Knowledge Production at AFD - Issues and Orientations

Agence Française de Développement

Working paper

December 2014

Knowledge Production at AFD Stakes and Orientations

Studies and Research

Agence Française de Développement 5 rue Roland Barthes 75012 Paris - France www.afd.fr

140

This strategy paper was presented to AFD’s Board of Directors on 10th July 2014. It was produced through collective work led

by Alain HENRY and the Research Department.

Publications Director: Anne PAUGAM Editorial Director: Alain HENRY ISSN: 1958-539X Copyright: 4th quarter 2014

Translation: Warren O'CONNELL Layout: Elsa MURAT

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

2

Contents

Introduction

5

1.

The stakes of knowledge

7

1.1

Questions of development

1.2

A relatively homogeneous international corpus

10

2.

An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

14

7

2.1

A body of practical knowledge

14

2.2

A decade of broad-ranging, studies and research

17

2.3

Applicable and cumulative knowledge

20

3.

Activities, partnerships and products

23

3.1

Activities and organisation

23

3.2

Research partnerships

25

3.3

AFD's knowledge products

26

Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms

29

4.

4.1

Multidisciplinary and contextualised research

29

4.2

Priority areas and themes

31

4.3

Greater clarity and accessibility

36

Conclusion

37

Appendices

38

42

Acronyms and abbreviations

References

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

45

3

Introduction

The Agence Française de Développement (AFD) has a

years. Overall, AFD develops a vision of development

dual mandate to finance sustainable development and

strategies that is pragmatic, systemic and contextualised,

produce knowledge. The second aspect of this mandate

particularly due to its dual experience as a project funder

aims to enhance strategies and provide concrete responses

and bilateral aid operator. And the visibility of AFD’s

to the challenges of poverty and sustainable development.

knowledge production has been gaining ground. However,

This means learning from experience, anticipating future

this paper proposes some far-reaching changes to its

challenges, proposing innovative solutions, and promoting

study and research activities: (i) a more specific focus on

exchanges between actors and geographies. This mandate

operational issues, (ii) greater readability of its knowledge

enables AFD to contribute to international debates and

inputs and how these can be applied to programmes, (iii)

further France’s influence. This knowledge production is

a grounding in multidisciplinary and more contextualised

systematically conducted in partnership with the academic

analyses that make the link between the economy and

world, to which AFD brings its specific knowledge of

society and, finally, (iv) furthering the influence of French

concrete development issues as well as privileged access

aid in international debates. The third part of the paper

to the fields involved.

describes how these orientations will be implemented – by creating new outputs that break away from the mainstream.

This paper presents the stakes and orientations for AFD

AFD’s knowledge production will be structured around six

in terms of knowledge production for the next five years

main areas. This will entail strengthening partnerships with

(2014 - 2018).

French research for development, as well as research with partner countries.

The first part of this paper recalls the main global challenges, their number and scale, as well as the complexity of the

AFD will more effectively disseminate and promote the

questions raised. Yet, the corpus of knowledge developed by

knowledge it produces vis-à-vis international aid actors. It will

the international community is still relatively homogeneous

contribute to the pooling of research focused on innovative

and normative, underpinned by some basic principles that

paradigms that afford fresh solutions and knowledge for

crucially need to be discussed. The second part briefly

sustainable and solidarity-based development.

reviews AFD’s intellectual production over the past ten

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

5

1. The stakes of knowledge

Globalisation is ambivalent. It leads to greater uncertainty

a greater interdependence among societies than by an

and complexity as well as greater interdependence among

increase in international trade. The share of trade in the

societies. It raises a whole host of critical questions involving

world economy is certainly much lower than is commonly

as much the balance of natural resources as the difficulty of

believed.1 Some consider that the future ecological transition

crafting rules for living together.

will rely at least as much on regional economies as on international trade. Yet, global interdependence is already

Although the past twenty-five years of globalisation have

making itself felt when it comes to accessing strategic

gone hand in hand with significant progress – the proportion

resources – energy, rare earths, information, patents, etc.

of people living under the poverty line has halved from 43%

This trend is accompanied by increasing vulnerability and

to 21% – global developments clearly pose formidable

unpredictability.

threats. This has been shown by the tight succession of crises – ecological, financial, economic, social, political,

In this setting, global research today plays a critical role.

health, food, etc. The world is now a riskier place, buffeted

It necessarily focuses on a vast number of questions that

by what seems to be an increasing number of shocks. These

are related as much to environmental management as to

changes incite us to review our ways of thinking.

poverty reduction, and it targets both the local and global levels. Aid actors and donors, for their part, are more directly

The stakes of the green transition (including climate change),

concerned with public policy management and therefore

increasing food requirements and the aggravation of certain

more with economic and social sciences than natural

inequalities call on us to envisage “different” growth models

sciences. However, the knowledge developed to date is

in which the economy accords better with the vision that

still too far removed from local realities and is implicitly

societies have of themselves (their idea of the “social

underpinned by beliefs that can be called into question.

contract”). In fact, globalisation is characterised more by

1.1 Questions of development

The central issue of sustainable and shared development

to access greater well-being, while safeguarding the planet

can be summed up as follows: How can we reduce extreme

from consumption that destroys natural balances… and this

poverty and enable the middle classes in emerging societies

under the constraint of predictable population growth?

1 According to Ghemawat (2011), international phone calls account for only 2% of the total number of calls, first-generation immigrants account for only 3% of the world’s population, and exports make up only 20% of the global economy.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

7

1. The stakes of knowledge

Today, no one has the solution to this equation, which will

improve social and economic well-being. Although poverty

only be solved by taking into account the need for a balance

has declined markedly (measured solely on the indicator

between territories. The question does, however, call for

of daily income), a large proportion of the population is still

urgent responses, which we can break down into three main

deprived of access to a minimum level of well-being (low

groups (for the sake of convenience, but they are closely

life expectancy, poor access to basic services, absence of

interrelated).

modern energy). While inequality between countries has decreased in recent decades, it has continued to rise within

A first group of questions concerns the equilibria of natural

countries.3 Extreme poverty persists, particularly in the least

systems and the constraints on resources, be it the carbon

developed countries and Sub-Saharan Africa, and one of the

impact of human activities on climate, the destruction of living

major challenges lies in the capacity to guarantee a minimum

species, ocean acidity, chemical pollution, the preservation

social safety net and access to basic services for all.4

of agricultural land, water resources and energy, or the development of urban centres.2 Today, the amount of non-

At the global level, new forms of coordination are slowly being

recycled waste is constantly increasing. For example, the

developed. Progress is being made with the enactment of

density of plastic particles in the North Pacific is now higher

harmonised rules – as with process of the Paris Declaration

than that of plankton. Almost a third of the world’s food

on Aid Effectiveness – but this nevertheless falls short of

production goes to waste. Human food supply looms as

the challenges. It will require nations to look beyond their

one of the critical challenges for 2050. According to the

own legitimate interests and particularisms for the sake of

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), sea

common challenges. However, new divides are opening up.

levels are expected to rise by between 50 centimetres and

The large emerging countries have been both actors and

1 metre by 2100. The transition to a low-carbon economy can

beneficiaries of globalisation, while growth in Sub-Saharan

no longer be postponed. The “green economy” is not simply

Africa remains highly concentrated in the primary sectors,

the current economy corrected by a “greening coefficient”,

and Europe is seeking new openings to counter its economic

but necessarily one based on choices that are assessed for

slowdown. Aside from the economic aspects, international

the long term. It has yet to be defined, both in terms of its

relations carry major political stakes: what stances will China

incentive and equilibrium models and new sectoral policies.

adopt given its latent rivalry with the USA? What will the

The questions are only very partially technical and call,

situation be like in ten years’ time in an Arab world where

above all, for new forms of economy and governance.

ongoing political transformations are riddled with powerful Islamic movements divided among themselves?

A second group of questions concerns living together and the future of the world’s seven billion human beings (some

Another major challenge lies in the cultural and political

nine billion by 2050). Lévi-Strauss (1971) underlined the risk

heterogeneity of societies. Although the State model is

that population explosion poses to human progress, or even

the only one to be recognised by the international system,

to the survival of the species. The question of living together

tribal and community attachments are still a powerful force

on a global scale comes up against diverse obstacles. A first

across the world. At the same time, the rights of individuals

issue, at local level, is to give each human being access

and communities raise questions. The dissemination of

to basic capabilities (in Amartya Sen’s sense, i.e. access

education contributes to the expansion of the “modern”

for all to healthcare, education, networks, etc.) and to

ideals of democracy, freedom of expression, reduced

2

Cf. Rockström et al. (2009).

3

Cf. Giraud (1996) and Bourguignon (2012).

4

Cf. Severino and Ray (2011).

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

8

1. The stakes of knowledge

inequality, gender equality, shared access to public goods,

member countries. Against a backdrop of strengthened

etc. Yet, paradoxically, there is a simultaneous rise in

commitments and a fast growing number of actors, the

identity-based demands and irredentism. Religion is taking

role of traditional donors is being increasingly challenged.

on a growing importance, regardless of countries’ levels of

The concepts on which aid was built are a thing of the past

economic development. The universality of “modern” ideals

(First World/Third World, North/South, donors/beneficiaries,

is being challenged,5 and putting them into practice requires

rich and poor countries, etc.; cf. Zoellick, 2011). And the

compromises specific to each context (d’Iribarne, 2012).

multilateralisation of international relations has reshuffled the former hierarchies that underpinned aid.

The challenges and questions are thus many, and on a vast scale. The responses will be at the same time environmental,

Donor effectiveness has become a pivotal issue. Donors

social (or rather societal) and economic. It is estimated,

are asked to increase the impact of the programmes and

for instance, that food needs in 2050 can be adequately

public policies that they finance. Yet, a number of projects

met provided the solutions are not only agricultural, but

due for mainstreaming into public policies all too often

also environmental, institutional and economic (Guillou and

remain at the “pilot” stage. At the same time, the competition

Matheron, 2011). Questions relating to the environment

created between donors gives rise to fashion trends:

and development must give rise to unified doctrines. Future

solutions dominate the debate… until a new watchword

climate agreements will therefore need to be included in an

ousts the previous one. Donors need to open up to other

agenda for development.

contributors, propose new instruments, support economic and social change, and provide practical expertise and

Finally, in this context, donors and aid actors must reconsider

innovation capacities (economic, institutional and social).

their role. Today’s world is not the one that the architects of

Donors’ intellectual production must imperatively learn from

Bretton Woods knew, in terms of its political, technological,

experience – the reasons for failure, for success and the

monetary, financial and commercial aspects. In 1990 – the

unresolved questions. They need to analyse the mainsprings

year that the Internet was introduced – developing countries

of innovation and change: What conditions are necessary for

accounted for a fifth of global output. Nowadays, the six

scaling-up? How can innovation be moved from the “pilot”

emerging economies account for half of global output and

stage into generalised policy?

the trend is expected to increase. Towards 2030, when the average income in China is forecast to reach USD 16,000

Each society must produce knowledge for itself. All the

(up from USD 4,000 today), the current weight of fifteen

scientific disciplines are involved. Donors, however, focus

South Koreas is likely to be added to the global economy.

their knowledge production primarily on public management.

Emerging countries have demonstrated their ability to come

They are less concerned with “hard” sciences, except

up with solutions that had not been anticipated by donors. The

to ensure that technical innovations become embedded

aid landscape is changing fast and includes new partners:

in development processes. Generally speaking, donors

emerging

organisations

contribute to the production of a public good consisting

(NGOs), vertical funds, foundations, international firms –

of knowledge that is open and available for development

sometimes with more funds than those of the Organisation

purposes.

countries,

non-governmental

for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

5 The Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, adopted in 1990 by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation to the UN, aims to differentiate itself from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

9

1. The stakes of knowledge

1.2 A relatively homogeneous international corpus

Knowledge production for development is now part and

capitalism (control of resources is under the Party’s authority)

parcel of donor activity. It plays a role in public policy

managed separately from the opening up of markets in

formulation, in the dissemination of “good practice” or as a

goods and protected from world financial markets. The

decision-making tool, and contributes to the development

“Chinese path” (Aglietta and Bai, 2012) has been led by

of common global governance. First initiated by multilateral

State bureaucracy, imbued with a culture of family devotion

institutions – the first World Bank Chief Economist was

and friendship networks rooted in the Empire’s distant past.

appointed in 1972 – this activity dates back about ten

The Party has retained its role as a guardian of harmony

years for regional banks and bilateral donors (Department

(in a sense close to the notion of order). Growth has come

for International Development [DFID], Gesellschaft für

about following an experimental, pragmatic path that was not

Internationale Zusammenarbeit [GIZ], Japan International

planned in advance. The controlled opening of the market

Cooperation Agency [JICA] and AFD).

was seen simply as a means, a choice aimed at effectiveness and adaptable to constantly readjusted objectives.

