AFD and its Partners - The Cultural Dimension

Agence Française de Développement

Working Paper March 2014

AFD and its Partners The Cultural Dimension Philippe d’Iribarne (Gestion et Société - CNRS) philippe.iribarne@wanadoo.fr

Département de la Recherche Agence Française de Développement 5 rue Roland Barthes 75012 Paris - France Direction de la Stratégie www.afd.fr Département de la Recherche

23

Disclaimer The analyses and conclusions formulated in this document are those of the author. They do not necessarily reflect the position of Agence Française de Développement or its partner institutions.

Publications Director: Anne PAUGAM Editorial Director: Alain HENRY ISSN: 1958-539X Copyright: 1er trimestre 2014

Mise en page : Vif-Argent

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 2

Contents

Contents

Introduction

4

1.

French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationship

6

1.1

French references in Martinique and New Caledonia

6

1.2

Anglo-Saxon references in South Africa

8

2.

Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

11

2.1 Morocco

11

2.2 Chad

13

2.3 Senegal

16

3.

Right track and harmony in Vietnam

19

Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa

22

4.

4.1 Martinique

22

4.2

New Caledonia

24

4.3

South Africa

25

Conclusions

26

Distinctive features

26

Relationships between cultures

27

References

© AFD Working Paper No 23

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• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 3

Introduction

Introduction

A development agency operating in a large number

this field, the role of personal relationships with any one of

of countries and territories is faced with great cultural

its representatives compared to the relationship with the

diversity. There are, of course, universal or almost universal

institution, etc.?

expectations towards it. They do not only concern the purely financial aspects of its operations, such as interest

A survey

rate levels or loan maturities, but also – seen from a

In order to advance knowledge of these issues, in September

certain level of abstraction – the modalities of its action.

2005, a survey of AFD’s partners was conducted in seven

Consequently, the desire to forge partnership relationships in which there is mutual trust is not related to any particular

countries and territories (Chad, Martinique, Morocco, New Caledonia, Senegal, South Africa and Vietnam).1 Some

cultural situation. However, when one looks more closely

twenty actors among the different categories of AFD’s

at the practical aspects, one can see that what is exactly

partners were questioned in each country. The respondents

meant when it comes to a “partnership”, and what must

were unable to explain their culture’s specific vision of what

be done in practice to implement it, varies considerably

is effective cooperation, a vision that is generally largely

depending on the location. Similarly, when someone states

unconscious. The approach used was to question them

that a bank “should show more trust towards” its clients,

about their relations with AFD in a very factual manner.

what this comment actually means – and therefore the

Open questions were asked about the working relations

practical conclusions that can be drawn from it – very much

with AFD, the products offered by the latter, the response

depends on the cultural context in question. More generally,

capacity of its interlocutors, the diversity of its roles

the universal terms used to refer to effective cooperation

(financial role, role in terms of advice, consultancy and

are far from always encompassing the same realities and

training), the complementarity and competitive relationships

therefore from suggesting the same actions.

with other donors, and possible ways of improving its action. It is through the comments made in these different

This cultural relativity stems from the fact that what is

areas that the conceptions of an appropriate manner of

expected from a development agency in one specific place

working together implicitly appeared. These conceptions

depends – via the general conception to be found there

were for everyone the tacit reference that gives a meaning to situations and allows them to judge such situations.2

of what is an effective way of working together – on the vision of an ordered society that prevails there. A whole mental universe, a set of benchmarks allowing situations to

In the perspective taken, it is not the content of the

be interpreted and judged, is combined with such a vision.

opinions expressed that matters, but the categories used

In addition, the specificities of each society on this matter

to express them. These categories appear through the

are also likely to affect a set of elements that are crucial

words, expressions and turns of phrase that are particularly

for a development agency to be well integrated into the local context, and for the effectiveness of its action: What type of relationship is expected from a donor? On what is based the confidence that one can have in it? What is, in © AFD Working Paper No 23

1 The survey was conducted in South Africa and Vietnam by Segal, J.-P., in Chad and Senegal by Chevrier, S., in Martinique and New Caledonia by Yousfi, H. and in Morocco by Iribarne (d’), P. 2 On the approach used here, see the chapter « la dynamique d’une démarche » in Iribarne (d’) et al., 1998.

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 4

Introduction

present in a certain cultural environment. Consequently, for

Secondly, we will, to the contrary, meet in Chad, Morocco

example, when a respondent says that the person whose

and Senegal, cultures where personal relationships play

action they are referring to knows his profession remarkably

a key role. However, we shall see that there is a marked

well, or does not know anything about it, he shows, by

difference from one country to another in the way in which

using such an expression (to know one’s profession) that

these relationships are conceived. For example, in Morocco

everyone’s profession is for him a meaningful benchmark.

one can see a desire to achieve a proximity to such an

In addition, when such a benchmark, which is in no way

extent that the differences in interests disappear behind

universal, plays a key role in the comments made by a

the strength of mutual assistance. Conversely, in Chad,

very diverse group of actors belonging to the same society,

where interests are conceived as fundamentally different,

it can only be due to the importance that it has in the

what is expected from long-standing familiarity is a good

corresponding culture. To provide an account of the variety

ability to discern them and to find adjustments between

of mental universes that we encountered, in the present

them. In Senegal, a rather rough vision of the difference of

paper we shall extensively quote the comments made by

interests, and of the need for everyone to make sure their

our respondents. The words, expressions and turns of

own are taken into account, is combined with a call for a

phrase that particularly show a mental universe will be both highlighted3 and commented upon.

form of community where there is a high level of mutual

In certain cases, in Chad, Morocco, Senegal and Vietnam,

Vietnam, which will be mentioned after, provides a sort

we did not find marked differences between the visions of an

of combination of the two main cases mentioned earlier,

ordered society reflected by our different respondents when

with a subtle alliance between impersonal cooperation

we focused on those who had their roots in the country in question.4 By contrast, in Martinique, New Caledonia and

mechanisms (the “right track”) and the importance given to

South Africa, which are clearly multi-ethnic societies, we

ensures that there is a connection between these two types

encountered significant differences between the visions

of benchmark.

transparency.

the existence of good relations. A great deal of diplomacy

reflected by people belonging to the diverse groups that make up society. We subsequently endeavoured to identify,

For the fourth section, we shall come back to Martinique,

as far as possible, in what way these visions differed.

New Caledonia and South Africa by looking at the more

Mixed conceptions of the right way to cooperate First of all, we will find in Martinique and New Caledonia,

specific benchmarks that coexist with visions from mainland France on the one hand, and Anglo-Saxon visions on the other.

on the one hand, and in South Africa, on the other hand, benchmarks that are similar to those found in France

In conclusion, we shall seek to learn some lessons from all

and in the Anglo-Saxon world. Much of this can probably

these analyses.

be put down to the fact that most of AFD’s partners in these countries and territories belong to the ruling elite.

A common feature of these benchmarks (with a central reference to the profession in the case of France and to the market in the Anglo-Saxon world) is that they allow forms of professional cooperation to be established that are already highly satisfactory between actors who do not have particularly close personal relationships.

3

They will be put in bold type.

4 We have therefore excluded representatives from French cooperation and other international donors from the scope of our analysis, as well as some expatriates.

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1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships

1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships

The modes of cooperation that can be found in very

their personal relationships with the people with whom

different forms in relationships between a donor and its

they are dealing. Similarly, in Anglo-Saxon countries, the

partners in France on the one hand, and in Anglo-Saxon

reference to the market and to respecting “market forces”,

countries on the other hand, do not require establishing close ties between institutions and individuals.5 Such ties

involving a non-discriminatory treatment of suppliers and

can, of course, be established, but the way in which affairs

We found these modes of cooperation in Martinique and

are managed is mainly based on a clear distinction between

New Caledonia on the one hand, and in South Africa on

personal relationships and professional relationships. In

the other hand.

clients, leads to a limited role for personal relationships.

France, everyone feels obliged to “do their job”, whatever

1.1 French references in Martinique and New Caledonia A number of the people surveyed in New Caledonia were

opposition between two major references structures this

from mainland France. They had been living in the territory

questioning: at one extreme, the majestic, disinterested and

for a few years and were destined to leave it. The cultural

slightly arrogant image of the State and its representatives,

benchmarks they used to express an opinion about AFD were the same as those encountered in mainland France.6

at the other, that of the trader who searches for clients with

Similarly, for some of our respondents who come from

choose between these two irreconcilable roles. There are

mainland France – “Békés” – the cultural benchmarks that

some particularly marked expressions of this opposition:

we encountered in Martinique were no different from those

“We have the impression of a great lady who does not

we could have come across in France. In both cases, we

personalise her relationships very much.” “It is AFD and not

found these benchmarks among our other respondents,

the local Chinese person who wants to develop its trade.”

the aim of increasing its profits. AFD is in a way required to

even if they were more or less mixed with local components, In such a vision, it is up to everyone to “do their job” and

a point we shall come back to.

to do it well, with an appropriate manner and style of doing In New Caledonia, an essential question asked about AFD,

things. The expectations that one can have of a partner

as it could have been for any other institution, was to know

correspond to the requirements of its profession, which

what it is: What is its activity, its mission, its vocation? The

defines what is “normal” and “logical”: “They impose things on us, but it is logical, we would like to criticise them for this, but we cannot because it is normal to ask for supporting

5 Concerning the fact that the existence of such ties is more or less necessary, depending on the culture, in order to establish reasonably effective cooperation relationships, see Iribarne, (d’), 2007.

6 We also found these benchmarks in the comments made in other fields by our contacts in French embassies and French economic missions. On these benchmarks, see Iribarne, (d’), 1989 and 2006.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

documents and so on…”. In this way, for most people AFD is an instrument of the State, more than a banker seeking to ensure its business is successful: “We do not tend to think in terms of turnover when we speak about AFD.”

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 6

1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships

This role is combined with a perspective of general interest

of AFD as a representative of the State, and therefore

and development service, but also with distance, or even

of the general interest, and want it to remain true to this:

arrogance: “AFD is overly associated with the lecturing

“AFD no longer wishes to take risks, it is a moneylender,

State. […] The lack of proximity, etc.”

whereas their vocation is nevertheless development.”

