Learning for life and work : GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

Agence Française de Développement

working paper septembre March 2006 2005

14

Learning for life and work : GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

GEFOP network (www.gefop.org) Synthesis written by Richard Walther, Consultant ITG (walther.richard@wanadoo.fr)

Département de la Recherche Agence Française de Développement 5 rue Roland Barthes Direction de la Stratégie 75012 Paris - France Département de la Recherche www.afd.fr

Summary FOREWORD

3

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

3

INTRODUCTION

5

1.

Learning in order to acquire both a professional and a social identity

5

1.1

A massive shift towards the informal economy in developing countries

5

1.2

A very different transition process in developed countries

6

2.

Meeting the challenge of providing young people with a minimum skills and knowledge base

7

2.1

Meeting the challenges in developing countries

7

2.2

Meeting the challenges in developed countries

8

3.

Considering vocational training as a “first chance” for education and employment

9

3.1

Refocusing vocational training in developing countries

3.2

Raising the profile of vocational training in developed countries

10

4.

Reconsidering training objectives and opportunities in developing countries

11

4.1

9

Increasing the rates of transition into secondary education must not adversely affect basic education

4.2

11

General education should not be developed to the detriment of vocational training and education the informal sector

12

5.

Accrediting vocational knowledge and skills and raising one’s profile

13

5.1

Acknowledging work experience and the value of skills acquired in the informal economy

13

5.2

Certifying the level of skills rather than the level of qualification

14

6.

Involving the stakeholders concerned in the management of vocational training schemes

15

6.1

Strengthening the management partnership between public authorities and the social partners

15

6.2

Helping developing countries to develop a training market tailored to young people’s job-start and skills development needs

16

7.

Developing means of financing which take account of real vocational training issues

17

7.1

The need for developing countries to draw clear lines of responsibility between public

7.2

authorities, companies and individuals

17

Introducing co-financing incentives in developed countries

18

© AFD Working paper n° 14 GEFOP

contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

2

FOREWORD

GEFOP is a group of vocational training experts set up by

The contribution to the 2007 World Development Report,

the AFD. It brings together vocational training researchers,

which has been produced and jointly approved by the group of

managers and practitioners from Europe, Africa and Asia,

experts, draws on both the direct expertise, theory and practi-

as well as training specialists from international organisa-

ce of the various members of GEFOP, and the conclusions of

tions.

various European studies referred to in the contribution.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Priority 1: vocational training should be considered a

Priority 2: the aim for developing countries should be

first chance for acquisition of knowledge as well as for

to promote ways for young people in the informal eco-

professional and social integration in all countries

nomy to have access to jobs and occupational skills, in cooperation with all of the stakeholders concerned

Too often, vocational training is seen as a “help bring young people back” when the basic education system has failed

The informal economy, notably in sub-Saharan African

(the notion of giving a second chance), or as a top-up to the

countries, provides 80% of existing jobs and helps 90% of

basic knowledge base young people will need, to help pre-

young people coming out of the education system to find

pare them for the immediate needs of the world of work (the

work. It is therefore impossible just to pursue the limited

notion of continuous adaptation or readaptation to a flexible

strategy of adapting the existing technological and vocatio-

and constantly changing labour market).

nal education system. It is even more unacceptable to continue investing massively in formal training which only

For GEFOP, it is vital to move away from this view of voca-

helps a small minority of young people into work, and to

tional training as a means of “recycling those who have fai-

neglect ways of providing young people in the informal sec-

led”, towards one where it is perceived as a first chance, in

tor with skills training. A total revolution and overhaul of the

other words as an educational option which can provide

mindset is needed. This is based on two major observa-

young people with a maximum set of durable achievements

tions:

in terms of literacy, basic knowledge and lifelong learning skills.

=

The contents and methods of education in training esta-

blishments are barely if at all adapted to the skills needed All education schemes, however general they are in nature,

by young employees in small and very small firms from the

need to help young people enter the world of work and

informal economy. Thus, they turn to existing traditional

acquire the human, social and cultural capital they need in

forms of apprenticeship or can alternatively go to private

order to be able to succeed in their personal, public and

training colleges, which are not always up to the job. This

professional life. Vocational training has a specific purpose,

inequality of access goes against the principal of equity

which is to improve skills related to technologies and the

recognised by all international organisations dealing with

work-related development of this capital.

education and training.

