AUR 54 02

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

AUR

Australian Universities’Review

AUR Editor Dr Ian R Dobson, University of Helsinki

AUR Editorial Board Jeannie Rea, NTEU National President Professor Timo Aarrevaara, University of Helsinki Professor Walter Bloom, Murdoch University Dr Anita Devos, Monash University Dr Jamie Doughney, Victoria University Professor Leo Goedegebuure, University of Melbourne Professor Ralph Hall, University of New South Wales Professor Dr Simon Marginson, University of Melbourne Mr Grahame McCulloch, NTEU General Secretary Dr Alex Millmow, University of Ballarat Dr Neil Mudford, UNSW@ADFA Professor Paul Rodan, Swinburne University of Technology Dr Leesa Wheelahan, University of Melbourne

Production Design & layout: Paul Clifton Editorial support: Anastasia Kotaidis Cover photograph: RMIT University, Melbourne. Chris Orr, © 2012,

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Markwell, D. (2007). The challenge of student engagement. http://www.catl.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/95565/Student_ engagement_-_Don_Markwell_-_30_Jan_2007.pdf For URLs, do not include retrieval dates unless the source material may change over time (e.g. wikis). Sub-headings should be typed in lower case, ranged left, with relative importance indicated by A, B etc.

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Gall, M., Gall, J. & Borg, W. (2003). Education Research: An introduction (7th ed.). Allyn and Bacon, New York For a journal reference: King, D.A. (2004). What different countries get for their research spending. Nature 430, pp. 311-316. For a reference to a chapter in a collection: McCollow, J. & Knight, J. (2005). Higher Education in Australia: An Historical Overview, in M. Bella, J. McCollow & J. Knight (eds), Higher Education in Transition, University of Queensland, Brisbane.

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vol. 54, no. 2, 2012 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

Australian Universities’ Review 2

Letter from the editor Ian R Dobson

65 Grand crews: tasting notes on the Group of Eight universities Arthur O’Neill

ARTICLES 3

Academic zombies: a failure of resistance or a means of survival?

Quaffing, tasting panels and tasting notes of the fruit of the vine provide a metaphorical method for picking a university to study at. 71 Uncapped university

Suzanne Ryan

Andee Jones

A zombie is a ‘hypnotised person bereft of consciousness and selfawareness, yet ambulant and able to respond to surrounding stimuli’. Does this sound like an academic near you?

Never before has there been so much talk of ‘excellence and quality assurance’ and never before has there been so little concern for either.

12 Australian transnational education programmes in South East Asia: student satisfaction with the learning environment Iwona Miliszewska & Ewa M Sztendur

International students: do they like the transnational education Australian universities provide? 22 All beer and skittles? A qualitative pilot study of the role of alcohol in university college life Clarissa Hughes

Is it my shout? Residential college students tend to regard drinking alcohol as an entrenched and highly valued aspect of college culture. 29 Covering the gap: social inclusion, international students and the role of local government Toby Paltridge, Susan Mayson & Jan Schapper

Local government could be instrumental in ensuring the social inclusion of international students in our communities. 40 Recession-oscopy: can universities be the light at the end? Steve Mackey

We can avert disaster by thinking! 44 The managerialist university: an economic interpretation Tony Aspromourgos

The shift in the political atmosphere since the end of the 1970s has been the key factor in the changing role of the public sector. 50 Placing a value on academic work: the development and implementation of a timebased academic workload model John Kenny, Andrew Fluck & Tim Jetson

Do more with less! Time-based workload models are political and transparency is a must. OPINION 61 Transfer of teaching materials between universities Matthias Maiwald & Kathy Harrington

Intellectual property rights: universities must take the lead in both legal and moral aspects.

73 Déjà vu all over again: what next for universities? Warren Bebbington

From Unter den Linden to North Terrace: a saunter through time and space. ‘The way forward is going back to Humboldt’s ideal’ 78 Quality in teaching and learning: one path to improvement Geoff Sharrock

Student feedback for fun and profit. REVIEWS 85 Am I still yearning? University Unlimited: The Monash Story by Graeme Davison & Kate Murphy Review by Jim McGrath

89 Multicultural muddles Transforming a ‘White Australia’: Issues of Racism and Immigration by L Jayasuriya. Review by Katharine Betts

91 Every home should have one! The Joy of English: 100 illuminating conversations about the English language by Jesse Karjalainen Review by Ian R Dobson

92 Inter (sic) the future? Interdisciplinary Higher Education: Perspectives and Practicalities by Martin Davies, Marcia Devlin & Malcolm Tight (Eds) Review by Neil Mudford

94 Hil of discontent Whackademia: An insider’s account of the troubled university by Richard Hil Review by Ian R Dobson

95 Keeping it in the family Europeanizing Education: Governing a new policy space by Martin Lawn & Sotiria Grek Review by Raj Sharma

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Letter from the editor Ian R Dobson

This is the second and final edition of AUR for 2012. It rep-

notes that the emergence of an academic managerial class,

resents a return to business as usual, the last issue having

one that ‘must create a semblance of work for itself’, in

been a special edition on PhD education, produced under

light of the ‘tendency to over-regulation and excessive

the watchful eyes of guest editors Anita Devos and Cath-

bureaucratisation’. Who could disagree!

erine Manathunga.

This issue also incorporates an interesting collection of

This issue includes articles and opinion covering a

opinion, in addition to Arthur O’Neill’s oenological obser-

number of contemporary areas of higher education. Two

vations, mentioned earlier. Matthias Maiwald and Kathy

articles have a focus on international students, with a

Harrington present an interesting piece about moral

paper on transnational education and student satisfaction

intellectual property rights. Is this a form of institutional

in South-East Asia by Iwona Miliszewska and Ewa Sztendur

plagiarism? Universities have to get this right every time

and another on the role of local government in assisting

if they wish to take the moral high ground on others’

with social inclusion, by Toby Paltridge, Susan Mayson and

alleged plagiarism.

Jan Schapper.

Andee Jones’ piece Uncapped University has some

Clarissa Hughes’ paper on alcohol and college life is

interesting overlaps with some of the papers in this issue.

based on a pilot study on the subject. Drinking was per-

‘With a cut, cut here, a cut, cut there….’ (funds per student;

ceived as ‘an entrenched and highly valued aspect of col-

entry scores; academic staff at the University of Sydney;

lege culture’. No surprises there! Based on related raw

et cetera).

materials, Arthur O’Neill’s opinion piece ‘Grand Crews…’

Newish VC Warren Bebbington looks into the crystal

provides tasting notes on Group of Eight universities. A

ball to see where we might be headed. This paper is his

fruity little paper, with just enough irony to suit most pal-

inaugural address as vice-chancellor, delivered in Adelaide

ates, I’m sure you will agree.

on 18 July 2012.

Several items in this issue relate to goings-on in the aca-

Finally, Geoff Sharrock has produced a piece that adds

demic world. Suzanne Ryan discusses aspects of the con-

to the discussion started by John Buchanan in the pages

temporary academy, built on the zombie metaphor: the

of AUR last year. He suggests that there can be light at the

place of the living dead in our universities. As she says,

end of the student feedback tunnel. See what you think!

‘Applying the zombie metaphor to academics and their

And then….book reviews: six of them.

response to change seems most apt given our apparent

The last issue’s guest editors finished their Letter from

helplessness in the face of overwhelming change. … what

the editors with several acknowledgements, something

are we doing about it’. What indeed!

I don’t recall having done in the past. In order to atone

Other papers also consider where we are now. John Kenny, Andrew Fluck and Tim Jetson present an interest-

for this oversight, in future and starting with this issue, I intend to follow suit.

ing paper on the implementation of an academic work-

The much-increased demand to be published, to

load model. In the managerialist university, everything

meet all manner of university and government whims

can be quantified (apparently). The need for fairness and

has placed an increased burden on editors and edito-

transparency is paramount. Steve Mackey’s article links

rial boards, but it also means an additional load on peer

academic performance pay, the measurement of research

reviewers and journal production staff.Therefore, I should

output and what he describes as ‘the astonishing pay

like to thank all those responsible for getting this issue to

levels of vice-chancellors to the global financial crisis’. Is

press.Thank you!

this a fair observation? You should decide. Tony Aspromourgas’ article provides an economic interpretation of the managerialist university. Interestingly, he

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Letter from the editor, Ian R Dobson

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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Academic zombies A failure of resistance or a means of survival? Suzanne Ryan University of Newcastle

Successive waves of neoliberal reforms to higher education have taken their toll on the academy. This paper uses the zombie metaphor to discuss the causes and consequences of organisational change on Australian academics as a background to exploring zombiefication as a form of passive resistance and survival. The paper uses the literature and empirical research to chronicle the disintegration of the academic workforce and with it, the idea of a university as a social institution. The paper concludes with the author’s reflection of her own desire to be emancipated from zombiedom.

Universities are increasingly populated by the undead: a listless population of academics, managers, administrators, and students, all shuffling to the beat of the corporatist drum.... In this bleak landscape the source of the zombie contagion lurks in the form of bland, mechanical speech .... peppered with affectless references to citation indices, ERA rankings, ARC applications, FoR codes, AUQA reviews, and the like. ...Many zombies appear incapable of responding meaningfully to the tyranny of performance indicators, shifting promotion criteria, escalating workload demands and endless audits, evaluations and reviews. Try as they may to resist, zombies merely acquiesce to the corporatist line (Gora & Whelan, 2003).

academic resistance to change before reviewing the main

Zombies are the living dead, the undead. The term is figu-

expected to reflect on their situation, take a view, and take

ratively applied to describe a ‘hypnotised person bereft of

action if necessary (Trowler, 1998). There is no dearth of

consciousness and self-awareness, yet ambulant and able

complaints about what is happening in higher education

to respond to surrounding stimuli’ (Wikipedia).This paper

(Lorenz, 2012; Parker, 2012; Parker & Guthrie, 2010), how-

was inspired by a forthcoming book edited by Andrew

ever, over the past one and a half decades research and

Whelan, Chris Moore and Ruth Walker, ‘Zombies in the

commentary suggests that academic resistance is weak,

Academy: Living Death in Higher Education’, the title of

generally relying on individual withdrawal rather than

which struck accord with my own research and obser-

organised action (Anderson, 2008; Parker & Jary, 1995;

vation. Applying the zombie metaphor to academics and

Willmott, 1995).Among the first to consider the academic

their response to change seems most apt given our appar-

response to winds of neoliberal change,Willmott (1995, p.

ent helplessness in the face of overwhelming change.

1002) notes that the erosion of wages, conditions and dis-

However, the real question is why have we allowed this

cretion only managed to generate ‘simmering resentment

to happen and what are we doing about it. Thus the aim

and individual withdrawal from unmonitored responsibili-

of the paper is to explore adaptation and resistance to

ties rather than organised resistance’. The reasons for this

zombiedom. The paper proceeds with an overview of

are not always clear. Parker and Jary (1995) explain it in

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

sources of zombiefication: governance; audit; workload; workforce; and an acquiescent leadership. Forms of adaptation and resistance are then examined and exemplified with research results. The final section explores future options for dealing with the next wave of reform and concludes zombiedom as a form of resistance to change may be the only but not the optimal option.

Academic resistance and change Academics, more than other professional groups, could be

Academic zombies, Suzanne Ryan

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terms of academics gaining a greater sense of worth from

worst of ‘managerialism and measurement’, the sources of

their students and peers than from management while

zombiefication.

Willmott (1995) links lack of organised resistance to academics considering themselves ‘professional’ and ‘above’

Sources of zombiefication

industrial action that in any case is ‘rarely disruptive’. Lack of academic resistance is further accorded to ignorance of

Over the past three decades, Australian higher education

what is happening, academics being ‘ill equipped to inter-

has experienced four major waves of change and is now

pret the significance of change’ let alone resist govern-

undergoing a fifth.The four waves of government induced

ment funding and ‘the management of higher education’

policy and funding reform included massification during

(Willmott, 1995, p. 1023). Individual withdrawal is most

the 1980s, marketisation in the early 1990s, corporatisa-

often in the ‘invisible’ but ‘highly meaningful and valued

tion in the late 1990s and early 2000s, and a fourth wave

activities such as close and continuous staff-student inter-

from 2003 to 2007 marked by increased managerialism,

action’ (Willmott, 1995, p. 1013) as well as the ‘service’

greater efficiencies, compliance, quality and research

areas of academic work.

measurements (Ryan, Guthrie & Neumann, 2008). We are

More recently, in a study of resistance among Austral-

now into a new wave of change, marked by an uncapped

ian academics,Anderson (2008) finds that individual with-

student system, a powerful watchdog,TEQSA, and a second

drawal is the most common form of resistance and also an effective means of protecting values and identity. Respondents in Anderson’s research were angered by managerial discourse and practices but generally refused to engage with them, preferring to com-

generation of Excellence in

The success of these mechanisms [‘bureaucratisation’ and ‘monetarisation’] in ‘reforming’ higher education is seen in the current ‘crisis of authoritarianism’, a crisis engendering fear so that fear becomes a form of paralysis, of zombiedom.

plain to trusted colleagues, or

Research Australia (ERA), all accompanied by even more external and internal measurement, surveillance and control over universities and their academic workforce. Each successive wave has brought with it increased political and economic steer-

refusing or avoiding partici-

ing through what Habermas

pation in managerial directives. At best, academics would

(1984) refers to as the mechanisms of ‘bureaucratisation’

minimise their involvement, complying with the letter,

and ‘monetarisation’, managerialism and money.

but not the spirit, of particular requirements.

The success of these mechanisms in ‘reforming’ higher

Student evaluation processes and performance apprais-

education is seen in the current ‘crisis of authoritarian-

als were frequently mentioned as examples of minimal

ism’ (Giroux 2006), a crisis engendering fear so that fear

compliance. Subversive participation in performance

becomes a form of paralysis, of zombiedom. Just as the

appraisals often involved the cooperation of supervisors

government applies ‘bureaucratisation’ and ‘monetarisa-

who themselves saw the process as a ‘joke’ (Benmore,

tion’ to steer institutions, so in turn institutional managers

cited in Anderson, 2008). On the few occasions that

apply the same mechanisms to control their institutions

Anderson’s participants publicly voiced their complaints

(Marginson & Considine, 2000). Five major causes of zom-

to senior academic managers, their experience was one

biefication arising from the internal application of these

of feeling ‘dismissed and erased and reminded of their

mechanisms are identified, in cause-effect order, as: gov-

disempowerment’ (Anderson, 2008, p. 259). Anderson

ernance; audit and surveillance; workload, workforce; and

concludes that the resistance, although individual, is suf-

the acquiescence of academic leadership.

ficient to prevent managerialism from becoming embedded because it is framed by an understanding of academic

Governance

culture and values that attempt ‘to limit the process of col-

The long held concept of ‘shared governance’ has been

onisation implicit in the managerial project’ (Anderson,

undermined by former colleagues, now managers and

2008, p. 267). In other words, zombiefication is a form of

executives, who have replaced taking the advice of aca-

both resistance and survival. Others, however, are not so

demic bodies with a preference to treat the academic

optimistic believing that long term exposure to the worst

voice with lip service, a necessary inconvenience (Aro-

of managerialism and measurement ultimately ends with

nowitz, 2006). The appointment rather than election

compliance or exit. The following section reviews the

of academic ‘leaders’ combined with their Key Perfor-

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Academic zombies, Suzanne Ryan

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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mance Indicators and bonuses, have stifled the collec-

‘routine diagnosis, classification and treatment decisions’

tive voice of academics and reduced them to workers

are sinister and Orwellian (McWilliam, 2004, p. 156) or

instructed from above (Aronowitz, 2006; Pritchard &

even ‘occult’ (Wood, 2010), they are deadening, zombify-

Willmott, 1997). This is a downward spiralling process

ing. Consequences of surveillance by audit are cited as a

whereby the more compliance academics demonstrate

major cause of stress among academics. Indeed, academ-

with these disempowering processes, the stronger the

ics are increasingly viewed as a highly stressed popula-

power imbalance between academics and managers, and

tion whose work and identity are being disfigured by the

the less interested managers become in empowering

‘unwillingness or inability of managers to protect [them]

faculty (Aronowitz, 2006). ‘A lot of top managers enjoy

from the chill winds’ of decreased funding and increased

cruelty.There’s no doubt that we are in a period in which

audit (McWilliam, 2004, p. 161).As the tidiness of the audit

you are a hero if you are cruel’ (Schartz & Kelly, 2005, p.

imperative triumphs over the messiness of academic life,

109). Of course not all our managers are cruel; some are

we become more and more undead. Nor is it possible to

benevolent dictators, themselves the victims of orders

hide. To sit outside the performance culture is to cease

from above. But if academics fail to cooperate voluntarily,

to be recognised or valued (McWilliam, 2004), to be fur-

then managers resort to more authoritarian measures to

ther deadened by exclusion. In addition to being deadly

gain compliance. Reports of bullying and harassment are

weapons, audit and surveillance increase the time and

increasing within the academy, their spread being linked

pressures on academic work.

to the rise of managerialism, increased financial pressures and the increasing numbers of academics at the bottom

Workloads

of the power ladder: the casuals, the probationers, the

Under the burden of increased student numbers and

post-doctoral and the contract academics (Cox & Good-

diversity, supervision of contingent academics and pres-

man, 2005; Thornton, 2004; Lewis, 1999). Although such

sures to research while all the time being measured and

victimisation is the beginning of fear, the onset of zom-

ranked, academic workloads have become unmanageable.

biefication, the real arsenal in colonising the academy are

Metaphors of dying from workload underline the zombie

the accountability measures supplied to university man-

status: ‘swamped’, ‘drowning’, ‘head above water’, ‘buried’

agers by successive governments.

(Jacobs, 2004). Burgeoning academic workloads are cross-

Audit and surveillance

ing the line from being simply ‘productivity’ increases to becoming occupational health and safety risks (Hull,

It is in the changing rules and the measurement regimes

2006; McWilliam, 2004). Increasingly the appeal of control

that we are most zombiefied, infected by measurement

over time is being outweighed by the lack of control over

madness, the audit culture, surveillance. The expres-

workload and decision making. New technologies have

sion, ‘evidence-based’, usually reserved for scientific and

the effect of intensifying work but not reducing it (Jacobs

research endeavours, has been thrown back at academ-

2004). A fundamental change in the nature of academic

ics in the guise of accountability requirements (Shah-

work has been large increases in the proportion of time

jahan, 2011). The effect of the contagion is widespread

spent of administration (Tight, 2010).

as it reduces ‘students to test scores, future slots in the

The growth in expenditure on administration and

labour market .... and teachers to technicians and supervi-

administrators has been noted in Australia (Dobson, 2009;

sors in the education assembly line... [it] is fundamentally

2010) and throughout the world, a growth that Tight

about the negation of human agency, despite the good

(2010, p. 214) views as indicative of ‘the decreasing trust

intentions of individuals at all levels’ (Lipman cited in

in academics’. The ‘administrative bloat’ phenomenon is a

Shahjahan, 2011, p. 196). The discourse that defines evi-

direct consequence of neoliberalist demands that institu-

dence-based accountability, words such as impact, learn-

tions be entrepreneurial, market-orientated, cost-effective

ing outcomes, teaching evaluations, is ‘ultimately shaped

and most of all, accountable (Hogan, 2011). Paradoxically,

by material relations of power that are colonising’ in their

the greater presence of administrators has burdened

effect as they strive to ‘control and tame education .....to

rather than freed academics from administration as their

meet neoliberal ends’ (Shahjahan, 2011, p. 197). Students

work becomes increasingly ‘unbundled’ (Macfarlane,

and academics are rushed through these standardising

2011a), a process whereby academic work is taken apart

processes in a way that leaves little time for ‘reflection,

and given to others. In particular decision-making powers

authenticity, and healing’ (Shahjahan 2011, p. 197). The

to do with curriculum, entry standards, and student

consequences of academic work being subjected to

advice are surrendered to professional administrators

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Academic zombies, Suzanne Ryan

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(Hogan, 2011). Without understanding what is happening

a shrinking permanent workforce. Despite these dramatic

and in an attempt to manage our workloads, we inadvert-

changes in the nature of the academic workforce, our

ently begin to develop and dispute among ourselves ‘fair’

institutional leaders remain silent. There are no succes-

and ‘transparent’ workload allocation models, instruments

sion plans to replace the elderly nor new entry points for

that allow work to be further scrutinised, measured,

the young (Larkin & Neumann, 2011; Neumann & Larkin,

and controlled (Hull, 2006). Does our active collusion

2011). Many of those waiting to enter academe are the

in undermining our own interests indicate the depth of

same age as those about to exit (Ryan, Bhattacharyya &

zombiefication to which we have sunk, or is it simply a

McNeil, 2011). However, within this squeeze on entry and

symptom of a stressed and shrinking workforce?

progression, the proportion of the professoriate, our academic leaders, not managers, has grown (May, 2011). But

Workforce

Just as workload and work life have changed, so too has

what has it done to resist?

our workforce. The two waves of reform since the 1990s

Acquiescent academic leadership

were particularly harsh on the composition of the aca-

The idea of a university and the values it incorporates are

demic workforce. Not only are we growing old because

crumbling. The idea that a university should be a place

we haven’t been replaced for a generation and a half

‘in which nothing is beyond question, not even the cur-

(Hugo & Morris, 2010; Hugo, 2008), but we have become

rent and determined figure of democracy’ (Derrida, 2001,

casualised, contingent, insecure, invisible. It is estimated

p. 253) means the university should be a site of resistance

that for every full-time academic, there are almost two

and challenge in which the academic’s role is ‘not to con-

casual or sessionally employed academics (May, 2011) and

solidate authority, but understand, interpret, and question

further, that 50 per cent of all teaching is carried out by

it’ (Giroux, 2006, p. 75).This happens privately among aca-

this army of contingently employed academics (Percy &

demics but our voices rarely go beyond the hallowed halls

Beaumont, 2008).

of academe. Why is this? In a self-reflection on the failure

What does this mean? Firstly, the workload of perma-

of the professoriate to lead the movement against malevo-

nently employed academics has increased, ‘the exploita-

lent change, Barney (2010, p. 382) asks what might it take

tion of part-timers is linked to the excessive demands on

‘to rescue the institution from its final instrumentalisation

full-timers’ (Jacobs, 2004, p. 15). Second, full-time academ-

under the auspice of technological neoliberalism and to

ics have been cushioned from the more unpleasant effects

instead orient it toward...the humanistic ideal’. His answer

of change by an ‘underclass’ of contingent academics.The

lies in the necessity of political intervention in the form of

expansion of this underclass ‘has offered tenured academ-

active resistance led by the professoriate, but he then goes

ics short term relief from the degradation of their work’

on to explain why this will never happen. First, the very

(Willmott, 1995, p. 1003). Additionally, career paths have

nature of politics is a deterrent. Engagement in politics

been blocked. Despite the long queue of contingently and

is ‘exceptional, disruptive, antagonistic, risky and danger-

precariously employed academics such as qualified ses-

ous .... it is not joyful, festive, or fun; it is work, onerous,

sionals, higher degree and post-doctoral students, bang-

dangerous work’ (p. 383). Second, the professoriate enjoys

ing on the door to gain entry into zombieland, the door

the university, including the suffering and pain necessarily

remains resolutely bolted (Edwards, Bexley & Richardson,

endured as a consequence of being part of the university.