The “moneylender”, the figure of the predatory trader, is

A problem arises when one changes activity, while continuing

in conflict with the figure which, dedicated to the general

to act in a way that would be “normal” and “logical” in the

interest, has “development” as a vocation.

former activity, but not in the new one. For example, AFD is criticised for maintaining practices that are suitable for an

One can of course have several activities, but there is a

activity as a State representative with a concern to ensure

need to be organised accordingly, with a staff and “culture”

that public funds are used for their intended purpose, while

adapted to each of them. For example, we were told: “They

seeking to have an activity as a banker. A banker who acts

created a spatial development and planning mission, or a

in a manner that is consistent with the orientations of its

development service, and I think it is a culture they did

activity only asks for the guarantee to be repaid. Once this

not have. They had a culture as a banker and so they

condition has been fulfilled, it does not need to express

made a risk analysis of projects, but I think they lacked the

an opinion on what the borrower will do with the money

culture of development.”

obtained: “This is where it is said that the administrative procedures need to be eased, we do not need to justify

This reference to the activity, to the rationale of the activity,

this, but rather to justify our repayment ability.” “In my

can be found in Martinique in various forms. Here again, it

opinion, to the contrary, they should have eased things

leads to seek, define, or ask what AFD is, i.e. what is its

and returned to a real market-based rationale, with their

activity, its mission, its vocation? “It is not only a banker,

specific advantage: rates subsidised by the State.”

but a financial partner in a lot of activities. […] It is true that the closer you get to development projects, the more they

At the same time, the question arises of whether AFD,

have a characteristic that is not simply to be a banker.”

with its grandeur as a representative of the State ensuring

He who is “only a banker”, the characteristic of which is

the common good, is waiting for prospective applicants

“simply to be a banker”, is in opposition to he who has the

or, acting as a banker seeking to get rich, is not ashamed

higher (more noble) mission of engaging in “development

to prospect clients. The discretion it shows is appropriate

projects”. In this reference to the activity, it is up to

if its status is that of a representative of the majesty of

everyone to “do their job” and they are judged on this basis.

the State. However, to the contrary, if it has the status of

The activity’s standards define what is “logical”, “normal”,

banker, this is a sign of a lack of commercial dynamism.

“not scandalous”, or on the contrary, what one “has trouble

There are statements such as: “But I have the impression

understanding”: “Otherwise, for nearly all banks, in all banks,

that there is a marketing which is not very good. I mean

we find this slowness in decision-making because there is

that we do not really know whether AFD needs or wants

a circuit to respect. But it is logical, I worked in banking

to lend, or whether it is there to possibly receive people

for twelve years and I know what I am talking about.” “AFD

who are seeking to borrow or public authorities who are

sometimes asks for certain guarantees, which is normal,

seeking to borrow.” On the one hand, the “real banker”

that is its activity of lending, so guarantees are required.”

who does business, “needs, wants to lend”, on the other hand, the representative of the public authority is there “to

The idea of partnership, which is often mentioned, takes on

receive” applicants. These two attitudes are incompatible.

a special meaning in this rationale of activity. It involves not

Similarly, another of our respondents asks: “AFD is there

simply providing a standard product, but taking an interest

to do what? […] Does AFD make profits, what is AFD’s

in the client and its problems and needs, and customising

status? I have no idea, it is a public institution.” The same

in an inventive way. For example, one of our respondents

opposition can be found among those who hold to a vision

in New Caledonia notes: “We expressed our needs, the

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• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 7

1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships

headquarters’ services worked on the subject and were

analysis and expertise. That is, it does more, it will go

then able to present a product that was entirely suited

further in the analysis, in the relationship with the client.”

to what we were asking for […] It is a good financial product that had to be devised. But that is exactly what

In this type of relationship, people speak to each other,

we needed. […] Today, AFD is a development partner

explain things to each other, endeavour to understand each

of SECAL. […] They fully understood our needs.” Once

other. Working together, consulting each other, means that

the client had expressed its needs, they had been fully

the root of the problem is examined together. However,

“understood”. The banker did not simply propose a classic

irrespective of the good relationship, there is no question

product, but “worked on the subject”, thanks to which he

of doing favours for each other, even if friendships have

was able to “devise” something new, which corresponded

also been developed. People remain very professional.

“exactly” to the need. The person in question also said

Everyone has their mission, which remains the fundamental

that “they were very competent”, adding: “I am not

benchmark. For example, for one of our respondents in

sure that we would have had the same proposals from

New Caledonia: “Apart from the story of the Club House,

other financial institutions, certainly not from traditional

which was not eligible for them, for all the others, they

banks, because they have not understood this logic.”

found that it corresponded firstly to the mission that was

It involves understanding the client’s problems as a real

entrusted to us, to our status, to our role as a port

professional, with all the expertise that this requires. We

authority and, secondly, that it was part of their mission.”

found an identical conception of partnership in Martinique

This aspect goes hand in hand with relations that are civil,

with our respondents the most marked by the standard

but do not need to be close, and in which the concern for

French benchmarks. In relationships with one’s partners,

things outweighs the ties between individuals: “Everyone

it is a question of being aware of their problems, analysing

works on their own. But we had contacts for this file

them as a professional or expert in one’s field, and coming

because both parties conducted analyses on its financial

up with solutions for them: “It has a better capability for

aspects”, notes one of our respondents in Martinique.

1.2 Anglo-Saxon references in South Africa Most of the respondents in South Africa belonged to the

or not [...]. If they are interested we come to the next

white Establishment. It was difficult to differentiate between their references and those found among their American7

step, give figures. It may not be explicit but implicitly it’s cooperation.”

or British counterparts. The reference to the market, to competition and to the ethics that allow them to function

Competition reigns on a market. All do not succeed

properly is omnipresent.

equally: “We necessarily have to be the n° 1 player of the market.” To achieve this, it is necessary to apply the

The market is the central reference. Everyone meets their

basic management principles. It is necessary to be more

partners on a market and seeks to conduct transactions or

attractive than the competition: “We have found a more

set up operations in line with the interests of all the parties

competitive solution.” It is necessary to be dynamic,

concerned. People work together when they have detected

to know how to seize opportunities that arise: “To take

common interests: “Neither one of us needs desperately

advantage of this opportunity.” There is a need to know

the other but both are interested. I think it’s quite good.”

one’s market and primarily the expectations of one’s clients:

“Generally speaking, if we have an idea for DFI we share

“AFD has made big efforts to understand the South African

with all of them [...]. They will tell us if they are interested

market and municipal market. My perception is that they are successful for this reason.” Having good products

7

See La logique de l’honneur, second section.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

is not enough, you need to know how to sell them and • AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 8

1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships

to approach those they are likely to interest: “They did

transparent. We are not in the market of playing poker

approach us, being very active in doing their marketing.”

games. […] I don’t think one can come to us and say ‘you are not playing the game.’”

The price of the transaction is the normal means of adjustment between the parties. As long as the profit

To develop relationships of trust, there is a need to behave

opportunities are reasonable, there is nothing further to

correctly with one’s partners: “Once we started to speak

demand from those with whom one is doing business. In

to AFD we actually didn’t talk or try to talk with other DFI

this regard, development agencies’ desire to know what is

because of transparency and the need of building trust.”

done with their money appears as unwarranted interference

There is a need to act in a non-discriminatory manner: “We

in the way in which their clients manage their own affairs:

cannot do different deals from one to the other.” A certain

“I am coming from commercial banking. One asks questions

balance of power needs to be found: “Both parties are

and get responses. Then you evaluate management

always looking for establishing a balance of power, which

ability to do something or not, and in most cases if you talk

may not exist in less developed financial markets.”

to the management and to the staff you have a very good idea and feeling of what management is capable of doing.

It is, of course, good to help those who are in difficulty,

Once you have that, then you decide whether you loan

the “disadvantaged” (compassionate capitalism): “DFI

money or not. Things are different with AFD or with many

could be helpful [...]. I might ask for help from the DFI

aid organisations. They want to know exactly what those

community.” However, even when it comes to development

ten millions are made for… and it doesn’t always work

and assistance to the most disadvantaged, the reference

like that.” Everyone should manage their own activities,

to market principles remains central. It is still a question

without it being legitimate to hold them accountable for

of taking a place on the market, even if it is a specific

something other than their results: “Making decisions is

market: “One of their goals was to be more introduced to

after all our business.”

the informal market [...], to get into new businesses.”

To achieve this, it is necessary to find products and an

Certification agencies are a factor in the proper functioning

organisation that are suitable: “You can change your

of the market. They allow everyone to avoid making their

business model.”. But this does not mean wasting one’s

in-house functioning public: “We see ourselves as a strong

money: “What we found very positive was that AFD

reputable organisation rated by international agencies.

was really keen to move away from the way they were

Perhaps the due diligence, the amount of information that

traditionally doing business, looking at other ways. But

you need to supply, is just too much in order to get involved

without throwing money away.” It is good to reconcile

for a line. You should say: ‘Just give us your annual report

the fight against poverty and sound financial management,

and that’s it.’”

particularly when one manages a “poverty equity fund”: “I have never ever written off any money that I have loaned to

Generally speaking, the independence of parties and

people. We have never lost money.”

the recognised right for everyone to make their own decisions under their own responsibility are highly valued.

The attention paid to a clear determination of responsibilities,

Consequently, everyone is free to propose to its partners

which marks the relationships between organisations, is

the product that they intend to provide: “AFD’s rate is much

seen when it comes to individuals within each organisation.

higher than other DFI. I don’t say right or wrong, this is

It is important to well define the powers of the people with

their own priority.”

whom you are dealing: “They have the ability to negotiate at this level.” “People from the region explained their

At the same time, the proper functioning of the market

mandate has been extended so there is wider space for

requires everyone to respect certain rules of the game,

our cooperation.” Consequently, it does not matter whether

while freely defending their interests: “We are totally

the contact is near or far, or whether the relationships with it

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• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 9

1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships

are more or less personal: “It is easier for us to deal directly

people to work with. They wanted to help us from the

with Paris, straight to the right level of technicity. Local

start […]. Very interested in the way we approached the

people bring the right people to us. They manage the visit

market.”

very well. Once we have made this connection, we work directly. Maybe sometimes we should not forget to have

It is only very rarely, and for situations where the relational

local people on the loop.”

dimension was especially significant, that we received comments with a more emotional tone from this population,

The reference to good contacts, to good human relations,

for example, when one of our respondents stated: “PSG

is not absent, but their instrumental dimension is essential.

decided to abandon us.” It was not a question of simple

It is a question of being effective together: “Local people

business relations, but a sort of severing of the relationship

and people who came from France, they were super nice

between a subsidiary and its parent company.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 10

2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

2. C had, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

In Chad, Morocco and Senegal, we found few references

anything from each other, is central. Differences of interest

to forms of coordination independent from relationships

and rivalries over power do not, of course, disappear, but

that develop between individuals. Neither the norms of the

there is a strong desire to be in another field. In Chad, on

profession, nor the benchmarks provided by the market,

the contrary, the interplay of interests is extremely visible,

were emphasised. Good personal relationships were not

including in relationships between “friends”. Getting on well

only mentioned as a possible complement to mainly

together in no way precludes negotiating openly and firmly,

professional relationship (a complement which is pleasant

but involves accepting to enter into a long process of mutual

and sometimes useful, but far from being necessary):

adjustment, by not putting forward any pretension to an

such personal relationships are presented as an essential ingredient of effective professional cooperation.8 The way

“objective” vision of things. In Senegal, it is more a question

in which they are conceived does, however, differ from

much more than in Morocco, there is in an opposite way of

country to country. In Morocco, the image of a community

Chad, a reference to a process whereby one can ultimately

within which one is close, where everyone helps each other,

reach some form of consensus thanks to a high level of

anticipates the desires of each other, where no one hides

mutual transparency.

