les fonds fiduciairessur la période 2004-2010 Addressing Development Challenges in Emerging Asia:A Strategic Review of the AFD-ADB Partnership Final Report, Period covered: 1997-2009 Capitalisation des démarches pour la mise en oeuvre des projets de formation professionnelle : cas de la Tunisie et du Maroc Bilan de l’assistance technique à la Fédération des paysans du Fouta Djallon(FPFD) en Guinée : 15 ans d’accompagnement Adapter les pratiques opérationnelles des bailleurs dans les États fragiles Cartographie de portefeuille des projets biodiversité Analyse sur la période 1996-2008Cartography of the AFD Biodiversity Project Portfolio:Analysis of the Period 1996-2008 Microfinance dans les États fragiles : quelques enseignements de l’expérience de l’AFD Un exemple d’amélioration de la gouvernance locale à travers le partenariat AFD / coopération décentralisée : capitalisation du projet de réhabilitation des marchés de Mahajanga Pratique de l’aide sectorielle : enseignements et perspectives pour l’AFD Sector Program Support in Practice: Lessons and Perspectives for AFD L’appui à l’hévéaculture familiale : capitalisation sur l’expérience AFD Developing Smallholder Rubber Production : Lessons from AFD’s Experience Évaluation rétrospective du projet FFEM d’efficacité énergétique dans la construction en Afghanistan Ex-post Évaluation of the FGEF Energy Efficiency Project in the Construction Sector in Afghanistan Évaluation des “Cadres d’Intervention Pays” (CIP) Études d’évaluation de la société immobilière de Nouvelle-Calédonie Les collaborations opérationnelles entre l’AFD et les ONG 2010 2010 Évaluation prospective • Projet Urban IV • Cartographie des projets d’efficacité énergétiques et d’énergies renouvelables AFD et FFEM Évaluation de l’usage de la concessionnalité dans les interventions de l’AFD en Afrique du Sud (1995/2005)