The body of knowledge shared by donors is abundant and diversified. It is constantly evolving. However, given its

It would be an understatement to say that India is at the

multilateral roots, it retains a strongly universal scope based

antipodes of the Chinese example. Firstly, it is based on

on normative definitions and framed at the necessary level

a formal democracy, secondly, it tolerates disorder and,

of abstraction to ensure its validity – this normative role is

lastly, it is highly fragmented along multiple ethnic, linguistic,

advocated by the OECD and UN institutions. It is often far-

religious, cultural and regional lines. The 1980s economic

removed from the field, couched in a discourse disconnected

take-off arrived well ahead of liberalisation measures, which

from reality and relatively uniform (Jullien, 2008), which

were integrated ten years later into the existing framework.

means that it needs to be discussed and completed with

It was driven by the ambivalence of the heirs of Indian

reference to specific situations. In the economic sphere –

socialism, who initiated a policy favouring large family groups

and even though analyses are constantly evolving – the

(financial support, preferential access to public procurement,

prevailing discourse of the major financial institutions vaguely

precedence for certain infrastructures, the reining in of trade

intimates that priority is given to opening up markets,

unions; cf. Kohli, 2006). Social tolerance for contradictions,

deregulation and countervailing actions. It has not made

the social imaginary and creativity are all ingredients that

it possible to anticipate actual development trajectories.

have fostered growth as a priority over the reduction of

Several authors who criticise the mainstream economic

inequalities (Pattanaik, 2013).6

discourse (cf. Severino and Ray, op. cit.) have shown that emerging economies have not followed the prescribed

Brazil is yet another example of State intervention, reflecting

models and that the State has played a determining role. Yet,

a different representation of the State’s role. The need to

they placed less emphasis on the specific character of their

build structural coalitions among national actors (political

institutional models and the related political cultures, as the

parties, landed oligarchy, private business owners, state-

following simplified illustrations show.

owned companies, the military, civil servants, trade unionists, churches, social movements) compels the federal State

China’s growth, its rapidity and its capacity for reform

to devise compromises (Bizberg and Théret, 2012) that

challenge the familiar patterns. It is based on a form of State

produce a unique blend of the developmental model and

6 Devdutt Pattanaik is Chief Belief Officer of Future Group, a large private retail group.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

10

1. The stakes of knowledge

a liberal economy – Brazil is one of the terrains where the

individual contribution; an instinctive mistrust of any kind

theory of import substitution has been most fully applied.

of authority, which by its very nature is tempted to distort

On the one hand, the State has supported public-sector

competition and promote unproductive behaviour. In this

groups, the national development bank, densification of

vision, social ties result from connecting up individual

the inter-industry matrix and deeper development of the

interests, as in the model of utilitarian philosophies. “Good

domestic market. On the other hand, it has facilitated private

governance” plays a key role in this by setting strict limits

investment, effective devolution to the federal States and

on powers, when the latter cannot be dispensed with. This

municipalities, and a low level of supervision of local banks.

vision implies a strong moral role of the group – village, ethnic group, parish or company – as a framework for community

Many such examples could be cited to illustrate the diversity

integration. Here, the idea of a spontaneous manifestation of

of models: for instance, a comparison between the cases

the “win-win” principle still has currency.

of Mexico and Argentina, which are mistakenly likened on account of their apparent similarities (European colonial

What we see here is an implicit structure – property

past, federal states with a presidential system, constitutions

rights, primacy of competition, aversion to authority and

inspired by that of the USA and high social inequality), but

community values – that underpins much of the research

which in fact have extremely different institutional, societal

on development economics. This structure develops a

and economic forms.

reference. It conveys a particular vision of the relationship with the world and pilots global thinking like a clandestine

The State has played a significant role the world over, but in

driver (implicitly imposing a doxa).

each case this has been based of forms, representations and imaginaries specific to each country. Mainstream economic

This reference simply furnishes underlying logics. It can be

discourse, however, is characterised by implicit common

utilised to support different theories that may even contradict

ground, as evidenced by the 2013 edition of the Human

each other. It effortlessly managed to materialize in the

Development Report (World Bank, 2013): despite all of the

“Washington Consensus”, but was not a product of this.

authors’ precautions to respect the diversity of situations and

Other studies, inspired by the same logics, predicted that

avoid the “one-size-fits-all” syndrome, the report emphasises

the world would eventually adopt Anglo-Saxon institutions

in its conclusion the ultimate primacy of competition and

(Fukuyama, 1992).7 Although their theory now seems dated,

freedom of enterprise, and that “the need to remedy the

the attachment to these logics remains intact. Speaking to a

institutional failures and market imperfections […] is common

group of academics in 2010,8 the previous President of the

to all”. There are also other logics: the universal nature of

World Bank – after insisting that the Washington Consensus

Western property rights (inherited from Roman law); the

was no more, that the experience of emerging countries

primacy of competition not so much as an optimal means

meant abandoning any “unique and universal framework for

of allocating resources, but as the sole objective judge of

reflection”, and that, as a non-economist, he was agnostic to

7 A similar proposal, in a more elaborate form, can be found with Douglas NORTH et al. (2009).

8 Cf. Zoellick (2010): “Yes, there are some basic principles we can follow: a belief in property rights; contract rights; the use of markets; getting incentives right; the benefits of competition within and across economies; the importance of education; macro-economic stability. … I would maintain that a competitive market should be the economy’s fundamental mechanism for allocating resources. But there are market failures. There are also government failures – including an inability to correct market failures. There is an important role for good governance, anti-corruption and the rule of law, and governance will go beyond considerations of simple economic efficiency.”

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

11

1. The stakes of knowledge

all theories and bowed down to no taboo – noted that some

policy. Each society appropriates the principles and impetus

“basic principles” in which “we can believe” did indeed exist

that it receives from the outside, in matters of markets,

(thus clearly a matter of belief rather than ideology): property

finance or techniques, for example, according to its own

rights; the requirements of the market and competition; the

logics.

educational community; government shortcomings… Certain flagship themes taken up by the international community

Regular patterns crosscutting different sectors and fields

in recent years – participative approach, pro-poor growth,

of management are generally visible in the way this

inclusiveness – come across as kinds of softeners to ease

appropriation operates. When a given country looks at what

the harsh social realities of this vision.

works (in order to replicate it) and what works less well (in order to correct it), we find a unity of local representations

Real societies are based on more diverse models whose

in areas as diverse as the use of contracts, management,

references include customary or hybrid property rights,

evaluation, law and even areas that are generally viewed as

specific representations of the State, figures of social ties

encompassing the most intangible dimensions (d’Iribarne,

(family, friends…) other than those of a moral community,

2013). This regularity makes it possible to understand how

etc. Moreover, these models are compatible with widely

institutional specificities emerge. The hypothesis of each

diverse economic practices – that can include liberal visions.

society having its own model shaped by its history, based on

They do not necessarily contradict the economic policies of

its own vision of the social contract and embodied in specific

recent decades, which have served to eliminate a number

institutions and policies makes it possible to take better

of rent effects and invigorate the global economy. They

account of the social and economic realities of each.

do, however, imply taking a closer look at the coherence of institutions at the local level.

One of the challenges for knowledge production lies in developing a body of contextualised analyses that reflect

Development trajectories are grounded in institutional

diverse realities and shed light on the linkages between

arrangements specific to each society’s history and

the economy, institutions, societies and concrete forms of

cultural genius. The State, whatever its perceived or real

governance. A contextualised approach is more universal

shortcomings, embodies a figure that is specific to the

than one produced by single reference model: it means

imaginary and representations of each individual society. It is

apprehending development models within their own societal

a producer of collective meaning and organises the network

logics. Empirical research, which may sometimes suffer

of institutions – the set of more or less formal cultural, legal

from a degree of approximation but yet able to highlight

or organisational rules – that shape political, social and

local coherences, can be of more use than seemingly highly

economic interactions (North, 1990).9 Institutions and public

rigorous research that proposes general laws to the entire

policy strive to reconcile the social contract specific to each

planet.

society with the principles of economic effectiveness (e.g. protect the vulnerable, support certain initiatives, labour law,

Due to AFD’s dual role as an operational and bilateral donor,

etc.).

sensitive to the specifics of geography and populations, the agency is in a vantage position to focus on the logics specific

Elaborating a network of institutions that makes sense – and

to each context.

is thus relatively effective – is a key issue for development

9 In this seminal work, North opens the door to understanding the diversity of societies, but shuts it again in his Violence and Social Orders (2009), where he enshrines the historical supremacy of the American political model.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

12

2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

AFD’s knowledge production is an essential component

has confirmed the quality of the production thus far, as

of its mandate and complementary to its financial activity.

well as the need for AFD to have an autonomous capacity

The three objectives set out in its most recent Strategic

for reflection. It points up possible avenues for progress,

Orientation Plan are: (i) to learn lessons from experience

including the formulation of a clear strategy, an objective

(learn from the past), (ii) to contribute to debates on aid

of influence and more effective promotion of publications.

by making new proposals (influence ideas), and (iii) to

This paper is the first formalisation of AFD’s knowledge

anticipate future developments (propose future solutions).

production strategy.

The Orientation Plan also defines four priority thrusts: the first three – environment and development, growth modelling

In a first section, we outline the knowledge gained from

and social cohesion, and financing aid – correspond to

AFD’s experience and its sectoral strategies. We then

the three groups of questions outlined above; the fourth

offer an overview of the studies and research produced

thrust ensures AFD’s contribution to reflection on the

by the institution in recent years. A third section focuses

French overseas territories. The report commissioned from

on the question of how results are used, based on some

Professor Jean-Louis Reiffers (Reiffers and Vincent, 2013)

illustrations.

2.1 A body of practical knowledge

AFD’s operational experience is one of its assets in terms of

capacities, public-private partnerships, microfinance,

knowledge of development mechanisms. Over its seventy

vocational training, energy efficiency, the economies of

years of existence, it has financed no fewer than several

the French overseas territories, fragile states and states

hundred projects in dozens of countries. The economic

in crisis, and migration. AFD supports an in-depth renewal

analysis of projects, the formulation of sectoral strategies

of public policies in favour of balanced and sustainable

and the monitoring of macroeconomic situations form the

development. The knowledge associated with each of these

cornerstone of AFD’s knowledge.

topics represents “nuggets” that can leverage France’s intellectual influence. Yet, sectoral aspects aside, donors in

AFD has an expertise recognised by its peers in multiple

general still need to make significant headway in improving

domains. The following list is neither exhaustive nor in

their grasp of societal contexts and recognising that the

any particular order: the fight against climate change, land

groups concerned have their place in decision-making.

tenure, direct seeding mulch-based cropping systems (DMC), sustainable forest management, the financing of

In recent years, AFD has formalised its strategic frameworks

biodiversity, financing for local authorities, development

by sector, by thematic area, by country or by region. Each of

macroeconomics, the links between growth and institutional

these strategic documents sets out the ways in which AFD

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

14

2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

envisions its contribution to the Millennium Development

innovation. Lastly, focus on the specificities of contexts must

Goals (MDGs) and to global public goods (GPGs) by

involve public policy design, within local logics.

presenting the public policies that AFD wishes to promote.

A cross-cutting reading of these strategic frameworks

Yet, it must be recognised that donors lack in-depth

reveals the principles that characterise AFD’s approach,

knowledge of societies. They are unfamiliar with the groups

which is generally shared by its partners. The approach is

who “receive the projects” (in itself a problematic expression),

differentiated according to contexts, sectors and fields. Its

which thus limits project scope and sustainability. Projects are

concern is to maintain a balance between territories and

sometimes terminated prematurely or not continued. By way

among social groups. It aims to be pragmatic, sustainable

of illustration, it is estimated that in Mali’s rural areas 35% of

and multi-partnered – associating the private and public

hand pumps are inoperative, and that in Sub-Saharan Africa,

sectors and associations.

the operational efficiency of hydro and wind power facilities rarely exceeds 85% (Douat, 2014). Rationales imposed from

A specific feature of this approach is its systemic vision,

the outside also lead to deep disappointment for populations,

which is most likely a French originality. It is interested in

as they see aid slipping away from them or, worse still, they

students and teachers, not only in the classrooms that need

sometimes experience the destruction of their economic,

to be built; it is interested in the patient and his environment,

social and environmental fabric (Catarini, 2014 and 2005).10

not only the disease; it is interested in rural societies and

The success of institutional grafting is limited due to the

farmers, not only agricultural products; it is interested in

biases in negotiations between local administrations and

sectors, not only economic growth, etc. Regarding access

donors, the lack of support for change and inadequate “post-

to healthcare, AFD adopts a spatial vision (the territorial

project” follow-up.

network of health services), whereas others follow an approach focussed more on the diseases to be combated

The MDGs have had the merit of raising global awareness

(AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria). In education, the emphasis

of just how many basic needs remain unmet, whether in the

is on teaching quality and continued training after primary

areas of healthcare, water, sanitation, energy, etc. Yet, they

school. It focuses more on students’ study paths than on

have also tended to reduce this issue to a financial problem:

building infrastructure. In vocational training, it is a matter of

what is lacking, what affordable technical solution exists

matching the labour supply produced by public actors with

and so how much do we need – without forgetting to add

the needs of companies and the labour market. Concerning

training costs? This type of approach does not adequately

small-scale farming, AFD helps to structure value chains and

reflect the task at hand, which is a great deal more complex

organise producers. It involves improving their production so

than installing taps or distributing vaccines. In reality, it

as to increase their incomes, create rural employment, better

involves organising – or reorganising – local sectors, bringing

supply urban areas and strengthen food self-sufficiency.

together trained and competent staff, who need to agree on rules, prices, incentives and controls, in order to create an

The systemic approach calls on certain principles: the

efficient and viable service.

importance placed on regulation, the intermediation function of public authorities, efforts to internalise identified externalities

While the private sector plays an important role in the

as far as possible (to reduce market imperfections, for

infrastructure sectors and the management of basic

instance) and the search for institutional and financial

services, delegation can only be defined by a public

10 The fact that a public policy escapes the beneficiaries that were initially targeted and benefits more affluent populations is nothing new and is something that has to be constantly monitored in all aid policies (cf. the housing assistance policies in France).

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

15

2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

authority. The latter is responsible for defining the sectoral

AFD, together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the

framework stipulating service obligations, for sharing out

Technological Research and Exchange Group (GRET),

responsibilities and balancing finances. It is also responsible

supports the Land and Development Committee,11 which

for ensuring that these arrangements are implemented.

includes diverse and multidisciplinary actors. Its purpose

French experience shows that many diverse solutions

is to obtain recognition of property rights and secure them

exist in this field, and not simply a single one-size-fits-all

for populations in developing countries. The Committee

solution. AFD supports a wide variety of arrangements,

supports the definition and application of land policies

but reality dictates that the objectives be adapted to the

adapted to their specific context, with a view to giving as

means. To establish basic services in less-favoured areas

many people as possible access to land and ensuring

(health and education, water and sanitation, energy for

more effective management. The Committee has driven

all), participatory approaches are particularly necessary.

a better understanding at the international level regarding

Fundamental environmental issues must also be taken

the diversity of rights and the need for a multi-stakeholder

into account (this is particularly the case for the use of

dialogue on land issues. Over the past fifteen years, it has

renewable energies). Tariff conditions must allow universal

addressed several critical issues concerning land policies

access to networks, while at the same time promoting

and land markets, which typically involve large-scale land

efficient use.

grabbing.

Conurbation growth is one of the major silent transformations

AFD is one of the few donors to have concrete experience

of the planet: cities accelerate economic, social and cultural

in support to local contracting authorities. In fact, the

exchanges, but their densification and congestion also lead

agency stands out from most bilateral donors, who manage

to opposite results. This crucially calls for a spatial approach

projects themselves using their own procedures (as is the

to the urban structure and its flows (transport, sanitation,

case of European Union, for example). AFD, on the other

services, energy, etc.). The wave of decentralisation that

hand, systematically operates through the structures and

is continuously spreading across many countries raises

procedures of its partners.

management issues and requires support tailored to the partners’ contexts. AFD therefore contributes to financing

Its approach is comparable to that used by multilateral

local authorities, which often have no access to other

banks, although the latter tend to impose their own

sources of external public financing.

procedures and documents. The support that AFD gives to strengthening local contracting authorities constitutes per

The same approaches are applied to the French overseas

se one of the main added values of its operations. At the

territories, taking account of their geographical singularities

same time, it gives the Agency a concrete understanding of

(Caribbean, South America, Indian Ocean and Pacific).

local institutional capacities.