2011; Coates & Goedegebuure, 2010). Why they wish to enter this half world is a curious matter, open only to conjecture, not evidence: perhaps as an escape from insecurity? Perhaps passion for a potential promise of free thought? We really don’t know. We do know, however, that for those with a foot in the door, the post docs and probationers, there is pain. The hurdles to entry are continually revised upwards, a doctoral qualifica-

There is nothing that an academic enjoys more than their suffering: careerist students who can’t read and can’t write and can’t think; colleagues who are lazy and insufferable; granting agencies that are biased against our work; incompetent, corrupt, bean counting administrators; governments run by philistines. We enjoy them all. We could not live without them. Our suffering is what distinguishes us (Barney, 2010, p. 384).

tion is no longer sufficient, publications in the ‘right’ jour-

Political action and resistance would not only disrupt

nals are becoming mandatory, the door keeps squeezing

this enjoyment but threaten an obsession with personal

closed. For those of us already in zombieland, our careers

security defined by the ‘reliability of our conventional

our being divided by mysterious means into teaching or

identities, relationships, responsibilities, and rewards’ (p.

research, thus increasing the burden for both functions on

385). The third and final barrier to professorial resistance

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Academic zombies, Suzanne Ryan

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is the fear of insecurity that leads the professoriate to

is has occurred through a process of sedimentation, the

become ‘pragmatic calculators who weigh the potential

speed of which affects various groups within the uni-

costs of resistance and action against its uncertain ben-

versity differently.

efits and decide the risks are too great to bear next to

Evidence for Bleiklie’s concept of sedimentation as a

the certainty of an anaemic, but at least stable, present’ (p.

response to change is found in De Zilwa’s (2007) study of

386). Barney concludes that, in view of these three obsta-

the impact of academic unit culture on adaptive change

cles and in order to assuage guilt, professors’ customary

to external and internal pressures in Australia. De Zilwa

response is to ‘retreat into the consolation of thought .....

found different academic units adapted in different ways

a retreat into enlightenment’ (p. 386). In doing so, they

and to different extents to external pressure. However,

provide a role model for individual withdrawal, zom-

those units most pro-active in their adaptation, the pro-

biedom, as the means to survival within the academy. A

fessional, multidisciplinary and heterogeneous units, had

kinder view of the professoriate is presented by Macfar-

changed their modes of operation and developed new

lane (2011b) as he depicts the professoriate as the victim

markets in teaching and research. Although these units

of disempowerment by mechanisms of bureaucratisation

displayed cultures encouraging of ‘intellectual fervour,

and monetarisation, processes that undermine their abil-

innovation, flexibility [and] risk-taking’ (De Zilwa, 2007, p.

ity and opportunity to lead.

571), they were also most aligned to the university goals with natural markets for the development of research and

Adaptation and resistance

teaching. On the other hand, academic units least able to adapt were those with strongly homogeneous organi-

When academic culture is weakened and shared beliefs

sational cultures but lacking in their managers’ ‘zeal for

are seriously threatened, ‘the result can be destructive

marketisation and entrepreneurialism’ (p. 571) and were

conflicts between faculties, loss of personal morale and

completely reliant on student fees. Both types of units

personal alienation’ (Dill, 1982, p. 304). Like politics, most

were conscious of conflicts arising from the university’s

of us want to avoid such consequences and so we can

drive for revenue and the unit’s desire to maintain qual-

be persuaded to accept new organisational values and

ity and standards in addition to the general lack of trust

identities if we understand them as perpetuating what

between university managers and academic units. Results

had previously given meaning and a ‘sense of distinctive-

from De Zilwa’s study suggest that those in the interdisci-

ness to [our] working environment (and so feed into

plinary units and the professional fields found adaptation

[our] sense of identity)’ (Henkel, 2005, p. 159). This pro-

easier than those in the more traditional discipline-based

cess is explained by Bleiklie (2005, p. 200) as a process

units who were more likely to ignore or resist change. But

of ‘sedimentation’ whereby ‘new ideals are layered on top

for how long will this distinction continue as the mania

of existing ones’ in a form of organic growth that absorbs

for market and money is overlaid with more recent imper-

new values without shedding the old. He argues that insti-

atives to publish?

tutional and individual autonomy previously sustained

My own research reflects the findings of De Zilwa, at

each other so that institutional autonomy was necessary

least in the pre-2003 environment. But I also found that

to ‘allow the maturation and promotion of values. Insti-

adaptation could not be sustained following the fourth

tutional autonomy is not found in specific administrative

and most brutal wave of reform. I interviewed 21 academ-

arrangements, but in how the institution functions to pro-

ics about their lives and values in three graduate schools

tect its values. In the past, the focus was internal and the

of business in 2002/2003 and the same individuals again

collegial body was the means of functioning, including

in 2008 in the wake of the fourth wave of reform. For

negotiating conflicts between individual and institutional

ethical reasons, the three schools were combined into the

autonomy. Once the institution begins to serve the needs

one school, under the pseudonym, the Australian Graduate

of external stakeholders such as government and industry,

School of Business (AGSB).The results for the two periods

both institutional and individual autonomy are circum-

were stunningly different. I used storytelling based on the

scribed by the needs of others and value shifts occur.

average participant’s story to present the results in a way

Current imperatives to commodify teaching, to

that would touch a nerve with readers (Ryan, 2010). The

commercialise research had no part in the traditional

story opens with senior lecturer, Bill, the average partici-

academic value set but are now a part of our daily dis-

pant, living a busy but contented life within a strong col-

course. Because new values are not clearly articulated,

legial but entrepreneurial school whose success is a direct

the change cannot be said to have been radical, rather

result of earlier changes to the higher education system.

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His view of life responds well to De Zilva’s adaptive aca-

undead, zombiefied. But once undead, where do we go

demic units, he was riding the crest of an entrepreneurial

to from here?

wave, enjoying the excitement and inclusion of breaking new barriers in interdisciplinarity (Ryan & Neumann,

Options for dealing with future change

2011) and entrepreneurialism (Ryan & Guthrie, 2009). In the subsequent five to six years, Associate Professor Bill,

Right now we stand on the brink of a new wave of reform.

as he had become, is increasingly unhappy and detached

We can expect more students, more diverse students,

as his institution’s managerialism increasingly affects his

more competition, more audits, more performance based

everyday life and identity. While marketisation and corpo-

funding, more ERA, more pathways, more private provid-

ratisation initially allowed Bill to live an exciting academic

ers, more work, more unbundling of our work. But can we

life, the fourth wave of change, managerialism and micro-

expect more academics? More casually employed academ-

management, signalled the end to excitement, instead

ics, yes indeed; otherwise the new reforms are silent on

challenging his values and identity. The following extract

the academic workforce. So what are our options? adapt-

from the story of Bill in 2008 demonstrates his decline

ing? awakening? leaving? or withdrawing further in zom-

into zombiedom.

biedom? Possibilities of adaptation or conversion to the

On the subject of academic managers, Bill no longer believes that the AGSB culture is stronger than the deans that pass through it. In recent years there has been a high turnover of deans, some were on the side of the University and trying to bring the AGSB under control while others fought against University control. Either way, the University management won out, with or without the help of the deans. The AGSB culture was forced to change as so many of its academics abandoned ship, including the deans who had fought to maintain its autonomy. Collegiality and entrepreneurialism no longer come to mind when Bill describes the new culture. He now uses words like alienated, disengaged, and transactional. Although still valuing the freedom over what and how he teaches and researches and uses his time, Bill has lost his feeling of ownership and belonging toward to the AGSB, withdrawing into his own work and world. The obsession with making money and measuring publications has undermined his understanding of ‘quality’ in teaching and research and intensified his cynicism of official versions of ‘quality’. The departure of colleagues along with changes to governance structures altered the School’s culture to the point where Bill feels like a factory employee rather than an academic colleague. The passion for his School has turned to indifference. Despite his continual search for a new position outside the AGSB, Bill is held back from ever following through with an application. In the back of his mind rings the comment of former colleagues that it’s not very different elsewhere, it’s just that the pain of change came earlier in other places so it is easier to get on with life (Ryan 2010, p. 11).

current round of change are offered in the form of devel-

As can be seen from this extract, exit was a common

corporatisation of higher education has had the effect of

strategy for dealing with unwanted change, followed by

turning universities into machine bureaucracies, factories,

individual withdrawal. Of the original 21 academics in

Fordist production lines, the very antithesis of the sup-

my study, only four remained in the same school in 2011,

posedly ‘agile’ organisation (Parker & Jary, 1995; Pritchard

albeit in larger, merged business schools. Initially, adapta-

& Willmott, 1997). Structural obstacles aside, the rhetoric

tion suited this multidisciplinary professional school but

of ‘agile leadership’ relies on a workforce whose agility

eventually the level of sedimentation reached a limit,

comes from fear, insecurity and an absence of ethos (Gil-

a limit no longer tolerable without resort to becoming

lies, 2011). Hence, rather than be resurrected by ‘agility’,

8

Academic zombies, Suzanne Ryan

opment, either individual self-development and/or the development of agile leadership. Since the mid-1990s, the commencement of our steepest decent into zombiedom, our institutions have offered us the salvation of self-development courses and workshops, opportunities to adapt to change better. We are given workshopping opportunities to learn how to teach, to present, to write, to count, to supervise, to research, to resolve conflicts, to manage our time, our stress, our health, and finally, to even apply for promotion (McWilliam, 2004). Given it takes an average of ten years to prepare for an academic career (Coates & Goedegebuure, 2010), these workshops present as somewhat redundant or simply therapeutic (McWilliam, 2004). In any case, we have little time to indulge in these ‘adaptation’ exercises. Agile leadership and organisation is an alternative to facilitate adaptation. Indeed for some, the resurrection of the zombie will come through ‘agile’ leadership and organisation, leaders who are not only flexible but go a step further to be dynamic and proactive in the face of ever changing landscapes (Billot & Codling, 2011). The term ‘agility’, once reserved for the manufacturing sector has found its way into education. Rules, regulations, traditions and hierarchies are an anathema to the ‘agile’ company that is instead ‘robust, resilient, responsive, flexible, innovative, and adaptable’ (Gillies, 2011, p. 210). Ironically,

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academics risk being further deadened by it, but then

2005) which would tend to indicate a diminishing future

again, perhaps this is the plan. More optimistically, the

for the profession, an unwillingness to replenish the

discourse of agility is simply a means of ‘fabricating and

workforce with anything else but contingent labour. This

representing, of constructing that which it wishes to see’

in turn begs the question of whether the younger gen-

(Gillies, 2010, p. 211), an illusion. Its false promise as a

eration of academics is an accepting product of the new

form of adaptation is too transparent, even for a fearful

system or able to recognise and resist its failures. Archer

academic.

(2008a; 2008b), in a rich but limited study, finds young

Our second option for dealing with the future is to

academics to be fully aware of and resistant to the del-

‘voice’ our frustrations, to resist collectively, to go beyond

eterious effects of managerialism on their behaviour and

whinging among ourselves in the corridors and confer-

health. Unfortunately their resistance takes the same form

ences, and speak out to broader and more powerful audi-

as their older colleagues, withdrawal. Despite this knowl-

ences. Aside from the odd industrial dispute over wages,

edge, large scale surveys inexplicably suggest tens of

we have generally avoided this form of resistance, how-

thousands of higher degree students and contingent aca-

ever there are some small signs of change. The econo-

demics (Edwards et al., 2010; Junor, 2004), want to enter

mists are beginning to stir, finally realising that having

the profession on a permanent basis. Hence, for each exit,

contributed to the current state of higher education; they

the long queue of contingent academics provides but

have used the wrong model and rectification is required.

another opportunity for further casualising the profes-

They are at last turning their theories to the failures of

sion. As an option for dealing with change, exit is simply a

higher education and more importantly they are gaining

form of individual escape, a form that exacerbates rather

the attention of the public media (Bennett, 2011). The

than addresses the underlying issues.

media is important, especially if the public is sympathetic.

Thus we are left with the fourth, final, and ongoing

During the previous two decades of severe change, most

option, ever greater individual withdrawal into zombie-

of us believed what the politicians told us, there were no

dom. But just how effective is this strategy? Gora and

votes in higher education, nothing to be gained by invest-

Whelan, (2010) see zombiefication as a possible means

ing in rather than controlling the system (Aronowitz,

of survival, but not necessarily change: ‘occasionally it

2006; Willmott, 1995). That may have changed. A recent

is necessary .....to pass as undead to survive. Paradoxi-

survey of the Australian public shows concern about what

cally, it is the unthinking intellectual rigor mortis of the

it perceives as a deterioration of an important social insti-

present bureaucratic plague that enables some to survive

tution, higher education (NTEU, 2011). Such concern pro-

the worst aspects of zombification’. More scholarly sup-

vides an important audience for our voice, if we can use it.

port for this possibility comes from our peer reviewed

Collective action through industrial disputation over pay

literature. Concluding a paper on the impacts of emerging

claims has rarely met with public sympathy; however, the

knowledge regimes, Bleiklie (2005, p. 209) observes that

public might feel better disposed if industrial action were

‘academic capitalism has had a stronger impact on ideol-

centred on our health, on issues of occupational health

ogy and discourse than on the way in which universities

and safety arising from workload (Trounson, 2011) and

are operated’. Similarly, Krucken’s (2003) investigation

issues around ensuring a sustainable higher education

of change among German universities found the general

system. Unhealthy zombies are not good for business, so

pace of university reform was well behind the political

governments and university managements might just be

rhetoric and ‘best practice’ case studies. Krucken argues

open to hearing about cures. Overall, the possibilities of

that the ‘idea of a university was an ‘organisational myth’

the ‘voice’ option being exercised on any large scale are

divorced from the reality of organisational life. Despite

slim but as Gora and Whelan (2010) point out,‘pockets of

the idea not being a reality, it is a vision that lies at the

resistance’ will continue: ‘the most curious aspect of this

heart of every academic and university, providing ‘mean-

zombie plague is not its devastating effects on those who

ing through reference to a commonly shared identity’ and

stagger through the intellectual rubble but the pockets of

creating boundaries against external influences (Krucken,

resistance that it fails to quash’.

2003, p. 327).

The exit option, leaving the academy, is an interesting

This notion is echoed in the words of a respondent

one. On one hand, escapes from zombieland are difficult

from my own research: ‘my values about the worth of

except through retirement (Dany, Louvet & Valette, 2011).

what academics do for the community have not dimin-

On the other hand, there are more exits than there are

ished but my behaviour has’. As comforting as this might

entries into the permanent academic workforce (Hugo,

seem, there is always the danger that values must ulti-

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Academic zombies, Suzanne Ryan

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mately align with behaviour. Indeed, Davies and Petersen (2005) argue that it is not possible to do without being, that a failure to resist actively is a symptom of having been attacked by the neoliberal plague. The plague forestalls resistance ‘by persuading each individual academic to treat the effects of neoliberalism as personal successes, responsibilities and failings rather than as a form of institutional practice in need of critique and transformation’ (Davies & Petersen, 2005, p.77).

Conclusion Personally, I am not convinced that withdrawal works well as a successful means of resistance over the long term, especially if it simply allows us to survive as zombies rather than escape the plague. How long can one tolerate the cognitive dissonance from behaving in one way while thinking in another? Like the participants in my research, I yearn for action, in Habermasian terms, for ‘emancipation’, for a way out of zombiedom. I’ve been around long enough not to respect authority dressed up in titles and positions, I know there are academics at all levels who command authority through integrity and belief in a better system. I am in my 50s and experience all those feelings of frustration captured so well in the work of Larkin and Neumann (2011). I don’t want to give up that desire for resistance, for a different form of academic life, for questioning accepted truths, for finding a humanitarian not utilitarian end to the academy. I don’t just want to turn up at symposiums and conferences and publish for the enjoyment of like-minded masochistic academics. I want to be involved in challenge and change. Whenever I feel myself shuffling to the zombie beat, I take heart from the words of another of my research respondents: ‘although we’ve been crushed, I think there is still a kernel of desire to return’. So, perhaps zombiedom can be construed as an effective form of resistance, a form that goes beyond survival to protecting and hopefully nourishing that kernel of desire for future emancipation. But the questions remain as to whether we can we survive by simply sheltering away, waiting for the neoliberal storm to pass? And, even if we do, will we have the memory, the energy, the identity left to reactivate the academy as we would like it? Suzanne Ryan is an associate professor at the Newcastle Business School, University of Newcastle, Australia

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McWilliam, E. L. (2004). Changing the Academic Subject, Studies in Higher Education, 29 (2), 151-163. Neumann, R. & Larkin, J. (2011). Universities and the Aging Academic Workforce: Where is the Leadership? Paper presented at the 2011 European Academic Conference, Barcelona, Spain, July. National Tertiary Education Union (NTEU). (2011). Media Release: Survey says Govt should pay more for university education, 21 June, Retrieved on 2 July 2011 from http://www.nteu.org.au/media/releases Parker, L. D. (2012). From Privatised to Hybrid Corporatised Higher Education: A Global Financial Management Discourse, Financial Accountability & Management, 28 (3), 247-268.

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Academic zombies, Suzanne Ryan

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Australian transnational education programmes in South East Asia Student satisfaction with the learning environment Iwona Miliszewska & Ewa M Sztendur Victoria University, Australia

In view of the strong growth of transnational education programmes in Australian universities, there is growing interest in the experiences of students participating in such programmes. This article reports on the perceived student satisfaction with several aspects of their transnational programmes, including instructors, technology, and programme management and administration. Data for the study were collected from approximately five hundred transnational students participating in eight programmes offered by four Australian universities in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam. The article outlines the findings of the study, highlighting the need for incorporating student perspectives in the provision of transnational education programmes. The article concludes by discussing the potential application of its findings in reviewing existing and planning new transnational education programmes.

Introduction

pating in eight programmes offered by four Australian universities in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam.

Transnational education, often referred to as offshore education, describes all programmes in which the learners are located in a country different from the one where the

Australian transnational education – perspectives and characteristics

awarding institution is based. With rapid expansion of the transnational education market, more and more universi-

There are a great number of different relationships

ties join the ranks of transnational education providers,

between different types of transnational education pro-

or expand their transnational education offerings. For

viders, delivery mechanisms, and programmes/awards.

Australia, one of the main providers of transnational edu-

Charting these is a difficult task, as the constantly evolv-

cation in South East Asia (Banks et al., 2010), satisfying

ing, highly complex situation includes an array of part-

the needs of the highest demand disciplines in the region

nerships, consortia, articulation agreements, modes of

– computing and business – is of vital importance. Thus,

delivery, public, private, off-shore, for-profit and corporate

there is growing interest in the experiences of the par-

elements. Various models of teaching can also be found,

ticipating transnational students. This article responds to

ranging from full programme delivery at an offshore

this interest and presents the transnational students’ per-

campus, combined face-to-face and flexible delivery

spectives on their transnational education programmes; it

option, and e-learning (Dunn & Wallace, 2006; McBurnie

relates the views of nearly five hundred students partici-

& Ziguras, 2007; Miliszewska & Sztendur, 2010).