© AFD Working paper n° 14

GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

3

Executive summary

Existing traditional learning and skills training systems, in

child. There are also problems related to the level of the

spite of their organisational weaknesses in providing theory-

teachers and the language in which teaching is carried out

based approach to learning, have a role to play in providing

(national and international languages). In this regard, closer

=

effective and vital job and skills training, which is currently

attention must be paid to improving quality than in the past,

neither fully-exploited nor recognised. Changing these sys-

and this must go hand in hand with continued efforts to

tems so that they start to offer appropriate training paths is

ensure universal education.

the only way to enable the vast majority of young people starting their work experience in the informal economy to acqui-

=

re the general, technical, behavioural and social skills they

young people in secondary and higher education have pro-

It must also be taken into account that the numbers of

need, in order to move gradually from a job they do just to

portionally increased more rapidly than those in primary

survive into one that will provide them with a reasonable sub-

education in the last few years. This tendency is becoming

sistence level and enhance their financial and professional

more marked. The political priority given to the primary sec-

circumstances. The move, in certain countries, from traditio-

tor has not been detrimental to the other levels of educa-

nal apprenticeship to dual-type apprenticeship provides an

tion, but it has been insufficiently backed up by extra fun-

example of how, with the active involvement of the stakehol-

ding or an increase in the number of classes opened. In

ders concerned, one can build on work achievements in the

other words, the continued development of secondary edu-

informal sector in order to enhance and develop them.

cation, to the detriment of basic education, will lead straight to an economic and social dead-end, because secondary

Along the lines of schemes run by some African Training

education mainly benefits the better-off levels of society,

Funds, notably sub-Saharan ones, and certain technical

where children are already in school. It is not so beneficial

assistance programmes, it is time for the efforts of national

to poorer sections of the population.

officials (public authorities and social partners) and donors to focus on the possibility of introducing organised training

The vast majority of young people go directly from basic

schemes to cater for the needs of those working in the tra-

education to a job in the informal economy (with an almost

ditional and informal economy, and especially the very

compulsory passage via traditional apprenticeship or on the

many young people who work without any guarantee of a

job training). This fact therefore suggests that the develop-

stable revenue or recognised employee status.

ment of training through post-school apprenticeship should be topped-up with a form of pre-apprenticeship, which would be integrated into basic schooling.

Priority 3: efforts to have a higher rate of young people go on to secondary education should not be made to the detriment of basic education

The stress given to these three priorities in no way detracts from the importance attached to the other points and propo-

The priority given to post-primary education in the discus-

sals made in the attached text containing GEFOP’s overall

sions on proposals for the 2007 World Development Report

contribution.

should take two major points into consideration.

It merely highlights the observations and convictions underFirstly, the fact that, in spite of the undeniable progress

lying this contribution: it is urgent and necessary, for the

made in the last decade regarding access to school, the

public authorities as well as for international donors, to reo-

objective of all children finishing primary school is still far

rientate their strategies and financial allocations towards

from being reached. In most countries, no more than half of

vocational training systems that would give opportunities for

any given year-group do so. Moreover, the quality of tea-

professional and social integration to the great majority of

ching is still poor because of large class sizes, and splitting

youth, now working in precarious conditions in the informal

them in two reduces the number of school periods for each

economy.

=

© AFD Working paper n° 14

GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

4

INTRODUCTION

Education and training for young people is a vital invest-

need for their future development. This investment is of

ment for all countries, both to ensure the individual and

strategic importance in both developing and developed

professional success of young people themselves, and to

countries. However, the extent of the challenge facing dif-

provide countries with the knowledge and skills base they

ferent countries depends on their level of development.

1. Learning in order to acquire both a professional and a social identity Looking at the situations of young people in transition

their access to jobs will largely affect their social integra-

between school and the world of work, it can be seen that

tion.

1.1. A massive shift towards the informal economy in developing countries

Structural adjustment policies in developing countries

system. They become part of an economy based on sur-

have led to job cuts in the formal economy or they have

vival and subsistence rather than on growth and produc-

at least hindered the creation of new ones. This has limi-

tion. The informal economy does have a role to play as a

ted young peoples’ opportunities in the formal labour

cushion in society in that it ensures that young people do

market. Only those with a high level of education and trai-

not find themselves without any occupation at all.

ning are able to integrate the formal sector. The others

However, it cannot fulfil this role for long if it does not give

have no alternative but to find a job or activity in the infor-

them a chance to gradually work towards a real job or

mal economy. When young people start working in the

acquire professional skills that are not just based on the

crafts and trade sectors in urban areas or in agriculture in

replication of existing techniques and working relation-

rural areas, they are held back in the traditional social

ships.