Their economic integration into the regional environment is one of AFD’s areas of intervention. Trade with neighbouring

Developing financial solutions and new products is also an

countries, most of which are also AFD partners, offers

important area for AFD. Reducing barriers to development

a way of supporting joint development and the regional

funding is one of the mandates of donors. AFD seeks

production of global public goods (climate, biodiversity,

to offer a wide range of products tailored to its partners’

energy efficiency, healthcare).

demand. The aim is not to select the good risks (which is the norm for commercial banks), but to offer innovative

11

http://www.foncier-developpement.fr

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

16

2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

solutions in terms of risk-hedging. Risk analysis is part of

of jobs and income, environmental destruction).

AFD’s expertise and is constantly evolving (for example, to take political or energy risks into account). Donors have

AFD’s experience-based knowledge represents a substantial

an international regulatory role: they must seek to amplify

capital, but is not sufficient in itself. The agency also

the benefits of globalisation (expanded commercial outlets,

supports research in order to enhance its comprehension

financing for change, dissemination of knowledge and

of development matters, resolve unanswered questions and

techniques) and try to limit its harmful effects (polarised

offer its partners more appropriate solutions.

production capacity, widening inequality, unequal distribution

2.2 A decade of wide-ranging studies and research

Over the past ten years, AFD has supported and produced a

for decision-making: what structural changes should

large number of studies and research, which have given rise

be targeted in priority, depending on the countries and

to publications and conferences (see below). It is impossible

sectors? Fossil fuel prices are not sufficient means of

to summarise all of this research and its results, but we can

regulation. At the same time, CO2 emissions remain

offer an overview of recent and ongoing research.

above the levels judged to be acceptable in relation to the ceiling for climate change. But what types of

The studies and research conducted by AFD cover a

regulation should be given priority and on what scale?

diversified field calling for a variety of competencies. The

What other incentives need to be introduced in terms of

studies, applied research and theoretical research should

income or job creation to promote increased production

not be placed in opposition. Research can alternate between

of environmental goods?

empirical stages and conceptual phases that sometimes overlap. Some purely theoretical discoveries may well have

-- Growth models and social cohesion: this theme brings

12

far-reaching practical applications (even in mathematics),

together various questions. How can the world’s food

and the idea of setting them in opposition derives from a

requirements be met over the next thirty years and new

sociological logic rather than a scientific reality.

rural balances enabled? How can access to education and training be improved and employment increased?

The studies supported by AFD are divided into four priority

How can we better understand the links between

areas set out in the Strategic Orientation Plan: (i) environment

governance, institutional capacities and long-term

and sustainable development, (ii) growth models and social

growth? What are the drivers of the demographic and

cohesion, (iii) economies in the French overseas territories,

migration trends? What social protection floors need

(iv) architecture of aid and financial innovations (see the

to be built? How can we further the modernisation of

summary of recent and ongoing research in Appendix 1).

societies, gender mainstreaming or the understanding of cultures and religions? The issue of governance, which

-- Environment and sustainable development: the issues

is frequently discussed among donors, is many-sided. It

of climate change, biodiversity preservation and green

covers diverse realities relating to economic, financial,

transition (what this term acutally encompasses needs

territorial, administrative, legal and political governance.

clarifying) are crucial. Public officials require support

Governance and development are seen as being

12

Like Newton’s convergence sequence; cf. Cédric Villani (2012), Théorème vivant, Grasset.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

17

2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

interconnected, although no simple correlation has been

Macroeconomic assessment also occupies a central place

found, even if there are clear linkages with the dynamics

at AFD, both for defining its financing strategies and for

of long-term growth. Governance is also considered to

managing risks. As a development actor, AFD must indeed

be critical factor in resolving the world food challenge.

build its strategies on an analysis of macroeconomic

It is synonymous with sound public management and

situations and trajectories, and gather information on

also dominates basic services management (education,

each country regarding the composition of its production

health, etc.). The shortcomings in basic service and

factors, its productivity potential, its sectoral and regional

infrastructure management are critical barriers to the

issues, its commercial and financial position, the state of

growth of the formal economy, particularly in the least

its public finances, and its economic financing needs. For

developed countries and Sub-Saharan Africa.

example, in the Mediterranean, the low productivity gains of recent years indicate that there are significant needs for

-- Economies in the French overseas territories: in the

vocational training that do not appear to have been met by

context of France’s protracted economic crisis, the

the efforts already deployed. In the Sahel, the low level of

overseas territories need to find their own specific new

access to modern energy and the energy dependence of

models. They are driven by different demographic, social

some countries result in actions to boost power generation

and economic dynamics specific to each individual

facilities. In the French overseas territories, structural

territory and which strongly impact policies on health,

deficits in the long-term resources of local banks justify

education, housing, energy and the environment.

putting in place an additional range of financing.

They each face the key challenge of developing comparative advantages which they can leverage vis-

AFD itself monitors the macroeconomic risk in its countries

à-vis international competition and in their regional

of operation and the global economic situation. It has its

environment.

own dedicated macroeconomic assessment tool, which is adapted to its activity and enables it to form an independent

-- Architecture of aid and financial innovations: the

opinion. It also relies on its network of local agencies. The

financing needs for the fight against poverty and

methodology used breaks down risk assessment into five

the green transition are substantial. Donor-supplied

“pillars” – the socio-political context, the growth regime, the

funding will continue to fall short. It can play only a

financial system and stability (banks and financial markets),

catalytic role. A fresh analysis of the systemic risks and

public finances and solvency, and external financing and

development objectives must spur proposals of new

solvency.

financial tools. Intermediation via bank credit lines is a way to leverage incentives but it nonetheless raises

The recent financial crises have shown that markets

questions as to the level of interest subsidies to be

continue to be imbued with beliefs that lead actors to

granted. AFD has also demonstrated the feasibility of

reason along similar lines and which prove a posteriori to

devising countercyclical financing, with amortisation

haven been unfounded (Valerian, 2011). AFD’s capacity for

being adjusted in response to market fluctuations. At

macroeconomic analysis must enable it to address certain

different levels, financial innovation is a decisive factor

critical questions about its geographical areas of operation:

for attracting new investments. At the same time, an

What are the links between growth and employment in the

understanding of the current changes caused by the

Mediterranean? What are the current growth fundamentals

arrival of new actors in the world of aid is also needed.

in African countries? What impact does the monetary

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

18

2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

anchor of the Franc zone have on its competitiveness? How

The production of economic data is an essential need.

can the export diversification be supported in countries that

It conditions economic decision-making and the validity

are sensitive to commodity market conditions?

of public policy. It also meets a fundamental need for economic research. AFD must contribute to the production

Finally, AFD’s evaluation function meets a dual and

of economic data and information, which are a public

essential requirement of accountability and capitalisation.

good. The weakness of national statistics systems in Sub-

Both aim to learn lessons from experience and inform

Saharan Africa is a particularly critical issue for the analysis

practices. Evaluation is grounded on a set of rules, in line

and monitoring of economic policies. AFD works with its

with the standards recommended by the OECD: relevance,

partners (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Institute for Research

effectiveness, efficiency, sustainability and impact. The

and Development [IRD], Agricultural Research Centre for

evaluation process draws some its approach from research

International Development [CIRAD], National Institute for

methods: a review of the literature, an empirical field study,

Statistics and Economic Studies [INSEE] and multilaterals)

rigorous quantitative measurements, development of a

to promote the strengthening of local statistical capacities. It

theory of action and a model for understanding. Evaluation

also provides input for several studies (Migrations-Families-

is one of the main sources of learning and knowledge

Ageing with the National Institute for Demographic Studies

building. It must be able to shed light on the paradoxes

[INED] and Migrations-Diasporas-Development with the

observed in projects and provide solutions regarding

OECD and World Bank).

“what works”. Finally, it serves as one of the sources for formulating research questions, on the basis of difficulties

AFD also co-produces the Institutional Profiles Database

that are observed recurrently.

(IPD) with the Ministry of the Economy and Finance. Its aim is to analyse the role of institutions in development and

AFD has taken a particular interest in impact measurements

stimulate research in these areas. This database presents

based on experimental methods (randomized control trial,

132 institutional indicators for 143 countries and covers

or RCT) and quasi-experimental methods. Using a rigorous

a wide range of institutional characteristics. The data are

approach, the purpose is to identify “what works” and

provided by the perceptions of experts. They are subjective

“what does not work”. These methods rely on defining a

by nature and may under no circumstances be used as

without-project situation – constructing what is called a

an aid allocation tool. However, they do provide a clearer

“counterfactual” group – in order to measure the impacts

understanding of the role of institutions and governance in

that can be strictly attributed to the project. These impact

development mechanisms.

evaluations have come to be considered as a knowledge production tool for donors. They do, however, give rise to

It remains difficult to give a full picture of all the work

heated debates that nonetheless converge on the need to

produced in recent years. Its importance can be measured

improve causality tree analysis and set out the conditions

by the sheer number of conferences and publications

for validation of impacts and their contextual character.

realised and the echoes that these have given rise

They also advocate for a better articulation between

to (see below). Yet to better promote this production

quantitative and qualitative approaches and for a focus on

and more effectively determine future content, AFD now

the uncertain aspects of knowledge. The costliness of these

systematically publishes a synthesis of each of its research

studies means that efforts are made to share the financing.

works in an accessible four-page format (A Question of

AFD will, however, continue to use these tools and to

Development).13

strengthen the scientific approach to evaluation.

13

http://librairie.afd.fr/filtres/?terms=1085

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

19

2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

2.3 Applicable and cumulative knowledge

Here, we need to address the question of the utility of this

• Following the failure of the first renewable energy

research and its impact on AFD’s operations: What has it

projects in the Sahel in the 2000s (individual solar

taught us and where does it lead us?

kits), AFD redefined its programmes for a project in Mauritania during the consultation with the communities

There are commonly three main types of use for social

involved, with the assistance of an anthropologist

science and economic research (Delarue et al., 2009). The

(Caratini, 2012). This approach made it possible to

first type is dubbed “instrumental” and includes research

review the initial design for equipment distribution and

that delivers rational responses to the issues raised by

maintenance and integrate the way the project was

actors. This model is based on natural sciences and is what

organised into the concrete social context.

public decision-makers are most eager for. Unfortunately, it is more rarely applicable to the social sciences. The second

In another field, the development of computable general

so-called “cumulative” model considers that research

equilibrium (CGE) models is a fine example of research that

gradually produces conceptual knowledge that modifies the

has operational use. AFD, in partnership with international

actors’ views and their way of formulating questions and

teams, supports the development of macroeconomic

solutions. This is the model that most closely corresponds

models to measure the impacts of climate mitigation and

to the social and economic sciences: research gives

energy transition policies, notably in China, Mexico and

an in-depth understanding of individual and collective

South Africa. The standard CGE models do not currently

behaviour, and improves the understanding of informed

incorporate the specific issues of developing economies,

decision-makers and audiences. Finally, for the third model,

particularly the share of the informal sector and the impact

called “political” or “interactive”, research is a way of

of debt. Very few of them are able to produce a quantitative

documenting public policies and their impacts, in order to

analysis of the inter-sectoral links that characterise the

improve their feasibility and support change, but warns

economy of each country, or analyse the impacts that

against the risk of using the research as a tool.

policy choices have on their ecological structure. The available tools, as well as the tendency to measure

The studies supported by AFD fit these different models, as

carbon impact only for infrastructure projects, carry the

can be seen in the following examples:

embedded risk of short-termism: in other words, favouring actions that produce an immediate effect to the detriment

-- In the first group of “instrumental” research, we

of orientations that could significantly change long-term

can mention the analysis conducted in Kenya on

balances. The climate/energy CGE models used by AFD

natural protected areas. Given the increasing threats

aim to go beyond these these limits, proposing models that

to flora and fauna, an analysis grid was developed

capture the multiple sources of imperfection in transition

making it possible to characterise the different types

and developing economies. These tools reap the benefits

of management (private, public or community-based)

of direct collaboration with local experts and ministerial

and to support their complementarities. This typology

departments in charge of decarbonisation policies. The

facilitated a review of public policies. It has also served

approach thus goes beyond a purely scientific exercise and

as a model in other geographical areas.14

enables support for public policies.

14

Cf. Elliott et al. (2014).

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

20

2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

-- The second group of “conceptual” or “cumulative” studies encompasses a larger share of the research.

should inform the conditions for using this mechanism in other situations.

Mention can be made of recent contributions in various fields relating to the informal economy (the hidden part of

• Along the same lines of cumulative knowledge, we

developing economies), vocational training for informal

could cite the approach that gathered together a

sector beneficiaries, barriers to setting up public-

group of European researchers and senior public

private partnerships for water services, diversification

officials under the “Chatham House Rule”15 in order

of employment in rural areas, reconstruction methods

to shed light on the social, political and economic

in fragile States and post-crisis situations, the global

causes of the crisis in Mali.

dynamics of migration, etc.

-- Finally, a third group of “interactive” research includes studies in which researchers intervene alongside actors (sometimes called action-research), as well as

• There is also research on the links between “good

macroeconomic and risk supervision analyses, and

governance” and long-term growth. The idea had

evaluations. Three examples can be given of this: (i) the

gained ground among donors that good governance

evaluation of the sustainable management strategy for

was all that was needed to ensure rapid and

Congo Basin forests, (ii) the impact evaluation of rural

strong growth. AFD successfully demonstrated that

microfinance in Morocco, (iii) the link between sectoral

there was no obvious cause-effect relationship.

growth and job creation in the Mediterranean.

What is now required is closer investigation of the relationships between political configurations, the

• The first study, which focused on twenty years of

quality of institutions and growth, laying emphasis

experiments by AFD with forest development plans

on the dimensions of equitable human development.