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vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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Student perspectives on transnational education programme effectiveness

(excluding China) will reach nearly 500,000 students by 2020 (OECD, 2009). This presents both a challenge

In view of the strong growth of transnational programmes

and an opportunity for Australian universities, who are

in Australian universities (Universities Australia 2009),

key transnational providers in the region. The Australian

there is growing interest in the experiences of students

Department of Education, Science and Training estimates

participating in the transnational programmes. According

that, already approximately one in every four interna-

to Chapman and Pyvis (2005, 40), no one is in a better

tional students in the Australian education and train-

position to comment on these experiences than students

ing system is enrolled offshore (DEST, 2005, 7). In 2007,

themselves: they are the ultimate ‘insiders and experts’;

almost all (93 per cent) of the 71,000 Australian transna-

yet, the voice of the student is conspicuously missing

tional higher education students were internal students at

from research literature. In consideration of this need, a

an offshore campus – only 4.6 per cent were external (dis-

research study was conducted in 2007-2008 to examine

tance education) and 2.4 per cent were multi-modal (AEI,

the issue of transnational programme effectiveness from

2009). In terms of mode of attendance, only 65 per cent

the student perspective (Miliszewska & Sztendur, 2010).

of offshore students were studying full time. The top five sources of offshore students were Singapore, Malaysia,

Methodology

China, Hong Kong and Vietnam (AEI, 2009). While Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong have dominated transna-

The study involved students in eight transnational com-

tional education provision by Australian universities over

puting programmes offered in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singa-

the years, recently China and Vietnam have emerged as

pore and Vietnam by Australian universities; 469 students

key offshore markets (Banks et al., 2010).

participated. Table 1 presents a breakdown of student

A typical transnational programme offered by Australian

numbers across providing universities, locales and pro-

universities is in the field of study of business, information

grammes; it also includes information about the mode of

technology, and education (Denman, 2009); in the past

study (part-time ‘p/t’, full-time ‘f/t’) and the mode of teach-

few years, health has also emerged as a popular field of

ing (both Australian and local staff are involved in face-to-

study for transnational students (AVCC, 2005). In terms

face teaching ‘both’, or local staff only ‘local’).

of delivery mode, a typical programme relies on face-to-

The choice of locales was deliberate: Hong Kong and

face teaching or supported distance education. The pro-

Singapore are important markets for Australian transna-

gramme involves a partner which is a private education

tional programmes, and are also well-developed territo-

institution or public education institution, and awards an

ries where English is commonly spoken; hence, students

Australian qualification. Such programmes are offered in

participating in the study were likely to have the benefit

Singapore, Malaysia, China and Hong Kong (Universities

of suitable technological infrastructure and adequate lin-

Australia, 2009). These countries host the largest number

guistic skills. Malaysia and Vietnam were chosen to check

of Australian transnational programmes, and provide the

if limited technological infrastructure and language pro-

largest number of transnational students; together these markets account for more than 70 per cent of

Table 1: Number of students participating in the study

all transnational programmes of Australian universities (Universities Australia, 2009).

Hong Kong

Malaysia

is responsible for curriculum, teaching and assess-

University1 Programme1 (N=131) p/t, both

Programme2 (N=44) f/t, both

ment, and quality assurance; the responsibility for

University2

Programme3 (N=69) f/t, local

programme, partner institutions, overseas govern-

University3 Programme6 (N=44) p/t, both

Programme7 (N=32) f/t, local

ments, and international organisations also partici-

University4

In terms of responsibility, the Australian university

provision of study location, marketing, promotion and financial administration rests with the offshore partner. Although, on the whole, the Australian university is responsible for the quality assurance of the

pate in this responsibility (Banks et al., 2010).

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Singapore

Vietnam

Programme4 (N=46) p/t, local

Programme5 (N=33) f/t, local

Programme8 (N=70) p/t, both

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ficiency would have a bearing on student perceptions.

when the probability of obtaining the observed differ-

Similarly, the choice of computing programmes was also

ence by chance is small, compared to a significance level;

deliberate: the intention was to seek the views of students

the most commonly used significance levels are 0.05,

who were technology savvy; hence, they were less likely

0.01, and 0.001. It should be noted that to protect the ano-

to have negative perceptions of the use of technology in

nymity and the privacy of Australian universities and their

their programmes because of techno-phobia alone.

transnational partners, this article does not provide any

The programmes operating in part-time mode involved

specific information about the participating institutions.

students who had previous approved tertiary qualifications. Students were normally in full-time employment, and usually studied six subjects per year – two subjects

Findings and discussion

per term. The full-time programmes typically involved stu-

Student satisfaction with current programmes

dents who were high school leavers. In the programmes

This section reports on perceived student satisfaction with

where teaching was shared by Australian and local aca-

several aspects of their transnational programmes, includ-

demics, lecturers from Australia were responsible for the

ing: instructors, technology, programme management and

design of curriculum, detailed teaching plans, continuous

coordination, and overall programme effectiveness. It high-

and final assessment, as well as face-to-face delivery of

lights the issue of differing levels of satisfaction with Uni-

twenty five per cent of the programmes; local lecturers

versity (Australian) and local (offshore) instructors among

taught the remaining part of the programmes. The pro-

students of the evaluated programmes where both types of

grammes relied on the Internet for communication, e.g.

instructors participated in teaching. The section also pre-

subject Web sites, bulletin boards, and email. Students met

sents analyses of student satisfaction with the programmes

with lecturers and fellow students through face-to-face

in relation to offering institution, overseas location, and

sessions, and benefited from Web-based support between

types of instructors involved in programme delivery.

sessions. Programmes taught exclusively by local staff fol-

Table 2 presents a summary of an overall student satisfac-

lowed the curriculum detailed by the host university from

tion with various attributes of their current programmes,

Australia and accessed online resources provided by the

grouped in three broad categories of Instruction/Instruc-

host university; however, Australian lecturers did not par-

tor, Technology, and Programme management and coordi-

ticipate in face-to-face teaching.

nation; the satisfaction was measured using a five-point

Data were collected through a quantitative survey to

Likert scale, where 1 indicated very poor, 2 – poor, 3 –

allow participants to note which elements of the learning

average, 4 – good, and 5 indicated very good.

experience contributed to, or limited, their satisfaction on an ordinal (ranked) scale, hence non-parametric tests,

Student satisfaction with instructors and instruction

such as the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and the Friedman

The average ranked scores related to students’ satisfaction

test, were used to analyse the data. The Wilcoxon signed-

with attributes in the Instructor/Instruction category are

rank test is used to determine whether there is a statisti-

reported in Table 3. For each programme, the Friedman test

cally significant difference between two related samples

was used to determine whether there were significant dif-

or two repeated measurements, and the Friedman test is

ferences in student satisfaction with the attributes in this

appropriate for three or more related samples or repeated

category. Student level of satisfaction varied significantly

measurements. A difference is statistically significant

across the attributes in all programmes except Prog7.

with the programme. Student satisfaction was measured

Table 2: Average student satisfaction with current programmes University & local instructors

Local instructors only

Prog1 Hong Kong

Prog6 Hong Kong

Prog2 Malaysia

Prog8 Singapore

Prog3 Malaysia

Prog7 Malaysia

Prog4 Singapore

Prog5 Vietnam

Instructor/ Instruction

3.40

3.45

3.27

3.65

3.39

3.41

3.32

3.76

Technology

3.29

3.07

3.04

3.64

3.22

3.26

3.23

3.56

Management

3.13

3.13

3.17

3.62

3.21

3.42

3.15

3.50

Total satisfaction 3.27

3.22

3.15

3.64

3.27

3.36

3.23

3.61

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Table 3: Average satisfaction with Instructor/Instruction University & local instructors

Local instructors only

Prog1 HK

Prog6 HK

Prog2 Mal

Prog8 Sin

Prog3 Mal

Prog7 Mal

Prog4 Sin

Prog5 Viet

Clarity of programme objectives, requirements, and assessments.

12.96

14.85

15.13

13.88

10.04

9.64

11.18

10.71

Time given in classes to copy down the presented lecture material.

11.26

10.98

13.14

10.83

10.18

8.14

10.23

9.02

Production quality of the lecture presentations.

12.16

14.67

15.29

13.42

11.03

10.36

10.61

8.12

Use of electronic media in lecture presentations.

12.63

14.22

12.75

13.31

11.63

12.00

9.75

10.90

Usefulness of lecture presentations in understanding the programme content.

12.42

11.52

15.93

12.81

11.76

9.47

10.75

8.87

Time taken to mark and return tests and written assignments.

10.06

6.81

11.04

8.64

7.65

9.93

8.68

6.83

Use of electronic media for assignment submission and feedback.

10.23

12.30

10.57

12.10

9.81

10.76

7.14

11.48

Use of instruction that helped you better understand the programme material.

12.64

11.93

12.38

11.40

8.08

8.98

9.92

8.69

Quality of the classrooms environment (e.g.noise)

13.40

14.42

11.23

14.00

6.73

9.47

8.83

9.23

Extent to which instructors made you feel that you were part of the class.

12.96

14.25

12.17

13.83

9.46

9.66

10.64

10.75

Instructors’ communication skills.

14.41

14.49

16.70

15.07

11.65

11.19

11.81

12.12

University instructors’ organisation and preparation for classes.

13.78

13.34

15.33

14.32

Local instructors’ organisation and preparation for classes.

12.64

13.92

10.21

13.82

12.46

9.88

11.11

9.23

University instructors’ dedication to students and teaching.

14.03

14.73

15.70

13.23

Local instructors’ dedication to students and teaching.

14.32

14.55

11.02

14.73

11.78

11.34

11.99

11.62

University instructors’ teaching ability.

16.15

14.57

16.54

15.39

Local instructors’ teaching ability.

13.79

13.30

10.06

14.57

11.03

11.12

10.76

10.44

University instructors’ encouragement to participate in class.

15.32

11.82

14.81

12.25

Local instructors’ encouragement to participate in class.

14.53

13.47

11.38

13.25

10.87

8.67

9.95

9.71

Telephone/email accessibility of the University instructors outside of classes.

10.60

12.84

10.86

12.93

Telephone/email accessibility of the Local instructors outside of classes.

12.68

11.24

10.98

12.81

8.02

10.40

8.79

10.85

Degree to which instructors encouraged communication between students, and between students and instructors.

12.11

11.22

11.42

11.56

8.43

9.86

9.61

10.10

Extent to which the programme material was sufficient to support study at home.

11.13

10.89

12.99

10.20

8.55

9.02

8.04

11.04

Overall, the University instructors were:

14.89

15.01

17.39

13.43

Overall, the Local instructors were:

13.92

13.69

9.99

13.26

10.85

10.12

10.23

10.31

**

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**

**

**

Significant at: α=0.01 (**), α=0.05 (*)

Attribute with 1st or 2nd highest level of satisfaction.

Attribute with lowest level of satisfaction.

Attribute does not apply. vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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The table distinguishes between programmes where

2001), and various university quality policies include that

both Australian and local instructors were involved in

requirement. Table 4 shows the results of the compari-

face-to-face delivery (Prog1, Prog6, Prog2, and Prog8),

son in student satisfaction between Australian and local

and programmes delivered entirely by local instructors

instructors.

(Prog3, Prog7, Prog4, Prog5). For each programme, two

In terms of instructor attributes, students in all pro-

attributes with the highest level of satisfaction are high-

grammes reported higher levels of satisfaction with the

lighted in dark grey, and an attribute with the lowest level

University instructors’ teaching ability and overall perfor-

of satisfaction is highlighted in light grey.

mance; only some of these differences were statistically

Satisfaction with the various attributes of instructors

significant.

and instruction varied across programmes. However, some

It appears that within individual programmes Univer-

of the attributes recorded the highest level of satisfaction

sity instructors also attracted higher levels of satisfaction.

in several programmes – for example, the instructors’

However, in Prog2 these differences were statistically

communication skills (Prog2, Prog8, Prog4, and Prog5) or

significant for all but one (accessibility outside classes)

the local instructors’ dedication to students and teaching

aspects.This sentiment was also reflected in written com-

(Prog3, Prog7, Prog4, and Prog5); it should be noted, that

ments provided by the students:

the latter attribute scored highest only in programmes

‘Although University lecturers are very good with their respective subjects, they leave too soon. After that, the local lecturer might not be as good as the University lecturer, which affects the overall understanding of the subject. Ms X [University instructor] made the subject well understood.’

delivered entirely by local instructors. Interestingly, in programmes delivered by both Australian and local instructors, students reported the highest levels of satisfaction with attributes related to the Australian instructors. With respect to the lowest level of satisfaction, students

‘It [the programme] would be more effective if the lecturers from Australia came more often.’

in different programmes were least satisfied with different attributes. However, ‘the time taken to mark and return

‘Some [local] lecturers are not 100 per cent committed to teaching  students’ lack of confidence toward quality  decrease interest in studies. No motivations  [local] lecturers use harsh words and raise their voice to show anger.’

tests and written assignments’ recorded the lowest scores in four programmes (Prog1, Prog6, Prog8, and Prog5). A comparison of student satisfaction with the Australian instructors and the local instructors was also of interest, since four of the participating programmes (Prog1, Prog6, Prog2, and Prog8) involved Australian, as well as

Student satisfaction with technology

local instructors. This was important in view of the argument that transnational programmes should be of equivalent standard to the same programmes offered by the

The average ranked scores related to students’ satisfaction

university at home (Biggs 2001; Hyam 2003; Van Damme

with attributes in the Technology category are reported

Table 4: Student satisfaction with University & Local instructors (incl. preferred instructors and significance of preference) Prog1 Hong Kong

Prog6 Hong Kong

Prog2 Malaysia

Prog8 Singapore

Organisation and preparation for classes.

University1 p=0.08

Local p=0.90

University1 p<0.001

University4 p=0.35

Dedication to students and teaching.

Local p=0.99

University3 p=0.96

University1 p<0.001

Local p=0.13

Teaching ability.

University1 p<0.001

University3 p=0.39

University1 p<0.001

University4 p=0.26

Encouragement of class participation.

University1 p=0.11

Local p=0.14

University1 p=0.004

Local p=0.18

Telephone/email accessibility outside of classes.

Local p<0.001

University3 p=0.11

University1 p=0.85

Local p=0.82

Overall satisfaction.

University1 p=0.18

University3 p=0.34

University1 p<0.001

University4 p=0.49

Shading indicates a significantly greater level of satisfaction (p<0.05, using Wilcoxon test).

16

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Table 5: Student satisfaction with technology University & local instructors

Local instructors only

Prog1 HK

Prog6 HK

Prog2 Mal

Prog8 Sin

Prog3 Mal

Prog7 Mal

Prog4 Sin

Prog5 Viet

The quality of the technology used in classes.

4.23

4.70

3.60

3.49

3.86

3.40

3.74

3.94

The ease of use of technology.

4.26

4.22

4.10

3.58

4.19

3.32

3.93

3.98

The extent of programme’s reliance on the use of technology in the classroom or the college.

3.91

4.02

4.18

3.73

4.21

3.66

3.83

3.93

The extent to which the programme relied on the use of technology at home.

4.04

3.88

4.32

3.98

4.24

4.35

4.43

3.41

The degree of confidence you had that classes would not be interrupted or cancelled due to technical problems.

4.16

4.31

4.01

4.78

3.87

4.44

4.41

3.96

The quality of technical support provided.

3.76

3.27

3.36

4.03

3.55

3.77

3.77

3.97

The overall usefulness of programme Websites.

3.64

3.60

4.42

4.40

4.08

5.05

3.88

4.80

**

**

*

**

Significant at: α=0.01 (**), α=0.05 (*)

Attribute with 1st or 2nd highest level of satisfaction.

in Table 5. For each of the programmes, the Friedman test was used to determine whether there were significant dif-

**

Attribute with lowest level of satisfaction.

Student satisfaction with programme management and administration

ferences in student satisfaction with the attributes in this category. Student level of satisfaction varied significantly

The average ranked scores related to students’ satisfac-

across the attributes in five of the programmes.

tion with attributes in the Programme management

Satisfaction with the various attributes related to the

and administration category are reported in Table 6. For

use of technology varied across programmes. However,

each of the programmes, the Friedman test was used to

two attributes recorded the highest level of satisfaction

determine whether there were significant differences in

in four programmes; the attributes were the degree of

student satisfaction with the attributes in this category.

confidence in the reliability of technology used in class

Student level of satisfaction varied significantly across the

(Prog6, Prog8, Prog7, and Prog4), and the overall useful-

attributes in four of the programmes.

ness of programme Websites (Prog2, Prog8, Prog7, and Prog5).

Satisfaction with the various attributes related to programme management and administration varied across

With respect to the lowest level of satisfaction, students

programmes. However, students in four programmes

in different programmes were least satisfied with different

(Prog2, Prog8, Prog7, and Prog5) were highly satisfied

attributes. However, ‘the quality of technical support pro-

with their ability to access the university programme

vided’ recorded the lowest scores in three programmes

coordinator when needed. Students in three pro-

(Prog6, Prog2, and Prog3).

grammes (Prog2, Prog3, and Prog7 – all offered in Malay-

Surprisingly, there were considerable differences in stu-

sia) were also highly satisfied with their ability to access

dent satisfaction with the quality of the technology used

the university library and other student resources; yet,

in classes among programmes offered in technologically

students in two other programmes, Prog1 in Hong Kong

advanced countries. While students in programmes Prog1

and Prog8 in Singapore, were least satisfied with this

and Prog6 offered in Hong Kong reported highest levels

very attribute.

of satisfaction with this attribute, students in programmes

Among all the attributes related to programme manage-

Prog8 and Prog4, offered in an equally technologically

ment and administration, students in three programmes

advanced Singapore, were least satisfied with the qual-

(Prog6, Prog7, and Prog5) rated lowest their ‘ability to

ity of the technology used in classes in comparison with

access a computer when, and if, needed’.

other technology-related attributes of their programmes. vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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Table 6: Student satisfaction with programme management and administration University & local instructors

Local instructors only

Prog1 HK

Prog6 HK

Prog2 Mal

Prog8 Sin

Prog3 Mal

Prog7 Mal

Prog4 Sin

Prog5 Viet

The present means of exchanging programme material between you and the instructors.

6.26

6.53

5.74

5.97

6.13

6.06

6.10

5.96

Your ability to access the university library and other student resources.

5.13

5.38

7.40

4.26

7.28

6.76

6.02

6.23

Your ability to access a computer when, and if, needed.

6.20

4.89

6.74

6.26

5.94

5.40

6.24

4.33

The general attitude of the administrative/technical staff, e.g. in delivering materials, maintaining classrooms.

6.22

7.00

5.32

6.70

5.60

5.45

5.82

6.19

The accessibility of administrative/technical staff.

6.46

7.00

5.42

6.53

5.23

5.76

4.84

6.23

The promptness of delivery of programme materials.

5.88

6.28

5.66

6.42

6.31

5.55

5.99

6.83

Your ability to access the university programme coordinator when needed.

6.11

6.72

6.78

7.02

5.96

6.77

6.01

6.67

Class enrolment and registration procedures.

6.06

6.35

6.41

6.06

6.01

6.45

6.26

5.98

Your opportunity to evaluate the programme.

5.94

5.63

6.01

5.64

6.37

5.85

6.38

5.92

The extent to which, in your opinion, the university responds to evaluations.

5.62

5.03

5.17

5.05

5.46

5.69

6.11

5.63

The degree of organisational support.

6.12

5.19

5.35

6.08

5.71

6.24

6.23

6.02

**

**

**

**

Significant at: α=0.01 (**), α=0.05 (*)

Attribute with 1st or 2nd highest level of satisfaction.

Attribute with lowest level of satisfaction.