of consultation. While differences of interest are highlighted

2.1 Morocco The comments made by our Moroccan respondents

for each other: “We have special contacts, partners. They

were mainly of a relational register (even though, as

are available.”

we shall see, it is less exclusive there than in Chad or Senegal). This register is structured by major oppositions: between proximity and distance; between respect and

These friendly relations are in no way considered as being free from any perspective of self-interest.9 Firstly, it seems

authoritarianism; between trust and distrust.

normal to put forward the quality of relations to request more material assistance: “Our expectations? We want

Many of our respondents mentioned partnerships, or

projects to have a sizeable social component. Increase

partner relationships, within which one is not only in a

the funding in terms of volume, in view of the needs and

business relation, but where one is bound like with friends

the quality of cooperation with France.” Secondly, when

or colleagues: “There is above all a contact that binds

one chooses with whom one has good relations, it seems

us”; “We call our friends at AFD. […] We have explained

normal to wonder what can be gained from this materially:

this to our friends.” In such relationships, people are

“There are donors whose terms are not as attractive.”

close: “We have a close relationship with AFD”; “We are

The call for sharing builds a bridge between the relational

permanently in contact with M. C.…” People have time

aspect and the material aspect: “We have a bond, we share.” The material expectations can be all the greater as

8 This point is especially significant because the banking sector is an activity in which there is a particularly high level of formalisation involving the call for impersonal rules.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

9 On this point, it is French culture, for which friendship is mainly disinterested, which contrasts with what can be seen in most of the world.

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 11

2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

the relationship is closer: “That, it will come in time. We

When something is in fact imposed, various forms of

have no doubt over that. They have already given us a lot,

diplomatic presentations of things make the situation bearable.10 The scope for choice for he who adopts the

we should also not ask them for too much.”

vision that others have of things is emphasised. Sometimes, This closeness and sharing, combined with a relationship of

what has in fact been imposed is presented as having been

friendship, are perceived as a way of avoiding imbalanced

accepted. At the same time, when a donor’s requirements

relationships whereby he who assists imposes his will on

are in line with the interest of he who is subject to them,

he who is assisted.

and when the latter again goes beyond the desires of his partner, we are not really in a situation of constraint: “The

For our respondents, it is clear that he who requests

conditionalities are appreciated, they move the reforms

assistance is in a position of inferiority. The terms seek,

forward. It is up to us to judge the conditionalities that

submit and request were often used. Yet the prospect of

concern us, or to propose others, it is a way of moving

being told what to do is unwelcome: “Morocco wants to

things along.”

retain its freedom in negotiations with donors; we want donors […] to come and apply what is chosen by the

This attachment to a common understanding is heightened

government and not to propose projects that do not fit

by the fact that relationships involving a brutal imposition

in with its priorities and its strategic choices.” A form of

are particularly feared, which suggests that they are

assistance that gives priority to sharing and exchanging

widespread in Moroccan society: “It is good that donors

between friends is thus highlighted. Support is mentioned

agree together on conditions, environmental conditions for

a lot: “AFD supported us for the implementation of this

example, but not that we negotiate with them all together:

programme […] They supported us for each phase.” “AFD

we fear that people agree together to put us in a difficult

has in fact always supported us for our strategic priorities.”

situation”, says one of our respondents. Differences in

Such a prospect comes under a relationship where one

opinion are presented as leading to situations that are

supports without imposing constraints: “We necessarily have

difficult to manage: “Otherwise the donor arrives later with

a very important and very active role, always alongside the

sometimes conflicting ideas.” “AFD operates with other

project initiator.” “There is a need for an agreement with

donors, including the World Bank. Before, everyone arrived

donors; it is not a constraint, but support; we do not feel

with their own conception of things; requirements that are

alone when we define programmes.”

contradictory.”

In this regard, it is good to consult one another without

Another important aspect of good relations is the

anything being imposed: “We come, we consult each

transparency and trust that the latter allows: “It is very

other, indeed, we have exchanges in terms of how to make

transparent, very clear, very easy.” Such a call for trust

the mechanism sustainable and develop it.” “With AFD, we

is probably even stronger because it is far from being

reach agreement on the design of the operation.” Rather

straightforward. One is easily distrustful of anything that

than appearing to be subject to a partner’s requirements, it

is not completely clear. To overcome this distrust, which

is better to anticipate its wishes, respond to its concerns. “It

means that your partners easily suspect you of being up

should be said that for us too, when we make a request, as

to no good, you really have to show them that you are not

we already know what AFD’s concerns are, we prepare

hiding anything from them: “When there is a project, people

a request, but with a complete file, which goes as far as to

come from headquarters, after we discuss the situation

include the project’s technical details. We already provide

with the people in Rabat. Nothing is done without their

all the elements that we would have been asked for

knowledge.”

during an appraisal mission.”

10 Seen from outside, one is tempted to use the term “window-dressing”, but it does not really account for the way in which things may be experienced from the inside.

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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

Ideally, in a close relationship, where one does not seek

we have only had good surprises, because we have already

to impose one’s views on others, where there is mutual

gone beyond the strict rules that we experience with the

trust, one manages to see things in the same way: “The

other donors.” Yet any references of an objective nature

relationship that is developed is a relationship of trust and

should not be ignored: “AFD does not follow operations on

respect, which can only be good, we have an open mind

an ad hoc basis. But it aims to be a partner with structural

and very often share the same opinions on projects.”

action and for this I think it requires certain standards in

In this case, good personal relations and the harmony of

the institution’s good governance, in performance and in

interests coincide.

maintaining performance.”

However, while the register of the quality of relations

A happy medium needs to be found between extreme

prevails in the comments made by our respondents, it

rigidity and “anything goes”: “It depends with AFD. There

is not of an exclusive nature. The reference to objective

are rules, I put it between the two, it does not block, but

standards that transcend the desires of the partners

that does not mean that it is a blank cheque.” A subsidy,

involved, corresponding to what is in itself good, is

which is part of a certain normative framework, may seem

admittedly developed little. However, unlike what – as

more legitimate than a grant, which falls within the arbitrary

we shall see – we found in Chad and to a lesser extent in

nature of the relationship: “We consider that it is a subsidy

Senegal, such standards are sometimes referred to in a

much more than a grant, because a subsidy is managed in

positive manner. Furthermore, they are not presented as a

the framework of a project, with a number of constraints,

barrier to taking into account the desires of parties and their

there is therefore ultimately a framework, which defines the

way of seeing things, which is the only legitimate aspect

allocation of this money to beneficiaries.” Similarly, we find

and can lead to agreements.

comments such as: “We are not seeking to have a blank cheque signed, that does not interest us […] Because it

It is true that when there is mutual trust, it may be worthwhile

is the discussions that move things forward.” A pure

applying the rules with some degree of flexibility: “You see, I

relational perspective, which is not concerned with the

find that the fact of trusting us and having mutual trust and

actual quality of what is done (the “blank cheque”), is thus

launching programmes even before the loan agreement has

considered less favourably than that which allows the root

been signed is very important. So, we have reached this

of problems to be addressed (that which “moves things

level of relationship, of mutual trust, and until now, frankly,

forward”).

2.2 Chad In the vision that constitutes a reference for our respondents

Everyone’s attachment to defending their interests is

in Chad, the importance attached to relationships between

presented in a very direct manner. For example, the

individuals can be found, but according to very different

advantage of the fact of dealing with several donors when

modalities than those aspired to in Morocco. It is neither

negotiating with each of them can be clearly shown: “I

a question of mutual assistance, nor of support, nor of

obtained a lot of things from Proparco because from the

common opinions, and conflicts of interest are shown

others, I have DEG and EIB. […] If one gives in and the

openly. However, there is a reliance on the exchange of

other resists, with the threat that we can do without it,

views over the long term, which gradually leads to everyone

it aligns with the others. We have obtained things like

becoming specifically aware of what matters for their

that.” That does not mean that one cannot consider oneself

partners so that a compromise is ultimately reached.

“friends” with the people with whom one is negotiating and very warm relationships are widely mentioned. For example, the respondent whose comments have just been

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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

quoted continues: “In the pool, no, I managed to have very

appropriate and was very expensive, and shortly after it

good relationships on a personal basis, which are very

stopped working.” There is a similarity between the needs

cordial with all those people, including with the colleagues,

of everyone and what they express as being such needs.

the friends at Proparco, the friends at EIB.” Friendship in

This is because things do not depend on a specific logic

no way precludes seeking to obtain as much as possible

(technical, professional or other) and cannot be separated

from those with whom one has dealings.

from the people they concern. For example, there are comments such as: “I think that in terms of AFD… in any

In these conditions, it is essential for everyone to be

event, all those who arrive, they understand the problem

present in person in everything that concerns their own

of the city, they understand, they understand the city hall

affairs. To be or not to be present, to be part of what is

and the State.” “They understand the problem of the city”,

done, what is decided, is an issue that constantly comes

which concerns things, is closely associated with “they

up. If one is not present, there is a serious risk of not being

understand the city hall and the State”, which concerns

taken into account: “I think we have a closer eye on what

people.

is done […]. We can directly contact the consulting firm or company if we notice substandard work, whereas over

A whole adjustment process between those who are

there, you have to write to MATUH to say there is this

concerned is necessary in order to ensure that the diversity

and that, it does not work. We are not listened to. The

of interests and views are taken into account. This is all the

company will take no notice.” One cannot rely much on

more irreducible as it is not possible to use conceptions

representatives or intermediaries, who are suspected of

that are deemed to be objective in terms of what is good

being tempted to act for their own account. Everyone is

(representing a technical or economic rationality) in order

seen as intending to take advantage of what they control:

to attempt to go beyond this diversity. There are also no

“My former CEO thought that if we put AFD’s financing

representatives of a general form of interest in whose name

here, he could have conditions on it. He fought tooth and

to arbitrate between individual interests: “There was this

nail. […] Consequently, people think that if they manage

major contribution to the construction of the Chari canal,

a project, they will have compensation, they will benefit

which required a multitude of discussions because at the

from it.” This need to be present concerns those who want

beginning, the option that the government preferred was

to take action in the country. If one leaves, there is a high

not quite this one.”

risk of the place being taken quickly: “They have to be there and prospect the market.”