(Samyn et al., 2011), evidenced the substantial

The question of the linkage between institutional

changes brought about by these plans; it also

capacities and growth is one of the major issues in

proposed improving aspects related to biodiversity

Sub-Saharan Africa.

and social responsibility and adapting them to the constraints of small- and medium-sized enterprises

• Another case study: the analysis of the mechanisms

(SMEs). Following discussions with all the partners

for payment for environmental services (PES). The

(private, public and associations), these proposals

idea of establishing an economic link between the

were published as a White Paper for tropical forest

actors who contribute to preserving resources and

management, which is disseminated at regional

those who benefit from them can be illustrated by

and international conferences (Brazzaville and Paris,

the Vittel Water model: the company pays farmers

2012). A large number of these proposals have been

to help preserve the quality of the resource. This

taken up by other countries and donors.

mechanism could be applied to other situations, such as controlling reservoir silting, protecting soil

• Another example is the experimental evaluation of the

or biodiversity, etc. There are, however, many social

introduction of microfinance services in rural areas

apprehensions and institutional barriers. Research

(already developed in urban centres by Al Amana

15 According to this rule, participants express themselves in a personal and not institutional capacity: nothing is quoted and there is no attribution of comments.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

21

2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD

in Morocco; cf. Crépon et al., 2012). The impact

As a result, the study led to an in-depth reorganisation

measurement showed that the project had not led to

of service provision in rural areas.

new activities, although at an economic level it had enabled families to diversify into livestock farming and food production. The increase in incomes did,

• Finally, the production of economic data and information also falls within this category.

however, come at the price of a reduction in families’ wage incomes. After two years, the project had

These few examples illustrate the impacts of a knowledge

brought little change to the village economy. Neither

production that is above all intended to inform strategies

had it impacted poverty reduction, the economic

and resolve concrete development questions.

empowerment of women and schooling for children.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

22

3. Activities, partnerships and products

In a number of countries, AFD plays a central role in

The research advances in response to international meetings

development. Consequently, it has the capacity to produce

and publications in which researchers discuss their results.

knowledge drawn from its experience and facilitate access

AFD’s production takes the form of publications, seminars

to the field for researchers.

and conferences. More generally, it is intended for the development community (researchers, donors, decision-

AFD’s knowledge production is partly achieved in-house,

makers from the North and South). It also serves for the

using its own expertise, and partly by external partners

preparation of AFD’s strategy papers (thematic reviews,

(researchers and consultants), who are mandated and

doctrine notes, policy notes), for training activities, and to

cofinanced by AFD. In addition to the Research teams’

support project design and implementation.

own production, it mobilises all the in-house teams. It further relies on a number of partnerships with French and

The organisation of activities and partnerships is outlined

international research institutes, also in collaboration with

below. After a period of gradual adaptation over the past

other international donors and institutions.

ten years, it is overall in line with the proposed strategy and can evolve if necessary.

3.1. Activities and organisation

AFD’s corporate university, the Centre for Economic,

-- Capitalisation of AFD’s experience of project financing

Financial and Banking Studies (CEFEB), which celebrated its

and supporting public policies. This is mainly achieved

fiftieth anniversary in 2013 was, in the early 1960s, the main

through the mechanism to evaluate projects, sectors and

body for AFD’s knowledge production and dissemination.

strategies;

In the 1980s, the ex post evaluation of projects and macroeconomic monitoring of countries were added.

-- The production of studies and research on development issues that are identified and formulated either with the

In 2002, knowledge production made further progress:

operational teams or in connection with the international

capitalisation of sectoral strategies and evaluation were

debate on development;

systematised, and AFD engaged in research partnerships.

The first research papers were published in 2003. Following

-- Macroeconomic analyses and risk rating (“country risk”

strong growth between 2002 and 2010, the activity has

and “sovereign risk”), mainly for in-house use, but some

stabilised in recent years. It now enjoys good visibility and

non-confidential elements are published;

is implemented through several practical modalities that are complementary and sometimes overlap:

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

23

3. Activities, partnerships and products

-- Training and support for countries that benefit from

research authored or co-authored by AFD. While AFD has

AFD financing and French partners. These activities

neither the mandate nor the means to run a research unit,

are conducted via CEFEB, but also in collaboration with

some of its staff contribute, sometimes directly, to research

external academic institutions (Sciences Po, Centre for

work. Indeed, some of them remain on secondment to

Studies and Research on International Development

research institutes and regularly publish in national and

[CERDI], University Paris I, etc.), or via “customised”

international journals.

programmes; Everyone at AFD contributes to knowledge production: it

-- Direct contributions to in-house reflection and to the

involves both the Strategy Department and the Financing

definition of strategies (sectoral, geographic, cross-

and Operations Department. They each have a budget

cutting);

earmarked for knowledge production, and the capacity to initiate and manage studies and formalise partnerships.

-- The organisation of and participation in national and international seminars and conferences in order to

Knowledge production comprises several types of activities, which are generally led by specifically dedicated teams:

promote and disseminate the knowledge produced and

-- In the Strategy Department, the divisions in charge

stimulate debate on present and future issues.

of evaluations, macroeconomic analyses and country The work on studies, research and capitalisation is generally

risk benefit from the necessary independence from

conducted with external partners (consulting firms or

teams in charge of operations. The division in charge

research institutes). This work is led by steering committees,

of economic and social research has a more direct

involving

or

vocation for research work. They also have a role of

sectoral), the committees of the Research and Knowledge

operational

departments

(geographical

cross-cutting coordination for AFD’s other activities.

Department and the Strategic Steering and Accountability

The research planning is established together with the

Department, and sometimes external personalities. The

operational and strategy units. For two years now, the

research produced outside is carried out either under

focus has systematically been on the operational and

partnerships (generally between six months and three

strategic impact of the studies and research;

years) with research institutes that are selected for their approach to the issue addressed, or in the form of ad hoc

-- In the Operations Department, the geographical and

studies attributed through calls for tenders (the research

sectoral departments have their own capacity for

work lasts between three and six months).

studies and research. The respective budget and coordination are provided by the department for cross-

AFD conducts a good deal of the research itself: macroeconomic

analyses

and

country

risk

cutting support;

rating,

a significant part of the intervention frameworks that

- At PROPARCO, a team coordinates a network of

summarise AFD’s knowledge of a sector or cross-cutting

practitioners, academics and private sector players via the

theme, certain meta-evaluations and, finally, studies and

Private Sector and Development publication.16

16 http://www.proparco.fr/Accueil_PROPARCO/Publications-Proparco/secteur-prive-et-developpement

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

24

3. Activities, partnerships and products

3.2. Research partnerships

AFD’s knowledge production is based on high-level

European Centre for Development Policy Management

international partnerships with universities, research

[ECDPM], Overseas Development Institute [ODI], etc.) and

institutes and think tanks. These partnerships contribute

in the South (Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada

to both the production of research and its dissemination in

[IPEA] in Brazil, Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio

international fora, and have a decisive effect on the quality

Climático [INECC] in Mexico, Laboratory for the Study

and outreach of the studies that are conducted.

and Research on Social Dynamics [LASDEL] in Niger, African Centre for Cities in South Africa, Vietnam Academy

AFD has established a number of partnerships with the

of Social Sciences [ASSV]). These partnerships take

main French research institutes, first and foremost CIRAD

various forms, ranging from ad hoc studies to multi-annual

and IRD, but also the Foundation for Studies and Research

agreements. Through these partnerships, AFD benefits

on International Development (FERDI), the Institute for

from a state of knowledge and advanced expertise in a

Sustainable Development and International Relations

variety of disciplinary fields. It also wishes to encourage the

(IDDRI), Paris School of Economics (PSE), Toulouse

academic community to address subjects and fields that

School of Economics (TSE), the French School of Asian

hold an interest for the development community.

Studies (EFEO), the Foundation for the Analysis of Political Societies (FASOPO), Sciences Po, INSEE, INED, the

AFD will continue to develop its collaborations with the study

University of Burgundy’s Institute for Research in the

and research centres of its partner countries. Certainly, the

Sociology and Economics of Education (IREDU), GRET,

latter have privileged knowledge of their situations, and

etc. The collaboration with CIRAD and IRD is notably

the strengthening of local capacities is also a development

subject to concerted annual programming. In particular,

objective. These research teams are also an essential

it takes the form of joint publications (the 2013 launch of

vector for the dissemination of results to national actors.

an annual AFD-CIRAD publication). In France, one of the

In the same spirit, partnerships are beginning to be

objectives would be to achieve a formalisation of influential

established with French research institutes abroad (Joint

topics that give rise to innovative paradigms compared to

Entity of French Research Institutes Abroad – UMIFRE).

the mainstream (see below).

The ex post evaluations are an example of the intellectual AFD is also associated with prestigious research institutes

collaboration between AFD and its partners. This feedback

in the North (Massachusetts Institute of Technology [MIT],

makes it possible to enhance the dialogue with partner

Oxford, School of Oriental and African Studies [SOAS],

countries. In return, it validates the results.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

25

3. Activities, partnerships and products

Map 1. AFD’s research partnerships French CERDI/FERDI

French

PSE

OFCE

TSE

IEDES/Paris I

IDDRI

CEPREMAP

IRD

Politique Africaine

CIRAD

FASOPO

International

Aix-en-Provence

Sciences Po

EUDN

CIRED

INSEE

GDN

CODEV

INED

World Bank

MIT

Global/donors

CEPII

OECD

CGDEV

International

EHESS

UNDP

IPEA

IPEA

ENPC

ILO

Oxford

EDRI

AsDB

SOAS

WITS

JICA

IDS

INEQ

Maastricht (UNU-Merit)

IPAR BAPENAS LASDEL EFEO Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences

Source: AFD.

Finally, in order to finance more ambitious research

In particular, AFD must have an active role with the World

projects and improve its visibility in the international

Bank and multilateral donors in order to promote the

debate, AFD has established partnerships with donors

research based on innovative paradigms, and contribute to

and international institutions (World Bank, OECD, United

a greater dissemination of French research. For example,

Nations Development Programme [UNDP], JICA, Aga

AFD is planning to contribute each year to the World Bank’s

Khan University). These collaborations will be scaled up.

World Development Report.

3.3. AFD’s knowledge products

A large part of the research is promoted via publications

to in-house programming processes or analyses of a

and specific events. Some knowledge production work does

confidential nature.

not give rise to a publication, as it involves contributions

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

26

3. Activities, partnerships and products

AFD publishes about fifty titles a year in several collections:

Since 2002, AFD has published over 450 titles. In the past

Working Papers (results of specific research), A Savoir

two years, the number of downloads has almost tripled (from

(state of knowledge on a topic), Focales (case studies or

107,000 a year in 2011, to 292,000 a year in 2013) and their

research related to a specific context), Recherches (body

monthly average currently exceeds 24,000 downloads.

of research on a major issue), Conférences et Séminaires (conferences), Ex Post (evaluations and capitalisation),

AFD hosts or organises over a hundred events a year, such

MacroDev (macroeconomic note). All the research works

as conferences or seminars, which are open to the public and

supported by AFD now give rise to a synthesis in the form of

address major development issues. The two most important

a four-page Policy Note targeting a broad public (A Question

are the AFD-European Development Network (EUDN)

of Development).

annual conference and the biennial conference AFD-Rapid Economic Account for Overseas France (CEROM).

These publications are intended for the scientific community and development professionals (international institutions,

Each year, AFD co-organises, with the World Bank and

donors, NGOs, policymakers, consultants, experts and

Center for Global Development (CGDEV), the academic

students). They can be downloaded on AFD’s website.

conference “Migration and Development”. The conference

17

cycle “Ideas for Development” (iD4D; about fifteen a year) Since 2007, AFD has been co-publishing, with IDDRI and

now brings in a regular public.

the TERI Institute (based in India), a reference annual on sustainable development (Regards sur la Terre). With CIRAD,

The EUDN conference gathers high-level researchers and

it co-publishes an annual publication (Agricultures et défis du

a public composed of researchers and public policymakers

monde), and with the World Bank, the Africa Development

from AFD’s partner countries. It is held alongside the annual

Forum collection (about two publications a year). It publishes

meeting of the EUDN European network (which is affiliated

a quarterly review on Africa, Afrique Contemporaine (a

with the Global Development Network). Ten sessions have

recent analysis by the authors shows the international

been held since 2003; the themes for the last two were:

dimension of the review and that it is well-anchored in Africa).

“Evaluation and its discontents: do we learn from experience

These are priced publications and produced with commercial

in development?” and “Development and the financial sector”

publishers. PROPARCO publishes the magazine Private

(2013). The objective is to make this event into the leading

Sector and Development, with each issue addressing a

annual European meeting on development.

specific topic (African banking sector, forest exploitation, waste, healthcare, power generation, etc.).

The CEROM conference gathers business leaders, elected officials, representatives of regional and local authorities,

AFD also publishes Kaléidoscope (a periodic review of

researchers and experts. Four sessions have been held

publications on development) and Produitdoc (quarterly

since 2007. The themes for the last two were “Creating

review of commodity markets).18 Finally, AFD periodically

added value and employment in the French overseas

works with reviews and book publishers for the publication of

territories” (2011) and “The French overseas territories in the

specific works, in order to diversify its distribution.

international competition” (2013).

17

http://www.afd.fr/lang/en/home/publications/travaux-de-recherche

18

http://www.afd.fr/lang/en/home/publications/travaux-de-recherche/publications-documentaires

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

27

3. Activities, partnerships and products

CEFEB, AFD’s corporate university, contributes to initial

AFD has systematised the evaluation of projects after

and further training for students and decision-makers from

completion. These evaluations are mostly managed in a

the South, as well as to the organisation of short training

decentralised manner by the network of local agencies. They

programmes (40 seminars a year) in response to requests.

are conducted by external evaluators, in partnership with

It participates in knowledge production and dissemination.

the local contracting authorities. They are consistent with

AFD staff also benefit from these training programmes.

the principles and standards of the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC). Evaluation has been carried

Training seminars have been created as part of the

out for approximately 85% of projects (70% of amounts)

research partnerships, such as the African Programme on

that reached completion between 2010 and 2012 and fall

Rethinking Development Economies (APORDE), which is

within the scope of evaluation19 (i.e. a total of 128 projects

intended for African decision-makers in South Africa, and

worth EUR 1.8 billion).

the Tam Dao Summer School (Vietnam) for researchers from Southeast Asia. These seminars stand as regional

Twice a year, AFD reassesses the risk of over a hundred

references. The APORDE programme has inspired similar

countries. It specifically analyses the situation of 25

sessions in Ethiopia (in 2013, a half-day session was

countries that account for 80% of its sovereign risks.

organised and led by the Prime Minister, in the presence of

Cross-cutting research is also conducted, for example, on

the entire government).

the Franc zone.