Comparative analysis of student satisfaction with the current programmes It was important to determine if, and how, student satisfaction with the various aspects of their transnational programmes differed across all programmes. The two independent variables were: ‘Programme’ (with 8 levels: Prog1, Prog2, … , and Prog8), and ‘Category’ (with 3 levels: Instructor/Instruction, Technology, and Programme management and administration). Each of the levels in the variable ‘Category’ represented a composite variable; for example, Instructor/Instruction represented the mean satisfaction of each student with all attributes related to instructor and instruction. Considering that ‘Programme’ was a between-subjects variable, and ‘Category’ was a within-subject variable, a mixed design ANOVA was used to test if there were significant differences in student satisfaction with the

Figure 1: Student satisfaction with current programmes, by category

three aspects of transnational programmes across all

ment (Instructor/Instruction,Technology, and Programme

programmes considered in this study.

management and administration) and the participating

A mixed design ANOVA showed a significant interac-

programmes, F(13.9, 812) = 4.33, p < .001 (as illustrated

tion between various aspects of the educational environ-

in Figure 1). Students in programmes Prog8 and Prog5

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Australian transnational education programmes in South East Asia, Iwona Miliszewska & Ewa M Sztendur

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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Table 7: Differences between the highest-ranking programmes

Infrastructure English proficiency

Prog8

Prog5

Well-developed (Singapore)

Developing (Vietnam)

High

Limited

Mode of study (students) Part-time

Full-time

Mode of teaching (instructors)

Both Australian & local

Local only

Australian institution

University4

University2

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gramme structure and flexibility, and relevance to job and career were named as determining factors: ‘Flexibility of time and subject management.’ S8 ‘I can work and study at the same time to earn a degree.’ S8 ‘Provided a lot of useful knowledge that is required by recruiters.’ S5 ‘It [the programme] provides proper materials in order for me to pursue a career in this field.’ S3 ‘Useful in my job.’ S2

reported significantly higher levels of satisfaction than

(S1 refers to a student in Prog1, S2 identifies a student

students in other programmes, with the exception of

in Prog2, and so on.)

Prog7 where the difference was not significant.

Many students appreciated the opportunity to obtain

Interestingly, programmes Prog8 and Prog5 differed in

a foreign degree without leaving their country or experi-

many respects, as illustrated in Table 7.

ence Western teaching methods:

The students in Prog8 were almost equally satisfied

‘Allows to study in a foreign country without leaving our country.’ S2

with all three aspects of their programmes; on the other hand, students in Prog5 were most satisfied with their

‘Gives the study opportunity for students who can’t study full time in Australia.’ S8

instructors and the quality of instruction and somewhat less satisfied with technology and programme manage-

‘It eliminates the need to spend the entire course duration overseas which many cannot afford.’ S3

ment and administration. Surprisingly, students in Prog4 which, like Prog8, was also delivered in Singapore and, like Prog5, was offered by

‘Because it applied Western teaching methods.’ S5

University2, reported significantly lower levels of satisfac-

‘These types of programmes are better taught by the foreign university than the local uni.’ S2

tion than their counterparts in Prog8 and Prog5.

Perceived programme effectiveness

‘I had the opportunity to learn new skills which I may not have in my home country.’ S3

This section reports on student perceptions of programme effectiveness which was measured in three ways:

Others valued the status of the Australian host univer-

one, students deemed their current programme effec-

sity:

tive/non-effective; two, students stated if they would be

‘It is a highly accredited university.’ S8

willing to participate in this type of programme (that is,

‘Quality education from a recognised university is important.’ S8

transnational) in the future; and three, they stated if the programme was worthwhile – Table 8. The section cites

‘Prestige.’ S5

student reasons for deeming their programmes effective/ not effective, and worthwhile/not worthwhile (derived

‘Good university.’ S3

from the qualitative part of the student survey).

‘Good reputation.’ S7

The majority of students in all programmes regarded their programmes as effective and worthwhile. Pro-

Table 8: Perceived effectiveness of current programmes (percentage of students who agreed) University & local instructors

Local instructors only

Prog1 HK

Prog6 HK

Prog2 Mal

Prog8 Sin

Prog3 Mal

Prog7 Mal

Prog4 Sin

Prog5 Viet

Is the programme effective?

85

75

73

94

82

91

84

91

Would you participate in a similar programme again?

55

21

68

90

75

84

78

77

Is the programme worthwhile?

86

84

94

97

97

85

82

89

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Australian transnational education programmes in South East Asia, Iwona Miliszewska & Ewa M Sztendur

19

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For some students, short programme duration leading

in defining what constitutes its effectiveness.The reported

to a formal qualification defined programme effectiveness:

findings might assist academics, designers, and administra-

‘I can complete the programme in a short time.’ S1

tors involved in teaching, developing, and managing such

‘Short.’ S7 ‘It is quick and effective.’ S1 ‘Fast to obtain a degree (express route).’ S4

programmes to gain insights into programme effectiveness as perceived by transnational students. • Satisfaction with instructors in the evaluated programmes was high; however, in the four programmes taught by both University and local instructors, stu-

The approving assessment of the effectiveness of cur-

dents reported higher levels of satisfaction with Uni-

rent programmes generally corresponded to the students’

versity instructors in terms of overall satisfaction and

willingness to participate in a similar type of programme

the instructors’ teaching ability; in two programmes, the

(that is, transnational) in the future; however, only 21 per

differences were statistically significant.

cent of students in Prog6 declared their potential will-

• Slow feedback on assessment tasks emerged as a

ingness. Those students in Prog6 who were not willing

major problem in all evaluated programmes. Students

to participate often cited reasons that did not reflect on

identified the tardiness with which tests and written

the quality of the programme or its type of delivery, but

assignments were marked and returned as the least sat-

related to the students’ lack of time, family circumstances,

isfactory aspect associated with instructors and instruc-

and financial constraints. ‘I will use more time with my family and my work after I finish this course.’ ‘I will have a break after I finish this programme. I am very tired to study at night.’

tion. • Students were highly satisfied with the reliability of technology used in class and the overall usefulness of programme Web sites. On the other hand, the quality of the available technical support was found to be lacking. • The majority of students regarded their programmes

‘Very tired at night and working in daytime.’

as effective and worthwhile. Students named the fol-

‘Too expensive.’

lowing determinants of programme effectiveness: programme structure and flexibility, relevance to job and

Other students in this programme cited disappoint-

career, opportunity to obtain a foreign degree without

ment with the demanding programme schedule, frequent

leaving their country, opportunity to experience West-

and unexpected schedule changes, lack of adequate

ern teaching methods, high status of Australian Uni-

course material and support, and emphasis on self-study

versities, and short programme duration leading to a

as reasons for not trusting similar types of programmes

formal qualification.

in the future. ‘Schedule too tight. Not enough time provided for good preparation in the study period.’ ‘Too much to study, too many topics, no time for revision; not easy to get a high mark.’

In terms of assisting in the design, development, and review of transnational programmes, the findings presented in this article could be pertinent to staff involved in those programmes, as well as to university administrators. For staff, they could provide a platform for reflection on what is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ with a programme, and which

‘I don’t have time to ask comments, suggestions from the professor face to face.’

practices are effective or non-effective. Understanding of

‘Not enough materials or demo to make it easier for the students.’

learners might enable staff to consider and implement

‘The schedule is too condensed, 4 times a week, which is very difficult to fit in daily work and the schedule is changed quite often.’

failure of the programmes to deliver timely feedback on

how the learning experience discourages or frustrates constructive changes. For instance, the reported perceived assignments identifies one aspect of the programmes that calls for attention. For university administrators, the reported findings

Conclusion

could provide assistance in reviewing the quality and consistency of their transnational offerings. For instance, it

Student perspectives outlined in this article were col-

has been argued that transnational programmes should be

lected with the notion in mind that as the ultimate clients

of equivalent standard to the same programmes offered

of an education programme, students should participate

by the university at home, and various university quality

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vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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policies include that requirement. Yet, the reported findings revealed significant differences between perceived performance of university and local lecturers in the participating programmes, which might undermine the requirement of equivalent programme standards; this is one issue for university administrators to consider. Likewise, university policies and, in some instances, dedicated university units aim to ensure that all transnational education programmes offered under the university are delivering a sound education consistent and compliant with well defined standards. Yet, the reported study revealed significant differences between perceived satisfaction with two programmes offered by the same university, potentially challenging the requirement of intra-institutional consistency of transnational programmes; this is another issue for the university administrators to address. Given the information contained in this article, it is evident that to improve and sustain transnational programmes in the future, it is essential for universities to gain an understanding of the learners’ perspective: an understanding that transcends attendance records and academic achievements. Iwona Miliszewska is an Associate Professor and Head of the School of Engineering and Science, Victoria University, Australia.

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Denman, B. D. (2009). Higher education by distance: Opportunities and challenges at national and international levels. Report. London, The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education, February. DEST (Department of Education, Science and Training). (2005). A national quality strategy for Australian transnational education and training: A discussion paper. Retrieved from http://aei.dest.gov.au/AEI/GovernmentActivities/ QAAustralianEducationAndTrainingSystem/QualStrat_pdf.pdf Dunn, L. & M. Wallace M. (2006). Australian academics and transnational teaching: an exploratory study of their preparedness and experiences. Higher Education Research and Development 25: 35-369. Hyam, L. (2003). Australian higher education and quality: International issues, challenges and opportunities. Keynote address. In Proceedings of the Australian Universities Quality Forum 2003. McBurnie, G. & Ziguras, C. (2007). Transnational education: issues and trends in offshore higher education. London: Routledge. Miliszewska, I. & Sztendur E. (2010). Australian TNE Programmes in Southeast Asia: The Student Perspective. Report. The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education, London, April. OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development). (2009). Higher education to 2030: Globalisation. OECD Publishing. Universities Australia. (2009). Offshore Programs of Australian Universities. Canberra, AVCC. Van Damme, D. (2001). Higher education in the age of globalisation: The need for a new regulatory framework for recognition, quality assurance and accreditation. Introductory Paper for the UNESCO Expert Meeting, Paris, 10-11 September 2001. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/education/studyingabroad/highlights/global_forum/presentations/keynote_eng.doc Ziguras, C. (2007). Good practice in transnational education: A guide for New Zealand providers. Report. Wellington, Education New Zealand. Retrieved from http://mams.rmit.edu.au/b0fsg6huol3q1.pdf

Ewa M. Sztendur works as a Senior Statistical Consultant in the Office of PVC (Research and Research Training), Victoria University, Australia.

References AEI (Australian Education International). (2009). Transnational education in higher education sector. Research snapshot. Canberra, DEST, July. Retrieved from http://aei.gov.au/AEI/PublicationsAndResearch/Snapshots/2009073120_pdf.pdf AVCC (Australian Vice Chancellors’ Committee). (2005). Internationalisation: Report, January 2005. Banks, M, Olsen, A. & Pearce, D. (2007). Global student mobility: An Australian perspective five years on, IDP Education Australia. Retrieved from http:// www.idp.com/pdf/GSM_Brochure_Oct07.pdf Banks, M., Kevat, P. Ziguras, C. Ciccarelli, A. & Clayton D. (2010). The changing fortunes of Australian transnational higher education. Report. London, Observatory on Borderless Higher Education, June. Biggs, J. (2001). The reflective institution: assuring and enhancing the quality of teaching and learning. Higher Education 41: 221-238. Chapman, A. & Pyvis D. (2005). Identity and social practice in higher education: student experiences of postgraduate courses delivered ‘offshore’ in Singapore and Hong Kong by an Australian university. International Journal of Educational Development 25: 39-52. Chapman, A. & Pyvis D. (2006). Quality, identity and practice in offshore university programmes: Issues in the internationalization of Australian higher education. Teaching in Higher Education 11: 233-245. vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Australian transnational education programmes in South East Asia, Iwona Miliszewska & Ewa M Sztendur

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All beer and skittles? A qualitative pilot study of the role of alcohol in university college life Clarissa Hughes University of Tasmania

This paper reports the results of a small qualitative pilot study on the role of alcohol in college life, undertaken at three residential colleges at an Australian university. Focus groups (involving 43 students aged between 17 and 23 years) investigated participants’ views of the social functions of alcohol in the residential college environment. Participants regarded drinking as an entrenched and highly valued aspect of college culture at all three colleges. They portrayed alcohol as contributing in positive ways to ‘sociability and relaxation’ as well as ‘bonding and social inclusion’ at college. Although drinking was acknowledged as disruptive of students’ sleep, study, and daily routines, such impacts were often played down or normalised. The article concludes that normative studies, with a particular focus on first-year students, may be fruitful avenues for reducing alcohol-related harm among college-based university students. Qualitative studies like the one reported here can provide detailed, context-specific information about ‘local drinking cultures’, which are essential for informed decision-making about intervention approaches and policy change.

Introduction

indicates that university students drink more than their same-age peers not engaged in tertiary studies (Dowling,

The alcohol consumption habits of Australian young

Clark & Corney, 2006; Walker, 2000).

people are of great concern to parents, politicians,

Accidental injury, assaults and other consequences of

researchers, policy makers, educators and others. There

alcohol misuse are ‘key concern of university leaders’

are ongoing debates about whether Australians ‘binge

(Perkins & Craig, 2006; Wechsler & Nelson, 2008) in the

drink’ more or less often than they did in the past, and, in

US and elsewhere. Alcohol use also has implications for

academic circles, what constitutes ‘a binge’ (see also Alex-

other less dramatic (but no less important) issues includ-

andre & Bowen, 2004; Herring, Berridge & Thom, 2008).

ing academic performance and student attrition (Mar-

Regardless, it is well-documented that a large proportion

tinez, Sher & Wood, 2008; Porter & Pryor, 2007; Powell,

of young peoples’ drinking places them at risk of current

Williams & Wechsler, 2004). Despite 18 to 23-year-olds

and future harm, both in terms of health-related risks and

(and university students in particular) being identified as

other negative consequences (Chikritzhs, Pascal & Jones,

‘at risk’ of alcohol-related harm, comparatively little work

2004; McBride, Farringdon & Midford, 2000; Toumbourou,

has been undertaken to identify problems and determine

Hemphill, McMorris, Catalano & Patton, 2009). University

appropriate solutions (Roche & Watt, 2000, p. 390; see also

students, as a group, are often associated with problem-

Wilks, 1989). Furthermore, much of the existing research

atic alcohol consumption. An Australian study reported

has a disciplinary basis in either psychology or epidemiol-

54 per cent of the university student sample consuming

ogy, and is dominated by quantitative methods.

more than five standard drinks on a typical drinking occa-

This paper addresses an important gap in the literature

sion, and over two-thirds (69 per cent) drinking at hazard-

by investigating students’ views on the role of alcohol in

ous or harmful levels (Roche & Watt, 1999). Research also

college life, based on the results of a small qualitative pilot

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All beer and skittles?, Clarissa Hughes

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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study conducted at three residential colleges at an Aus-

gap-years and mature-age entry (McKenzie & Gow, 2007).

tralian university. It is, to the author’s knowledge, the first

For many students at residential colleges, their first year

Australian study of its kind.The underlying premise of the

at university involves a significant reduction in ‘parental

paper is that efforts to change university drinking cultures

surveillance’ (see also Casswell, Pledger & Pratap, 2002).

should be informed by a comprehensive and nuanced

As noted above, much research on alcohol consump-

understanding of the place of alcohol in college life. With-

tion among university students takes a psychological or

out such an understanding, there is a risk of interventions

epidemiological approach (see for example Alexandre

or policy changes being ill-chosen and/or poorly received.

& Bowen, 2004; Baer, 2002; Davey, Davey & Obst, 2002).

The paper briefly discusses the social-scientific

A smaller, but growing body of research investigates the

research on university student drinking and provides

influence of norms, perceptions and other socio-cul-

a rationale for a sociological focus. After describing the

tural processes (Berkowitz, 1997; Neighbors, Lee, Lewis

research setting and methods, the paper then considers

& Fossos, 2007; Perkins, 2002; Roche & Watt, 1999). As

the findings relating to two key themes emerging from

Hansen (1997, p. 155) explains, so-called ‘socio-ecological’

students’ accounts. These themes are the ways in which

theories postulate that

alcohol use serves to enhance a) Sociability and relaxation, and b) Bonding and social cohesion at the colleges. The discussion then explores the ‘flipside’ of these positive contributions by considering Alcohol-related damage, disruption and disharmony resulting from alcohol use at the colleges. The paper highlights the tensions inherent in student accounts of alcohol consumption. Despite stu-

instead of looking for causes within the individual… we should focus on the social system…Clearly, some causes of substance abuse lie within the individual, and these should not be ignored. Social ecology theory, however, seeks causes primarily in the social environment. Consequently, efforts to modify use must focus on changing the person’s environment rather than the person.

dents’ tendency to present drinking as making a positive

Following Hansen, this study is concerned to shed light

contribution to residential college life, the situation is not

on the social ‘place’ of alcohol in college life, which makes

‘all beer and skittles’. The paper concludes with a discus-

qualitative methods an appropriate data collection choice.

sion of the implications of the study for future research

Arguably, small local studies of this kind can improve

and efforts to reduce alcohol-related harm among univer-

understanding of ‘local drinking cultures’ to guide deci-

sity students in Australia.

sion-making about subsequent interventions and policy change (see also Mullen, Watson, Swift & Black, 2007;

University drinking cultures – the importance of ‘the social’

Sheehan & Ridge, 2001).

Research setting The university setting has been noted as one which offers ‘a unique social context for the consumption of excessive

This pilot study was undertaken at three residential col-

amounts of alcohol’ (Roche & Watt, 1999). Problematic

leges (which have been given pseudonyms) at an Australian

alcohol use among university students has a similar preva-

university. Barton College and Stewart College are located

lence in Australasia, Europe, and South America, and a lower

within the University’s main campus, with a single adminis-

prevalence in Africa and Asia (Karam, Kypri & Salamoun,

tration team overseeing both colleges. Barton and Stewart

2007). The international research evidence also confirms

Colleges have approximately 170 and 100 residents, respec-

that university students experience a range of negative

tively. Just over 50 per cent (n=135) of residents are male,

consequences as a result of their own and others’ drinking

around 50 per cent of residents are international students

(McAlaney & McMahon, 2007; McGee & Kypri, 2004; Roche

(n=130), and more than 50 (n=140) per cent of residents

& Watt, 2000; Sharmer, 2001; Simao et al., 2008).

are first-year students. Farrell College is a residential col-

Additionally, residential colleges are often noted as

lege of the University, located near the main campus.There

being particularly ‘wet’ environments where residents

are currently approximately 190 residents, approximately

drink heavily and often (Raskin White et al., 2006). A

55 per cent (n=104) of whom are male. By contrast with

number of major life landmarks (being granted permission

Barton and Stewart, approximately 15 per cent (n=28) of

to vote, drink, and hold a drivers licence) cluster together

Farrell residents are international students. Fifteen per cent

within the space of a few weeks or months for many first-

(n=28) are from interstate and the majority of the remain-

year university students (Roche & Watt 1999), although

der are from other regions of the state. More than half the

this pattern is changing with the increasing popularity of

residents are first-year students at the University.

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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Methods

perspectives on the ‘place’ of alcohol at the residential

The data for this article were collected using focus

colleges rather than individuals’ drinking behaviours or

groups undertaken with approval from the relevant

other psychological risk/protective factors. The analysis

Human Research Ethics Committee (number H10533).

also investigated students’ views of the consequences of

The focus groups were all audio-taped with consent.

drinking. Although international students were involved

All college residents were invited (via posters, emails,

in a separate group, there was little to differentiate their

and announcements at dinners) to participate in focus

discussions from those involved in the other groups.

groups. No inducements to participate were offered. A semi-structured focus group guide was used to investigate

Findings

perceptions of the role of alcohol in college life and their alcohol-related experiences.

Participants

This section of the paper outlines the findings of the qualitative pilot study. It commences with a brief overview of the ‘patterns of consumption’ identified by focus

Five focus groups were conducted, involving a total of 43

group participants, who indicated that heavier alcohol

students. Posters inviting participation were displayed at

use at college is associated with particular days of the

each of the colleges. The comparatively low response rate

week, times in the academic semester, years of study and

may have been a function of the issue (i.e. students deemed

types of social events. At one college, Monday nights

that the topic was not worthy of their time) or the fact

were popular nights for drinking, with residents con-

that no inducements to be involved were offered (in fact

suming alcohol provided (free of charge) at the Formal

the Ethics Committee expressly forbade inducements),

Dinner, then drinking at local hotels. At another college,

and/or some other unforeseen factors. Male and female

Wednesday night was Formal Dinner night, but residents

focus groups were, where possible, conducted separately

were required to purchase alcohol at the dinner. It was

to assist both genders to more freely express their views.

also common for these students to ‘party on’ afterwards

At one college, an additional mixed-gender international

at local venues. Focus group participants believed that

student focus group was conducted, due to a high propor-

hotels capitalised on this situation through deliber-

tion of international students. There were two all-female

ate marketing strategies (such as ‘half price nights’) to

groups involving 14 students, two all-male groups involving

attract students and enable college residents to have a

15 students, and a separate focus group of 14 international

‘big’ night at minimal cost.

students which had a roughly equal gender balance. The

Early in first semester and late in second semester

youngest focus group participant was 17 and the eldest

were also reportedly associated with heavier drinking.

was 23, with most participants aged 18 or 19. Participants

According to a female participant from Farrell College,

were not asked to identify as drinkers or non-drinkers.

‘At the start of the semester everyone’s drinking heaps.