When it is possible, the easiest way to limit conflicts is for everyone to clearly have their share: “So, in this case we

Not only is everyone alone to be in a position to defend their

had had some hot spots with our supervisory ministry,

interests, they are also alone to really know what concerns

because the money was shared. Such an amount, it’s for

them, and there is a risk of their needs being sidelined if

the city hall and such an amount is for MATUH [….] They

they are not listened to: “I understand that earlier, I don’t

started saying that the money must be controlled by them

remember in which year, AFD also operated in procurement

and so on. No, it’s a share: ‘You have your share, we

for generators. But already at that time, the circumstances

have our share.’”

in which these generators were procured gave rise to a lot of criticism. In our view, not enough importance was given

The gradual integration of the elements of reality that need

to consultation, meaning that the generators that were

to be taken into account in order to reach a decision is

subsequently delivered were completely inappropriate.

considered to take place via a process whereby everyone,

I am telling you this off-microphone as they say, but the

by expressing their opinions, makes clear what they

officers told us that the generator that had been procured

are sensitive to. In this type of process, what everyone

at the time was a generator intended to run a boat! So

says must be taken into account: “We discuss our

when they brought this generator here, it wasn’t at all

expectations, these are our expectations, this is what we

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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

want and we stop… no one imposes anything…” When

is generally expressed with diplomacy, which guarantees a

the relationship between he who gives advice and he who

certain reconciliation between the vigorous affirmation of

receives it is mentioned, it is reinterpreted as a relationship

opinions and the search for agreement between individuals.

between people who are speaking to each other: “Yes,

Consequently, we find it is expressed in the conditional

the advice, what is it? It is when we are in a meeting, for

tense, or it is cushioned in various ways, attributed to

example, yesterday, we were working on a project that will

others, or again supported by mentioning positive points or

be financed by AFD. We discuss our opinion, we put it

excuses found for the person who is criticised.

on the table, we discuss it, this is what it is, so everyone speaks.” It is not possible to refer to a good that would be

In this type of adjustment process, the way things are

objective, to which some would have access more than

managed is radically inseparable from relationships

others, to establish an imbalanced relationship between

between individuals. One-on-one relationships are essential

the mentor and the mentee. There are only “opinions”. The

for moving things forward: “Yes, there was the last one… a

role of a “facilitator”, who fosters consultation more than he

contract, a contract to asphalt the route of the canal, which

manages it, is promoted.

was blocked at the president’s office, the AFD director had to go and see the president. And three days later the

This adjustment process functions in a continuous manner,

contract was signed.” It is necessary to have direct relations

without the agreements that were made at any given time

with the people with whom you will be working; without

being cast in stone, because the elements of reality that

these relations it is not possible to clearly understand their

need to be taken into account only appear gradually: “You

expectations: “We established a deeper relationship, a

see the project in the East zone, there were so many

very close partnership relationship with AFD in terms of

amendments because it was a project, well, the president

correspondence, meetings and a physical relationship

had his hands on it, it went very quickly. We did not have

with AFD.” There are two opposing forms of relationship

time to think of everything. And there are amendments

with donors. On the one hand, “At local level [with the

each time, there must have been two or three amendments

World Bank], there is no representative, someone who is

and it goes on and on, it is not finished.” However, wanting

only in charge of the urban component. […] This project, in

to set things in stone is seen as preventing the complexity

terms of direct management by the bank, the specialist task

of the reality from being taken into account: “Over there,

manager is in New York, there is the engineer in Bamako,

there are no amendments, it is such and such an amount

there is the person in charge of the social component who

and it is finished […] That, it is the project which does

is in Niamey. It is too scattered, there are no direct relations

not work compared to the needs of the city.”

and I think that this is what…”. On the other hand: “The advantage that we have here in terms of AFD, we have the

Everyone, informed by the words of others, can gradually

direct contact who we can consult immediately, if there are

become aware of the elements of reality that they did not

problems, he is in the field. I think that we have very, very

initially grasp: “That is also an aspect of the question

good relations in this case”.

which seems important to bring to your attention.” In this respect, the criticism made by those who perceive what

It is ultimately by seeing one another for a long time that

escapes you for the moment is seen as playing a beneficial

one can manage to touch on the realities that one was

role: “All the same, it would be good to give more visibility

not initially aware of, and that one can thus gradually

to AFD’s action, because the more people know what

integrate the diversity of interests and opinions in order to

AFD does, the better it will be for improving the way of

reach – on a case-by-case basis – compromises that are

seeing things. There will thus be more potential criticism

acceptable to all. One cannot stop at the superficial view

and this will consequently make it possible to remedy,

that “periodic missions” lead to: “They are things which

more or less rapidly, what can be observed and will

are assessed during the periodic missions that these

therefore justify rectifications or remedies.” This criticism

institutions organise quite often without any relation with

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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

the reality of the country.” It takes time to get into this

we see each other, perhaps for all these reasons, well,

reality: “And these realities, only a long-standing partner

we say OK, we go. But once you bring in other people,

who has been established for a long time and who has even

then you are engaging in a formalism which will be heavy.”

practically been a stakeholder in the running of the

It is probably in this sense that we can refer to “friends”,

country can understand.” There is a constant opposition

but without understanding this term according to the

in the relationships between those who know each other,

conceptions of friendship that prevail in other places: “The

and who quite easily manage to adapt to the difficult

individual, it all depends on his history and that depends

relationships, with those who are at a greater distance:

on the personal relationships that they have with people.”

“Today, for me, the bankers here, we know each other,

2.3 Senegal In Senegal, one finds the conviction by which everyone

have some degree of flexibility, and that we can adapt it

acts by defending their own interests: “If AFD operates

to the different countries, to different situations.”

in a country and not in another, it is because it has a particular interest here […]. I do not believe there is a

The fact that technical standards are useful for ensuring

nation in the world which in its diplomacy does something

that things run smoothly is not denied. However, these

for nothing.” At the same time, one cannot expect those

standards are not perceived as being self-existent, as having

who are not directly concerned by an issue to act with zeal

an autonomous existence, as something that one could

to move it forward: “We have seen that in the system

use at any given time, independently of the way in which

of the administration, it took almost a year to award

they have been associated until then with relationships

contracts and, subsequently, it took even longer to pay the

between individuals (as if it involved judging the accuracy

companies […]. It is a relatively long circuit and sometimes,

of a “metronome”). They only really become legitimate

if you are not dealing with actors, let’s say, who are

when they are supported by these relationships, with all

relatively diligent, it can take time, especially at the

the “supervision” that this involves: “There is really very

administrative level.”

extensive technical support from Agence Française de Développement to ensure that the projects we do comply

As in Chad, only the parties involved are perceived as

with a certain standard […]. With the other donors, we

really knowing what their needs are. It is not possible to

sometimes decide one thing and in the end something else

replace this knowledge by using external standards (what

has perhaps been done because we are not metronomes

is “usually” done), superposed on a situation which they

[…] and they say to us in the end: ‘Why have you done

may not correspond to: “People on the committee can

this and why have you done that?’, whereas with Agence

reject the project saying that a health care centre usually

Française de Développement this is practically impossible

has five rooms, and the other says: ‘No, no, it is usually

because there is a supervision every six months or every

three rooms.’ And that sometimes means that a project is

whatever.”

rejected, whereas if it is considered at local level, people know why they have put five rooms and not three.” It is

This vision concerns the relationships between a donor and

necessary to take account of the specific expectations of

a borrower. The image of a child whose parents do not have

the people with whom one is dealing, without being stopped

the notion that he is developing has been used to criticise

by principles that are deemed to be intangible: “I think it

a situation whereby projects are required to align with the

would be good if we were informed of what is proposed

financing and not the financing with projects: “You know, if

beforehand, and that it is not set in stone, that we can

you are with your child, sometimes you do not realise that

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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

he is growing up. And yet you realise the day […] when he

their partners’ concerns: “At project completion, we were

says to you: ‘Mum and dad listen, I have grown up, I am

able to use the remaining amounts in a very intelligent

no longer your little baby’ […]. For example, in terms of…

and very creative manner. And I believe that this is very

when I say that they are predefined loans, I have been

much due to […] the relations between the teams that

faced with this kind of thing, and at one stage we had

were there. There was a kind of merger, which can

to rescale the project.” The image of the “client” who has

do a lot to ensure that everyone’s concerns are taken

control over his choices is also used. He knows exactly

into account.” What is done together is mentioned many

what he wants as opposed to the “beneficiary” for whom

times: “We organise joint missions periodically, because

one seeks to do good, thinking that one knows what this

someone from the Paris headquarters sometimes comes

involves: “When you say beneficiary, you do not have

here, so we organise together a field visit to see the

an attitude whereby the client is the king and you start

that mission is being properly implemented and here

with the client’s desires.” “If you start with the client,

we are always together.” It is not only a question of a

you will inevitably have suitable products.”

compromise between diverging interests, but of common interests: “In any case, it is mutual interests that we

Having good working relations means being willing to adopt

intend to preserve between France and Senegal.” We find

an approach whereby one adjusts to the people with whom

a smaller image of the one used so much in Morocco of a

one is working: “With the mixed groups, it was planned

relationship whereby the strong support the weak: “Agence

to create two, but we planned to create three because

Française de Développement is one of the few donors

we are three departments, they accepted that and they

who supports you.”

reconfigured the financing plan a little to this end. So, it’s to remind you that really the working relations that there

To reach such a form of unity requires a high level of

are between us…”

mutual trust. Yet this is far from being self-evident and one encounters a great feeling of distrust in terms of what

It is by talking to one another that one can gradually manage

may be going on behind closed doors: “I think that this aid

to integrate the diversity of opinions: “If we do not agree

has become much more effective and transparent […]

[…], I discuss further with them and then we always try

In contrast with the image that aid conveys, in any case,

to find common ground, especially as there is never

in the 1970s and 1980s, we thought that French aid

any deadlock between us and them over the changes that

was there to support large French companies, or that it

need to be made.” It involves patiently forging agreements:

was even worse, to ensure that despotic regimes were

“There is a real consultation with regard to the support that

maintained”. If there is to be trust, everyone needs to avoid

Agence Française de Développement provides. Because at the beginning, I think that there was not all this consultation

the grey areas, they have to be open, as transparent as possible, and ambiguities need to be avoided:11 “I believe

over projects. People had the impression that they were

that trust is essential, nothing can be built without trust. I

being brought ready-made projects.”

believe, and in my opinion, it is even sacred on both sides.

Nothing can be built without this trust and anyway what

This mutual adjustment approach is seen – more than in

can strengthen this trust is for there to be very clearly

Chad – as necessarily leading not only to compromises,

defined roles for everyone right from the start and this

as a matter of “give-and-take”, with a permanent threat

clarification needs to be made every time grey areas

of defection between interests that remain implacably

occur.”

different, or even opposed, but to a form of unity: “But, for about ten years, I think there has been a concern to

This concern for transparency is expressed with great

involve as many actors as possible in projects, so there really is a consensus.” The aim, within a sort of “merger”, is for each of the parties concerned to take on board © AFD Working Paper No 23

11 We find an important aspect of the mode of coordination analysed by Alain Henry in Mauritania. Alain Henry, « Sensibiliser avec retenue : une démarche participative en Mauritanie », in Iribarne, (d’), P. et al.,1998.