19 “Specific” financing does not fall within this scope: global budget support, Study and Capacity Building Fund, projects from the Priority Solidarity Fund transferred to AFD and PROPARCO sub-participations.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

28

4. Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms

AFD’s knowledge production goes hand in hand with its

This final section sets out the principles and directions

financing activity. Its overarching objective is to enhance

for AFD’s knowledge production for the next five years.

the effectiveness of the development strategies and

Development economics has made significant strides due

projects that it finances. As a result of this, a second aim is

to advances in modelling and quantitative methods. At the

to formulate research questions drawn from its operational

same time, the programmes financed by donors continue

practices.

to be based on a limited number of evidence-based arguments. An increased and effective multidisciplinarity

The Reiffers Report confirmed the overall quality of AFD’s

should enable a more contextualised vision of development

production. It criticises the excessive number of subjects

policies.

addressed and the lack of clear directions. It suggests that AFD put forward original proposals that break away

More specifically, we propose that AFD’s knowledge

from the dominant doxa. It also highlights the need to set

production be centred on six main areas. Overarching these

strategic priorities, clarify the programming processes,

is the objective of generating innovative and actionable

raise the academic standard and clarity of publications, and

knowledge, both in developing countries and in the French

involve AFD staff more in this aspect of its mission.

overseas territories.

4.1. Multidisciplinary and contextualised research

For AFD, there is nothing new in the view that “development

the development of empirical and econometric studies. Yet,

trajectories [are] widely idiosyncratic” and that development

in recent years, the discipline has been facing a number

economics must evolve using “tools that are likely to

of questions from both within and without. Internally, even

inform the interpretation [of facts]” and “give priority to

if this should be seen as a sign of scientific dynamism,

interdisciplinarity”. However, much remains to be done to

several titles alone point to the scale of the questioning:

translate these principles into practice.

“Rethink the economy” (Orléan, 2011), “Get out of

20

economystification” (Dupuy, 2012), «Homo economicus, Over the past fifty years, economic sciences have shown

lost prophet» (Cohen, 2012) and «Poor Economics» (Duflo

great dynamism. They have benefited from mathematical

and Banerjee, 2011). Externally, the discipline is criticised

modelling efforts and from the introduction of new

for its abstract vision of human societies and its hegemonic

hypotheses that have supplemented the neo-classical

attitude. Economics is closely related to the principles of

framework. New information technologies have facilitated

methodological individualism and has not escaped from

20

Pierre Jacquet, “Does economic research serve development?”, roundtable for the 20th anniversary of the joint research unit Development, Institutions and Globalisation (DIAL), Paris Dauphine University, November 2010.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

29

4. Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms

the risk of producing “abstract beings” (Dumez, 2013),21

their cultural permanence over the long term; collective

which are kinds of absolute causal entities detached from

strengths that are not merely the sum of individual play;

concrete societies (like the all-purpose concept of “inclusive

the social representations that give meaning to social

growth”). Another risk of research – whatever the discipline

relationships, etc. Each discipline has its own approach,

– is its subordination to the “law of the instrument” (Kaplan,

they each have their own limits.

1964),22 which would have any problem encountered dealt with using the tool at hand. In economics, this type

What is needed is a better understanding of the

of deviation has been accompanied by a “fascination for

internal borders of disciplines, for instance, between

as illustrated by

microeconomics, macroeconomics, institutional economics,

certain research work that seeks to model the genocides

economic history and economic theory. Certain notions

in the form of an economic optimum (cf., among others,

remain at the borders of the discipline as, for example,

Esteban et al., 2010).

the human development indicators, the meaning of equity,

mathematical models” (Zoellick, 2010),

23

uncertainty, the meaning of time and quantification of the Economics and engineering and environmental sciences

long term, perceptions, irrationality and the exploitation

remain the dominant development disciplines. While the

of natural resources. Major crises, such as the sub-prime

idea of multidisciplinarity may be relatively consensual, it

crisis, are today prompting economists to step out of their

would still need strong determination to materialise this into

framework (Giraud and Renouard, 2009).

procedures and put it into practice.

AFD needs to promote the utilisation of tools that are still Development factors are multidimensional. It is thus

relatively unused, such as participant observation methods,

particularly necessary to guard against a causalist and

and open up to neglected issues as, for example, traditional

linear vision of the evolution of societies. Demography,

knowledge of biodiversity.

geography, political science, law, management science, history, sociology, anthropology and philosophy need to

This multidimensional approach to development applies

be mobilised more often. Indeed, each of these disciplines,

to developing and emerging countries and to the French

with its distinct viewpoint, provides a capacity to see aspects

overseas territories alike. Furthermore, under the single

of human action that are not sufficiently considered: in the

category of the French overseas territories, generalisations

long term, the force of population flows and migration; the

are made regarding very different institutional, economic,

spatial inclusion of human organisations and production

demographic, social and anthropological contexts. The

systems; the role of institutions and power strategies; the

specific trajectories of these territories are not just about

consistency of laws and the context of their application;

their relationship with mainland France, but also relate to

the coordination and decision-making processes within an

their regional specificities and their own positioning within

organisation; the historicity of societies, their changes and

globalisation.

21 The author quotes Tocqueville’s self-criticism: “I have frequently used the word ‘equality’ in an absolute sense – nay, I have personified equality in several places; thus I have said that equality does such and such things, or refrains from doing others … These abstract terms … enlarge and obscure the thoughts.”

22 “I call it the law of the instrument, and it may be formulated as follows: Give a small boy a hammer, and he will find that everything he encounters needs pounding.”

23 “According to its risk model, one investment bank suffered a loss on several consecutive days that should only have occurred once in 14 lifespans of our universe”.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

30

4. Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms

AFD will set out to foster multidisciplinary and comparative

governance, communitarianism, the spontaneous existence

thinking that offers a comprehensive and contextualised

of win-win, the leitmotif of inclusiveness, etc., which are

understanding of actors, their motives, their intentions

often the vectors of Anglo-Saxon economic influence).25

and their actions. A multidisciplinary and internationally recognised approach can pave the way for contextualised

The creation of a multidisciplinary scientific committee

analyses and new paradigms.

dedicated to AFD’s knowledge production would make it possible to interest the research community in development

It also involves supporting and pooling research based

issues. Its composition will reinforce the multidisciplinarity

on

the

and quality of research. Its consultative role will provide

French perimeter. This approach meets the objective of

AFD with a forum for reflection and exchange on the

strengthening France’s economic influence. It sheds a

quality of its knowledge production, on developments within

critical light on the “essential, but hardly visible” standards

disciplines and on priority thematic areas.

alternative

hypotheses

stretching

beyond

that underlie international regulations and “determine market rules and governance methods” (Revel, 2013).24 It paves

AFD’s experience in project financing, its proximity to local

the way for other visions, free of the beliefs and “abstract

partners, its position as a bilateral actor with a concern for

beings” (see above) that prevail in the economic doxa (the

geographical specificities, as well as its multidisciplinary

universal right to property, the primacy of competition,

approach, should constitute its comparative advantages.

the innate shortcomings of power and a limited vision of

4.2. Priority areas and themes

Based on its experience and in light of recent scientific

industries, the fight against corruption, governance,

research, AFD must help to identify concrete questions

institutional capacities, employment, productive systems,

and clearly formulate them. It will participate in shaping and

gender equality, human capital, training, migration,

disseminating innovative responses that are of interest for

trade, healthcare, food crises, social protection, essential

the development agenda. It will help to pool international

services… These topics are all compulsory figures for the

research, in addition to French research, on innovative

knowledge production to which donors must contribute.

research concepts that offer an interesting alternative to

They all relate to the programmes financed by aid. None of

those that dominate the knowledge “market”.

them escape the agenda of harmonisation among donors.

The number and scale of research topics are considerable.

The knowledge “market” is fiercely competitive. As AFD has

They form an open-ended list of global public themes,

operational experience and regularly takes part in donor

as evidenced by the conferences that are repeatedly

coordination initiatives, it must contribute to the exchange of

dedicated to them: climate (adaptation and mitigation),

good practice on these topics. By doing so, it can contribute

biodiversity, water, natural resources, energy, sustainable

to French influence. It can valorise its advantage as an

cities, agricultural land, emerging diseases, extractive

operational donor. If AFD did no more than follow the topics

24 This report calls for “technical cooperation and development assistance to contribute to promoting French rules and standards at international level.”

25 French aid is itself often faced with this type of conceptual opposition.

By way of example, we can mention the opposition in the 1970s between the “effects method” and “Shadow Prices”, in the 1980s, the antagonistic conceptions of “agricultural extension” and “Training and Visit”, or recently, the unreconcilable processes of “geographical indications” and “Branding”.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

31

4. Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms

in vogue, it would consign itself to offering a pale reflection

topics. It must focus on the practical questions that it faces

of what other donors produce, especially the World Bank,

in its activities as a donor, in line with the political priorities

which has considerable means both in terms of quantity

assigned to it, particularly by the Interministerial Committee

and quality. AFD must nonetheless feed its input into the

on International Cooperation and Development of July

debates. It must thus work with the World Bank, and the

2013 (CICID, 2013). Six areas are considered as priorities.

other leading international donors and institutions, by

They remain quite broad since, research-wise, it is difficult

promoting different and innovative approaches (cf. Revel

to exclude certain fields (many discoveries actually derive

2013, op. cit.).

from research work produced with a different purpose). It above all provides a framework that serves as a basis for

AFD cannot, however, support research on all of these

annual programming.

Box 1. Research: AFD’s six priority areas

• Natural resources and green transitions • Social cohesion and growth • Urban growth • Innovations • Accountability and indicators • New financing tools

Natural resources and green transitions

The issue of natural balances requires taking a closer look at unpaid environmental costs (ecological debt).

Climate is a priority as it responds to an urgent need and

Human needs for 2050 will require addressing the energy-

the ongoing preparation for the COP 21 in Paris. Emerging

water-food nexus. This means bolstering innovation and

countries have an interest in the research into green

introducing new regulations that enable needs to be

transition models, as these can be adapted to their specific

satisfied.

contexts. AFD will also provide specific support for issues related to climate change, with a heightened focus on Sub-

Agroecological intensification can be considered as the

Saharan Africa, agri-food production and the sustainable

future of the world’s agricultural modernisation, an area in

development of cities.

which French expertise and research play a leading role.

This can be conceived as a process whereby innovation

The topic of biodiversity is one of the subjects that receives

gains social recognition (in other words, it crosscuts other

little donor financing. AFD’s experience in this area should

areas dealing with issues of employment, innovation and

feed into proposals at international level.

social cohesion).

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

32

4. Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms

The concept of resilience (the capacity to withstand internal

reproduction of behaviour patterns, as well as the economic

and external shocks) establishes a structural link between

level of individuals. The research undertaken will aim to

this first area and the following two, social inclusion

clarify possible avenues for social change, depending on

and urban growth. Multidisciplinary reflection on socio-

the context.

environmental resilience, in which AFD participates with its scientific partners, is ongoing and regards environmental

Corruption is an area in which France often appears to be

issues as inseparable from societal issues. Experience

little involved at international level. Knowledge of these

shows that effective management of climate risk requires the

phenomena would be of practical use in order to put

participation of local societies, which involves understanding

forward solutions and enhance the effectiveness of aid.

their situations and specificities. Traditional knowledge of

This knowledge supposes an understanding of the different

the natural environment is inseparable from social practices

types of concrete situations.

and relations. Conversely, support for the resilient aspects of societies and States in crisis can have a major impact

The issue of social cohesion more broadly covers the

on the environment and rural development (agriculture,

necessary coherence between social and economic logics.

livestock raising), just as the design of a sustainable city

Rather than setting these at odds, as is often the case, the

needs to enhance resilience to natural disasters.

point is to show how some forms of social coherence can contribute to economic efficiency (legitimacy of regulations,

Social cohesion and growth

mutual obligations, etc.). Building institutions takes time and their effectiveness largely depends on how they are

The success of the notion of “inclusiveness” reveals many

able to make sense within a political culture. Time can

forms of social exclusion that today impede the reduction of

be gained by observing, within a given context, those

inequalities. Moreover, the realities of these exclusions are

organisations that function effectively. Such observations

as diverse as gender inequality, corruption, lack of social

show that the solutions applicable to one sector can often

protection, regulatory shortcomings or crisis situations – the

be transposed to another sector. In the poorest countries,

list is not exhaustive. The aggregation of these exclusions

particularly in Africa, building institutions that make sense

into a single concept bears no relation to reality, unless

and are effective remains a major challenge. The weakness

we take the view that their common denominator is that

of contracting authorities is a critical issue and is likely

they are difficult to surmount and have a determining

to remain so for many years. AFD has a head start

effect. Efforts to reduce them have often been to no avail.

when it comes to improving management and institutional

Research must address each of these exclusions in their

capacities and its research in this area will continue.26 This

concrete forms.

line of research is consonant with the nascent interest that economics is showing in cultural issues. It opens up

Although there have been several attempts to implement

horizons regarding the idiosyncrasies of development

pro-gender policies, they continue to have little impact.

trajectories and the complex links between governance and

It is, however, recognised that country-level social and

institutions.

economic progress is historically correlated with women’s level of education (Todd, 1984). The causes of gender

The emergence of middle classes at the global level

inequality involve cultural contexts, discriminations and the

provides the underpinnings for a movement in favour of

26 The first research produced by AFD on the adjustments of modern management to cultural frameworks of interpretation dates back to 1991.

Cf. Henry (1991).

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

33

4. Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms

social protection systems. In many countries, the younger

technology – NICT) and agroecology. At the same time,

generations represent both a force for change and a

some companies are innovating by developing on “bottom of

source of challenges that need to be anticipated. AFD will

the pyramid” (BoP) markets.

develop research on the issue of social protection and social transformation.

Mobile telephony, for example, provides a platform that can accommodate a whole host of applications for education,

Urban growth

healthcare, markets or finance. Forward-looking research that is close to both research and demand will help to identify

The uninterrupted growth of cities over the course of

those developments in need of support.

several decades has brought on profound changes in social, economic, political and institutional models. The sustainable

The social ownership of innovations rarely follows linear

city will be a theme for research and innovation for many

paths and needs to be better understood. Many projects that

years to come. French expertise and research in this field is

are supposed to be disseminated in public policies remain at

held up as a reference.

the pilot stage. It is important, therefore, to understand how to move from an innovative pilot project to broad collective

Urban morphology – resulting from both social forms and

dissemination. Special attention will be given to innovations

urban governance – has major consequences on the

and their potential impacts, including their financing.

economy of flows and the use of natural resources (energy, transport, sanitation, etc.). It is currently the subject of

NGOs play an essential role as initiators of experimental

innovative research.

projects that can serve as a basis for broader applications.