Analysis

Then everyone stops going out so much’. Similarly, a male participant from Barton College noted that ‘Around exam

The focus groups were transcribed and a coding guide

time or…when there are heaps of assignments, people

was developed. Due to the small number of data collec-

don’t tend to go out so much’. Participants also perceive

tion sites and participants, a decision was made to work

that alcohol consumption depends, to a certain extent, on

with electronic and hard-copy versions of the transcripts

which year of College someone is in - with second and

rather than use a qualitative analysis software package

third year students consuming less than first year students

such as NVivo. The coding guide was drawn from themes

(see also Bewick et al., 2008). Certainly, several first-year

in the literature relating to youth alcohol consumption

participants (i.e. ‘freshers’) reported that since moving

and socio-cultural influences on drinking. Those themes

to College they had started drinking more, and more fre-

related to, inter alia, peer pressure & normative percep-

quently, than they had previously.

tions, gender & drinking practices, negative consequences

Lastly, participants reported that heavier alcohol use

of consumption, college alcohol policies, and the relation-

by college residents was associated with organised social

ship between alcohol and sport. Initial coding (undertaken

events and college sports. These two topics shed light on

by two researchers, independently) involved identifying

different aspects of two key themes that emerged from stu-

broad patterns in the data, while subsequent analytical

dents’ accounts of the contributions of alcohol to residen-

work involved further refinement and exploration of

tial college life.The themes of Sociability and relaxation and

themes. A particular priority was to explore participants’

Bonding and social cohesion are now examined in turn.

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Sociability and relaxation

that they are a good way to socialise and meet new

A recurring theme in focus group discussions at all three

people. Students mentioned the use of ‘beer bongs’ (i.e.

colleges was the contribution of alcohol to social func-

custom-made drinking devices which hold large quan-

tioning and relaxation for students. The fun and pleasura-

tities of alcohol) and similar items in popular drink-

ble aspects of drinking with friends featured prominently

ing games (particularly after college sporting events),

in many conversations. Participants also spoke of drinking

despite their use being contrary to college rules and

as an important strategy for stress-relief:

regulations.

We have stressful lives with all our assignments and working and everything, so alcohol and socialising is like a way to relieve and have a bit of enjoyment (Male, Farrell College). The annual College Ball at each of the colleges was par-

For example, a male Farrell College student commented: There’s sometimes up to thirty people playing (a drinking game) which is really good because you see different social groups mixing before they go out and go their separate ways.

ticularly associated with heavy consumption and was a

The international students were also asked their views

major event in many residents’ social calendars. Pre- and

about drinking games. Overall they suggested that drink-

post-Ball functions are held, including pre-dinner drinks

ing games/parties were not a negative thing and that they

at a nearby bar, and parties afterwards which sometimes

provided an opportunity to meet and interact with people.

continue until the next day. Several first-year students

The role of alcohol in building and sustaining friend-

made comments like ‘I’m really excited about it. Every-

ship groups was noted by many participants. Females, in

one says it’s the best night of the year’. Some returning

particular, stressed the extent to which College residents

students spoke favourably about the Ball, but not all of

looked after their friends and the environment in which

them intended to go. The financial aspect was frequently

they drink is safe. For instance:

mentioned, with one participant stating that he was not prepared to pay money to go to an event he did not think he would enjoy. Participants noted the tendency of some students to drink to excess at the Ball to ensure they receive ‘value for money’. As explained by a female Farrell College participant:

I reckon most of the time if people have too much (alcohol) their friends will … put them to bed, or start getting water into them. We all look out for each other so something bad rarely happens (Female, Barton College) The link between alcohol consumption and college sport was emphasised by students at all three colleges.

It’s … unlimited drinks, so $110 including drinks, as much as you can drink, and that’s often seen as the way to go… I want to get my money’s worth.

Female Stewart College participants also perceived that

On the other hand, the financial outlay could also

ing connection is highlighted by the following excerpt:

function in the opposite direction – for instance another female participant reported only having three drinks at the previous year’s ball because she did not want to ruin

males put more pressure on each other to drink than do females, especially after sporting events. The sport/drinkAfter … sport we go to an ‘old boy’s’ house and have drinks there … After cricket, rugby and football, we have parties, usually here. (Male, Barton College)

her dress. Despite initially stating that the Ball is a night

One male participant summed up the College sport/

of sustained drinking for many, students wanted to clarify

heavy drinking connection: ‘it’s a sport thing - it’s part of

that ‘it’s not just about drinking’:

the sports teams tradition’.

There’s a band there, really good food, it’s not just about the alcohol at all, it’s about sitting at a table with ten or so of your friends, just enjoying the night (Male, Barton College).

Bonding and social cohesion The positive contribution of alcohol consumption to sociability was frequently noted during focus groups. Drinking games (i.e. games involving either individuals or teams, in which aim is to ‘out drink’ one another

Given the emphasis placed on the centrality of drinking to college life, it was appropriate to explore whether students’ status as ‘drinkers’ or ‘non-drinkers’ affected their acceptance within social groupings. Both male and female residents of Farrell College reported that extent to which drinking assisted students to ‘fit in’ depended on the group they were in: Some groups are interested in drinking and others aren’t. I don’t think people who don’t drink feel left out (Male, Farrell College).

and/or become intoxicated as quickly as possible) were

Similarly, international students suggested that ‘fitting

mentioned in relation to facilitating social interaction

in’ was more dependent on confidence and personality

between residents, with many students commenting

than on alcohol consumption. However, the potential for

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

All beer and skittles?, Clarissa Hughes

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subtle and unintentional social exclusion exists, as sug-

sising the centrality of drinking to college culture, the

gested in the following discussion.

students who participated wished to maintain that ‘drink-

Alcohol-related damage, disruption and disharmony

ing is not that important’, that ‘not everyone drinks’ and that ‘people who don’t drink aren’t left out’. For instance, one Farrell student commented that she has ‘a number of

While many students acknowledged that drinking is an

friends here who don’t drink, but they always come out

important part of college culture, they were also quick

and are the life of the party. Similar stories emerged from

to point out that it is ‘not a destructive drinking culture’.

residents of the other colleges. Unfortunately, it was not

Some students (presumably drinkers) suggested that col-

possible in this study to ascertain whether self-identified

lege staff think student drinking is more of a problem than

non-drinkers concurred with this view. It seems likely that

it actually is because they only hear about it when some-

the image of ‘happy inclusion’ of non-drinkers at college is

thing bad happens. In general terms, the participants did

somewhat oversimplified – but examination of that issue

not regard drinking by college students as a problem; they

is a task for future studies.

reiterated that it is rare for ‘things to get out of hand’, and that most residents drink responsibly.

Alcohol at College: all beer and skittles?

However, specific questioning about social events and

Results of this study accord with Roche and Watt’s

college sports revealed that alcohol-related harm is a real-

observation that alcohol ‘is often central to the social

ity at times. For instance, drinking at the ball has resulted in

and sporting life of students’ (2000, p. 389). The partici-

the need for medical intervention, people being removed

pants were generally positive about the contribution

from the venue, and people vomiting at the table. Resi-

of college drinking to sociability and social cohesion.

dents from all colleges recalled post-sport celebrations

Students from all three colleges claimed that drinking

(or commiserations) ‘turning ugly’. One female Stewart

is ‘not compulsory’ at their college, that abstainers and

College participant recalled a particular barbecue after an

light drinkers are never ostracised, and the extent to

inter-college football game:

which individuals ‘fit in’ is more a function of their per-

We had a (liquor) licence and thought people would just have a beer but it kind of escalated. One person drank a whole bottle of spirits, and there were drinking games and stuff. It was probably the messiest night this year, so far.

sonality and outlook than on their drinking. However, the absence of a ‘teetotallers’ focus group’ (or anonymous mechanisms for providing comment) mean that it is not possible to assess the accuracy of these claims, which were presumably made by drinkers.

Although several students insisted that the colleges do not

As noted above, the focus group participants recounted

have ‘destructive drinking cultures’, vomit did feature prom-

numerous anecdotes of their own and other peoples’

inently in all focus group discussions. Participants spoke of

vomit, hangovers, accidental injuries as a result of drink-

seeing and hearing people vomit – in bedrooms, hallways,

ing alcohol. However, the short- and longer-term health

stairwells and out of windows.They also commented on the

risks of alcohol consumption were conspicuous by their

unpleasantness of lingering odour from vomit, and on inci-

absence from participants’ accounts. Similar to the Aus-

dents where toilet seats were broken. One male Barton par-

tralian teenagers in Taylor and Carroll’s 2001 study (2001,

ticipant commented that he ‘wasn’t bothered’ by students

p. 23), participants in this study seemed not to associate

vomiting after drinking, then added that ‘generally people

short-term consequences of alcohol consumption (such

are pretty responsible.They’ll do it outside’.

as vomiting, hangover and loss of consciousness) with

Drinking also appeared to cause disruption to many

harm to their health.

participants’ study, sleep and daily routines. Residents

Participants’ experiences of ‘second-hand effects of

reported planning their study to avoid ‘drinking nights’ –

alcohol’ (including having their sleep and/or or study

for instance, a male Farrell College participant noted that it

interrupted) were numerous. Yet there was a tendency

was often so noisy and difficult to concentrate on Monday

for students to overlook or downplay disturbances if

nights that he avoided studying ‘until everyone has gone

they were ‘caused’ by alcohol. Social processes and nor-

to the pub’. Some female students routinely avoided using

mative influences are salient here, since students may

certain bathrooms on certain mornings since they were

be less likely to express annoyance about noise pollu-

‘always disgusting’ after drinking nights.

tion or inconsiderate behaviour if they perceive that

The potential contribution of drinking to social exclusion was explored during the focus groups. Despite empha-

26

All beer and skittles?, Clarissa Hughes

‘everyone else is cool with it’ (see for example Berkowitz, 2004). vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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Implications and conclusion

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risky drinking by aiming to change ‘the environment’ rather than ‘the person’. Accordingly, it has highlighted

This paper has taken a sociological, qualitative approach

the benefits of examining ‘drinking cultures’ rather than

to the issue of drinking among residential college students

focusing on individuals’ levels of knowledge or other fac-

attending an Australian university. It heeds Mancini-Pena

tors that may predispose them to problematic alcohol

and Tyson’s (2007, p. 36) call for research that reveals how

consumption (see also Hughes, Julian, Richman, Mason &

young people understand their drinking, to assist policy-

Long, 2008). It has also revealed the complex interplay of

makers and health professionals to better understand and

wider contextual factors (such as availability, pricing, and

communicate with the youth population. The paper has

special promotions) and the local ‘social environment’

demonstrated that many of the participants regard alco-

(such as norms and perceptions of alcohol use) in par-

hol as an intrinsic aspect of the college experience. Drink-

ticular settings.

ing is positively regarded for its contribution to sociability

The findings of this study suggest that interventions

and relaxation, and bonding and social cohesion among

focused on the normative environment (perceptions of

residents. However, alcohol’s contribution to damage,

peers’ alcohol-related attitudes and behaviours) should

disruption and disharmony coexists somewhat uncom-

be investigated by Australian universities seeking to

fortably with some students’ desire to see college drinking cultures as ‘safe’ and ‘not destructive’. This study has investigated the understandings participants have of their own and others’ drinking, and the social functions of alcohol use in the residential college environment. It does, however, have a number of

reduce alcohol-related harm

Some students... suggested that college staff think student drinking is more of a problem than it actually is because they only hear about it when something bad happens. In general terms, the participants did not regard drinking by college students as a problem; they reiterated that it is rare for ‘things to get out of hand’, and that most residents drink responsibly.

limitations. One limitation is

among their students. They also suggest that approaches targeting first-year students hold excellent potential for influencing college drinking cultures in positive ways (see also Kypri, Langley, McGee, Saunders & Williams, 2002).The fact that ‘freshers’ are in the midst of developing new social networks provides an opportune envi-

the small sample size, meaning that the results are not

ronment to investigate how those networks influence

generalisable to wider settings or populations. However,

alcohol-related perceptions and behaviour (McAlaney,

at least some of the issues may be salient in other Aus-

Bewick & Hughes, 2011).

tralian residential colleges. Additionally, as a ‘snapshot’

This paper has focused on the issue of student drink-

in time, it does not convey the changing demographic

ing cultures in university residential colleges. It has

profile of college residents reflective of broader changes

investigated the subtle and not-so-subtle ways in which

in student enrolments, including the increasing propor-

alcohol consumption influences college residents’ lives,

tions of mature-age and international students. Lastly, the

experiences and interactions with others. The study

use of focus groups may have had the unintended con-

has reinforced the importance of learning about stu-

sequence of discouraging participants from frank discus-

dents’ worldviews and receptiveness to different types

sion of their opinions and experiences. Issues relating

of prevention intervention. Arguably, studies of this kind

to international students and the experience of non-

are required to improve understanding of the com-

drinkers could benefit from individualised data collec-

plex ‘place of alcohol’ in specific social contexts. These

tion methods and more detailed consideration in future

understandings are essential for guiding decision-making

studies. A more comprehensive study would involve

about alcohol-focused interventions, future research and

mixed methods, a larger number of residential colleges

policy development.

from different states, data collection methods that would allow anonymity and thereby encourage honest answer-

Dr Clarissa Hughes is a Senior Research Fellow and the Aca-

ing (such an online surveys), and perhaps also incorpo-

demic Research Coordinator at the University of Tasmania’s

rate objective measures of alcohol consumption.

Department of Rural Health.

This paper commenced with a statement of the importance of ‘the social system’ and of the need to address vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

All beer and skittles?, Clarissa Hughes

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Davey, J., Davey, T. & Obst, P. (2002). Alcohol consumption and drug use in a sample of Australian university students. Youth Studies Australia, 21(3), 25-32.

Powell, L., Williams, J. & Wechsler, H. (2004). Study habits and the level of alcohol use among college students. Education Economics, 12(2), 135-149.

Dowling, N., Clark, D. & Corney, T. (2006). Responsible drinking knowledge: A comparison of Australian apprentices and university students. Youth Studies Australia, 25(3), 42-48.

Raskin White, H., McMorris, B., Catalano, R., Fleming, J., Haggery, K. & Abbott, R. (2006). Increases in alcohol and marijuana use during the transition out of high school into emerging adulthood: The effects of leaving home, going to college, and high school protective factors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67(6), 810-822.

Hansen, W. (1997). A Social Ecology Theory of Alcohol and Drug Use Prevention Among College and University Students Designing Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention Programs in Higher Education: Bringing Theory into Practice (pp. 155-175). Newton: U.S. Department of Education, Higher Education Centre for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention. Herring, R., Berridge, V. & Thom, B. (2008). Binge drinking: an exploration of a confused concept. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62, 476-479. Hughes, C., Julian, R., Richman, M., Mason, R. & Long, G. (2008). Harnessing the power of perception: Exploring the potential of peer group processes to reduce alcohol-related harm among rural youth. Youth Studies Australia, 27(2), 26-35. Karam, E., Kypri, K. & Salamoun, M. (2007). Alcohol use among college students: an international perspective. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 20(3), 213-221. Kypri, K., Langley, J., McGee, R., Saunders, J. & Williams, S. (2002). High prevalence, persistent harzardous drinking among New Zealand tertiary students. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 37(5), 457-464. Mancini-Pena, E. & Tyson, G. (2007). “I’m gonna sound like a drunk here”: Constructions of volume of consumption. Youth Studies Australia, 26(2), 35-42. Martinez, J., Sher, K. & Wood, P. (2008). Is heavy drinking really associated with attrition from college? The alcohol-attrition paradox Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22(3), 450-456. McAlaney, J., Bewick, B. & Hughes, C. (2011). The international development of the ‘Social Norms’ approach to drug education and prevention. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy. McAlaney, J. & McMahon, J. (2007). Normative beliefs, misperceptions, and heavy episodic drinking in a British student sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 228-237. McBride, N., Farringdon, F., & Midford, R. (2000). What harms do young Australians experience in alcohol use situations. Australian and New Zealand

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Roche, A. & Watt, K. (1999). Drinking and university students: from celebration to inebriation. Drug and Alcohol Review, 18(4), 389-399. Roche, A. & Watt, K. (2000). Drink Smart: A Qualitative Evaluation of an Alcohol Intervention for University Students. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 10(1). Sharmer, L. (2001). Evaluation of alcohol education programs on attitude, knowledge and self-reported behaviour of college students. Evaluation of the Health Professions, 24, 336-357. Sheehan, M. & Ridge, D. (2001). “You become really close ... you talk about the silly things you did, and we laugh”: The role of binge drinking in female secondary students’ lives. Substance Use and Misuse, 36(3), 347-372. Simao, M., Kerr-Correa, Smaira, S., Trinca, L., Floripes, T., Dalben, I., et al. (2008). Prevention of “risky” drinking among students at a Brazilian university. Alcohol & Alcoholism, 43(4), 470-476. Taylor, J. & Carroll, T. (2001). Youth alcohol consumption: Experiences and expectations. In P. Williams (Ed.), Alcohol, Young Persons and Violence (pp. 15-29). Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. Toumbourou, J., Hemphill, S., McMorris, B., Catalano, R. & Patton, G. (2009). Alcohol use and related harms in school students in the USA and Australia. Health Promotion International, 24(4), 373-382. Walker, K. (2000). Reported and perceived drug and alcohol use amongst Australian University students. Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Student Services, 16, 3-34. Wechsler, H. & Nelson, T. (2008). What we have learned from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study: Focusing attention on college student alcohol consumption and the environmental conditions that promote it. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69(4), 481-490. Wilks, J. (1989). Drinking patterns of Australian tertiary youth. Australian Drug and Alcohol Review (8), 55-68. vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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Covering the gap Social inclusion, international students and the role of local government Toby Paltridge, Susan Mayson Monash University

Jan Schapper La Trobe University

Over the last twenty years or so the number of international students in Australia has grown rapidly. At the same time, official responsibility for providing support to international students has been devolved from governments to educational institutions. In this paper we argue that while education institutions have a significant role in supporting international students, there is a large gap in social support provided to them when off-campus. This is a gap which we believe could be filled by local government, to provide international students with greater integration and security when they are off campus. The ideas outlined in this paper are based on a critical examination of international students’ experience in Australia and are intended to contribute to and advance recent debates about the safety, security and value of international students to Australian society. We argue that international students’ status as temporary visitors creates the conditions for social exclusion, that is, an inability to engage fully in the economic, cultural, social and political aspects of Australian life. In light of this, we suggest that local government, especially as it relates to the provision of human services, has a role in helping international students access social support services. We argue that local government can be instrumental in ensuring the social inclusion of international students in our communities. This, we suggest, would improve international students’ overall study experience and contribute to their greater integration and participation in the Australian community.

Introduction

national students, due to their position as ‘non-citizens’ and ‘temporary migrants’, are relegated to outsider status

Over the last twenty years or so, political strategies and

despite the fact that they are invited to live in Australia for

policy development at Federal and State levels of govern-

an extended period of time.This outsider status has impli-

ment have driven the growth of international education

cations for international students’ safety and security as

in Australia. At the same time, official responsibility for

past events have demonstrated (Forbes-Mewett & Nyland

providing support to the international students who have

2008; Marginson et al. 2010).

arrived in Australia as a result of these policies, has been

In this paper we argue that while education institutions

devolved from governments to educational institutions

have a significant role in supporting international students,

(Marginson, Nyland, Sawir & Forbes-Mewett, 2010).This is

there is a large gap in social support provided to interna-

problematic for several reasons, not least of which is that

tional students’ when off-campus. This is a gap which we

the majority of issues experienced by international stu-

believe could be filled by local government, to provide

dents occur off campus, an area where education institu-

international students with greater integration and secu-

tions are able to provide only limited support (Marginson,

rity when they are away from their education institutions’

2011). We agree with Marginson et al. (2010) that inter-

grounds. In adopting this position we take up the point

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Covering the gap, Toby Paltridge, Susan Mayson & Jan Schapper

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from Marginson et al. (2010, p. 458) that, ‘It is crucial to

some means or organisation to formally provide critical

improve coordination between the universities and other

support (e.g. housing, employment, integration, advocacy,

public agencies, especially policy, local government [our

etc.) to international students off-campus, in conjunc-

emphasis] and state officials handling housing or tenancy

tion with the on-campus support provided by education

and health services.’ However, we go even further. It is our

institutions. We suggest that local government – given

contention that local government can do more than just

its role, engagement and proximity with the community

provide accommodation and health services to interna-

and existing services – is a good, although not necessarily

tional students. We argue that local government can be

ideal, choice to fulfil this role.

instrumental in ensuring the social inclusion of interna-

In this paper we first discuss the role of international

tional students in our communities. In light of concerns

students in Australia and the issues they face. We then spe-

about international students’ safety and security there is

cifically explore how international students are socially

potential for education institutions and local government

excluded from Australian society and the impact this has

to work together to provide a system of whole-of-life sup-

on their security and lived experience. Next, the regu-

port to international students whist studying in Australia.

latory support structure for international students is dis-

This, we suggest, would improve international students’

cussed. We then move on to describe the role of local

overall study experience and contribute to their greater

government in Australia. Finally, we posit what exactly

integration and participation in the Australian community.

local government should be doing to support interna-

We argue that developing ways to improve the sup-

tional students in their off-campus lives.

port provided to international students, and thereby their social inclusion and overall experience, is important for

International students in Australia

both economic and moral reasons. Morally, we believe it is highly unethical to accept international students into

International students are a significant presence in Aus-

Australia and then essentially abandon them once they

tralian society. Their gross contribution to the Australian

arrive, expecting them to adapt to life in a foreign country

economy was approximately $18.6b in export earnings

without appropriate support (Peterson, Briggs, Dreasher,

(across all levels of international education) in FY2009/10

Horner, & Nelson, 1999). Economically speaking, provid-

(Australian Education International, 2011), provide on

ing comprehensive support for international students is

average 15 per cent of Australian universities’ budgets,

important because a reputation for safety and the guar-

and sometimes much more (Senate Standing Commit-

antees of a positive experience are a source of advantage

tee on Education, Employment and Workplace Relations

in the increasingly competitive international education

2009), and comprise 25 per cent of all students in Austral-

market (Lane, 2011; Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002).

ian post-secondary education (Department of Education,

The ideas outlined in this paper may be controver-

Employment and Workplace Relations [DEEWR], 2009).

sial; however they are based on a critical examination of

International education is Australia’s fourth largest export

international students’ experience in Australia. We accept

(Marginson, 2011) and largest service export (Australian

that while not all our suggestions may be feasible they

Education International 2011). As such, the export of edu-

are intended to contribute to and advance recent debates

cational services to international students represents an

about the safety, security and value of international stu-

important contribution to Australia’s (and its universities)

dents to Australian society.We argue that international stu-

economic prosperity.

dents’ status as temporary visitors creates the conditions

International students also bring many non-economic

for social exclusion, that is, an inability to engage fully in

benefits to Australia, benefits rarely discussed in the pop-

the economic, cultural, social and political aspects of Aus-

ular media and debates about the value of international

tralian life. In light of this, we suggest that local govern-

students. In an effort to redress this blindness to the ways

ment, especially as it relates to the provision of human

in which Australian society has been enriched by the pres-

services, has a role in helping international students gain

ence of international students, Adams, Banks and Olsen

access to social support services.