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 17

2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals

emphasis and in a whole host of circumstances. For

money I gave you serves you to finance a well and this

example, it is stated that knowledge of the people with whom

money must not be used for anything other than a well.”

one is working must not be in one direction only; the banker

Complex procedures that take time are also considered as

must be as transparent for his borrower as the borrower is

an obstacle to transparency and therefore as a source of

for him: “We really need to know AFD better. By creating

distrust: “The more time we gain in the award, the more

the possibility of having reconnaissance missions of

it is transparent [….]. We have very few challenges over

AFD’s activities in the opposite direction […] I believe that

contract awards, because it goes very, very quickly.”

this physical contact is necessary.” Everything that one party knows must be known by the other party: “Each donor

In this type of adjustment, relationships between individuals

manages its project or one donor handles all the studies

are essential (even though the term “friend”, which is so

part and then in terms of implementation, each donor

common in some other situations, is used little here and

manages its project. Consequently, there are sometimes

without a great affective resonance). Opinions on things

discussions between donors until a common ground

cannot be separated from relationships between people:

is found, it being understood that we ourselves handle

“The mayor said: ‘Everything that is done in a city is either

coordination, because when we receive information from

for the mayor or against the mayor’.” Close relations

a donor, we transfer it to the other donor. And when we

make it possible to know each other intimately and to

send information that has been requested by a donor, we

have mutual trust: “The permanent contact also makes

send it to all the donors.”

it possible not to leave grey areas.” “For the ADEL project, I think that the partnership we forged with Agence

The same concern is found in terms of the organisation of

Française de Développement works well […]. Because we

financial circuits. Complex arrangements make it difficult

have built partnership and cooperation relationships

to have a clear view in the relationships between partners.

with the people who handle the project at AFD.” When

To be transparent, an arrangement must be simple. The

one works with another entity, it is important to have a well-

desire is expressed to have operations with impacts that

defined local contact there, with whom one can establish

are as directly visible as possible: “A partner who is

such relationships: “I didn’t use to be very convinced that

willing to support local authorities in a certain area,

when you work with Agence Française de Développement

he can say: ‘In your local development plan, I will

you could have a contact, […] and we had problems over

handle such and such a section.’ In terms of financing,

who should handle […]. But here, we know that we have a

we have defined a budget nomenclature and a pretty

manager and, when we have a problem, really, it is this

transparent management. This allows me to say that the

manager who deals with all our problems.”

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3. Right track and harmony in Vietnam

3. Right track and harmony in Vietnam

In the cases we have examined until now, there has been

effective partner.” This effectiveness is related to a form

a clear predominance of forms of cooperation either of an

of fruitfulness: “A beneficiary must use the funds in an

impersonal nature on the one hand, or giving a central place

effective and fruitful manner.” “Generally speaking, the

to having good relationships, on the other hand. Vietnam –

projects financed by AFD are considered to be effective

and it is this which prompted us to deal with it separately

with a lot of positive impacts on the economic and social

– does not fit in with either the first or second group. With

development of Vietnam.”

our Vietnamese respondents, references to what is good in itself coexist – sometimes in a problematic manner – with a

The register of rapidity can be associated with that of

consideration for the expectations of those with whom one

effectiveness: “There are also many projects for which the

is working and a strong concern for maintaining harmonious relationships between individuals.12

appraisal phase is conducted in a very rapid and effective manner.” The link is seen as being even stronger because what is good today will not necessarily be so tomorrow:

It is important to act well, according to criteria that transcend

“There are projects where the decision that is announced

the desires of those who are immediately concerned:

is only taken the following year and the favourable

“You are on the right track.” “It is the right direction.”

conditions gradually disappear.” “The financing, it is a

“In this case, the money that is lent is used for a good

question of opportunity.”

objective and […] we will improve our management.”

This is combined with the feeling of having done well: “[We

While “acting well” is a benchmark that is constantly

are] proud that we make good use of AFD funds.” The

mentioned, this does not mean that the corresponding duty

responsibility that is thus assumed is equal to one’s position

is always respected. The real world, marked by the strength

in society: “The more AFD’s role is important, the greater

of personal interests, only partly resembles the ideal world

AFD’s responsibility”; “This means that the onus is on the

where everyone is aware of their responsibilities and where

central government in terms of its responsibility.”

things are done well. In the real world, everyone is seeking to benefit from situations and sometimes diverts things

To act well means implementing an intense activity that

from the path they are supposed to take: “The beneficiary

can be qualified as effective, a term that constantly came

is not aware of its responsibility”. “Professionalism is

up in the comments made by our respondents: “This allows

not yet present everywhere, especially in areas where

the money spent to be used more effectively”; “It is also

standards are not very strict. If we do not follow these

an advantage for AFD: there are fewer complications

recommendations, I think that the project beneficiaries will

and the money is earmarked more effectively.” “We

use that for a different purpose.” Those who exercise

immediately saw that it was a very interesting and very

power have the responsibility of fighting against these abuses: “The objective of the beneficiaries is to get money

12 We have already encountered this type of situation, with a sometimes problematic connection between the two types of benchmark, in Argentina. See Iribarne (d’), chapter 4, p. 126: “’Mafia’ Groups or Virtuous Networks: the Battle against Corruption in Argentina” in Successful Companies in the Developing World, op. cit.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

from the loan, […] but for us it is to manage as effectively as possible.” In the current situation of Vietnamese

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 19

3. Right track and harmony in Vietnam

society, if several of our respondents are to be believed,

own requests and its procedures. This can cause a lot

this fight is far from always being conducted with success

of problems because of the difference. Consequently, what

and a certain laxity is widespread.

we want is a harmonisation of cofinancing procedures, that AFD accepts the main donor’s conditions. Recently,

This register of the right track coexists with that of good

AFD brought some flexibility in order to follow the main

relations: “The relations that we have with AFD are very

donor’s procedures.” It is also necessary to show some

constructive.” “We reached an agreement at the highest

flexibility oneself and, in order to do so, to take advantage

level and that facilitated the follow-up of this project.” It is

of what can appear to be a constraint: “Environmental

thus no longer a question of doing what is right in itself,

issues […] we try to adapt. No constraints, progress.”

but of meeting expectations, desires, the needs of those

It is sometimes a matter of understanding one’s partner:

with whom one is working: “It is a path that meets our

“We expect […] above all when we have such long-term

expectations.” “Vietnam’s level of development compared

assistance and such a long mutual understanding.” Such

to France is too different, we expect […] and we need

a term can have very different meanings depending on

assistance.” Depending on the case and on the institutional

cultures (from “to have a detailed technical understanding

situation of everyone – a situation that puts them to varying

of one’s needs” to “to take a conciliatory approach when it

degrees in a position of strength vis-à-vis potential lenders

is in difficulty”). Here, it probably involves being willing to

– and probably on their personality, these expectations

adapt to the specific characteristics of each situation.

are expressed with varying levels of strength, from a requirement to a request: “We do not wish to use AFD’s

Some combination of clear-cut assertions of one’s own

resources for these projects.” “We would like AFD to

positions (both when they express a reference to the right

continue with this.” “We also have a request vis-à-vis AFD.”

track or to one’s own expectations) and of flexibility in the relationships with one’s partners is to be found in the way

The concern for developing good relations in no way implies

in which the action of the latter is mentioned. When this

reaching a unity of conceptions: “We have our rules and

action is appreciated, the praise can be clearly expressed:

AFD too.” “This example shows the difference between the

“We highly appreciate AFD’s financing.” “AFD expressed

working methods of the French and Vietnamese.” It is not

its interest in […] urban rail transport, projects for which we

a question of imposing one’s views by encroaching on the

highly appreciate AFD’s participation.” However, when it

autonomy of others. For example, one of our respondents

involves making negative judgments, two registers coexist.

stated: “The contracting authority and beneficiary must

One finds comments that can be very brutal concerning the

be more autonomous in project implementation. The

objective aspects of the action and the consequences of the

donor should not intervene too deeply in the activities and

latter: “The AFD agency was not able to give its decision

impose its subjective visions.” The existence of close

and had to send the files to Paris. It took an extra week,

ties that could help bring points of view into line is rarely

meaning we missed the deadline. It is unfortunate.”

mentioned. In these circumstances, differences of opinion

“Our country is still a lagging agricultural country. This

are unavoidable and they should be managed without

project, we can say that AFD did not understand the

seeking to hide them.

situation and this led to the project’s failure.” However, at the same time, such comments are constantly tempered by

To build an agreement, the problems should be put on

highlighting the approaches taken by people, the quality of

the table: “All our difficulties are resolved by very frank

their involvement, their efforts, the work and the progress

discussions with AFD.” The partner is asked to show

of he who is criticised: “AFD has made a lot of efforts and

some degree of flexibility: “In cofinanced projects, even

progress recently.” “AFD has worked actively.” “We have

those which are very effective, sometimes our remark is that

noted that AFD has made a lot of improvements in its

AFD, alongside the requests of the main donor, also has its

activities in Vietnam.”

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 20

3. Right track and harmony in Vietnam

The fact that if one criticises, one also has to make

This combination of firmness and understanding is based

improvements oneself can also be seen: “These are

on the belief that one is in a process whereby one is

just points that could be improved, but we too, the

constantly learning from events. In any case, there is

Vietnamese side, we are responsible for the various

always a need to improve, even if what one does is already

successes; you need to have exchanges to improve that

of high quality: “We appreciate AFD’s operations; there

[…]. For our part, we think that the skills of our project

are always areas to improve.” If there were problems in

managers should be improved.”

the past, one can rely on the future for the partner to make progress: “Of course, there are always projects that have

One can criticise the action of the partner, whose objective

not had the expected success. According to our estimates,

impacts are considered, all the more because one states

AFD’s financing tends to have a higher price than before

that this does not mean that the latter is at fault. One either

and we think that AFD’s new financial products will also

emphasises the processes where it is improving or, if the

have their impact in the last years.” For the process to

term “fault” is used, one at least assumes part of it as one’s

work, everyone has to make efforts to improve and they

own doing: “This example […] does not mean that AFD

are entitled to expect as much from their partners: “We

made mistakes.” “They were unable to do it because they

want AFD to make more efforts and to devote more time

are too much in demand.” “One cannot say whose fault it

to understanding the actual situation in Vietnam.”

is; improvements could be made.” “It is for this reason that we can say it is partly our fault.” In this regard, the phrase “responsible but not guilty” could be widely used.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 21

4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa

4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa

In Martinique, New Caledonia and South Africa, we saw

than among those we met (and, in this respect, they need

that there was little difference between the conceptions of society that predominated among most of our respondents

to be taken into account when projects involving this population are built).13 Such conceptions were to be found

compared to what we could have encountered in mainland

among a sufficient number of our respondents in Martinique

France, on the one hand, and in Anglo-Saxon countries

for us to have access to them in good conditions. This was

on the other hand. However, for some, these conceptions

not so in New Caledonia and South Africa, but in both these

coexisted with other more local conceptions that are

cases, it is already possible to provide some indications that

probably more widespread among the general population

additional investigations could clarify.