© AFD Working paper n° 14

GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

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Learning in order to acquire both a professional and a social identity

1.2. A very different transition process in developed countries

In developed countries, education and training for young

labour market having a primary impact on social identity

people is primarily oriented towards giving access to the

explains why high unemployment among less-qualified

labour market. The speed of this access and the form it

young people in OECD countries makes them feel

takes (length of time spent looking for a first job, suitabi-

socially excluded and can lead them to join marginal or

lity of this job for the level and qualifications of the can-

revolutionary movements.

didate, the degree of job security, or lack of it, the nature of the contract, and so on) broadly depends on a

Although the nature of labour market access may vary

young person’s level of qualification and social standing

according to countries’ different levels of development,

at the outset. This tends to be discriminatory, because

economic globalisation is having an impact on the ulti-

labour market access will have an impact on the per-

mate purpose of education and training everywhere.

son’s social integration and the nature of his professio-

They have increasingly taken on a wider remit than just

nal life. In developed economies, this is because the

helping people into the labour market and now help

labour market is a key factor for young people when they

young people make their first steps towards social inte-

are making the transition into adult life. It is effectively

gration, independence and responsibility, so that they

what determines their social identity, around which all

can work collegially with others and interact smoothly

other aspects of life are structured. This notion of the

within interpersonal and professional networks.

© AFD Working paper n° 14

GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

6

2. Meeting the challenge of providing young people with a minimum skills and knowledge base

All countries are confronted with the need to provide their

with the highest possible degree of autonomy, personal initia-

young people with a knowledge and skills base so that they

tive and ability to cooperate with others. Under the Lisbon

are not just equipped for getting a job, but are also capable

Strategy1, and in the wake of the OECD report2, the

of maintaining and developing their ability to acquire new job

European Union has identified a number of key skills needed

skills throughout their working lives and, more importantly, to

for meeting three fundamental aspects of life: cultural capital,

find their place in society. Job skills cannot be acquired

meaning lifelong personal fulfilment and development; social

without social skills, which means that the knowledge and

capital, meaning skills which enable citizens to be active in

skills base must not only help young people to enter the

society; and human capital, meaning individuals’ ability to

labour market, but must also enable them to evolve within it

obtain a decent job on the labour market.

2.1. Meeting the challenges in developing countries In developing countries, acquisition of the skills and know-

On this issue, the Dakar Forum of May 2005 concluded that

ledge base means first and foremost being able to comple-

the economic and social advantages of basic education can

te primary education. In spite of the undeniable progress

only be reaped if schooling allows young people to obtain

made over the last decade regarding access to education,

durable knowledge in terms of literacy, and this supposes

the objective of enabling all children to finish primary school

that each new generation of children finishes primary

is far from being attained, and access to lower secondary

school4. The report also concludes that extending universal

school remains the privilege of a minority. Moreover, drop-

education to the first few years of secondary school is jus-

out and leaving rates bode ill for young peoples’ futures and

tified largely by the same arguments as for primary educa-

have a big impact on their future careers. A recent statisti-

tion.

cal study carried out in the seven capitals of West Africa clearly shows that the level of education attained by young people greatly determines their career path.3 While public sector employees on average will have spent 11.3 years at school, those in the private sector will have spent 8.2 years, and those employed in the informal economy, which accounts for 76% of jobs, will have only been to school for an average of 3.5 years.

© AFD Working paper n° 14

1 European Commission (2004), Implementation of the “Education & Training 2010” work programme, Key competencies for lifelong learning, European reference framework.

2 OECD (2001d), Knowledge and Skills for Life. First results of the PISA 2000 survey, Paris, OECD. 3 STATECO (2005), Méthodes statistiques et économiques pour le développement et la transition, n° 99.

4 UNESCO (2005), Education for all: paving the way for action, Report presented to the Dakar Forum.

GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

7

Meeting the challenge of providing young people with a minimum skills and knowledge base

In developing countries, post-primary education and trai-

most important types of training for young people looking

ning is mostly only recognised as such when it is formally

for a job, whatever their level of formal education, because

part of secondary education – whether general, technical or

only these types of training allow them to acquire the pro-

vocational – and leads to formal recognised qualifications.

fessional, social and behavioural skills they need to work in

Quite apart from the fact that such education is often of only

the informal economy. Everyone agrees that the types of

average or even poor quality, it only constitutes a very small

training found in the informal economy could be improved

part of the way knowledge and skills are acquired by young

or better used. However, they are not advertised as paths

people in these countries. Various

studies5

have shown that

which young people should explore and make the most in

traditional apprenticeships and on-the-job training are the

order to access a good career and decent social conditions.