(2011) provide a comprehensive list of benefits including;

The current lack of support for international students

enhancement of public diplomacy and trade, especially

in their off-campus lives is concerning, and likely has neg-

through alumni of Australian institutions; a culturally rich

ative consequences for not just their social inclusion in

learning environment for local students; greater interna-

the broader Australian community, but their overall study

tional understanding and awareness among all students;

experience as well. We believe there is a pressing need for

and development of multinational professional and per-

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Covering the gap, Toby Paltridge, Susan Mayson & Jan Schapper

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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sonal networks by students. While such benefits are dif-

networks. These findings are not revelations; the majority

ficult to quantify, international students enhance the

of the issues identified have been documented during

culture and knowledge of Australian society and extend

preceding decades by other researchers (for example, see

Australia’s political influence in addition to more tangible

Mori, 2000; Perrucci & Hu, 1995; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Yet,

economic contributions.

despite being well known, these problems have persisted.

While international students and their welfare have

Amongst this list of difficulties faced by international

been of interest to academics for some time (see Margin-

students, it is clear that most involve their lives outside

son et al., 2010), recent events have raised the profile of

their educational institution. It is off-campus that interna-

international students and the issues they face as (tempo-

tional students confront problems such as finding suitable

rary) members of Australian society. Unfortunately, it has

accommodation and employment, exploitation by land-

not been the growing awareness of their contributions to

lords and employers, personal safety concerns or discrimi-

Australian society that has recently brought international

nation by locals (Marginson et al., 2010; Paltridge, 2009).

students and international education into the spotlight

Dealing with such issues is challenging and, unfortunately,

(Babacan, Pyke, Bhathal, Gill, Grossman & Bertone, 2010;

many international students who do experience difficul-

Commonwealth of Australia, 2010a; Council of Australian

ties in Australia suffer severe consequences because they

Governments, 2010; Jakubowicz & Monani, 2010). It has

lack the support network possessed by locals (Deumert,

instead been the involvement of international students,

Marginson, Nyland, Ramia & Sawir, 2005; Forbes-Mewett

either as victims or alleged perpetrators, in incidents of

& Nyland, 2008). These outcomes, we argue, are a con-

violent crimes, along with revelations of exploitation and

sequence of the social exclusion international students

visa fraud that have focussed the attention of the media

experience in Australia.

and different government agencies on their plight and off-

Social Exclusion and International Students

campus activities. We acknowledge that there is a danger in focusing on high profile incidents that involve international students

Compared to Australian citizens and permanent residents,

in Australia and that, despite the many negative stories in

international students do not have the same ability to

the media, the majority of students who have participated

participate socially, economically, politically or culturally

in surveys indicated they are satisfied with their experi-

within the community. This we argue results in the social

ences in Australia. For instance, according to the Interna-

exclusion of the majority of international students in Aus-

tional Student Survey 2010 (Commonwealth of Australia,

tralia. As mentioned in the introduction to this paper, we

2010b), conducted by the Federal Government over 2009

support the arguments made by Marginson et al., (2010)

and 2010, approximately 86 per cent of surveyed interna-

that international students are generally outsiders in Aus-

tional students across all education categories were satis-

tralian society as a consequence of their status as tem-

fied or very satisfied with their experience of living in

porary non-citizens. This has negative implications for

Australia. However, this does not mean that they do not

international students’ safety and security, as evidenced by

experience problems. It must also be said that of those

past incidents of violence and exploitation against them

14 per cent who were not satisfied with their experience

(Forbes-Mewett & Nyland, 2008; Marginson et al., 2010).

in Australia many would have faced serious issues, some

We are well aware, having constructed the difficulties

potentially life threatening. It is an unfortunate fact that a

of international students within the conceptual frame

number of international students have died or been killed,

of social inclusion and exclusion, that there are defini-

usually off-campus, and under terrible circumstances

tional and political problems associated with these terms.

(Marginson et al., 2010; Olding & Kwek, 2012).

According to Silver (1994) defining social exclusion is a

Following their extensive research Marginson and col-

difficult task, with Atkinson (2000) and Millar (2007) argu-

leagues (2010) published a comprehensive study of the

ing that it is not so much that there are no definitions of

issues experienced by international students in Australia.

social exclusion, but that there are many, most of them

The list of problematic areas for international students

vague, and all of them contested. Not only is the use of

is too large to list here, but some examples include the

the word ‘exclusion’ endlessly disputed (Gallie, 1956, as

difficulty in finding affordable accommodation in safe

cited in Silver, 1994) but social exclusion itself is consid-

neighbourhoods relatively close to their study location,

ered an ambiguous concept that is ‘loaded with numerous

exploitation by employers, personal safety, living and

economic, social, political, and cultural connotations and

studying in a foreign language, and establishing new social

dimensions’ (Silver, 1994, p. 536). The same has also been

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said of social inclusion, with Caidi and Allard (2005) argu-

cance was exemplified in 2009 by the slow response of

ing that its multiple meanings have been created oppor-

governments to the spate of violent attacks against inter-

tunistically to justify different policy initiatives.

national students. It was only after large-scale street pro-

Despite these definitional and conceptual difficulties

tests and strong diplomatic pressure from home country

we persevere with the concepts of social exclusion and

governments that the Australian Federal and State Gov-

inclusion because they are generally used as concepts

ernments initiated any action to address the safety con-

capable of encompassing the broader social and eco-

cerns of international students (Nyland, Forbes-Mewett

nomic issues that marginalised groups, such as interna-

& Marginson, 2010).

tional students in Australia, face. In support of our use

In the social dimension, international students fre-

of social exclusion Millar (2007) and Raffo and Gunter

quently lose the support of family, friends and commu-

(2008) contend that at the most basic level, social exclu-

nity when they move overseas to study (Forbes-Mewett

sion describes multi-dimensional socio-economic pro-

& Nyland, 2008). Students often find it difficult to replace

cesses which cause specific groups or individuals, in

these relationships due to language barriers, cultural dif-

specific locations to be excluded/included in specific

ferences, and heavy study and work-loads. These factors

ways from mainstream society. Those suffering from

limit time for socialising. Limited financial resources also

social exclusion are ‘excluded not only from the goods

reduce students’ ability to participate in many common

and standards of living available to the majority but also

social activities.Added to this is the unwillingness of many

from their opportunities, choices and life chances’ (Millar,

locals to form friendships with international students,

2007, p. 2). According to Steinert (2003), the dimensions

greatly limiting their access to informal support networks.

of social exclusion are generally agreed to include political, economic, social and cultural activities.

Economically speaking, international students have limited work rights and limited knowledge about their rights

In our view, the same characteristics apply to social

in Australian workplaces.This means they can and do face

inclusion. However in the interest of conceptual clarity

exploitation by employers (e.g. Babacan et al., 2010; Ham,

we acknowledge that there is much debate about the

2011). These two factors can also overlap in that some

relationship between social inclusion and social exclu-

international students need to work more than 20 hours

sion (O’Reilly, 2005). Some authors contend that the

per week during semester in order to support themselves,

concepts are binary opposites, while others argue that

thus breaching their visa conditions; some employers

being not socially excluded does not mean one is socially

then use this fact to exploit those students under the

included and vice versa. O’Reilly (2005) suggests that the

threat they will inform the Department of Immigration

two concepts lie on opposite ends of a continuum. The

and Citizenship (DIAC) of the student’s breach. Of course,

advantage of this conceptualisation is that it allows for

such excessive work hours are likely detrimental to inter-

varying degrees of inclusion/exclusion and also for the

national students’ studies and it would be best if they had

two terms to be used interchangeably. We have chosen to

sufficient financial resources that they did not need to

adopt O’Reilly’s (2005) conceptualisation here as it is logi-

work more than 20 hours per week in order to support

cal and makes discussion involving these concepts easier.

themselves. While one of the requirements for a student

Consequently, the two terms are used interchangeably in

visa in Australia is providing proof that one has access to

this paper.

sufficient money to cover tuition fees and living expenses

There are numerous ways in which international stu-

for the duration of one’s study, the required amount being

dents are socially excluded from political, social, cultural

set arbitrarily by the Australian government, this is only

and economic processes and activities in Australia. For

checked when applying for a visa. Hence, potential inter-

example, when we examine the political dimension,

national students can ‘fake’ access to the required money

international students are not citizens of the host coun-

(e.g. borrow money temporarily, claim sponsorship from

try and therefore can only lay claim to the reduced rights

a relative who won’t actually pay, etc.) and thereby obtain

of a temporary migrant (Deumert et al., 2005). One of

a student visa without actually having sufficient finan-

the most important citizenship rights is the right to vote.

cial resources to support themselves without working

Although we are not necessarily advocating for interna-

excessive hours (Marginson et al., 2010). In addition, the

tional students to be given the right to vote in Australia,

amount of money accessible per year required by the

we do suggest their lack of enfranchisement means they

Australian government was, before being increased on 1

are not likely to be afforded a priority amongst politi-

January 2010 (Bowen, 2009), far too low for a student to

cians’ many constituencies. Their lack of political signifi-

actually survive on (Marginson et al., 2010). International

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students also often find it difficult to access safe accom-

Despite these many different ways that international

modation due to financial issues and/or lack of rental his-

students are excluded from support and services that

tory. Further, international students do not have access

most Australian citizens take for granted, it should be

to many common support services, such as free public

noted that the Australian Government does not entirely

healthcare (they must have private health insurance) and

absolve itself from any legislative responsibility for

welfare, and in Victoria and New South Wales, in contrast

their well-being while studying in Australia. However, as

to all other states and territories, they are also ineligible

noted in the introduction to this paper, the government

for student concession tickets for public transport.

responsibilities are essentially devolved in their entirety

Culturally, the majority of international students come

to educational institutions. The next section of the paper

from Asia and are not part of the dominant Anglo-Austral-

examines what these responsibilities are and how they

ian culture. This can cause some of the students to feel

have been devolved.

quite lonely and separate from the society around them, as their concerns and view of the world are quite different (Sawir, Marginson, Deumert, Nyland & Ramia, 2008).

Support for International Students in Australia

However, if they are of the same culture as an immigrant group that is already established in Australia then they

By their very nature international students have greatly

may find some similar cultural contexts and a greater

reduced security (physical, social, economic) compared

level of acceptance and recognition of their culture by mainstream Australian society than those from cultures which are little known in Australia. International students from Western nations such as the United States or Europe therefore typically find ‘fitting in’ much easier

to citizens or permanent

Compared to Australian citizens and permanent residents, international students do not have the same ability to participate socially, economically, politically or culturally within the community. This we argue results in the social exclusion of the majority of international students in Australia.

than those from non-West-

residents of the host country, or what they would enjoy in their home nations. This is a combined result of their status as temporary migrants; their general loss of informal social networks as a consequence of moving to a foreign country where they know few, if any, people

ern cultures (Chapdelaine &

(Forbes-Mewett & Nyland,

Alexitch, 2004; Sawir et al., 2008).

2008); and their social exclusion. Consequently, interna-

In summary, by being socially excluded, international

tional students generally need far greater support than

students have reduced security across all four dimen-

local students in order to compensate for, and address,

sions of social inclusion – political, economic, cultural and

their reduced security and social exclusion. However, in

social. For international students, social, economic politi-

Australia, currently this additional support is at best only

cal, and cultural exclusion has significant consequences

partially available (with the possible exception of univer-

for their security and well-being. The more a group is

sity accommodation; see Paltridge, Mayson & Schapper,

socially excluded the more vulnerable its members are

2010).

to life’s misfortunes (Babacan et al., 2010). Physical secu-

In Australia, the Education Services for Overseas Stu-

rity is reduced as those who are considered to be ‘outsid-

dents (ESOS) Act provides the security framework for

ers’ are more frequently found in areas where they are

international students by outlining government and

likely to be the target of street crime and more likely to

education institutions’ formal responsibilities towards

be exploited by employers and landlords. Social security

international students. The National Code of Practice for

is reduced because those who exist on the edge of soci-

Registration Authorities and Providers of Education and

ety have less access to both formal and informal support

Training to Overseas Students 2007, which is established

networks. Economic security suffers because those who

under the ESOS Act (Department of Education, Employ-

are socially excluded find it more difficult to obtain safe,

ment and Workplace Relations, 2007), stipulates that edu-

well-paying employment, and/or access welfare. Cultur-

cation institutions are to provide ‘…the opportunity for

ally, international students are faced with different norms,

students to participate in services or provide access to

customs and attitudes, which may make it difficult for

services designed to assist students in meeting course

them to navigate life in Australia.

requirements and maintaining their attendance.’ (p. 16),

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as well as ‘…the opportunity for students to access

extensive range of rights while studying in Australia. We

welfare-related support services to assist with issues

argue then there exists a need for some institution(s) to

that may arise during their study, including course pro-

provide much-needed support to international students

gress and attendance requirements and accommodation

when off-campus. Our contention is that local govern-

issues. These services must be provided at no additional

ment (also known as local councils or municipal coun-

cost to the student.’ (p. 16). Such requirements, in addi-

cils – sometimes abbreviated to just ‘councils’), due to its

tion to being vague, only mandate education institutions

position and role within the community, can and should

to provide minimal support services in relation to their

perform this function.

study and course requirements. With the exception of involvement in accommodation issues, the ESOS Act does

The role of local government in Australia

not cover international students’ lives away from campus.

the legislation, the government may have hoped that com-

‘Out of all spheres of government in Australia, local governments possess the closest relationship with communities and therefore have a unique opportunity to gain an understanding of, and to meet particular local and community needs.’ (Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government 2010, p. 2)

petitive pressure would encourage education institutions

Due to proximity to its constituency, local government has

to provide a high level of service as a means of making

a significant role in shaping communities that are ‘civil,

themselves more attractive to prospective international

equitable, culturally sensitive, environmentally sustainable

students. However, this appears not to have occurred.

and democratic’ (Kiss, 1999, p. 110). This is reflected in

It is suggested this has not been the case because, until

the ongoing trend of increasing the provision of human

recently, the number of potential international students

services which assists local government to address prob-

wanting to study in Australia well exceeded the capacity

lems specific to their community. We include in this view

of education institutions to take them (Marginson, 2011),

of local community international students who reside in

thus limiting competitive pressure between education

local communities, albeit temporarily, and the community

institutions. Further, to do so would mitigate a significant

specific issues that arise for them.

This means that international students must rely primarily on whatever informal and limited support networks they possess to help them live, study and work within the Australian community. Marginson et al. (2010) suggest that when formulating

rationale for inviting international students to Australia -

Although traditionally considered as being only respon-

the subsidisation of domestic student places and research

sible for the 3 Rs of ‘roads, rates and rubbish’, in the

(Marginson, 2011; Marginson et al., 2010; Thakur & Hou-

last two decades local government has steadily moved

rigan, 2007). Given these factors, there appears little com-

towards the provision of human services to the local com-

petitive incentive for education institutions to provide

munity (Dollery, Wallis & Allan, 2006). This shift means

more than the bare minimum of legally mandated support

that local government is more responsive to the broader

services to international students.

social and cultural demands of their communities. Dollery

Added to this, and perhaps very tellingly, international

et al. (2006, p. 555) state ‘In essence, Australian councils

students are referred to in the Act as consumers of edu-

are moving away from their traditional narrow empha-

cational services (as opposed to human beings or tem-

sis on “services to property” towards a broader “services

porary citizens) and hence as we have argued above, the

to people” approach.’ Such services include, but are not

burden of care is effectively passed on almost entirely to

limited to, health, welfare, community development and

the students (Marginson et al., 2010). The result is that

recreation (Haratsis, 1992; Jones, 1989; Morris, 1986;

international students are reliant primarily on their own,

Thornton, 1995).

often weak, informal support networks when off campus.

Of course, a major constraint for most local govern-

This begins to explain why international students, beyond

ments in providing services to the community is limited

the reach of existing regulation or the (often limited) sup-

financial resources (Dollery et al., 2006) and the needs

port services provided by educational institutions, end up

of international students may not be high on local gov-

in precarious and sometimes dangerous situations leaving

ernments’ to do lists. Consequently, most councils tend to

them open to violence and/or exploitation.

focus on what they see as their core business – providing

There is little political pressure at this time to change

key services to ratepayers.And hence, as Dunn,Thompson,

the ESOS Act and it is therefore unlikely in the foreseeable

Hanna, Murphy and Burnley (2001) found, many councils

future that international students will be granted a more

see the promotion of multiculturalism and addressing the

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needs of diverse community groups as secondary to their

regional cities, for example the City of Adelaide (Adelaide

‘core’ business and are reluctant to spend money on such

City Council, n.d.a, n.d.b) in South Australia and the City

programmes. Dunn et al. (2001), however, argue against

of Wollongong (Wollongong UniCentre, 2012) in regional

this position, identifying numerous ways that the services

New South Wales. Despite not being citizens or permanent

and programmes provided by local government fail to

residents of Australia, international students are residents of

reflect the diversity of the community they are supposed

the communities in which they live while completing their

to represent. They state that ‘…failing to incorporate

studies and for up to four years afterwards (with recent

multiculturalism in local government risks the situation

changes to the international student visa regime; Evans &

where local administrations selectively determine —

Bowen 2011), and consequently have an impact on that

either overtly or implicitly — who is and is not effectively

community.Therefore, just like any other significant minor-

a local citizen.’ (Dunn et al. 2001, p. 2479).

ity or interest group, international students have a right to

In the context of limited budgets and contestation

protection and support from local government.

around whose needs are met or not met by local govern-

Given that local government has the capacity to at least

ment, it is little surprise that temporary residents such as

partially address many of the issues international students

international students are generally neither considered

face, there is a role and opportunity for local government

nor included within community activities. This, we argue,

to ameliorate students’ current experience of social exclu-

needs to change. Local government areas with substantial

sion and improve their security through the provision

international student populations (generally those that

of support services. This includes but is not limited to

accommodate, or are near, education institutions) must

information on tenancy and employment rights, advocacy

recognise that international students make up a signifi-

when dealing with landlords and employers, the establish-

cant group within their local community and need to take

ment and/or promotion of home-stay programmes, the

steps to respond to their needs and provide them with

promotion of multiculturalism within the community, the

support services.

establishment of social programmes to encourage international students to build social networks and promote gen-

What local government can and should be doing to support international students

eral interaction between locals and international students. Many local governments already provide support services and programmes to their communities that would

In 2011, there were approximately 474,000 international

be useful to international students, but in many cases it

students (combined total for all sectors) living in Australia,

appears the international students do not access these

down from approximately 524,000 in 2010 (Australian

services either because of lack of eligibility or awareness

Education International, 2012). The majority of these stu-

that they are available (Victorian Immigrant and Refugee

dents live in neighbourhoods which are relatively close to

Women’s Coalition 2009, as cited in Dunstan 2011). For

their education institutions (Marginson et al., 2010). This

example, many local governments offer language and

means that international students are primarily concen-

youth services, as well as run community events designed

trated in local government areas that include or are close

to promote multiculturalism (for example, see City of

to, education institutions. Consequently, international stu-

Greater Dandenong, n.d.a, n.d.b; City of Melbourne, n.d.a,

dents will likely be a significant presence in particular local

n.d.b; Darebin City Council, 2011a, 2011b). Such activities

government areas. For example, the City of Melbourne (a

could easily be extended to include, and/or be marketed

local government area which includes the central business

to, international students; as some local governments are

district and several inner suburbs of Melbourne, Victoria)

already doing.

contains eight universities and over 90 private education

However, a simple but effective initiative that can be

institutions (primarily vocational educational and training

adopted by a local government council to assist its interna-

colleges), with international students accounting for 27.5

tional student population is the establishment of a consul-

per cent of enrolments in 2008 (City of Melbourne, 2010).

tative committee that involves the students in discussions

This has resulted in international students coming to com-

and decisions around the provision of services relevant to

prise approximately one third of all young people living in

their needs. We know that Darebin City Council – a local

the City and about 10 per cent of its total resident popu-

government area in the north of metropolitan Melbourne,

lation (City of Melbourne, 2010). International students

Victoria – has established the Darebin Overseas Student

are also recognised as a visible community group by local

Association. Similarly Melbourne City Council has estab-

governments in a number of other Australian capital and

lished a committee called InterComm3.These committees

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permit a dialogue between the Councils and students,

but included within these broader programmes are poli-

giving international students a voice that is easily heard

cies designed primarily to benefit international students.

by Council. We contend that these examples are a vital

The ‘packaging’ approach serves to not only reduce the

first step for setting up a successful international student

overall cost of providing support services specifically for

support programme because engagement and empower-

international students by making them relevant to multi-

ment are essential to addressing the social inclusion and

ple sections of the population, but also makes the overall

security needs of international students.

programme more appealing and relevant to the com-

While some may argue that the provision of support

munity. This, we contend, is vital for programme survival

services for international students represents a signifi-

because such an approach assists in maintaining commu-

cant burden on the limited financial resources of many

nity support and political will for the programme.

local governments, there are ways to mitigate the cost.