4.1 Martinique

Different benchmarks, more or less coexisting with standard

situation of these institutions is not flourishing.” It is a

French benchmarks (mainland France) that have already

question of being easy-going, to the point of being prepared

been mentioned, are to be found among most of our

not to claim what one is owed: “So, we discuss and very

respondents in Martinique, where relationships between individuals are essential.14 A central place is held by

often there are companies that are very accommodating

an opposition between good relationships, whereby one

There is a need to follow through what can be done, even though no contractual obligation exists. 14

provides support and there is mutual trust, on the one

[…], so they accept to delay the reception of payment.”

hand, and poor relationships marked, on the contrary, by a combination of indifference to the problems of others and

This type of relationship does not mean that the fact that the

distrust, on the other hand.

partner has responsibilities in the problems he encounters should be disregarded. It does, however, require referring

In the type of cooperation that is expected, it is less

to such responsibilities with benevolence: “For my part,

a question of demonstrating professional expertise, by

I expect exactly what AFD does, that is when we have

coming up with original responses to difficult questions,

difficulties, for them to come, for them to come and see the

than of supporting he who is in difficulty, saving him, even if

mayor, and for them to say: ‘Mr. Mayor, I have seen that

this requires taking risks oneself: “Very early on, AFD was

you are a little off track in such and such a sector, how do

identified as being an institution that could come to the

you account for that?’”

‘aid’ of project initiators.” It is in such circumstances that a quality of cooperation can be found: “We need a greater presence on the part of AFD, for it to be of assistance, for it to be there if we cannot agree with the banks, for them to say: ‘We can help you’.” “We have been able to find AFD alongside health institutions, even though the financial © AFD Working Paper No 23

13 Our survey concerned relationships between AFD and its main partners. The conducting of specific projects was not included in its scope.

14 We shall not address the issue of the origin of these benchmarks here and, in particular, what they owe to the legacy of a troubled history. We simply sought to find them out by considering the way in which they structured the comments made by our respondents.

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 22

4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa

Another aspect of good relationships, such as they are

This marked opposition between trust and transparency

conceived, is that they are marked by a transparency

on the one side, distrust and secrecy on the other, goes

that creates trust: “That being said, I am the one who is

hand in hand with the extent to which relationships that are

asking. The ARH functions without that, but it is really

not only poor, but positively bad, are mentioned. Harmony

in the name of, under the principle of partnership, of

quickly becomes conflict and autonomy easily turns into a

transparency and of trust. Because if I had to sum up

radical break: “It may well be that in actual fact, AFD had

our relationship with AFD, I would say partnership, trust,

already become totally autonomous and that the divorce

there you have it.” Such a relationship is in contrast with the

had already taken place.”

secrecy and distrust that abound in ordinary relationships.

We have a whole host of comments such as: “Well, it is

The emotional dimension associated with this type of

a partner because we discuss, whereas the other banks

expectation is sometimes expressed in a positive register:

say yes or no to me, but for more secret reasons.” “You

“And for AFD to say: ‘Well, we should maybe try a little

see, it is not really openness, there are things that

harder to see whether such and such an entrepreneur or

are unspoken.” This distrust was particularly expressed

such and such a company wants to get involved in projects,

towards the survey that we were conducting (a situation

we should try to approach them more.’ I think that it gives

that we did not encounter in any of the other fields where

companies some wings.” However, this dimension is

our investigations were made): “I was wondering what is

more frequently seen in a negative register: “There are a

the objective of the research you are conducting, even if I

lot of efforts, physical and moral efforts, because you need

have fully understood that it is the perception partners have

to travel, go towards people and explain what participatory

of AFD’s image, but what is the purpose for AFD, if I am

democracy is. […] This effectively means that it weighs on

not being too intrusive of course, and on what grounds

us, weighs on us enormously.”

will the assessment be made.”

Individuals, and the way in which they behave, play a major At the same time, a powerful partner is appreciated,

role. It is important to know the people with whom one

provided it is diplomatic and carefully avoids opening

is working personally: “Because we already know each

the door to accusations of arrogance: “AFD could have

other by our names. I remember Mr. (…) who was the

integrated itself more gently. There were tensions,

predecessor of M.C.. He is very easy to approach, but

frustrations. […] It is necessary to act with modesty […].

I would say we know each other personally. Because

You need to look at what the sensitive issues are, […]

sometimes we say to each other: ‘Yes, the AFD director,

You have to show your power, but at the same time do the

without necessarily giving a name’”. Changing people

work so that at local level you show your proximity, you

means changing relationships: “I find that since then we

have to strike a balance between the two.”

are moving towards more trust and a stronger partnership […]. This is perhaps due to individuals. Because it is not

The search for a certain proximity far from excludes the

sure that another person instead of Mrs. D would act in the

register of interest, but goes with it: “We each assess the

same way.”

interest that we have in cooperating and in being a partner, so we work to this end.”

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 23

4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa

4.2 New Caledonia In New Caledonia, we only met one Kanak respondent.

mentioned by some: “If there is a problem, it is because:

In the benchmarks shown in his comments, it is difficult

‘Is the tool adapted to people or do people have to

to assess what is specific to the individual in question and

adapt to the tool?’ Are the bank loans made today, or

what, to the contrary, more generally characterises the

as the banks make them today, adapted – in inverted

Kanak population. However, it is possible to assume that

commas – to people who are mainly based on oral and

the fact that he largely refers to other benchmarks than

not written traditions and for whom, effectively, the notion

those that are common to all our other respondents is not

of regularity and that of the repayment schedule with

unrelated to his origin. Generally speaking, indeed, the

fixed dates are not necessarily assimilated? […] In each

conceptions of life in society that everyone conveys are

population, we find a discourse that is adapted, there

less of an expression of a distinctive orientation than the

are tools that are basically the same, but we try to

reflection of a shared vision within a culture.

develop more specifically to meet everyone’s needs.”

However, everyone does not accept that it is possible

In the comments the person concerned made on

to differentiate procedures depending on populations:

partnerships, emphasis is placed on loyalty, whereas this

“It is the ADIE experience that helped us for this fund:

was not the case for any other of our respondents met

presence in all sectors, low default rate… What is regarded

in New Caledonia: “We will always be at AFD and AFD

negatively in ADIE’s work is that they ask for an external

loyal to us.” Partners can occasionally be somewhat

guarantee. Indigenous people have a specific status and

at odds, but that is part of the normal course of life

to have a home, this shortcoming in ADIE’s rationale had

and does not mean that there cannot be a “sustainable

to be overcome, social pressure had to be applied over the

relationship”: “Once we had got through the turbulence

guarantee so that people repay the loans. The Kanaks

and we realised everything had been settled, AFD was

then wonder why Kanaks are asked for a guarantee and

very pleased with us and we too are very pleased with

not the whites.”

AFD. I think we have been friends who fell out a bit but, well, that happens in life. And AFD is now willing to

Given this not always positive external vision, our Kanak

help us, so there have been financial operations and that

respondent clearly defended himself, stating that the

is important as well. […] I think we have a sustainable

Kanaks are far from being the only ones responsible

relationship and it is intelligent. […] Yes, now it has

for the abuses that occurred in the past in terms of loan

become people… What you call… partners.” To break off

management: “I think that at one point, in past years,

the relationship for commercial reasons, such as unpaid

they gave a little in order to please, because politically it

interest, is interpreted in a relational register: “The island

was fashionable. And afterwards I think that we became

province was abandoned.” In this type of relationship, one

a little more serious, the whistle is blown for the end of

can “try to ignore the subjectivity”, but it is clear that it is

playtime. We are willing to give to you, but we would like

“difficult for everyone”.

you to make an effort.” We are at the very least in a learning phase. “And somehow it was good for us too. We needed it.

Furthermore, the cultural aspect of relationships between

People really feel we have to stop building a country with a

lenders and borrowers, or of the Kanak’s relationship

random management of things and approximations… […].

towards work, was mentioned by some of our “white”

But in any case, this allowed everyone to move forward.

respondents, some in a highly critical manner. Others, on

It allowed us to grow up a bit more, to stop dreaming

the contrary, rejected what they considered as unfounded

and to respect management rules a little, and then…

stereotypes. The need to adapt to the cultural context was

economic rules.”

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 24

4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa

4.3 South Africa In South Africa, Anglo-Saxon benchmarks were not

For example, “non-whites” and Afrikaners who do not

unknown to Afrikaners who do not belong to the upper

belong to the upper class give significant importance to a

class, as well as to our “non-white”, Black, Métis or Indian

desire for mutual understanding within relationships, which

respondents. With the exception of the Afrikaners, they

are not restricted to market relationships; to a desire for

were mentioned with some distance, more to explain

cooperation more than competitive relationships: “We have

actions or thoughts attributed to others than as quite natural

to understand our partner” (Métis); “We come to a stage

benchmarks for the person speaking: “Anglo-Saxons are

we are so familiar” (Indian); “DFI compete rather than

more gifted on marketing their ideas [....] You have to

cooperate together. They should cooperate instead of

market your ideas” (Métis). “They constantly try to market

competing” (Afrikaner).

themselves” (Indian).

Similarly, there are some “Indians” with feelings that are to We met few respondents belonging to each of the different

be found in India: “Local banks were more than happy to

categories, not enough to attempt to piece together the

provide money”. “It has been an absolute pleasure to deal

various conceptions of society that we encounter there.

with them [...]. A very good relationship. Happy always to

The task would be all the more difficult because all the

help.”

references are intermingled with all of the individuals concerned. Consequently, we can simply note that some

Similarly again, an Indian respondent mentioned a way of

clues – alongside standard Anglo-Saxon benchmarks, with

conceiving his work and – much more than a simple “job”

the importance they give to the reference to the market –

– sees an expression of the specific place that one has in

point to the presence of other benchmarks, which are not

society, with the rights, duties and vision of the world that

found in the comments made by the members of the white

are inherent to this place. There is something of the vision

Establishment, where it is tempting to recognise African,

of society that prevails in India: “If you are developmental

Indian and perhaps Dutch influences.

you need to act differently [...]. You need to appreciate the kind of work that you want to do. Otherwise you are not different.”

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 25

Conclusion

Conclusion

When looking at the relationships between AFD and its

that we conducted of course only gave a partial vision

partners, in each of the fields where our investigations

of such conceptions. For example, our investigations did

were conducted, we encountered general views of the

not include authority relationships within an organisation.

relationships between a borrower and a lender. Each of

However, the understanding of visions of society that it

these views fit in with a broader conception of what is

was possible to obtain already appears to shed light on the

an ordered society. Given our entry point (cooperation

diversity of local expectations with regard to a development

relations between independent partners), the interviews

agency like AFD.

Distinctive features All the observations and analyses conducted reveal some

Depending on the culture, the reference to a form of good in

distinctive features that characterise each culture in contrast

itself – independent of the desires of the interested parties

with the others.