2.2. Meeting the challenges in developed countries

Two observations can be made further to a broad look at

school vocational training schemes over twenty years ago.

the development of education and training systems in deve-

They are based on close cooperation between public

loped countries.

authorities, the social partners, sector bodies and companies, and are designed to help young people make up for

The first observation is that all these countries have set a

their lack of preparation for the world of work7. Such training

minimum knowledge base for young people to attain, which

is supposed to prepare young people as well as possible for

corresponds to the level they should have reached when

their future occupation and/or job, but it more generally

they have completed lower secondary school. This increa-

aims to give them a practical introduction to the wider know-

se in educational capital, to which developing countries

ledge of economic and social culture they will need in the

aspire, will also require greater capacity in terms of existing

labour market.

human, material and financial capital if given year-groups are to be educated to the required level. It also requires that

These observations show that the content and methods of

those in charge of the education system appreciate that

secondary education are most often ill-adapted to the

below a certain level of education, young people will have

needs of young people and present-day society. Urgent

no real social or job opportunities.

measures should be taken in order to improve what is on offer and raise the profile of vocational education and trai-

The second observation also highlights the shortfall in edu-

ning as a means of getting a job and learning to work with

cational levels attained in developed countries. Firstly, too

initiative and enterprise8.

many young people leave after the first few years of secondary school without any recognised qualifications. Under the Lisbon Strategy, the European Union has asked for each member State to commit itself to reducing the number of young people leaving school early to less than 10% of a given year-group before 2010.6 Secondly, even young people who leave school with a recognised qualification have not acquired the knowledge and skills necessary for everyday life and work, and they have great difficulty entering the labour market. Given these shortcomings, developed countries, particularly in Europe, introduced post-

© AFD Working paper n° 14

5 Birks, S., Fluitman ,F., et al, Skills (1994), acquisition in micro-enterprises: Evidence from West Africa, OECD-World Bank-ILO. French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000), Les apprentissages en milieu urbain, Formation professionnelle dans le secteur informel en Afrique.

6 Commission of the European Communities (2002), European benchmarks in education and training: follow-up to the Lisbon European Council, Com 629 final.

7 Walther R. (2005), Financing Vocational Training, AFD. 8 UNESCO (2005), World Data on Education.

GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

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3. Considering vocational training as a “first chance” for education and employment

Too often, vocational training is seen as a second choice

them gradually adapt to the new economic and social

or last chance for young people when the various educa-

conditions of labour market access.

tional paths they have taken have not helped them find a

Vocational training is above all one of the possible paths

job or take their part in society. However, vocational trai-

young people can take through the education system. It is

ning is not just an option when the educational system has

therefore an integral part of the effort which must be made

failed to give young people the skills and knowledge base

to give them a maximum base of durable knowledge in

necessary for their integration. Neither is it simply a

terms of literacy, basic knowledge and lifelong learning

means of preparing young people for the immediate

skills. It is thus regrettable that the debate on education

needs of the world of work, teaching them only the actions

for all tends to neglect the part which can be played by

and behaviour expected in the workplace or for a given

vocational training in literacy, both for young people who

job. Nor is vocational training just a good means for pre-

have not been to primary school, and for adults. In effect,

paring young people for entry into an increasingly flexible

“the lack of literacy is not only a gap in Education for All, it

and less and less regulated labour market, and for helping

is also obstructs the reduction of poverty”9.

3.1. Refocusing vocational training in developing countries In developing countries, the primary issue is to develop

only just starting to be introduced (e.g., in Benin). Technical

vocational training which allows the vast majority of young

education still exists almost everywhere, but it does not

people coming into the labour market after working in the

meet economic and social needs and is of poor quality

informal economic sector to acquire the general, technical,

“technical colleges are not providing meaningful job-orien-

behavioural and social skills they need in order to move

ted practical training due to a lack of teacher motivation,

gradually from a job they do just to survive into one that will

poor planning of the disciplines that are taught, resource

provide them with a reasonable subsistence level and

constraints, and a complete separation between the col-

enhance their financial and professional circumstances.

leges and the world of work”10.

This overall goal has several consequences. =

It must be borne in mind that the contents and methods

First of all there is a need to move away from the current

of education in these establishments are barely if at all

situation in which vocational training for young people is

adapted to the skills needed by young employees in small

almost always the poor relation of education, in spite of the

and very small firms. They thus only have access to exis-

development of Training Funds to finance it. Although dual

ting traditional forms of apprenticeship or can alternatively

=

learning schemes are increasingly being developed with encouragement and support from various donors, few countries have made them a national policy, and they are

© AFD Working paper n° 14

9 World Bank (2002), Findings, Human Development, n° 209.

10 World Bank Report quoted by Fluitman F.(2002), “Working, but not well”, ILO International Training Center.

GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

9

Considering vocational training as a “first chance” for education and employment

go to private training colleges, which are not always up to

various national and international bodies aimed at training

the job. This inequality of access goes against the principal

young people and adults in the informal economy and to

of equity recognised by all international organisations dea-

reorganise vocational and technological education training

ling with education and training.

to take account of the skill needs of all stakeholders in the

The consequence of this state of affairs is that vocational

economy. However, a broad review of vocational training

training systems need to be reviewed in developing coun-

cannot take place without the involvement of the various

tries. The goal should be to support initiatives taken by

political, economic and social actors concerned.