Finally, to further strengthen support programmes,

Volunteers (including international students themselves)

coordination and information sharing local government

can be used to run many programmes, as Darebin Coun-

and educational institutions could share or spread costs

cil has done with its Festival of Lights event which served

between both parties while also increasing awareness

as a welcome to international students and celebration of

of available programmes, particularly by leveraging insti-

Darebin’s cultural diversity.The use of student volunteers

tutional communication channels, such as email lists

is of benefit not just to local government budgets but to the students themselves for participation in community activities can address issues of social isolation, develop English

language

compe-

tence and promote community development. Services and programmes could also

and social media. This type

While some may argue that the provision of support services for international students represents a significant burden on the limited financial resources of many local governments, there are ways to mitigate the cost. Volunteers (including international students themselves) can be used to run many programmes...

of scheme could potentially

provide

education

institutions with a source of competitive advantage, especially in today’s falling market for international students, by allowing them to offer a broader range of services to students at low cost.

be run in conjunction with

Cost and information shar-

charities, community groups

ing arrangements could be

and religious groups, thereby splitting the costs between

mutually beneficial for both local government and edu-

multiple parties. For example, the ‘The Couch’ interna-

cation institutions with regard to providing support ser-

tional student centre in the Melbourne CBD was estab-

vices to international students. For example, as a move

lished by the Salvation Army, but with support from the

in this direction, the cities of Brisbane (a local govern-

City of Melbourne (Perkins 2009). Similarly, the “Welcome

ment area which includes the entire metropolitan area

to Wollongong Project” is a joint initiative of the City of

of Brisbane in Queensland; Study Brisbane, n.d.), Dare-

Wollongong (a regional coastal city located to the south

bin (Darebin City Council, 2011b) and Wollongong (Wol-

of Sydney, in New South Wales), various education institu-

longong UniCentre, 2012) all have their civic welcome

tions located in Wollongong, and the Illawarra Business

events for international students sponsored, in part, by

Chamber (Wollongong UniCentre, 2012). Another sug-

some education institutions located in their local gov-

gestion is to simply extend and/or raise awareness of

ernment areas.

existing and relevant local government services to inter-

In summary, international students are a substantial

national students thereby reducing costs of establishing

minority in many local government areas, particularly

new services.

those that contain, or are close to, major higher education

There is also much to be gained from packaging inter-

institutions. In the absence of support for international

national student support programmes into larger support

students outside their educational institution and minimal

programmes which target broader sections of the com-

on-campus support, local governments need to acknowl-

munity. For example, both the City of Adelaide (a local

edge the presence of international students within the

government area covering the CBD of Adelaide in South

community they service and provide them with appropri-

Australia; Adelaide City Council, n.d.a, n.d.b) and the City

ate support services, just as they would with any other

of Melbourne (2010) have a large suite of social support

significant community group. Local government has the

programmes directed towards young people in general,

capacity to assist international students and address many

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of their issues, including their social exclusion and poor

This significant short-fall in the formal support net-

security. We have outlined in this section the numerous

work for international students opens up opportunities

ways in which local governments can provide support,

for local governments to fill this gap and the potential for

giving international students a voice being of particular

local government and education institutions to partner in

importance. We have also offered suggestions for how

providing support for international students. We argue

local governments can reduce the financial burden of

the role of local government in Australia is to meet the

providing services, including working with local educa-

needs of the community, as well as to create a community

tion institutions.

which is civil, equitable and culturally sensitive. In recent times fulfilling this role has increasingly meant the provi-

Conclusion

sion of human services, such as healthcare, community development and recreation. International students form

International students, due to their legal status and mar-

part of the local community during their stay in the host

ginal location in Australian society, experience social

nation. As such, they deserve to be considered a part of

exclusion and a reduced level of security in Australia. As

the perceived community for which their local govern-

a consequence they require a greater level of on-campus,

ment is responsible and to have their needs met and con-

but particularly off-campus, support compared to local

cerns listened to. Therefore, we argue local governments

students. There are both economic and ethical reasons

have a role, particularly those who have significant inter-

for ensuring that international students are provided with

national student populations within their boundaries, to

this additional support. However, as a number of scholars

extend existing services to include international students

show (e.g. Deumert et al., 2005; Marginson et al., 2010;

and, where necessary, establish new services to provide

Marginson, 2011) the current legislated welfare and secu-

them with essential support.

rity regime in Australia, and the level of support provided

For many local governments, the provision of such

to international students is inadequate. International stu-

services will primarily be constrained by their limited

dents are not simply consumers of educational services;

financial resources. However, this should not prevent

they are temporary residents who need access to appro-

them from incorporating multiculturalism into their core

priate support.

services and thus providing services to international stu-

Deumert et al. (2005) and Marginson (2011), propose

dents. In this paper we have made several suggestions as

a comprehensive international student security regime

to how the financial burden can be shared or reduced. In

based on international students as global citizens deserv-

fact, the most important step that a local government can

ing of full human rights. Unfortunately, at the current time

take with regard to providing support to international stu-

– despite a review of the ESOS Act (Commonwealth of

dents, and one that is not very expensive at all, is to give

Australia, 2010a), an investigation into the industry by the

them a voice through the creation of a local consultative

Senate Standing Committee on Education, Employment

body, and to listen to that voice.

and Workplace Relations (2009), and the development of

We contend that local government is in a good, although

an international student strategy out to 2014 by the Coun-

far from perfect, position to fill the gap in support to

cil of Australian Governments (2010) – neither the Austral-

international students left by the current legislative frame-

ian Federal Government nor any of the State Governments

work. However, such support will only be forthcoming

have moved to adopt such an extensive international stu-

when international students are recognised as legitimate

dent security regime. Consequently, the support services

members of their local community and given a voice in

for international students legally required to be provided

decisions that affect them which is commensurate with

by government and education institutions remain insuf-

this position. Until that time, international students will

ficient, particularly as it relates to international students’

face an uncertain and insecure future as outsiders existing

lives off-campus. This may become even more of an issue

on the fringes of Australian society.

as international students begin to take advantage of recent changes to the international student visa regime allowing

Toby Paltridge is a PhD student and Susan Mayson is an aca-

them to stay for up to four years after completing their

demic in the Department of Management, Monash University,

studies (Evans & Bowen, 2011), as those students unable

Australia.

to obtain quality employment (or any employment at all) may find themselves still with limited financial resources

Jan Schapper is an academic in the Department of Manage-

but even less support.

ment, La Trobe Business School, Australia.

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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Recession-oscopy Can universities be the light at the end?

Steve Mackey Deakin University

This paper paints the philosophical and ethical backdrop to some of the issues raised in Australian Universities’ Review vol. 53, no. 2. It links academic performance pay; the measurement of research output; and the astonishing pay levels of vice chancellors to the present global financial crisis. These are explained as part of a general malaise of institutions, which has its roots in the early Enlightenment. Drawing from semioticians Charles Sanders Peirce and John Deely it uses the terms ideoscopy and cenoscopy to characterise the hijacking of unwarranted scientific status for much of the way our world is managed. But crisis can lead to opportunity. Consequently, the paper points to the glaring opportunity for thinkers who can articulate the present situation in a way which could avert disaster.

Introduction

of these two words as to do with something that probes into unusual places with a light at the end. However, 19th

How will the looming Global Financial Crisis (GFC) Mark

century philosopher of semiotics and pragmatism Charles

II affect our lives? How will it affect universities here and

Sanders Peirce would have had no idea about this future

overseas? What will courses and students look like under

implication. He coined the terms to mean respectively:

a regime of global austerity? Will Europe disintegrate into

knowledge originated in special scientific ways which it is

social strife? And, not to put too fine a point on it, what is

hard to understand if you are not a relevant specialist; and

going to happen to our superannuation? Nobody seems

knowledge which can be worked out by many people if

to know the answers to any of this. But, as TV financial

they apply logic and experience to common sense, (Peirce,

pundit Alan Kohler put it in an ABC interview in January:

1955, p. 66), (Peirce, Weiss, & Hartshorne, 1974, passim).

‘This is a very interesting time for people in my caper.’

Deely (2008) and (2009) uses these terms to explain how

Kohler was talking about his excitement as a specialist

modernity from Descartes onwards went too far down

journalist during this ‘once in a lifetime financial crisis

the ideoscopic track – the ‘trust in the experts track’ –

event’. But is this also an interesting time for those of us in

the ‘call for the consultants track’. Deely’s argument in his

the ‘academic caper’? I’d like to answer: well, yes. But, well,

2009 book contrasts Peirce’s ideoscopic and cenoscopic

perhaps no. I’ll attempt to justify this vacillation with the

notions to make the point that philosophy took an unrea-

two words:‘ideoscopy’ and ‘cenoscopy’. And this is where

sonably nominalist turn in the 17th century. Deely’s multi-

it gets a bit academic...

book project champions a deeper understanding of the realism of the correct semiotic approach, as opposed to

The cult of ideoscopy

misunderstandings of semiotics. He writes in the tradition stemming from the scholastics which runs through John

Readers whose internal health has ever been questioned

Poinsot (1589-1644) and Peirce (1838-1914). Part of his

would probably be among the first to recognise the suffix

concern is the difficulty caused by over-fascination with

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Recession-oscopy, Steve Mackey

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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science and social science. He argues that scholarship was

Because of this sleight of hand, one of the most important

a cenoscopic activity from the times of the early Greeks

foundations of civilisation has been ceded to people now

right up to the 17th century when:

revealed to be either not at all clever or not at all ethical.

One way of understanding that historical period or epoch in European history called ‘the Enlightenment’ is precisely as that period when ideoscopy began to take hold and demand institutionalisation within the framework of the developing ‘community of inquirers’ inspired by the idea of the university... The exuberance of the early generation of inquirers who turned to ideoscopy, especially in the mathematisation of the results of experimentation and observation acquired by the systematic use of instruments which extended the unaided sense powers of the human body, led to a naive but general expectation that ideoscopy, the development of science in the definitively modern sense, would ‘slow by slow’ supplant cenoscopy entirely (Deely, 2009, p. 4).

It is apparent that many of them are at best so confident

The argument of this paper is that Enlightenment over-

ing from the mythology of expert scientific management:

enthusiasm for ideoscopic ‘experts’ rather than more

Expertise becomes a commodity for which rival state agencies and rival private corporations compete. Civil servants and managers alike justify themselves and their claims to authority, power and money by invoking their own competence as scientific managers of social change. (MacIntyre, 1985, pp. 85-86)

generally dispersed cenoscopic good sense bears responsibility for many aspects of the pretty pass which we are in today. Using Deely and Peirce’s terms it appears obvious that the world’s financial maestros have been operating in an ideoscopic manner. They have expounded their expertise in the use of hard to understand, mathematically designed ‘financial products’, ‘products’ which have resulted in economic chaos. They have honed their ‘instruments’ behind a veil of: ‘You wouldn’t understand.’ But now they are coming into view cenoscopically, i.e. in

of their own infallibility that they are deluded. At worst many are charlatans who have taken advantage of ideoscopic cultural tendencies in a way which now threatens financial ruin for many.The bankers of course continue to extract high fees or retire on big pensions.

After virtue But it is not only financial managers who have enjoyed undeserved status because of the ideoscopy of modernism. In After Virtue Alasdair MacIntyre implies that the whole of western society is riddled with people benefit-

But what if effectiveness is part of a masquerade of social control rather than reality? What if effectiveness were a quality widely imputed to managers and bureaucrats both by themselves and others, but in fact a quality which rarely exists apart from this imputation? (MacIntyre, 1985, p. 75)

common terms, to show what these ‘instruments’ really

Civil servants and managers who legislate and run uni-

are. They are ‘schemes’ ...and they are often schemes

versities are a case in point. They tend to welcome ideo-

which look quite odd. Some are schemes which should

scopically justified instrumental and vocational studies at

not be associated with the terms ‘science’ or ‘expert’.

the expense of the more cenoscopically friendly humani-

What this sudden ‘the King has no clothes’ vista suggests

ties.At the same time pure science - studies of what science

is that in the post Enlightenment world, mass estrange-

really is - is similarly downgraded. Because of the mind set

ment from participation in the creation of knowledge,

of ideoscopy the ability of students to critique and explore

mass alienation from great swathes of understanding, has

is reduced. Why would graduates need to think for them-

allowed vital areas of life to be unnecessarily obscured

selves when the world is so complicated? Why can’t they

sometimes with disastrous consequences. Earning, bor-

call in the experts, call in the consultants, call in someone

rowing, paying back and spending money is one of these

to do their thinking for them? This is the unadmitted rubric

areas. This is an area which is not rocket science. In the

of universities which are increasingly driven by the priori-

credit card era most of us earn, borrow, pay back, and

ties of industry and the priority of client career choice.This

spend every day. We are highly experienced in this activ-

concentration on doing things rather than thinking risks

ity. But those who do this on a scale capable of collapsing

eroding the intellectual culture, the intellectual quality of

the world economy while they make big money out of it

universities. It has led to professors looking like rabbits

have opted to pretend that what they do is far too hard

caught in the car headlights, impotent and dumbfounded

for ordinary people to understand. Instead of engaging in

in the current crisis. Where is their understanding about

transparent, public debate these ‘experts’ have secreted

what is really going on as we slide ever closer towards what

themselves and their processes away. They have renamed

Bank of England Governor Sir Mervyn King has described

schemes – ‘products’ and ‘instruments’ in order to make

as:‘the most serious financial crisis at least since the 1930s,

them sound more scientific, more ‘the realm of experts’.

if not ever?’ (Elliot, 2011).

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Recession-oscopy, Steve Mackey

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The looming crisis After a seemingly prosperous expansionary period suddenly we face a decade when in Europe and the US, if not

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Athens’s ancient city wall contained the inscription: ‘The man with no public business has no business’. Underscoring that observation, the ancient Greek word for a person mute on public affairs was ‘idiot’. (Hauser, 1999, p. 19), (eNotes, 2011)

more widely a trillions of dollars disruption is imminent. This means food, heating, healthcare, shelter, transport,

Major economic malaise is urgent public business. Eve-

education, employment and the organisation and fund-

ryone should be discussing it intelligently. Why are we

ing of these, whether public or private, will be in shorter

not? Are we all idiots? Or are we mute because of the cult

supply. Where this does not result in people dying earlier

of ideoscopy? Has everyone, including university staff

it certainly means life will be less pleasant. Would it have

ceded this sort of discussion to the realm of the ‘expert’

come to this if people had been educated to really under-

– the opinion editorial writer; the political pundit; the

stand what was going on with their countries’ finances;

blogger; the whoever-appears-on-the-TV-screen? What

with their countries’ governance; with their countries’

seems to be the case is that where mass thinking is

morality? If universities had properly stimulated thought

not trapped into totally irrational literal religiosity – as

into what the financiers were risking would citizens have

in much of America – it is trapped into an irrational

happily agreed to the greed involved? If voters had been

belief in experts. Democratic systems require politicians

sufficiently taught the history of similar episodes would

to at least feign alignment with majority public belief.

they have gone along with the deception? If people were

But majority public belief is stuck at the ‘modern’ stage

participating in cultural expression which reflected the

described by Deely. The ‘post-modern’ is still not a term

nonsense would they have remained content with politi-

to be used in polite company without a smirk. Conse-

cal processes? Would aware, informed and intelligently

quently, politically controlled universities are unlikely

participating populations have been content to let a semi-

to pass on the realisation that the omnipotence of the

secret industry blight personal lives for a large part of the

modern scientific expert is as much a myth as is literal

21st century?

religion. Individual scientists and individual scientific

We hear little snippets of ‘research’ here and there... the

projects are of course often brilliant and indispensable.

Greek suicide rate is up; the Irish are increasing migra-

But this does not qualify institutions to claim pseudo-sci-

tion again; UK household incomes are sliding; the use of

entific justification for their methods of deciding what

water cannon has been considered on the UK mainland.

should and what should not get taught; how it should

But what is happening in universities at this interest-

or should not be taught; and what status and encourage-

ing time for those of us in the ‘academic caper’? Where

ment should be attached to particular subjects.

are the major debates? Where is rigorous analysis of the financial viability of advanced western societies and

Ideoscopy and academic management

analysis of the viability of other societies which depend on our viability? Where are the insightful forecasts of

For the same reasons the feigned ‘scientific management’

what sort of countries both varieties will be in ten years

of academics should be opposed.The inappropriate appli-

time? What opportunities might be taken of a shattering

cation of ideoscopy is the core contradiction of both

of post-war presumptions about how the world might

performance related pay for academics and journal rank-

be? How might the enormous resource of millions of out

ing fetishism as discussed in AUR vol.53, no 2, (Harkness,

of work income seekers be harnessed? How could envi-

2011), (Young, 2011). Cenoscopically we would argue that

ronmental and sustainable-planet improvements mesh

it is intelligent and moral academics who do the better job

with these factors?

in comparison to academics who are on incentive bonuses or whose work is more closely measured. But profession-

Are we all idiots?

alism; intelligence; a sense of vocation; and morality are difficult attributes to measure.They are the priceless qual-

These sorts of questions and the responses which they

ities which enable any department or group of employees

seek are not beyond the understanding of most of us.They

to function well together. But these are qualities which

and many similar discussions should be everyday parlance

are downplayed or ignored when ideoscopy becomes a

– pub talk, hair salon gossip. In the cenoscopic era of the

cult which demands the ‘hard facts’ - the mathematisa-

Greek polis ordinary citizens were referred to as ‘idiots’ if

tion of everything. There is another striking manifesta-

they were not able to articulate these sorts of public affairs:

tion which comes to the fore when ideoscopy becomes

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a cult. This is the proliferation of increasingly higher piles

educational priorities from churning out masses of rarely

of cash that are dropped like votive offerings at the feet

read technical trivia in order to meet irrelevant metrics to

of so called experts who achieve the rank of demigods:

a deeper examination of the basis of contemporary under-

top bankers; VCs; other CEOs. It is not their professional-

standings.We need a better grasp on what is really obscure

ism, their morality, their collegiality which is measured to

knowledge and what is merely obscurity. University Coun-

qualify them for their bonuses. Instead they promise inter-

cils’ members drawn from industry and commerce must

view panels that they will achieve performance targets

be replaced by genuine, intellectually committed educa-

which can be validated in some mathematical manner:

tionalists. We cannot risk another decade without people

university research ranking; student satisfaction statistics;

being educated properly. As Kohler says of his profes-

budget outcomes and so on. But piles of cash and the

sion this is indeed an interesting time for people in our

super-executive power and status which wealth implies

‘caper’: academia. It is a time of crisis – and consequently

tends to insulate top managers. They become cocooned

of opportunity. It is a time when the bases of many social

behind an outer office of those much lower on a steep

and economic understandings are vulnerable to construc-

power gradient. Underlings are people who are far more

tive questioning. One of these constructive questions is to

likely to take a ‘Yes Minister’ approach than to be criti-

do with the balance between ideoscopic and cenoscopic

cal peers. In their private lives the ostentation of VCs as

ways of investigation the world. Deely and Peirce are clear

the enriched beneficiaries of the cult of misplaced ideos-

that proper scientific method and mathematics are vital to

copy further undermines the power and morale of ordi-

the ways the contemporary world works. But we need to

nary, well meaning professionals. Cenoscopic collegiality

review what can really be understood scientifically and

declines as ideoscopically based propaganda dominates

where science is merely being hijacked for the propagan-

organisational relations.

distic exploitation of its prestige.