– as an interface between competing appetites is very unequally developed. Such a reference leads to everyone

Depending on the culture, an ordered society is seen as

being attributed duties that correspond to what they must

giving varying levels of importance to everyone defending

do in order to be a good person, in line with an image of

their own interests. At one extreme, this defence is

grandeur, purity and nobility, regardless of whether this

made in quite a legitimate manner, by remaining within

pleases those with whom one is dealing. It is at work when

the framework of the ordered mode of functioning that

a supposedly just and benevolent power, held by a political

constitutes the reference. At the other extreme, it is

body or by experts, has a mission to direct its action without

done on the fringe of this framework, in an anarchic and

necessarily having to request the opinion of those over

more or less shameful manner. For example, both in

whom it is exercised. It is much more present in Vietnam

Chad and in South Africa’s white Establishment, everyone

(the right track), in France (the duties of the professional

defending their interests is openly integrated into the

activity) and in the Anglo-Saxon world (the strict respect

functioning of an ordered society. This is not the case in

of market disciplines) than in Morocco or, even more so,

Morocco or Vietnam, where ideals involving a very strict

in Chad and Senegal. At the same time, when it comes

integration of the individual into the community coexist

to working together, the importance of the development of

with a strong anarchic component. In France, there is an

“good relations”, and therefore the role played by the rules

intermediate situation, where the integration of interests

intended to promote this development, varies significantly

into the functioning of an ordered society is present, via

depending on the situation. In addition, what one calls

the defence of the professional activity, but its self-interest

“good relations” is far from being homogeneous.

aspect is somewhat glossed over.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 26

Conclusion

Everywhere, the vigour of oppositions, criticisms and the

what is likely to be offensive. Another approach leads to

severity of situations of domination are made liveable by

being much more direct, but – as we see in Vietnam – by

forms of diplomacy and etiquette that aim to maintain a

completing what may offend with words that aim to appease

certain harmony in relationships between individuals. Each

the effect that they have.

culture does, however, have its own approach. Firstly, sensitive issues are far from being the same everywhere.

Everywhere, it is not possible to cooperate if there is not

For example, the management of situations where one

a certain degree of trust in one’s partners. However, the

of the partners has non-negotiable demands towards the

foundations of this trust vary depending on the cultures. In

other (e.g. in terms of conditionality for loans) requires

the Anglo-Saxon world encountered in South Africa, a lot of

very specific tact in Morocco, where issues of honour are

importance is given to certification bodies, which guarantee

at stake, more than in Senegal. Furthermore, the ways

that one is dealing with individuals or organisations that

of going about carefully handling the susceptibility of

combine a good moral character and sound financial

those who could feel they have been badly treated are far

strength. When an organisation has thus been certified,

from being uniform. For example, there is a Vietnamese

it would be inappropriate to seek to find out more about

courtesy, a French courtesy, etc. In this regard, it would

the way in which it conducts its own affairs, under its own

not be legitimate to speak of an Anglo-Saxon culture, since

responsibility. To the contrary, in Senegal, it is by being

we know that British and American courtesy are different.

transparent in a much broader manner that one shows

Furthermore, in this field, too much should probably not

that one is trustworthy. Trust sometimes seems relatively

be expected from the notion of national culture, as the

easy to acquire; for example, in the standard French

forms of etiquette vary depending on social groups. This

world, it is assumed – unless the contrary is proved – that

notion does, however, remain relevant when one considers

everyone behaves in a professional manner, in line with

the same social environment, such as that of bankers or

the requirements of their activity. In other cases, such as in

senior civil servants, through the diversity of societies. An

Martinique, it would appear to be much more fragile, with

approach used by the British, for example, involves not

everyone being readily suspected of having bad reasons to

saying, or only saying in a very indirect or veiled manner,

be doing what they are seen to be doing.

Relationships between cultures Given these differences of conceptions of an ordered society,

acting that are employed little in a certain cultural context

in the relationships between cultures it is necessary to be

– despite the fact that they are appreciated there – are

wary of one-size-fits-all terms, such as “partnership”, which

sometimes more common in other places. In this case,

are likely to have very different meanings depending on the

“exotic” practices can be very well received, even if they

cultural contexts. For example, there is a French vision of a

do not have the same meaning in places where they are

“partnership”, which leads to not simply proposing standard

willingly implemented as in places where one regrets that

products, but to resolving the problems encountered by

they are encountered so infrequently. One example is the

the “partner” in an attentive and imaginative manner. It is

fact of taking account of the constraints of the different

different from a Moroccan vision, which highlights more

participants when setting a date for a meeting. Such a way

the quality of the relationships between individuals, with

of proceeding is appreciated in Morocco, as it is considered

a high level of proximity and trust. A specific definition of

to be a sign of special consideration for individuals. It has

a partnership could even be associated with each culture.

all the more value as it is not usual. It has become much more entrenched in France, where it is simply a matter of

Unlike what is often stated, cultural differences are not

correct relationships. It is in fact even more appreciated in

necessarily sources of difficulty. On the contrary, ways of

a Moroccan context because it is given a lot of importance.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 27

Conclusion

In other cases, we are dealing with quite an opposite

bureaucratic when they are faced with a concrete problem

situation. What is commonplace in one cultural situation

for which they want to find a solution. For the French, this

may shock or disorientate in another. For example, the

combination of being cumbersome and flexible would widely

fact of refusing to go beyond one’s activity seems normal

appear to be part of the nature of things, even if this does

in mainland France, but in Martinique would be perceived

not satisfy. They probably more or less vaguely understand

as a lack of solidarity towards those who need assistance.

the deep solidarity that in French logic relates these two elements: the controls made by the functional departments

In the interactions between a French company and

are all the more cumbersome because they suspect

foreign partners, certain salient points are specific to the

those who are in the field of being inclined to circumvent

interactions with those who are marked by such and such

them; and those who are in the field seek with even more

a culture. Others have a more general character. For

determination to bypass these controls, which appear

example, the cumbersome nature of the procedures and

excessive to them. Everyone does their job. Yet in many

controls implemented by the functional departments at

places, this consistency is not perceived. While those who

AFD’s headquarters has been noticed everywhere. This

are in the field (the local agency) are complimented on their

is also the case for the ability of those who are tasked

“flexibility”, the headquarters is criticised for its “formalism”

with implementing these procedures in the field to be non-

and AFD’s overall action seems deeply contradictory.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 28

References

References

Iribarne (d’), P. (2006), L’étrangeté française, Paris, Seuil.

Iribarne (d’), P. (1989), La logique de l’honneur, Paris, Seuil.

Iribarne (d’), P. with A. Henry (2007), Successful Companies in the Developing world; Managing in Synergy with Cultures, AFD, Notes and Documents, No 36, August, (downloadable from the Agence Française de Développement Website).

Iribarne (d’), P., A. Henry, J.-P. Segal, S. Chevrier and T. Globokar (1998), Cultures et mondialisation, Seuil.

© AFD Working Paper No 23

• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 2014 29

Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series

Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series Publiés depuis janvier 2009 / published since January 2009 Les numéros antérieurs sont consultables sur le site : http://recherche.afd.fr Previous publications can be consulted online at: http://recherche.afd.fr

N° 78

« L’itinéraire professionnel du jeune Africain » - Les résultats d’une enquête auprès de jeunes leaders Africains sur les dispositifs de formation professionnelle post-primaire

Richard Walther, consultant ITG, Marie Tamoifo, porte-parole de la jeunesse africaine et de la diaspora

Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - janvier 2009.

N° 79

Le ciblage des politiques de lutte contre la pauvreté : quel bilan des expériences dans les pays en développement ?

Emmanuelle Lavallée, Anne Olivier, Laure Pasquier-Doumer, Anne-Sophie Robilliard, DIAL - février 2009.

N° 80

Les nouveaux dispositifs de formation professionnelle post-primaire. Les résultats d’une enquête terrain au Cameroun, Mali et Maroc

Richard Walther, Consultant ITG

Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - mars 2009.

N° 81

Economic Integration and Investment Incentives in Regulated Industries

Emmanuelle Auriol, Toulouse School of Economics, Sara Biancini, Université de Cergy-Pontoise, THEMA, Comments by : Yannick Perez and Vincent Rious - April 2009.

N° 82

Capital naturel et développement durable en Nouvelle-Calédonie - Etude 1. Mesures de la « richesse totale »

et soutenabilité du développement de la Nouvelle-Calédonie

Clément Brelaud, Cécile Couharde, Vincent Géronimi, Elodie Maître d’Hôtel, Katia Radja, Patrick Schembri, Armand Taranco, université de Versailles - Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, GEMDEV

Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - juin 2009.

N° 83

The Global Discourse on “Participation” and its Emergence in Biodiversity Protection

Olivier Charnoz, AFD - July 2009.

N° 84

Community Participation in Biodiversity Protection: an Enhanced Analytical Framework for Practitioners

Olivier Charnoz, AFD - August 2009.

N° 85

Les Petits opérateurs privés de la distribution d’eau à Maputo : d’un problème à une solution ?

Aymeric Blanc, Jérémie Cavé, LATTS, Emmanuel Chaponnière, Hydroconseil

Contact : Aymeric Blanc, AFD - août 2009.

N° 86

Les transports face aux défis de l’énergie et du climat

Benjamin Dessus, Global Chance.

Contact : Nils Devernois, département de la Recherche, AFD - septembre 2009.

N° 87

Fiscalité locale : une grille de lecture économique

Guy Gilbert, professeur des universités à l’Ecole normale supérieure (ENS) de Cachan

Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - septembre 2009.

N° 88

Les coûts de formation et d’insertion professionnelles - Conclusions d’une enquête terrain en Côte d’Ivoire

Richard Walther, expert AFD avec la collaboration de Boubakar Savadogo (Akilia) et de Borel Foko (Pôle de Dakar)

Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - octobre 2009.

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N° 89

Présentation de la base de données. Institutional Profiles Database 2009 (IPD 2009)

Institutional Profiles Database III - Presentation of the Institutional Profiles Database 2009 (IPD 2009)

Denis de Crombrugghe, Kristine Farla, Nicolas Meisel, Chris de Neubourg, Jacques Ould Aoudia, Adam Szirmai

Contact : Nicolas Meisel, département de la Recherche, AFD - décembre 2009.

N° 90

Migration, santé et soins médicaux à Mayotte

Sophie Florence, Jacques Lebas, Pierre Chauvin, Equipe de recherche sur les déterminants sociaux de la santé et du recours aux soins UMRS 707 (Inserm - UPMC)

Contact : Christophe Paquet, AFD - janvier 2010.

N° 91

Capital naturel et developpement durable en Nouvelle-Calédonie - Etude 2. Soutenabilité de la croissance néo-calédonienne : un enjeu de politiques publiques

Cécile Couharde, Vincent Géronimi, Elodie Maître d’Hôtel, Katia Radja, Patrick Schembri, Armand Taranco université de Versailles – Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, GEMDEV

Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - janvier 2010.

N° 92

Community Participation Beyond Idealisation and Demonisation: Biodiversity Protection in Soufrière, St. Lucia

Olivier Charnoz, AFD - January 2010.