Large private companies are also vectors of innovation,

The city is also the product of its essential services and

management skills and initiatives to reduce poverty.

infrastructure networks (energy, water, sanitation, health,

Consequently, partnerships with companies will be scaled

etc.). Research work will cast light on the diversity of French

up in several areas: new technologies, management training

experience in managing services in developing countries.

programmes for the elites and knowledge input in order to build basic projects.

The governance of cities is another major issue, particularly in terms of improving their financial governance and meeting

Accountability and indicators

their investment financing needs. The reality of municipalities, and how they actually function, will be considered in the light

The increasing demand for transparency requires assessing

of their geographical, social, historical and political contexts.

and measuring public action. This question involves measuring not only its effectiveness but also its human

Innovations

progress.

Innovation is one of the wellsprings of economic development.

The MDGs have popularised the issues of less unequal

Current or anticipated technological and social innovations

and more sustainable human development. The ongoing

hold major potential for development in the South. Certain

reflection on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),

sectors are witnessing the emergence of many discoveries

which are to constitute the next global indicators, is at the

for which the full extent of possible applications has not

centre of a number of debates and gives rise to a great deal

yet been assessed – renewable energies, digital and

of research.

networks (also called new information and communications

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

34

4. Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms

Several research programmes are already focussing on the

the effectiveness of concessionality.

need to go beyond the universal indicator of gross domestic product (GDP) and propose new human development

In addition to these needs, the global financial crises

indicators (e.g. new UNDP human development indicator,

prompt us to look at market regulation and evolution.

indicators of well-being and relational capacities, etc.). These

Global financial stability is a public good. As a financial

new indicators will also need to integrate measurements of

institution with the dual role of financial actor and economic

sustainable development (physical and immaterial capital,

actor, AFD must propose new ways of expanding financial

natural resources, social capital, etc.).

markets for developing countries. Generally speaking, in-depth knowledge of aid actors represents a strategic

The demand for indicators is a response to the increasing

requirement for AFD. More particularly, we will examine the

demand for transparency and effectiveness in public action.

issue of increasing the effectiveness of vertical funds.

This demand sometimes appears to have no limits, at the risk of losing its validity and causing unexpected effects.

The six main areas put forward correspond to general

Indeed, all statistical indicators lose their meaning when

issues rather than sectoral fields. An area concerning the

they are used as management indicators (Goodhart’s Law;

French overseas territories needs to be added. These

cf. Goodhart, 1975).

themes provide the general framework for a two-year

27

programming cycle that will be reviewed annually.

New financing tools Furthermore, one of the challenges for AFD’s knowledge Development finance is at the core of AFD’s activity. The

production – in addition to developing its partnerships

financing needs are considerable. Donors can only meet

– will be to pool research on influential topics. The goal

a tiny fraction of these needs, but they must be a force for

is to promote living economic concepts (Reiffers and

innovation and proposals.

Vincent, 2013) based on alternative paradigms, free from the beliefs and rigidities of the international doxa and

AFD has two means of operating: either via financial

with the potential to feed into development policies. The

intermediation or by directly financing projects. A balance

formulation of unifying themes goes beyond the scope of

between these two approaches requires having a better

this paper. It can only come out of a dialogue with national

knowledge of the expected impacts of each one.

and international research communities. AFD will seek to promote flagship topics that are markedly different from

AFD

for

“inclusive growth”, the “participative approach”, “output-

countercyclical financing that it has experimented with,

based aid”, etc. by foregrounding other international topics,

as well as other windows for financial innovation. The

such as agroecological intensification, the sustainable

rapid changes in the aid landscape and the constant

city, family farming, public management efficiency, the

reinforcement of international rules call for new analyses of

specificity of institutions, innovative instruments, etc.28

27

will

further

investigate

the

opportunities

The author was Chief Economist for the Bank of England. This law was established independently in France by researchers from the Ecole polytechnique. Cf. Berry et al., 1979.

28 Cf. Revel, op. cit. The first two themes (ecological transition and sustainable cities) are two of the priorities for France’s economic influence. The themes of institutional specificities are the very foundation of the approach to economic intelligence.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

35

4. Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms

4.3 Greater clarity and accessibility

This strategy involves enhancing the literary and scientific

Knowledge production and dissemination also needs to

quality of AFD’s publications, as well as their accessibility.

include innovative formats. Producing video narratives and documentaries is an ideal way that is widely used by social

The publications are part of an ensemble of structured

networks, sometimes as training tools.29 AFD has several

collections. The knowledge market is highly competitive.

community portals (iD4D, Solidaires du monde, etc.)30 that

Efforts need to be made to ensure the clarity of questions

can be promoted. On top of data production, the creation

raised, and the scientific quality and legibility of the

of databases with input from actors will be explored (wiki,

published results.

crowdsourcing). Finally, AFD will develop visualisation tools to disseminate data that are useful to researchers

A diverse public is targeted, including AFD’s partners, the

and operational actors – such as Statplanet and Google

scientific community, the world of development experts,

Motion Chart.

operational actors and donor staff. Each audience has specific requirements. For public policy makers, research

Measuring the impact of knowledge production remains

conclusions need to be concise and, as far as possible,

a difficult exercise. Discussions on this topic within the

free of critical academic arguments. For researchers, there

research community are heated and not very conclusive.

is a need to satisfy minimum requirements in terms of a

Contrary to natural sciences, economic and social sciences

review of the literature and the demonstration of results.

do not progress on the basis of demonstration, but through

We will thus ensure that a balance is struck between these

the gradual accumulation of concepts that are likely to

expectations.

change actors’ views. The production of ideas, which is by nature immaterial, is difficult to gauge. It can be measured

Several components meet the objectives of quality and

up to a point using a set of indicators, which reflect more a

accessibility. AFD’s publications are now reviewed by

level of activity than actual results. AFD will publish its main

an editorial committee, following a procedure that calls

indicators for knowledge production every year. In addition,

on independent and anonymous referees, in line with

perceptions surveys may be conducted on the impact of

international standards. These objectives are also furthered

the new concepts that AFD and its partners are seeking to

as summaries of results are systematically published (A

promote.

Question of Development), collections have been simplified (Ex Post), an annual catalogue is published, and analytical

The capacity to disseminate innovative concepts depends

criteria have been enhanced (Working Papers). AFD will

on the quality of publications, in line with standards that

continue to develop its joint publications with research

will be simplified, completed and upgraded. Debates,

institutes and universities. Finally, CEFEB will promote

conferences, education and training will continue to play a

its training programmes by systematically publishing its

key role for knowledge production and dissemination.

education materials. The knowledge production website pages will be revamped.

29 For example, the film by Christian Lallier (1999) is one of the most disseminated on the Internet and the most used for training, including at AFD. 30

http://ideas4development.org/ et http://www.solidairesdumonde.org/

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

36

5. Conclusion

Twelve years after the creation of the Research Department,

of French aid and adapt its production to its capacities,

knowledge production has become a fully fledged mandate

the agency will orient its research around six cross-

for AFD. It contributes to the mobilisation of French and

cutting themes (see above: natural resources and green

international research on shared and innovative sustainable

transitions; social cohesion and growth; urban growth;

development issues. A strategy aiming to promote new

innovation; accountability and development indicators; new

paradigms in the international debate is an ambitious goal.

financing tools). In addition to partnership building, the

It will need to be a long-term effort.

broader objective is to pool international research centred on alternative paradigms that are free of certain common

AFD as a whole must be a knowledge producer. The aim

ground that characterises an international doxa. This ability

is to contribute to knowledge production that nourishes the

to promote innovative hypotheses will be grounded in an

operational activity and to mobilise research on new ideas.

effective multidisciplinarity that will notably afford insights

The studies and research initiated or supported by AFD

on the link between economy and societal contexts.

must meet concrete objectives connected to its operational activities. In so doing, AFD, alongside other partners, can

This strategy will involve strengthening partnerships with

play a role as a “formulator” of research questions.

the scientific community and the other donors.

AFD contributes to debates on all of the topics on the international agenda. In order to focus on the priorities

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

37

Appendix 1. Summary of themes addressed (2010-2013)

Environment and sustainable development

essential to human well-being. To what extent can donors promote development that respects the ecological balances

Climate change: How can the requirement be met for all

of our planet?

nations to make equitable efforts to combat climate change, albeit at different paces? How can production methods

Growth models and social cohesion

and energy consumption be made more sustainable in a context of increasing insecurity, in terms of accessing

Food security and agriculture: To deal with world population

and pricing fossil fuels? How can the “climate” and

growth, without causing irreversible destruction to the

environmental services rendered to the international

environment (rising demand in the face of increasingly

community be enhanced by more effective management of

constrained supply), agricultural and food systems will

countries’ natural resources? How can the vulnerability of

need to see a radical change, otherwise there is a

populations and goods to climate change impacts be taken

risk of triggering chronic price surges leading to social

into account? What should the new financial architecture to

destabilisation. How can these issues be integrated by

meet climate issues be?

Southern countries, which generally have a development strategy oriented towards growth and price stability (for

Transition towards a green economy: The expression

example, using the weapon of subsidies on imports of food

“green growth” links economic growth and environmental

products)? Sustainable models, relating to widely differing

conservation. Yet, what meaning should be given to this

geographical areas, are yet to be developed, taking into

concept and what structural changes should be promoted,

account the representations specific to each society. What

particularly in developing countries? Is there not a risk that

changes will farming systems and agricultural and agri-food

the oft-mentioned, long-term growth opportunities (energy

systems undergo in the future? What financial tools should

saving, job creation) will remain a dead letter due to the

be offered on agricultural markets with a view to providing a

short-term cost of the transition of production models? This

more effective response to risk management? How are the

is a sensitive issue in Northern countries and is even more

interactions between agriculture and global goods (climate,

critical in Southern countries, which face greater resource

biodiversity, etc.) to be understood and how can managing

constraints and have other short-term priorities.

the agriculture-water-food triptych be envisaged? What tools can support the development of rural areas? How can

Biodiversity, the foundations of change: While natural

priority food-producing sectors be financed?

resources and biodiversity are a pillar of development, they suffer from its negative impact due to production

Education, training and employment: With just a few

and consumption patterns and demographic pressure

months to go before the 2015 deadline, and despite

(60% of ecosystems that enable life on Earth are already

substantial progress, the MDGs in the field of education

deteriorated). The services rendered by ecosystems are

(access to school for all and gender parity) will not be

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

38

Appendix 1. Summary of themes addressed (2010-2013)

reached, with 60 million children who are still not in school.

and public policies, and cultural representations. This

What priorities must be set in this sector post-2015? The

means substituting an omnipresent discourse that serves

progress made in terms of schooling has often been

as a reference in the international doxa for a more open

achieved to the detriment of the quality of education.

universal approach, free of its prerequisites. Development

What has been planned for the generations of children

assistance could thus more effectively involve the economic

who are completing primary school today? This difficulty

and political elites in productive strategies.

in achieving the initial objectives again raises the question of the role assigned to schooling and the priorities chosen

Demographics, migration and social protection: Is it possible

(integrated or compartmentalised vision of education

to help countries to create the conditions for a demographic

levels), as well as the question of how these are funded. On

dividend, and help them to make the most of it? How can

these questions, each country necessarily adopts different

migrations (internal and international) be taken into account

strategies in line with their own representations. Beyond

in Official Development Assistance (ODA) projects? How

basic education, what training systems need to be devised

can donors support public policies on migration? How

to meet the needs of a fragmented and unproductive

can the diaspora be mobilised so that it contributes to the

informal sector, which nonetheless continues to play a

development of countries of origin? The issue of social

predominant role in the economy and employment? How

protection has now appeared with the emergence of a

can sectors be professionalised and graduates better

global middle class. A key question involves the bases to

integrated into the labour market? What financing systems

be taken into account when defining such social protection

should be promoted in order to open up access to higher

schemes, so that these contribute to the well-being of

education? The issue of job creation now has a vital place,

populations and provide access to some essential services

specific to each geographical area. In the Mediterranean,

such as education and healthcare. What bases should

understanding the link between growth and employment is

be proposed for social protection and how could these

today of critical and political importance.

schemes –, which are not only vectors for social justice but also reducers of economic shocks – be financed to ensure

Governance and long-term growth: The term “governance”

that they benefit a population that earns most of their income

covers various notions of political, financial, administrative,

in the informal sector? What strategies could be put in place

territorial, legal governance, etc. Currently, there is a

to promote family planning in Sub-Saharan Africa, or how

widespread consensus among international donors that

could systems be adapted to cover risks related to disease

“good governance” stands as a prerequisite for the economic

and old age in the Mediterranean and Sub-Saharan Africa?

take-off of developing countries and yet no distinction is

Pilot projects do exist, but they need to be scaled up if they

drawn between the areas mentioned above. However, no

are to bring about real social transformation. How can these

empirical evidence exists to support or demonstrate the

social protection strategies be coordinated with the action

causal link between “good governance” and long-term

of religious movements, which themselves often elaborate

economic growth. No one has ever seen the case of a

reproductive health policies, educational activities or even

country establishing “good governance” and subsequently

have their own vision of progress and social development?

starting its economic take-off. Conversely, observation shows that emerging countries with rapid and sustainable

Economies in the French overseas territories

growth in no way exhibit all the characteristics of this “good governance”. Understanding the links between governance

New models for the overseas territories: Despite their

and growth implies understanding the relationships linking

specific trajectories, the growth dynamics observed in

governance, growth-enhancing institutional configurations

the economies of the overseas territories over the last

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

39

Appendix 1. Summary of themes addressed (2010-2013)

three decades came to a halt in 2008 as a result of

principles of effectiveness, transparency, social and

several crises (economic, social, public finances), leading

environmental responsibility, and debt sustainability. A new

to a rise in unemployment and recurrent social tensions.

aid architecture involving greater South-South cooperation

What sociodemographic dynamics are at work in these

is now taking shape before our eyes. However, this raises

territories and what are their impacts on economic

fears among Northern donors that sustainable development

and social prospects, as well as their implications for

concerns in recipient countries will be undermined. What

health, education, housing, energy and environmental

actually underpins the practices of these new donors? What

policies? What comparative advantages can the Overseas

strategy should AFD adopt towards them?