3.2. Raising the profile of vocational training in developed countries

In developed countries, secondary-school level vocational

engineers and managers), is essential for developed coun-

training – unlike university-level vocational training – still

tries if they are to acquire the human resources they need

suffers from lack of esteem within the educational system,

in order to face the challenges of the knowledge-based

in spite of efforts made for more than twenty years to make

economy. It represents a shift away from the practice whe-

it an attractive option for success. It is always believed to

reby educational systems reserve high-flying options

provide knowledge and skills of little importance, in contrast

(which are remote from economic and business life) for the

to the respectability of general academic education.

elite, and just equip the “less gifted” with the skills they need for immediate entry into the labour market. It substitutes the

The under-esteemed image of secondary-level vocational trai-

notion of differentiation with one of just categorisation,

ning stems from its difficulty in freeing itself from what could be

requiring those in higher education to learn how to cope in

called its “original sin”: that of always having been introduced

the job market, and ensuring that those at lower levels of

as a means of directing poorly-performing pupils towards the

education have the social and cultural skills they need for

labour market, or as a means of helping under-skilled and

work. The most positive sign of this change of approach is

socially-excluded young people and adults into work by provi-

the fact that several countries are currently adopting sys-

ding them with a second, third or fourth

chance11.

This early

tems for accrediting prior learning, which makes it possible

disadvantage has today given rise, in different ways in different

to obtain diplomas and certificates through the validation of

countries, to opinions and pronouncements which all stress

professional experience alone12.

the importance of developing vocational education training for both and economic and social purposes:

In developing countries, as in the developed world, there is a common consensus that vocational training should no longer

=

On one hand, it should provide young people with the

skills companies need and help them to find jobs quickly;

be considered as offering just a “second chance”. This is because it is necessary to meet the challenge of helping

On the other hand, it should not just be limited to provi-

young people to acquire the minimum human, social and cul-

ding young people with skills tailored to the immediate

tural capital they need in order to find a good job quickly and

needs of the labour market, but should also endow them

become fully-fledged citizens. This is just as important for

with the social and human capital they need in order to pro-

young people as for the economy and society as a whole.

=

gress and remain in control of their own career path.

Such a change of approach, which is linked to the introduction of vocational training schemes combined with work experience and the skills permitting entry into the labour market at any level (from workers’ qualifications to those of

© AFD Working paper n° 14

11 AFD, op cit.

12 This is notably the case in France, thanks to the Social Modernisation Act (Loi de modernisation sociale) of 17 January 2001, which enables all young people and adults with at least three years’ professional experience to have their skills accredited via a qualification of the same level as that given by the education system.

GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

10

4. Reconsidering training objectives and opportunities in developing countries

This analysis of the current situation regarding policies

consideration to hypotheses relating to the maximum

set up to facilitate the transition from primary school to

quantitative and qualitative development of post-primary

lower and upper secondary school does directly give

education.

4.1. Increasing the rates of transition into secondary education must not adversely affect basic education

The priority given to development of post-primary education

increased more rapidly than those in primary education in the

firstly comes up against the problem that, in spite of the

last few years. This tendency is becoming more marked. The

undeniable progress made in the last decade regarding

political priority given to the primary sector has not been

access to school, the objective of all children finishing pri-

detrimental to the other levels of education, but it has been

mary school is still far from being reached. In most coun-

insufficiently backed up by extra funding or an increase in the

tries, no more than half of any given year-group do so.

number of classes opened. It should perhaps even be feared

Moreover, the quality of teaching is still poor because of

that the funds absorbed by developing access to secondary

large class sizes, and splitting them in two reduces the

education will prevent this objective from being achieved.

number of school periods for each child. There are also pro-

The challenge of how to divide public resources between dif-

blems related to the level of the teachers and the language

ferent levels of education is not just economic and budgeta-

in which teaching is carried out (national and international

ry. It is also important an equity issue. The intense pressure

languages). In this regard, closer attention must be paid to

to go on studying mainly benefits the better-off levels of

improving quality than in the past, and this must go hand in

society, where children are already in school. It is not so

hand with continued efforts to ensure universal education.

beneficial to poorer sections of the population. In other words, the continued development of secondary education to

It must also be taken into account that the number of young

the detriment of basic education will lead straight to an eco-

people in secondary and higher education has proportionally

nomic and social dead-end.