N° 93

Community Participation in the Pantanal, Brazil: Containment Games and Learning Processes

Participation communautaire dans le Pantanal au Brésil : stratégies d’endiguement et processus d’apprentissage

Olivier Charnoz, AFD - février 2010.

N° 94

Développer le premier cycle secondaire : enjeu rural et défis pour l’Afrique subsaharienne

Alain Mingat et Francis Ndem, IREDU, CNRS et université de Bourgogne

Contact : Jean-Claude Balmès, département Education et formation professionnelle, AFD - avril 2010

N° 95

Prévenir les crises alimentaires au Sahel : des indicateurs basés sur les prix de marché

Catherine Araujo Bonjean, Stéphanie Brunelin, Catherine Simonet, CERDI - mai 2010.

N° 96

La Thaïlande : premier exportateur de caoutchouc naturel grâce à ses agriculteurs familiaux

Jocelyne Delarue, AFD - mai 2010.

N° 97

Les réformes curriculaires par l’approche par compétences en Afrique

Francoise Cros, Jean-Marie de Ketele, Martial Dembélé, Michel Develay, Roger-François Gauthier, Najoua Ghriss, Yves Lenoir, Augustin Murayi, Bruno Suchaut, Valérie Tehio - juin 2010.

N° 98

Les coûts de formation et d’insertion professionnelles - Les conclusions d’une enquête terrain au Burkina Faso

Richard Walther, Boubakar Savadogo, consultants en partenariat avec le Pôle de Dakar/UNESCO-BREDA.

Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - juin 2010.

N° 99

Private Sector Participation in the Indian Power Sector and Climate Change

Shashanka Bhide, Payal Malik, S.K.N. Nair, Consultants, NCAER

Contact: Aymeric Blanc, AFD - June 2010.

N° 100

Normes sanitaires et phytosanitaires : accès des pays de l’Afrique de l’Ouest au marché européen - Une étude empirique

Abdelhakim Hammoudi, Fathi Fakhfakh, Cristina Grazia, Marie-Pierre Merlateau.

Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - juillet 2010.

N° 101

Hétérogénéité internationale des standards de sécurité sanitaire des aliments : Quelles stratégies pour les filières d’exportation des PED ? Une analyse normative

Abdelhakim Hammoudi, Cristina Grazia, Eric Giraud-Héraud, Oualid Hamza.

Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - juillet 2010.

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N° 102

Développement touristique de l’outre-mer et dépendance au carbone

Jean-Paul Ceron, Ghislain Dubois et Louise de Torcy.

Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - octobre 2010.

N° 103

Les approches de la pauvreté en Polynésie française : résultats et apports de l’enquête sur les conditions de vie en 2009

Javier Herrera, IRD-DIAL, Sébastien Merceron, Insee.

Contact : Cécile Valadier, AFD - novembre 2010.

N° 104

La gestion des déchets à Coimbatore (Inde) : frictions entre politique publique et initiatives privées

Jérémie Cavé, Laboratoire Techniques, Territoires et Sociétés (LATTS), CNRS - décembre 2010.

N° 105

Migrations et soins en Guyane - Rapport final à l’Agence Française de Développement dans le cadre du contrat AFD-Inserm

Anne Jolivet, Emmanuelle Cadot, Estelle Carde, Sophie Florence, Sophie Lesieur, Jacques Lebas, Pierre Chauvin

Contact : Christophe Paquet, AFD - décembre 2010.

N° 106

Les enjeux d’un bon usage de l’électricité : Chine, Etats-Unis, Inde et Union européenne

Benjamin Dessus et Bernard Laponche avec la collaboration de Sophie Attali (Topten International Services),

Contact : Nils Devernois, AFD - février 2011.

N° 107

Hospitalisation des patients des pays de l’Océan indien - Prises en charges spécialisées dans les hôpitaux de la Réunion

Catherine Dupilet, Dr Roland Cash, Dr Olivier Weil et Dr Georges Maguerez (cabinet AGEAL)

En partenariat avec le Centre Hospitalier Régional de la Réunion et le Fonds de coopération régionale de la Réunion

Contact : Philippe Renault, AFD - février 2011.

N° 108

Peasants against Private Property Rights: A Review of the Literature

Thomas Vendryes, Paris School of Economics - February 2011.

N° 109

Le mécanisme REDD+ de l’échelle mondiale à l’échelle locale - Enjeux et conditions de mise en oeuvre

ONF International

Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, département de la Recherche, AFD - mars 2011.

N° 110

L’aide au Commerce : état des lieux et analyse

Robert Angioletti (Ademe), Michel Raoust (Terao)

Aid for Trade: A Survey Mariana Vijil, Marilyne Huchet-Bourdon et Chantal Le Mouël, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Rennes.

Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - avril 2011.

N° 111

Métiers porteurs : le rôle de l’entrepreneuriat, de la formation et de l’insertion professionnelle Sandra Barlet et Christian Baron, GRET Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - avril 2011.

N° 112

Charbon de bois et sidérurgie en Amazonie brésilienne : quelles pistes d’améliorations environnementales ?

L’exemple du pôle de Carajas Ouvrage collectif sous la direction de Marie-Gabrielle Piketty, Cirad, UMR Marchés Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, AFD - avril 2011.

N° 113

Gestion des risques agricoles par les petits producteurs Focus sur l’assurance-récolte indicielle et le warrantage

Guillaume Horréard, Bastien Oggeri, Ilan Rozenkopf sous l’encadrement de :

Anne Chetaille, Aurore Duffau, Damien Lagandré

N° 114

Contact : Bruno Vindel, département des Politiques alimentaires, AFD - mai 2011.

Analyse de la cohérence des politiques commerciales en Afrique de l’Ouest Jean-Pierre Rolland, Arlène Alpha, GRET Contact : Jean-René Cuzon, département PSP, AFD - juin 2011

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N° 115

L’accès à l’eau et à l’assainissement pour les populations en situation de crise : comment passer de l’urgence à la reconstruction et au développement ?

Julie Patinet (Groupe URD) et Martina Rama (Académie de l’eau), sous la direction de François Grünewald (Groupe URD) Contact : Thierry Liscia, département du Pilotage stratégique et de la Prospective, AFD

N° 116

Formation et emploi au Maroc : état des lieux et recommandations

Jean-Christophe Maurin et Thomas Mélonio, AFD - septembre 2011.

N° 117

Student Loans: Liquidity Constraint and Higher Education in South Africa

Marc Gurgand, Adrien Lorenceau, Paris School of Economics

Contact: Thomas Mélonio, AFD - September 2011.

N° 118

Quelles(s) classe(s) moyenne(s) en Afrique ? Une revue de littérature

Dominique Darbon, IEP Bordeaux, Comi Toulabor, LAM Bordeaux

Contacts : Virginie Diaz et Thomas Mélonio, AFD - décembre 2011.

N° 119

Les réformes de l’aide au développement en perspective de la nouvelle gestion publique Development Aid Reforms in the Context of New Public Management

Jean-David Naudet, AFD - février 2012.

N° 120

Fostering Low-Carbon Growth Initiatives in Thailand

Contact: Cécile Valadier, AFD - February 2012

N° 121

Interventionnisme public et handicaps de compétitivité : analyse du cas polynésien

Florent Venayre, Maître de conférences en sciences économiques, université de la Polynésie française et LAMETA, université de Montpellier

Contacts : Cécile Valadier et Virginie Olive, AFD - mars 2012.

N° 122

Accès à l’électricité en Afrique subsaharienne : retours d’expérience et approches innovantes

Anjali Shanker (IED) avec les contributions de Patrick Clément (Axenne), Daniel Tapin et Martin Buchsenschutz (Nodalis Conseil)

Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - avril 2012.

N° 123

Assessing Credit Guarantee Schemes for SME Finance in Africa: Evidence from Ghana, Kenya, South Africa and Tanzania

Angela Hansen, Ciku Kimeria, Bilha Ndirangu, Nadia Oshry and Jason Wendle, Dalberg Global Development Advisors

Contact: Cécile Valadier, AFD - April 2012.

N° 124

Méthodologie PEFA et collectivités infranationales : quels enseignements pour l’AFD ?

Frédéric Audras et Jean-François Almanza, AFD - juillet 2012

N° 125

High Returns, Low Attention, Slow Implementation: The Policy Paradoxes of India’s Clean Energy Development Ashwini Swain, University of York, Olivier Charnoz, PhD, AFD - July 2012

N° 126

In Pursuit of Energy Efficiency in India’s Agriculture: Fighting ‘Free Power’ or Working with it?

Ashwini Swain, University of York, Olivier Charnoz, PhD, AFD - August 2012

N° 127

L’empreinte écologique et l’utilisation des sols comme indicateur environnemental : quel intérêt pour les politiques publiques ?

Jeroen van den Bergh, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Fabio Grazi, département de la Recherche, AFD - octobre 2012

N° 128

China’s Coal Methane: Actors, Structures, Strategies and their Global Impacts Ke Chen, Research Consultant & Olivier Charnoz, PhD, AFD - November 2012

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N° 129 Quel niveau de développement des départements et collectivités d’outre-mer ?

Une approche par l’indice de développement humain Olivier Sudrie, cabinet DME Contact : Vincent Joguet, AFD - novembre 2012 N° 130 Taille des villes, urbanisation et spécialisations économiques Une analyse sur micro-données exhaustives des 10 000 localités maliennes Claire Bernard, Sandrine Mesplé-Somps, Gilles Spielvogel, IRD, UMR DIAL, Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - novembre 2012 N° 131 Approche comparée des évolutions économiques des Outre-mer français sur la période 1998-2010 Croissance économique stoppée par la crise de 2008 Claude Parain, INSEE, La Réunion, Sébastien Merceron, ISPF, Polynésie française Contacts : Virginie Olive et Françoise Rivière, économistes, AFD - mars 2013 N° 132 Equilibre budgétaire et solvabilité des collectivités locales dans un environnement décentralisé Quelles leçons tirer des expériences nationales ?

Guy GILBERT, Professeur émerite ENS Cachan, CES-PSE, François VAILLANCOURT, Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - avril 2013 N° 133 Les politiques d’efficacité énergétique en Chine, Inde, Indonésie, Thaïlande et Vietnam Loïc Chappoz et Bernard Laponche, Global Chance Contact : Nils Devernois, AFD - avril 2013 N° 134 South-South cooperation and new agricultural development aid actors in western and southern Africa China and Brazil - Case studies Jean-Jacques Gabas, CIRAD, UMR ARTDev et Frédéric Goulet, CIRAD, UMR Innovation N° 135 L’économie politique et la gestion territoriale des services environnementaux Bernard Dafflon, université de Fribourg (Suisse) Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, économiste, AFD – juin 2013 N° 136 Séminaire AFD – Mali : une contribution de la recherche française et européenne – Vendredi 12 avril 2013 Coordination : François Gaulme, AFD – janvier 2014

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