Departments and Local Authorities (DCOM) promote in view of international competition and, first and foremost,

Financial innovations: The analysis of risks and the ways to

in trade with countries in their immediate neighbourhood?

limit and finance them without straying from the development

What strategy should AFD put in place to foster the

objective need further research, experimentation and

development of sectors and niches that have real potential

exchange between development banks. The tendency

in terms of activities and job creation?

to transpose microeconomic risk methodologies to macroeconomic risks may conceal systemic risks greater

Aid architecture and new financing tools

than the sum of the microeconomic risks avoided. Hence, the importance of increasing the use of countercyclical

Aid Architecture and emerging donors: The increasing

tools and taking into account the structural impact of high

importance of emerging donors outside the framework

rates, long-term rationales and, particularly for insurers,

of the DAC – primarily China, Brazil, India and Russia

the specific legal form of contracts between entities under

– is a cause for concern for traditional donors, who

public law.

view these new actors as insufficiently aligned with the

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

40

Appendix 2. Logical framework

Establish academic partnerships with French and international institutions

Influence international research topics in addition to our partnerships

POOL Involve AFD and partners in the production of new knowledge

Widely disseminate via publications, conferences, workshops and training

Make AFD a learning organisation based on research and evaluation

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

Global issues and interdepencies French overseas territories

INFLUENCE DEBATES Contribute to international debates on development and feed into French positions

Enhance the clarity and accessibility of research, which is conceived as a public good

Developping countries

Knowledge in support of sustainable development

More effectively model the reality of the situation and provide tools tailored to needs (studies, evaluations, training)

New financing tools

APPLY TO PRACTICE Inform public policies of partner countries and the contexts of AFD’s operations

Search for new models by promoting the plurality of disciplines and theoretical frameworks

Performance and progress indicators

INNOVATE (“thinking out of the box”) Promote innovation and multidisciplinary in development research

Urban expansion

Formulate research questions based on operational needs

New social cohesion

Activities

Innovations

Objectives

Natural resources and green transition

Goal

41

Acronyms and abbreviations

AFD

Agence Française de Développement

APORDE

African Programme on Rethinking Development Economics

ASSV

Académie des sciences sociales du Vietnam

BOP

Bottom of the pyramid

CEROM

Comptes économiques rapides pour l’Outre-mer

CGDEV

Center for Global Development

CGE

Computable general equilibrium

CICID

Comité interministériel de la coopération internationale et du développement

CIRAD

Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement

DAC

Development Assistance Committee

DCOM

Départements et Collectivités d’Outre-mer

DFID

Department for International Development

DIAL

Développement, institutions et mondialisation

DMC

Direct seeding mulch-based cropping systems (agriculture)

ECDPM

European Centre for Development Policy Management

EFEO

Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient

EUDN

European Development Network

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

42

Acronyms and abbreviations

FASOPO

Fonds d’analyse des sociétés politiques

FERDI

Fondation pour les études et recherches sur le développement international

GDP

Gross domestic product

GIZ

Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit

GPGs

Global public goods

GRET

Groupe de recherches et d’échanges technologiques

IDDRI

Institut du développement durable et des relations internationales

INECC

Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio Climático

INED

Institut national d’études démographiques

INSEE

Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPD

Institutional Profiles Database

IPEA

Instituto de Investigación Económica Aplicada

IRD

Institut de recherche pour le développement

IREDU

Institut de recherche sur l’éducation

JICA

Japan International Cooperation Agency

LASDEL

Laboratoire d’études et de recherche sur les dynamiques sociales et le développement local

MDGs

Millennium Development Goals

MIT

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

NGO

Non-Governmental Organisation

NICT

New information and communications technology

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

43

Acronyms and abbreviations

ODI

Overseas Development Institute

OECD

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PES

Payment for environmental services

POS

Strategic Orientation Plan

PSE

Paris School of Economics

RCT

Randomized control trial

SDGs

Sustainable Development Goals

SMEs

Small- and medium-sized enterprises

SOAS

School of Oriental and African Studies

TSE

Toulouse School of Economics

UMIFRE

Unités mixtes des instituts français de recherche à l’étranger

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

44

References

Aglietta, M. and G. Bai (2012), La Voie chinoise, capitalisme et empire, Odile Jacob, Paris.

Berry, M., J.C. Moisdon and C. Riveline (1979), « Qu’est-ce que la recherche en gestion ? », Informatique et gestion, No. 108 and 109, Paris.

Bizberg, I. and B. Théret (2012), « La diversité des capitalismes latino-américains : les cas de l’Argentine, du Brésil et du Mexique », Revue de la Régulation, No. 11, 1st half 2012, Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, Paris.

Bourguignon, F. (2012), La mondialisation de l’inégalité, Seuil, Paris, pp. 17-27, 61-68.

Caratini, S. (2005), « Le projet ‘Alizés-Electrique’ ou les paradoxes du rapport de développement », Autrepart No. 35: « Les ONG à l’heure de la bonne gouvernance », IRD, Armand Colin.

Caratini, S. (2012), Les non-dits de l’anthropologie – Suivi de Dialogue avec Maurice Godelier, Editions Thierry Marchaisse, Vincennes.

Caratini, S. (2015), Les sept cercles: une odyssée noire, Editions Thierry Marchaisse, Vincennes.

Cohen, D. (2012), Homo economicus prophète (égaré) des temps nouveaux, Albin Michel, Paris.

Comité interministériel de la coopération internationale et du développement (CICID) (2013), Record of Decisions, 31 July 2013, Paris. (http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/07-31_Releve_de_decisions_du_Comite_interministeriel_de_la_ cooperation_internationale_et_du_developpement_CICID__cle0e5e79.pdf) Crépon, B., F. Devoto, E. Duflo and W. Parienté (2012), “Impact of Microcredit in Rural Areas of Morocco: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation”, Ex Post Impact Analyses series, No. 7, AFD, Paris (http://www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/ PUBLICATIONS/RECHERCHE/ Evaluations/Analyses-impact/07-analyse-impact.pdf) Delarue, J., J.D. Naudet and V. Sauvat (2009), “Are Evaluations Useful? A Review of the Literature on “Knowledge and Decision-making”, Methodological Notes Ex Post, No. 3, AFD, Paris (http://www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/ RECHERCHE/Evaluations/Notes-methodologiques/03-notes-methodologiques.pdf) Douat, J. (2014), « Innovations et entreprises au Mali », Groupe Vergnet, Ecole de Paris du management, session of 4 March.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

45

References

Duflo, E. and A. Banerjee (2011), Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty, Public Affairs, New York.

Dumez, H. (2013), Méthodologie de la recherche qualitative, Vuibert, Paris.

Dupuy, J.P. (2012), L’Avenir de l’économie, sortir de l’économystification, Flammarion, Paris.

Elliott, J., H. Gibbons, D. King, A. King and T. Leménager (2014), “Exploring Environmental Complementarity between Types of Protected Areas in Kenya”, Focales No. 19, AFD, Paris (http://www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/ RECHERCHE/Scientifiques/Focales/19-VA-Focales.pdf) Esteban, J., M. Morelli and D. Rohner (2010), “Strategic Mass Killings”, Political Economy and Development Seminar, Ecole d’économie de Paris, June.

Fukuyama, F. (1992), The End of History and the Last Man, Avon Books.

Ghemawat, P. (2011), World 3.0: Global Prosperity and How to Achieve It, Harvard Business Review Press Giraud, G. and C. Renouard (eds) (2009), Vingt propositions pour réformer le capitalisme, Flammarion, Paris.

Giraud, P.N. (1996), L’inégalité du monde, économie du monde contemporain, Gallimard, Paris, pp. 264-281.

Goodhart, C.A.E. (1975), “Monetary Relationships: A view from Threadneedle Street”, Papers in Monetary Economics, Vol. 1, Reserve Bank of Australia.

Guillou, M. and G. Matheron (2011), 9 milliards d’hommes à nourrir, un défi pour demain, Bourin éditeur.

Henry, A. (1991), « Vers un modèle du management africain », Cahiers d’Etudes africaines, 124, XXXI-4, Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales, Paris.

Iribarne (d’), P. (2012), L’envers du moderne, conversations avec Julien Charnay, CNRS éditions, pp.144-154.

Iribarne (d’), P. (2013), “National Cultures and Evaluation, an Interpretative Approach”, Opening plenary session, European Accounting Association, 36th Annual Congress, Paris-Dauphine, May. Jullien, F. (2008), De l’universel, de l’uniforme, du commun et du dialogue entre les cultures, Fayard, Paris, pp. 31-38.

Kaplan, A. (1964), The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioral Science, Chandler Publishing, San Francisco.

Kohli, A. (2006), “Politics of Economic Growth in India, 1980-2005, Part 1 & Part 2’’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol-XCI No. 13, April 1, Vol-XCI No. 14, Mumbai, April 8.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

46

References

Lévi-Strauss, C. (1971), « Race et culture », Revue internationale des sciences sociales, vol. 23, pp. 647-666.

North, D.C. (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press.

North, D.C., J.J. Wallis and B.R. Weingast (2009), Violence and Social Orders, A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History, Cambridge University Press.

Orléan, A. (2011), L’empire de la valeur, refonder l’économie, Seuil, Paris.

Pattanaik, D. (2013), Business Sutra, A Very Indian Approach to Management, Aleph Book Company.

Reiffers, J.L and N. Vincent (2013), « Mission sur la valorisation de la production de connaissances à l’AFD », Rapport à la Direction générale de l’AFD, March.

Revel, C. (2013), « Développer une influence normative internationale stratégique pour la France », Report submitted to N. Bricq, Minister for Foreign Trade, Paris, January (http://www.intelligence-economique.gouv.fr/) Rockström, J., W. Steffen, K. Noone, A. Persson, F.S. Chapin, E.F. Lambin, T.M. Lenton, M. Scheffer, C. Folke, H.J. Schellnhuber, B. Nykvist, C.A. de Wit, T. Hughes, S. van der Leeuw, H. Rodhe, S. Sörlin, P.K. Snyder, R. Costanza, U. Svedin, M. Falkenmark, L. Karlberg, R.W. Corell, V.J. Fabry, J. Hansen, B. Walker, D. Liverman, K. Richardson, P. Crutzen and J.A. Foley (2009), “A Safe Operating Space for Humanity”, Nature 461, 472-475.

Samyn, J.M., J. Gasana, E. Pousse and F. Pousse (2011), « Secteur forestier dans les pays du Bassin du Congo : 20 ans d’interventions de l’AFD », Ex Post Evaluation, AFD, Paris (http://www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/ RECHERCHE/Evaluations/Evaluations-conjointes/Congo-forets-evaluation-conjointe.pdf) Severino, J.M. and O. Ray (2011), Le grand basculement, la question sociale à l’échelle mondiale, Odile Jacob, Paris.

Todd, E. (1984), L’enfance du monde, Seuil, Paris.

Valerian, F. (2011), Crise dans la gouvernance, éthique des affaires et recherche du profit, Eska, Paris.

Villani, C. (2012), Théorème vivant, Grasset, Paris.

World Bank (2013), World Development Report 2013: Jobs, Washington, D.C. Zoellick, R.B. (2010), “Democratizing Development Economics”, speech at George Washington University, World Bank, September, (http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/speech/2010/09/29/democratizing-development-economics) Zoellick, R.B. (2011), “Beyond Aid’’, speech at George Washington University, World Bank. (http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:23000133~pagePK:34370~piPK:42770~theSite PK:4607,00.html)

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

47

References

Film Lallier, C. (1999), Nioro du Sahel, une ville sous tension, Europimages (http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xdx0mm_nioro-dusahel-une-ville-sous-tensi_school)

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

48

Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series Publiés depuis janvier 2009 / published since January 2009 Les numéros antérieurs sont consultables sur le site : http://recherche.afd.fr Previous publications can be accessed online at: http://recherche.afd.fr

N° 78

« L’itinéraire professionnel du jeune Africain » - Les résultats d’une enquête auprès de jeunes leaders Africains sur les dispositifs de formation professionnelle post-primaire

Richard Walther, consultant ITG, Marie Tamoifo, porte-parole de la jeunesse africaine et de la diaspora

Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - janvier 2009.

N° 79

Le ciblage des politiques de lutte contre la pauvreté : quel bilan des expériences dans les pays en développement ?

Emmanuelle Lavallée, Anne Olivier, Laure Pasquier-Doumer, Anne-Sophie Robilliard, DIAL - février 2009.

N° 80

Les nouveaux dispositifs de formation professionnelle post-primaire. Les résultats d’une enquête terrain au Cameroun, Mali et Maroc

Richard Walther, Consultant ITG

Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - mars 2009.

N° 81

Economic Integration and Investment Incentives in Regulated Industries

Emmanuelle Auriol, Toulouse School of Economics, Sara Biancini, Université de Cergy-Pontoise, THEMA, Comments by : Yannick Perez and Vincent Rious - April 2009.

N° 82

Capital naturel et développement durable en Nouvelle-Calédonie - Etude 1. Mesures de la « richesse totale »

et soutenabilité du développement de la Nouvelle-Calédonie

Clément Brelaud, Cécile Couharde, Vincent Géronimi, Elodie Maître d’Hôtel, Katia Radja, Patrick Schembri, Armand Taranco, Université de Versailles - Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, GEMDEV

Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - juin 2009.

N° 83

The Global Discourse on “Participation” and its Emergence in Biodiversity Protection

Olivier Charnoz, AFD - July 2009.

N° 84

Community Participation in Biodiversity Protection: an Enhanced Analytical Framework for Practitioners

Olivier Charnoz, AFD - August 2009.

N° 85

Les Petits opérateurs privés de la distribution d’eau à Maputo : d’un problème à une solution ?

Aymeric Blanc, Jérémie Cavé, LATTS, Emmanuel Chaponnière, Hydroconseil

Contact : Aymeric Blanc, AFD - août 2009.

N° 86

Les transports face aux défis de l’énergie et du climat

Benjamin Dessus, Global Chance.

Contact : Nils Devernois, département de la Recherche, AFD - septembre 2009.

N° 87

Fiscalité locale : une grille de lecture économique

Guy Gilbert, professeur des universités à l’Ecole normale supérieure (ENS) de Cachan

Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - septembre 2009.

N° 88

Les coûts de formation et d’insertion professionnelles - Conclusions d’une enquête terrain en Côte d’Ivoire

Richard Walther, expert AFD avec la collaboration de Boubakar Savadogo (Akilia) et de Borel Foko (Pôle de Dakar)

Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - octobre 2009.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

49

Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series N° 89

Présentation de la base de données. Institutional Profiles Database 2009 (IPD 2009) Institutional Profiles Database III - Presentation of the Institutional Profiles Database 2009 (IPD 2009) Denis de Crombrugghe, Kristine Farla, Nicolas Meisel, Chris de Neubourg, Jacques Ould Aoudia, Adam Szirmai Contact : Nicolas Meisel, département de la Recherche, AFD - décembre 2009.