Š AFD Working paper n° 14

GEFOP contribution to the World Development Report 2007

• March 2006

11

Reconsidering training objectives and opportunities in developing countries

4.2. General education should not be developed to the detriment of vocational training and education the informal sector Contrary to the basic premise underlying the current

=

At which point in basic education should the difference

approach to managing the transition to post-primary educa-

between curricula leading to a job and curricula leading to

tion, thinking about a child’s future job cannot be put off until

further secondary studies be made? The end of primary

some point beyond primary and lower secondary educa-

school or the end of lower secondary school?

tion, but must begin during it. The introduction of a national

=

policy for dual apprenticeship (combining theory and practi-

provided in the primary school curriculum by widening

ce, with employee status) after lower secondary school, as

the knowledge covered or making changes to the way

has been done in Benin, provides only part of the answer.

children are taught?

The advantage is that it offers young people real vocational

=

training rooted in the real world and also encourages skilled

people who leave school before they can start an apprenti-

workers to raise their technical competence levels.

ceship with employee status?

How can an introduction to technical subjects be

Finally, what sort of opportunities can be offered to young

However, it bears no relation to the content of basic education and is aimed at young people who, even if they must

Developing countries are developing technical and vocatio-

have reached a certain level of education, have mostly left

nal education for the sorts of jobs which are in decline in the

school some years before beginning their apprenticeship.

formal economy and public administration. They must

This problem creates a risk that knowledge gained in school

develop post-primary education which takes account of the

will be lost, and that young people might be left on the

fact that the number of young people coming out of the

streets or without any real status, as is the case with tradi-

higher levels of the education system (and higher education

tional apprenticeships.

in particular) is much higher than the number of available jobs13. They must also take account of the low levels of

The development of post-school training through apprentice-

qualifications needed doing existing jobs and the under-

ship must be complemented with a form of pre-apprenticeship,

qualification of those who occupy them. Along the lines of

which would be integrated into primary education. The issue is

schemes run by some African Training Funds, notably sub-

how to define the precise form this would take, which means

Saharan ones, and certain technical assistance pro-

finding answers to the following four questions:

grammes14, it is time for the efforts of national officials and donors to focus on the possibility of introducing training

What sort of skills and knowledge base is necessary in

measures to cater for the needs of those working in the tra-

order to help young people into traditional or informal

ditional and informal economy, and especially the very

employment, with a view to improving such work, both in

many young people who work without any guarantee of a

terms of status and the level of the professional skills they

stable revenue or recognised employee status.

=

will have? (Informal employment concerns up to 90% of young people in certain countries).

13 UNESCO (2005), Education for all: paving the way for action , Report presented to the Dakar Forum.

14 GTZ (2004), Projects/Programmes aimed at Economic Improvement and Poverty Alleviation through non-formal training in Sub-Sahara Africa.

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5. Accrediting vocational knowledge and skills and raising one’s profile

Public authorities and the stakeholders concerned attach

Such systems are common to all developed and developing

much importance to prior knowledge and skills, which is

countries in the field of formal education and vocational trai-

reflected in current accreditation and certification systems.

ning. However, practices vary considerably as regards whe-

They encourage young people to exploit their cultural, social

ther or not experience to be accredited has been previously

and human capital and thus increase their chances of ente-

learnt in the informal economy, and whether or not the trai-

ring the labour market and taking up their place in society.

ning is based on a structured form of learning.

5.1. Acknowledging work experience and the value of skills acquired in the informal economy The so-called informal economy’s position outside the

Efforts to find a way of accrediting the prior skills of workers

structured activity of the formal economy naturally excludes

in the informal economy should, among other things, shed

the possibility of recognising the prior experience of the

light on how their prior experience can be taken into

young people who work in it, even in countries where

account along the same lines as that acquired in the formal

schemes for accrediting prior experience have been intro-

economy. They should also help determine how training

duced. Experience suggests that the “quality” and skills of

schemes for workers in the informal economy can be intro-

workers in the informal economy are easily comparable to

duced alongside those of the formal economy, and, lastly,

those of workers in the formal economy. The only differen-

how people working in the informal economy can be given

ce is the economic and financial relationship between the

rights comparable to those which exist in the formal econo-

“enterprises” and their clients.

my (recognition of employee status, access to on-the-job skills training in the same way as employees in modern

It would thus be useful to look more closely at how to use

economy have, recognition of a product’s “quality”, etc.).

certification as a means of acknowledging both the activities of the informal economy themselves, and the people,

Bearing in mind the symbolic value of certification as a third

especially young people, who carry them out. This is all the

party’s confirmation of the quality of the individual’s experien-

more important because several studies have shown that

ce and potential, it can undoubtedly help promote increased

the introduction of schemes for recognising prior experien-

esteem for the experience of people and work in the informal

ce can be structurally beneficial for occupational sectors, all

economy. This would offer a means of combating their exclu-

the more so when they permit the acquisition of a formal

sion, which keeps them on the margins of society, and of

diploma or qualification. The current conversion of traditio-

enhancing the cultural and economic ties they are developing

nal apprenticeship into dual apprenticeship in many sub-

with it. It would provide a way of introducing training measures

Saharan countries is part of this trend towards the recogni-

tailored to the specific circumstances of the sector, which

tion of prior knowledge and skills acquired by young people

would give a boost to enterprises working just for survival and

in the informal economy.

subsistence purposes and help them adopt a growth-oriented

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Accrediting vocational knowledge and skills and raising one’s profile

approach. This would give the very large majority of young

prises a chance of developing their professional skills in a

people who gain their first work experience in such enter-

more structured and accepted manner.

5.2. Certifying the level of skills rather than the level of qualification

In the knowledge-based economy, it is becoming increa-

from operative to engineer, and as a good way of facilita-

singly evident that the growth capacity of small, medium

ting access to the labour market by effectively linking

and large enterprises – and consequently their ability to

knowledge with skills, know-how with innovation, and

create wealth and jobs – primarily “depends on the skills

intellectual effort with work experience. Existing certifica-

of their human resources … and which is above all based

tion systems often tend to put more emphasis on young

on the quality of knowledge and

skills.”15

It is also increa-

people’s level of qualification than their ability to solve pro-

singly considered that a qualified workforce constitutes

blems and combine technical, practical and procedural

the most valuable part of a company’s capital and the

know-how efficiently on the job. Certification will help

source of its competitive advantage. It is therefore right

young people enter the labour market more rapidly if it

that vocational training should be presented to all young

does more to validate their professional skills in relation to

people as a means of reaching any level of qualification,

the qualifications required and jobs offered.

15 Commissariat Général au Plan (2003), La France dans l’économie du savoir : pour une dynamique collective, La Documentation Française.

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6. Involving the stakeholders concerned in the management of vocational training schemes

The transition of young people from school to the labour market cannot be considered independently

from the role played by the various stakeholders involved.

6.1. Strengthening the management partnership between public authorities and the social partners

The social partners (representatives of employers and trade

authorities’ key partners in the design, management and

unions) are key stakeholders. From an analysis of the deve-

evaluation of training and job-start schemes. In European

lopment of European training systems, it clearly emerges

countries, they sit on the range of national, regional and

that, as from the time when youth unemployment grew

sectoral vocational training boards, as well as the various

sharply in the 1980s, the social partners have helped public

committees which exist in the employment policy field. In

authorities to develop post-school job training and dual trai-

developing countries, Training Funds set up and run by

ning systems combining periods of training at college with

national authorities – mostly with technical assistance and

in-company work experience placements. The social part-

help from international donors, including the World Bank –

ners are nowadays still involved in identifying the skill

involve representatives of employers and employees and

needs of young people who are in training or looking for a

often crafts and farming bodies in the design, delivery and

job, as well as those of people already in the labour market.

management of continuing training for young apprentices.

Furthermore, the national reform programmes for growth

Other than helping to provide a better understanding of eco-

and jobs set up by European countries as part of the effort

nomic and labour market needs, which makes job training

to coordinate EU social policies require that they contribute

schemes more efficient, this management partnership

to, and provide their opinion, on the design and delivery of

approach ensures that job-start schemes are run fairly, in

priority measures for helping young people into the labour

accordance with the recommendations of the 2006 World

market16.

Development Report. It actively promotes complementarity between the need to achieve economic growth and social

Furthermore, in both developing and developed countries,

equity17.

the social partners are increasingly considered as public

16 National Reform Programmes for Growth and Jobs: Germany, Belgium, France, Luxembourg, United Kingdom, etc.

17 The World Bank (2006), Equity and Development, World Development Report.

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Involving the stakeholders concerned in the management of vocational training schemes

6.2. Helping developing countries to develop a training market tailored to young people’s job-start and skills development needs

One of the big challenges developing countries face when

this market just via deregulation or competitive tendering

they try to develop efficient measures to help young people

have demonstrated the inefficiency of such solutions, with

enter the labour market is their lack of expertise. This

time being lost due to bidding procedures which are ill-

concerns how to assess skills needed by micro, small and

adapted to their situation18. Rather than insisting on alter-

large firms, how to identify the skills and strategic occupa-

native proposals which fix the type of tender in advance

tions likely to boost the development of the modern and tra-

(private, non-governmental, associative or public), it would

ditional economies, and, lastly, how to structure the market

be better to have a principle whereby tenders will only be

so that it can offer appropriate training and job-start oppor-

deemed to be acceptable if they are based on a public/pri-

tunities.

vate partnership involving the social partners and incorporate expertise as close as possible to the needs and requi-

All attempts in sub-Saharan African countries to structure

rements of national, sectoral or regional organisations.

18 The imposition of tendering rules on FODEFCA, the Bénin Training Fund, for selecting training providers which often do not exist or, when they do, have little experience in the field concerned, illustrates how inefficient the exclusive option of competitive tendering can be.