N° 90

Migration, santé et soins médicaux à Mayotte Sophie Florence, Jacques Lebas, Pierre Chauvin, Equipe de recherche sur les déterminants sociaux de la santé et du recours aux soins UMRS 707 (Inserm - UPMC) Contact : Christophe Paquet, AFD - janvier 2010.

N° 91

Capital naturel et developpement durable en Nouvelle-Calédonie - Etude 2. Soutenabilité de la croissance néocalédonienne : un enjeu de politiques publiques Cécile Couharde, Vincent Géronimi, Elodie Maître d’Hôtel, Katia Radja, Patrick Schembri, Armand Taranco Université de Versailles – Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, GEMDEV Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - janvier 2010.

N° 92

Community Participation Beyond Idealisation and Demonisation: Biodiversity Protection in Soufrière, St. Lucia Olivier Charnoz, AFD - January 2010.

N° 93

Community Participation in the Pantanal, Brazil: Containment Games and Learning Processes Participation communautaire dans le Pantanal au Brésil : stratégies d’endiguement et processus d’apprentissage Olivier Charnoz, AFD - février 2010.

N° 94

Développer le premier cycle secondaire : enjeu rural et défis pour l’Afrique subsaharienne Alain Mingat et Francis Ndem, IREDU, CNRS et université de Bourgogne Contact : Jean-Claude Balmès, département Education et formation professionnelle, AFD - avril 2010

N° 95

Prévenir les crises alimentaires au Sahel : des indicateurs basés sur les prix de marché Catherine Araujo Bonjean, Stéphanie Brunelin, Catherine Simonet, CERDI - mai 2010.

N° 96

La Thaïlande : premier exportateur de caoutchouc naturel grâce à ses agriculteurs familiaux Jocelyne Delarue, AFD - mai 2010.

N° 97

Les réformes curriculaires par l’approche par compétences en Afrique Francoise Cros, Jean-Marie de Ketele, Martial Dembélé, Michel Develay, Roger-François Gauthier, Najoua Ghriss, Yves Lenoir, Augustin Murayi, Bruno Suchaut, Valérie Tehio - juin 2010.

N° 98

Les coûts de formation et d’insertion professionnelles - Les conclusions d’une enquête terrain au Burkina Faso Richard Walther, Boubakar Savadogo, consultants en partenariat avec le Pôle de Dakar/UNESCO-BREDA. Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - juin 2010.

N° 99

Private Sector Participation in the Indian Power Sector and Climate Change Shashanka Bhide, Payal Malik, S.K.N. Nair, Consultants, NCAER Contact: Aymeric Blanc, AFD - June 2010.

N° 100

Normes sanitaires et phytosanitaires : accès des pays de l’Afrique de l’Ouest au marché européen Une étude empirique Abdelhakim Hammoudi, Fathi Fakhfakh, Cristina Grazia, Marie-Pierre Merlateau.

Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - juillet 2010.

N° 101

Hétérogénéité internationale des standards de sécurité sanitaire des aliments : Quelles stratégies pour les filières d’exportation des PED ? - Une analyse normative Abdelhakim Hammoudi, Cristina Grazia, Eric Giraud-Héraud, Oualid Hamza.

Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - juillet 2010.

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

50

Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series N° 102

Développement touristique de l’outre-mer et dépendance au carbone Jean-Paul Ceron, Ghislain Dubois et Louise de Torcy.

Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - octobre 2010.

N° 103

Les approches de la pauvreté en Polynésie française : résultats et apports de l’enquête sur les conditions de vie en 2009 Javier Herrera, IRD-DIAL, Sébastien Merceron, Insee.

Contact : Cécile Valadier, AFD - novembre 2010.

N° 104

La gestion des déchets à Coimbatore (Inde) : frictions entre politique publique et initiatives privées Jérémie Cavé, Laboratoire Techniques, Territoires et Sociétés (LATTS), CNRS - décembre 2010.

N° 105

Migrations et soins en Guyane - Rapport final à l’Agence Française de Développement dans le cadre du contrat AFD-Inserm Anne Jolivet, Emmanuelle Cadot, Estelle Carde, Sophie Florence, Sophie Lesieur, Jacques Lebas, Pierre Chauvin Contact : Christophe Paquet, AFD - décembre 2010.

N° 106

Les enjeux d’un bon usage de l’électricité : Chine, Etats-Unis, Inde et Union européenne Benjamin Dessus et Bernard Laponche avec la collaboration de Sophie Attali (Topten International Services), Robert Angioletti (Ademe), Michel Raoust (Terao) Contact : Nils Devernois, département de la Recherche, AFD - février 2011.

N° 107

Hospitalisation des patients des pays de l’Océan indien - Prises en charges spécialisées dans les hôpitaux de la Réunion Catherine Dupilet, Dr Roland Cash, Dr Olivier Weil et Dr Georges Maguerez (cabinet AGEAL) En partenariat avec le Centre Hospitalier Régional de la Réunion et le Fonds de coopération régionale de la Réunion Contact : Philippe Renault, AFD - février 2011.

N° 108

Peasants against Private Property Rights: A Review of the Literature Thomas Vendryes, Paris School of Economics - February 2011.

N° 109

Le mécanisme REDD+ de l’échelle mondiale à l’échelle locale - Enjeux et conditions de mise en oeuvre ONF International Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, département de la Recherche, AFD - mars 2011.

N° 110

L’aide au Commerce : état des lieux et analyse Aid for Trade: A Survey Mariana Vijil, Marilyne Huchet-Bourdon et Chantal Le Mouël, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Rennes.

Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - avril 2011.

N° 111

Métiers porteurs : le rôle de l’entrepreneuriat, de la formation et de l’insertion professionnelle Sandra Barlet et Christian Baron, GRET Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - avril 2011.

N° 112

Charbon de bois et sidérurgie en Amazonie brésilienne : quelles pistes d’améliorations environnementales ?

L’exemple du pôle de Carajas Ouvrage collectif sous la direction de Marie-Gabrielle Piketty, Cirad, UMR Marchés Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, département de la Recherche, AFD - avril 2011.

N° 113

Gestion des risques agricoles par les petits producteurs Focus sur l’assurance-récolte indicielle et le warrantage Guillaume Horréard, Bastien Oggeri, Ilan Rozenkopf sous l’encadrement de : Anne Chetaille, Aurore Duffau, Damien Lagandré Contact : Bruno Vindel, département des Politiques alimentaires, AFD - mai 2011.

N° 114

Analyse de la cohérence des politiques commerciales en Afrique de l’Ouest Jean-Pierre Rolland, Arlène Alpha, GRET Contact : Jean-René Cuzon, AFD - juin 2011

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

51

Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series N° 115

L’accès à l’eau et à l’assainissement pour les populations en situation de crise : comment passer de l’urgence à la reconstruction et au développement ?

Julie Patinet (Groupe URD) et Martina Rama (Académie de l’eau), sous la direction de François Grünewald (Groupe URD) Contact : Thierry Liscia, AFD- septembre 2011

N° 116

Formation et emploi au Maroc : état des lieux et recommandations Jean-Christophe Maurin et Thomas Melonio, AFD - septembre 2011.

N° 117

Student Loans: Liquidity Constraint and Higher Education in South Africa Marc Gurgand, Adrien Lorenceau, Paris School of Economics Contact: Thomas Melonio, AFD - September 2011.

N° 118

Quelles(s) classe(s) moyenne(s) en Afrique ? Une revue de littérature Dominique Darbon, IEP Bordeaux, Comi Toulabor, LAM Bordeaux Contacts : Virginie Diaz et Thomas Melonio, AFD - décembre 2011.

N° 119

Les réformes de l’aide au développement en perspective de la nouvelle gestion publique Development Aid Reforms in the Context of New Public Management Jean-David Naudet, AFD - février 2012.

N° 120

Fostering Low-Carbon Growth Initiatives in Thailand Contact: Cécile Valadier, AFD - February 2012

N° 121

Interventionnisme public et handicaps de compétitivité : analyse du cas polynésien Florent Venayre, Maître de conférences en sciences économiques, université de la Polynésie française et LAMETA, université de Montpellier Contacts : Cécile Valadier et Virginie Olive, AFD - mars 2012.

N° 122

Accès à l’électricité en Afrique subsaharienne : retours d’expérience et approches innovantes Anjali Shanker (IED) avec les contributions de Patrick Clément (Axenne), Daniel Tapin et Martin Buchsenschutz (Nodalis Conseil) Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - avril 2012.

N° 123

Assessing Credit Guarantee Schemes for SME Finance in Africa: Evidence from Ghana, Kenya, South Africa and Tanzania Angela Hansen, Ciku Kimeria, Bilha Ndirangu, Nadia Oshry and Jason Wendle, Dalberg Global Development Advisors Contact: Cécile Valadier, AFD - April 2012.

N° 124

Méthodologie PEFA et collectivités infranationales : quels enseignements pour l’AFD ?

Contacts : Frédéric Audras et Jean-François Almanza, AFD - juillet 2012

N° 125

High Returns, Low Attention, Slow Implementation: The Policy Paradoxes of India’s Clean Energy Development Ashwini Swain, University of York, Contact : Olivier Charnoz, PhD, AFD - July 2012

N° 126

In Pursuit of Energy Efficiency in India’s Agriculture: Fighting ‘Free Power’ or Working with it?

Ashwini Swain, University of York,

Contact : Olivier Charnoz, AFD - August 2012

N° 127

L’empreinte écologique et l’utilisation des sols comme indicateur environnemental : quel intérêt pour les politiques publiques ?

Jeroen van den Bergh, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Contact : Fabio Grazi, AFD - octobre 2012

N° 128

China’s Coal Methane: Actors, Structures, Strategies and their Global Impacts Ke Chen, Research consultant & Olivier Charnoz, AFD - November 2012

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

52

Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series N° 129

Quel niveau de développement des départements et collectivités d’outre-mer ?

Une approche par l’indice de développement humain

Olivier Sudrie (cabinet DME)

Contact : Vincent Joguet, AFD - novembre 2012

N° 130

Taille des villes, urbanisation et spécialisations économiques

Une analyse sur micro-données exhaustives des 10 000 localités maliennes

Claire Bernard, Sandrine Mesplé-Somps, Gilles Spielvogel, IRD, UMR DIAL,

Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - novembre 2012

N° 131

Approche comparée des évolutions économiques des Outre-mer français sur la période 1998-2010

Croissance économique stoppée par la crise de 2008

Claude Parain, INSEE, La Réunion, Sébastien Merceron, ISPF, Polynésie française

Contacts : Virginie Olive et Françoise Rivière, économistes, AFD - mars 2013

N° 132

Equilibre budgétaire et solvabilité des collectivités locales dans un environnement décentralisé

Quelles leçons tirer des expériences nationales ?

Guy Gilbert, Professeur émerite ENS Cachan, CES-PSE, François Vaillancourt, Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada

Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - avril 2013

N° 133

Les politiques d’efficacité énergétique en Chine, Inde, Indonésie, Thaïlande et Vietnam

Loïc Chappoz et Bernard Laponche, Global Chance

Contact : Nils Devernois, AFD - avril 2013

N° 134

South-South cooperation and new agricultural development aid actors in western and southern Africa

China and Brazil - Case studies

Jean-Jacques Gabas (CIRAD, UMR ARTDev) et Frédéric Goulet (CIRAD, UMR Innovation)

N° 135

L’économie politique et la gestion territoriale des services environnementaux

Bernard Dafflon, université de Fribourg (Suisse)

Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - juin 2013

N° 136

Séminaire AFD, Mali : une contribution de la recherche française et européenne, vendredi 12 avril 2013

Contact : François Gaulme, AFD - janvier 2014 N° 137

Evaluer l’impact des instruments financiers en faveur des entreprises

Olivier Cadot, Université de Lausanne, FERDI et CEPREMAP, Anne-Célia Disdier et Akiko Suwa-Eisenmannn, Paris School of Economics, INRA et CEPREMAP, Julien Gourdon, CEPII et CEPREMAP, Jérôme Héricourt, EQUIPPE-Universités de Lille, CES-Université de Paris 1 et CEPII

Contact : Bertrand Savoye, AFD - mars 2014

N° 138

Une réévaluation de l'objectif de scolarisation primaire universelle sous l'angle des acquis scolaires

Nadir Altinok1, 2, Jean Bourdon1 1

IREDU (Institut de recherche sur l’éducation) - université de Bourgogne, CNRS

2

BETA (Bureau d’économie théorique et appliquée) - université de Lorraine, CNRS

Contact : Véronique Sauvat, AFD - juillet 2014 N° 139

Indicateurs d’impact des projets de gestion durable des terres, de lutte contre la dégradation des terres et la désertification, Partie 1

Isabelle Amsallem, Agropolis Productions, Marc Bied-Charreton, Centre d’études des territoires, de la mondialisation et des vulnérabilités de l’Université de Versailles Saint Quentin-en-Yvelines (CEMOTEV/UVSQ), Comité Scientifique Français de la Désertification (CSFD)

Contact : Constance Corbier-Barthaux, AFD - mai 2014

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

53

Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series N° 140

La production de connaissances à l'AFD

Enjeux et orientations

Contact : Alain Henry, AFD - septembre 2014

N° 141

L'information sur les prix agricoles par la téléphonie mobile : le cas du Ghana Julie Subervie (Inra) et Franck Galtier (Cirad) Contact : Stéphanie Pamiès et Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - novembre 2014

N° 142

Les gaz de schiste : enjeux et questions pour le développement Benjamin Dessus (Global Chance) Contact : Cyrille Bellier, AFD - décembre 2014

N° 143

L’agroécologie et son potentiel environnemental en Zambie : de l’utilité d’une réflexion sociotechnique pour l’aide au développement.

Véra Ehrenstein (CSI) et Tiphaine Leménager (AFD) Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, AFD - décembre 2014

N° 144

La présence de la Chine dans la Caraïbe Carlos Quenan, Éric Dubesset, Viktor Sukup, Romain Cruse, Juan Carlos Diaz Mendoza, Laneydi Martinez Alfonso, Antonio Romero (Institut des Amériques) Contact : Éric Jourcin et Quentin Lajus, AFD - février 2015

© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014

54