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7. Developing means of financing which take account of real vocational training issues

From the analysis of financing policies and practices deve-

co-financing rules, with contributions from public authori-

loped in vocational training, it emerges that most ways of

ties, companies and individuals. However, it is not certain

financing schemes for helping young people make the

that the funding burden is shared as equitably as it should

transition from school into the labour market are subject to

be, in either developing or developed countries.

7.1. The need for developing countries to draw clear lines of responsibility between public authorities, companies and individuals Analysis of existing financing systems in most of developing

contribute to the funds while also being partly kept back by

countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, shows that

the State. Analysis of the situation shows that countries

public authorities finance the formal part of vocational edu-

have every interest in developing a national dual apprenti-

cation (which takes young people on to only 20% of existing

ceship policy, and that the public authorities must not leave

jobs

)19,

whereas training through traditional apprenticeship

this to be financed by the private sector alone.

is financed by craftsmen and the families of the young

=

people themselves. Pilot schemes aimed at introducing

in vocational training is justified in terms of the benefits they

While the financial involvement of companies and trainees

dual-type training are paid in the same way, but with extra

will reap from it, financing of initial vocational training cannot

help from Training Funds (and ultimately through vocational

be their sole responsibility, as the cost would be excessive.

training taxes paid by companies in the modern sector) and

The use of State funds seems unavoidable. This increase in

from international donors, who provide either the money or

the State’s responsibility must be accompanied by a review

technical assistance.

of the role of technical education, which is a large beneficiary of State funds but too inefficient. Moreover, such public

It is clear that this shortfall between the financing available

financing responds to the need for equity, bearing in mind

and the amount needed for training all young people so that

that secondary and higher education is generally free. This

they have a minimum knowledge and skills base can no

means that the worst-off families are treated unequally,

longer be allowed to persist. The State and companies’ res-

because they have to support their children’s efforts to acqui-

pective shares of financing must be redistributed.

re job skills, in contrast to well-off families who do not have to provide such support.

=

To achieve the Millennium Goal of universal education

and manage the necessary flow of children into upper secondary school and then university, it will be necessary to provide the great majority of young people with some vocational training after primary school. Policy decisions on how to achieve this cannot be left to existing Training Funds alone, and even less so to modern companies, whose taxes

© AFD Working paper n° 14

19 Fluitman F. (2002), “Working, but not well”, ILO International Training Center.

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Developing means of financing which take account of real vocational training issues

7.2. Introducing co-financing incentives in developed countries

Paradoxically, financing systems in developed countries are

to motivate individuals to take on responsibility for their own

characterised by a high level of public-sector involvement in

skills development and career path, and to encourage them

initial vocational training, dual-type and apprenticeship trai-

to invest their own time and money. In all countries, this

ning systems, although for the latter two types, companies

motivation can be achieved by simplifying procedures for

cover the costs of work placements, on-the-job training and

the groups targeted (facilitating funding applications and

apprentices’ wage costs. Contributions by individuals and

payments) in order to remove obstacles which could dis-

their families are everywhere minimal, unless they have

courage them from training. It can also be achieved by offe-

opted for a training scheme which has not been approved

ring courses (such as languages, computing and new tech-

or subsidised by the State. In general, public authorities do

nologies) which give training a good image and enable indi-

their utmost to cover the cost of enabling young people to

viduals to learn about new forms of information and com-

acquire the skills and knowledge base they need for the

munication. Lastly, such motivation can be achieved by

labour market.

ensuring that requests for training are treated individually, which gives applicants the feeling that they are in control of

To tackle unemployment among young people and support

their future career.

their efforts to enter or return to work, a growing number of countries are beginning to establish co-financing incentives

The development of such incentive measures can only be

to encourage them to increase their knowledge and skills

beneficial. They help young people become stakeholders in

base. These include the introduction of training vouchers

their job training and encourage the development of a life-

and subsidised learning accounts, which enable them to

long approach to learning. However, the relevance and

learn a language, acquire computer or management skills,

quality of incentive measures will depend on the fulfilment

set up their own business, have their work experience vali-

of a number of pre-requisites (availability of information and

dated or raise their level of qualification20. Even though the

guidance systems, existence of clear information on the

use of such measures has still not been properly evaluated

quality and efficiency of training offered, monitoring and

in terms of their impact on the beneficiaries, it seems clear

mapping of individual training and career paths, etc.),

that public authorities have mainly introduced them in order

without which they cannot meet their intended purpose.

20 OECD (2003), Mechanisms for the Co-finance of Lifelong Learning.

ELAP, European Learning Account Partners Network, A Catalogue of Recent Lifelong Learning Co-Financing Initiatives.

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