In this way it can be argued that every time we hear about a vice chancellor being awarded an obscene pay

Dr Steve Mackey is a Senior Lecturer in Public Relations in

level we are in fact seeing a further blow to the profes-

Deakin’s Faculty of Arts and Education.

sional nature of higher education. As VC pay levels reach the stratosphere, higher education falls into line with an intellectual repression now overseen by the business people and technocrats – the ideoscopically justified ‘experts’ who have displaced educationalists on university councils. Vocational education is all very well and good. Universities were founded on the need to teach medicine and law. But every time an academic manager says something like a dean once said to me: ‘I think you should leave that semiotics stuff alone’ [and concentrate more on my vocational subject – public relations], then, just like happens in Peter Pan, something dies somewhere

References Barrie, J. M. & Unwin, N. S. (1951). Peter Pan. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Deely, J. N. (2008). Descartes & Poinsot : the crossroad of signs and ideas. Scranton, Pa. ; London: University of Scranton Press. Deely, J. N. (2009). Augustine and Poinsot : the protosemiotic development. Scranton: University of Scranton Press. Elliot, L. & Allen, K. (2011, October 7). Britain in grip of ‘worst ever financial crisis’: Bank chief: ‘There’s not enough money’: £75bn of quantitative easing announced. The Guardian. eNotes (2011). Idiot (Athenian democracy). eNotes Retrieved from: http://www. enotes.com/topic/Idiot_(Athenian_democracy)

of academics, [with apologies to]: (Barrie & Unwin, 1951).

Harkness, P. & Schier, M. (2011). Performance related pay in Australian universities: The case of Swinburne University, Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), 50-58.

Conclusion

Hauser, G. A. (1999). Vernacular voices : the rhetoric of public and public spheres. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.

The current economic sickness is a symptom and a

MacIntyre, A. (1985). After virtue : a study in moral theory (2nd ed.). London: Duckworth.

– something fundamental to the deepest responsibilities

wakeup call which points to deafness and blindness towards public affairs in many modern institutions. In the institution of the university it is the academic’s responsibility to throw off a central aspect of this sickness: the misuse of the ideoscopic legacy. Proper status needs to be reattached to cenoscopic thought, to the realisation of the

Peirce, C. S. (1955). Philosophical writings of Peirce. New York: Dover Publications. Peirce, C. S., Weiss, P. & Hartshorne, C. (1974). Collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Young, S., Peetz, D. & Marais, M. (2011). The impact of journal ranking fetishism on Australian policy-related research: A case study. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), 77-87.

ability of ordinary people to understand and intervene into the way their world works. This implies a change of vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Recession-oscopy, Steve Mackey

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The managerialist university: an economic interpretation Tony Aspromourgos University of Sydney

The rise of the managerialist university, in terms of a shift towards supposed corporate forms of governance in universities, associated also with greater competition between universities, has been the subject of considerable controversy. Dissent with respect to these developments has commonly appealed to the notion of the university as a special kind of corporate entity that at least partly transcends merely economic considerations. This paper demonstrates that a purely economic analysis of the university provides a sufficient basis for repudiating the managerialist model.

Introduction

ture in which it is clear that each level of management is responsible to those further up the structure, not those

The changing character of universities in recent decades,

‘below’, has entailed a repudiation of the traditional col-

both in Australia and internationally, has been the subject

legial model of the university.

of considerable discussion, debate and indeed, concern. While a variety of forces has no doubt been at work in

Managing the university product

these institutional and other developments, at least in the Anglophone world, the shift in the political atmos-

Rather than treating the university as some kind of spe-

phere since the end of the 1970s seems to have been

cial corporate entity, that in some manner at least partly

the key factor – notably, with respect to the role of the

transcends merely economic considerations, one may,

public sector. Just as there have been a variety of forces

provisionally, approach the issue by treating the university

at work, so also there are a number of distinct (if con-

as an enterprise, ‘just like any other’, producing a set of

nected) aspects of the evolution of universities that have

commodities. (This will be qualified below.) But of course

stimulated controversy. Here, the focus is on just two par-

commercial enterprises are not all of the same kind, even

ticular and related aspects. First, the rise of a managerialist

as purely commercial enterprises. However, the key point

approach to university governance and thereby, the emer-

here, rather than singling out the universities as in some

gence also of an academic managerial class that exercises

sense unique corporate entities, is to recognise universi-

power in the contemporary university, as a class distinct

ties as belonging to the subset of enterprises that produce

and largely separated from the bulk of working academ-

services, rather than physical commodities. And then fur-

ics. The second is the implementation of a sort of com-

ther, it is necessary to understand that universities belong

petition model of the university system. The adoption of

to that sub-subset of service providers in which it is quite

a managerialist approach, with a ‘line management’ struc-

impossible for a managerial group within the enterprise

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to enforce upon the workers a set of activities and endeav-

damage to the reputation and standing of the university in

ours so as to ensure the services of the corporate entity

the wider community. But perhaps the standing of the uni-

are provided to a desired quality standard.

versities’ products will not be damaged in the eyes of the

Under such production conditions it is always possible for the workers to shirk with respect to the provision of

wider community, even as the objective quality of those products declines. We return to this possibility below.

some aspects or other of the activities and endeavours

Now, if academic workers are induced to minimise

that go into forming the final product. This is only rein-

their work efforts, in ways that cannot be observed or

forced when some aspects of the product or services

ascertained by managers, in response to stick-wielding

being produced involve voluntary contributions by the

vice-chancellors, deputy vice-chancellors, deans, associ-

individual workers, contributions that are not, and cannot,

ate deans, and so on down the food chain, then it is not

be written into explicit labour contracts. It is impossible

likely to be their research time or research output that is

for management to enforce all aspects of the workers’

primarily affected. The self-image and self-regard of aca-

activities, either because such supervision and enforce-

demics – certainly those at research-intensive universi-

ment are too costly, or because any such surveillance

ties – in general is inevitably more closely bound up with

would actually undermine service provision, thereby det-

their research achievements than with teaching or wider

rimentally changing the product. With regard to the latter,

service. Academics who are induced to shirk in response

imagine university management watching over the con-

to stick-wielding academic managers are likely, as much

duct of research, either in the office or the laboratory, or

as they can, to protect their research time and efforts at

overseeing every minute of every lecture, and so on.There

the expense of teaching and service. It is in particular in

are many, many things that academic workers do that they

teaching where a minimum or merely serviceable effort

could cease doing, without compromising their contracts

will suffice, without the corporate entity having any

with the university, but which if they ceased to be done

capacity to enforce that effort which produces something

by many, most, or all academic workers, would certainly

better, even immensely valuable, in the way of pedagogy.

compromise the overall product that universities deliver.

But would this not then force management to alter its

It is these peculiar conditions of academic produc-

methods, since the consequent decline in teaching quality

tion which make ‘Management 101’ inapplicable to the

might compromise a university’s standing with potential

university industry, or makes its application damaging

students and thereby threaten the student load, which is

(whether or not it is usefully applicable to any other kind

the funding base for both teaching and a considerable

of commodity production). Certainly, one cannot induce

amount of research time, at least for most universities?

academic workers, individually or collectively, to deliver

Perhaps it will not.

an overall product of quality research, teaching and wider community service merely by way of management wielding a stick of one form or another. The goodwill of the

Competition and the higher education industry

workforce is essential to enable quality product provision. University management or leadership must be able to take

To see why this reputational effect might not occur takes

the academic workers with them, by making the work-

us to a second dimension of the managerialist university:

ing academics willing participants in the endeavour; an

the rise of the academic-manager class within the univer-

antagonized and demoralised workforce will find a myriad

sities has been associated, presumably not by accident,

of ways, individually and collectively, to cut corners in the

also with the notion that universities should engage in

provision of research, teaching and/or service. Hence fol-

competition with each other, in some sense. (The most

lows a joke recounted to me by an Italian colleague some

obvious connection between the two developments is

years ago (but like all good jokes, half serious):‘We [Italian

that if universities can be conceived of as usefully com-

academics] have an implicit contract with the Italian State:

peting with each other, then an application to univer-

they pay us very little – and we do very little.’ This need

sities of supposed private sector governance methods

only be qualified by acknowledgement of the motivating

appears, to that extent, more plausible.) Underpinning

role in academic life of non-pecuniary ‘remunerations’ as

the endorsement of competition is a belief, articu-

well; but these too are part of the implicit contract.

lated only in the vaguest of ways, that competition will

The overall character and quality of what the univer-

improve service quality, as well as perhaps contributing

sity produces in the aggregate will be compromised by

to other desirable outcomes; notably, cost minimisation.

such shirking, with – one might suppose – consequent

In fact, this notion has only been specified in the vaguest

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of ways because if any precision is attempted, the plausi-

remunerations. Or to put the same point differently, rela-

bility of the idea evaporates.

tive to non-academic remuneration possibilities open to

One may picture the competitive process, albeit in a

the brightest, even academic positions with abnormally

brief and somewhat loose way, along the following lines.

high remunerations cannot compete on purely pecuni-

Let us say the generic product under consideration is beer.

ary terms. When a ‘trophy professor’ is headhunted from

There are a number of suppliers providing the product,

one university to another, with an abnormal remunera-

which is differentiated and branded. They can compete

tion offer, the aggregate of research in the world is not

on both price and quality, with tradeoffs between the two

increased. Income and resources are probably transferred

dimensions. They are supplying into a market – let us call

from the trophy professor’s new colleagues to the trophy

it ‘Australia’ – in which there is a large body, indeed, a very

professor, likely with some degree of demoralisation of

large body, of experienced and hence informed consum-

those other staff; the headhunting university management

ers on the demand side of the market. One would expect

congratulates itself on its strategic genius, and of course,

under these conditions that, at the same price, a better

makes sure an article about the trophy professor appears

quality beer will succeed over a lesser quality beer; and at

in the alumni magazine; and that is all.

the same quality, a cheaper beer will prevail over a dearer

Returning to competition with respect to degree provi-

one.This is of course consistent with beers that exhibit dif-

sion, the first difference to note between competition with

ferent price/quality combinations surviving in the market,

respect to beers and with respect to university degrees is

side by side – when it is further allowed that beer quality is

that almost by definition, there cannot be a large body of

multidimensional, and that consumers have heterogeneous

informed consumers – in fact, there can hardly be any such

tastes. Then it is also possible that a beer A, which is infe-

potential consumers – on the demand side of the degree

rior to a beer B, in quality dimension x, while higher priced

market. The peculiarity of university degree consumption,

than beer B, may yet also survive in the market, if superior

vis-à-vis most other commodity demands, for both final

to beer B in some other quality dimension y, valued by at

consumption goods and capital goods, is that it is virtu-

least a sufficient segment of consumers.

ally always a unique act of consumption, strictly speaking,

Is this kind of typical competitive process transferable

never to be repeated. (We mention capital goods because

to competition with respect to the services universities

education is often conceived of as accumulation of ‘human

provide? In answering this, let us put aside the research

capital’.) That is to say, for any particular degree on offer

and community service dimensions of the product uni-

from competing producers on the supply side, any single

versities provide and focus just on education; in particular,

potential consumer will only ever wish to consume one of

degree provision. In doing so we nevertheless acknowl-

them in a lifetime, at most.To end up consuming, for exam-

edge that the three dimensions are not separable in real-

ple, two Bachelor of Science degrees, or whatever other

ity; they are ‘joint products’. For example, the teaching

degree, would be almost always a very great disaster for

and community service aspects of the product are cer-

the consumer.

tainly not independent of the research achievements and

To return for a moment to the beer example, if I am a

research activities of the academic staff. Nor are these

person who has never before consumed beer, and I wake

three dimensions independent of each other in the com-

up one morning and decide to become a beer drinker, I

petition that occurs between universities. For example,

could go out every night for, say, 40 days, and drink three

universities’ research standing can influence their stand-

to five beers of a particular and different brand each night.

ing as degree providers, though it seems, both positively

No doubt I would in this process drink some shockingly

and negatively!

bad beers. (Let us leave them nameless here.) But in a rela-

However, before putting aside research and community

tively short time (i.e., relative to my remaining expected

service, one parenthetical comment may be made with

lifespan of prospective beer drinking), and at relatively

respect to competition among universities for research-

low cost (relative to the benefits from my remaining life of

ers. It is highly unlikely that any of this competition, even

beer drinking), I would become an informed beer drinker.

if it increases remuneration for a few, will increase the

I would thereby become an addition to the large body of

aggregate of human intelligence and effort devoted to

informed beer drinkers that makes competition a signifi-

the sciences and humanities, rather than merely reallocat-

cant force in shaping the pricing and quality of the variety

ing intelligence and research effort between institutions

of beers supplied to the market.

and perhaps between disciplines. People do not choose

A further impediment to competition between uni-

an academic life based primarily upon relative pecuniary

versities being capable of beneficially shaping the

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degree product is that the quality of the product is to

It may be added here that the multidimensionality of

a considerable extent opaque, or non-transparent, even

the product and heterogeneity of consumer tastes or pref-

after it has been consumed. This is not only because

erences, which were earlier noted in the case of beer, may

it is a one-off consumption item, but also because it

have some analogy in the market for particular degrees, or

is in the nature of knowledge- or information-rich

they may not. We leave this issue aside here. But it should

products and services that they entail an information

not be taken for granted that competition among univer-

asymmetry between supplier and consumer. The poten-

sities will encourage greater diversity in the character of

tial consumer, in making a choice, is reliant upon the

particular degrees, across different universities; it may

advice of the potential suppliers, causing thereby also

instead lead to greater homogeneity. And the information

an asymmetry of power. This asymmetry between the

asymmetry problem in the degree market means that con-

‘demander’ and the supplier is intrinsic to the situa-

sumer preferences are considerably more influenced by

tion. Most consumers of car repairs cannot know pre-

the suppliers than could possibly be the case in the beer

cisely what service has been provided, and whether it

market (in the latter case, for example, by way of advertis-

was required. When one attends a medical doctor with

ing). This aspect of the situation can foster homogeneity

an ailment, one asks this supplier of medical services:

in degree offerings as well.

what do I need to purchase? Similarly, to a considerable

In fact, it is doubtful whether advertising by universities

extent, the one-off consumers of degrees will never know if it was worth it. Whatever degree of satisfaction graduates may record concerning their degrees – one, five or ten years after graduation – they will not have any very clear and definite

conception

of

what their education could

has any significant influence

When a ‘trophy professor’ is headhunted from one university to another, with an abnormal remuneration offer, the aggregate of research in the world is not increased. Income and resources are probably transferred from the trophy professor’s new colleagues to the trophy professor, likely with some degree of demoralisation of those other staff...

have been, better than that

in shaping the preferences across universities of degree consumers, other than by way of letting potential consumers know, or reminding them, of the conventional rankings

of

universities

within the industry. Putting aside research students, consumer

preferences

across

universities are largely an

which they received.

expression of self-validating

In particular, a decline over time in the quality of the

circular causation. For example, in the Australian context,

education provided in degrees will not be evident, or at

the research-intensive Group of Eight (Go8) universities

least will not be transparently evident, to the students

rank high in degree-consumer preferences, not because of

and graduates who have consumed just one degree of

any objective superiority in their teaching performance,

any type, at one point in time. An engineering graduate,

but mainly, because they already, previously, ranked high.

or graduate in any other discipline, will never know, at

To a very substantial extent, the perception of their qual-

least with any definiteness, the difference between a

ity as degree providers is merely due to the quality of their

2012 engineering degree and a 1982 engineering degree,

previous students, which in turn was a result of those

even from the same institution. There is of course much

universities previously ranking high in degree-consumer

public debate about declining standards in university edu-

preferences.This perception then attracts another genera-

cation (and in many other areas of human life!); but the

tion of quality students, and so on. (It is difficult, but not

non-transparency of the product will always make these

impossible, for this virtuous circle to be broken.)

claims contestable and less than compellingly evident. This is the basis for our comment above, that a decline in

Conclusions

teaching quality, resulting from managerialism, need not be inhibited by competitive pressure, because it will not

We have been pursuing here a line of critical argument

necessarily damage the reputation of a degree supplier,

about the contemporary university within a fairly nar-

and in particular, the relative reputation of the supplier

rowly economic frame of reference. That of course is not

with respect to other suppliers. To that extent, competi-

an adequate conceptual framework for a properly com-

tion will not motivate university managers to change gov-

prehensive accounting for the purposes and character

ernance regimes and methods.

of universities. Our aim has been precisely to show how

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thoroughly one can repudiate the managerialist model,

It is undoubtable that academic work must be subject

without need of appeal to special or unique characteris-

to audit by, and accountability to, those who fund the

tics of the university.

activity; most obviously, government, but also fee-paying

But before drawing some conclusions arising from our

students. Economic theory also provides justification

argument, it is worth pointing out one further limitation

for public funding or subsidisation of the ‘public good’

of the crude application of a vague notion of competi-

dimensions of the university product: as well as pure or

tion to degree provision. In standard economic theory, the

fundamental research, with particular regard to educa-

autonomy or independence of consumers’ preferences

tion this concerns fundamental knowledge and generic

(i.e., desires, wants or tastes) – independence from the

skills – that which purely profit-seeking entities could

consumption they undertake – is an essential assumption

not provide in desirable quantity to self-funded, unsub-

to enable the competitive model to produce its typical

sidised students. In the absence of public funding, these

conclusions. Preferences (together with the constraints of

educational attainments and the degrees in which they

prices and incomes) cause consumption; but consump-

are embodied would also be provided, less on a merito-

tion influencing preferences must be ruled out. Without

cratic basis and more with regard to private ability to

that restriction, there would be no independent and stable

pay. Furthermore, whatever the balance between public

criterion by which to determine whether individuals are

and private funding, to the extent that some parts of a

better or worse off as a result of competition; the individu-

comprehensive university that undertakes education

als themselves, as constituted by their preferences, would

across the whole range of the sciences and the humani-

become endogenous to the economic process, depriving

ties cannot be self-funding, cross-subsidisation, in some

the theory or model of the capacity to generate definite

measure, is intrinsic to the nature of the ‘universe-ity’

conclusions. Now, whether or not that assumption is rea-

– intrinsic to its universal mission. If competition with

sonable in relation to the consumption of material goods,

such institutions from niche providers is allowed (for

it is beyond question that the consumption of educa-

example, from free-standing business schools), then, as

tion changes people. Indeed, it is clearly a conscious and

the cross-subsidisation is undermined, so also is the very

central purpose of individuals in pursuing education, to

existence of the university proper.

change themselves into something different. And is this

But even allowing for legitimate audit and accountabil-

not at least part of the reason why graduates’ perceptions

ity, the managerialist university has a natural tendency to

of their education commonly differs some years after

overregulation and excessive bureaucratisation.

graduation, from their perceptions while undertaking their degrees?

First, the managerial class must create a semblance of work for itself. Developing and implementing ‘strategic

The most important conclusion to be drawn from our

plans’ are popular fillers in this respect. The crude quan-

argument is that the managerialist model, in combination

titative targets commonly incorporated in such plans are

with a vague conception of competition between univer-

also an easy benchmark by which the managers can justify

sities, is not going to produce or promote a quality uni-

themselves to those further up the hierarchy. The propa-

versity system. The managerialist model cannot serve as a

gation of ‘learning and teaching’ agendas and activities,

substitute for traditional approaches to quality assurance,

which have been the catalyst for a thriving bureaucracy-

which ultimately rest upon embodying in all individual

cum-industry within the university system, populated by

and collective academic activity, professional norms and

non-academic or quasi-academic staff, is also a popular

ethics of conduct, collegially regulated by the community

managerial pursuit. This learning-and-teaching industry is

of academics. With regard to the education dimension in

a striking instance (and perhaps not the only one) of an

particular, for genuine, quality university teaching to occur

‘emperor’s-new-clothes’ phenomenon in the contempo-

requires an ‘inner commitment’ grounded in professional

rary university. While some educational theory and practi-

ethics and professional self-respect. While the informa-

cal teaching advice may be useful for academic teachers

tion asymmetry between potential degree consumers and

– especially junior staff – virtually everyone in the system,

degree suppliers necessitates a certain limited external

including the academic managers, knows that the learn-

and internal regulation to enforce minimum acceptable

ing-and-teaching industry, as currently constituted, pro-

standards (for example, via accreditation systems), such

duces little of value for genuine university education

regulation – however much extended and over-extended

and teaching. But while virtually everyone acknowledges

– is never sufficient: internalised professional norms are

this privately, publicly, almost everyone pretends that it

also essential.

is important and worthwhile. However undesirable this

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kind of phenomenon is in normal commercial enterprise,

contracts.And the attempt to do so certainly undermines

such collective dishonesty is obviously particularly corro-

the traditional academic norms and ethics that are nec-

sive in institutions that are supposed to be in the business

essary to its provision; for example, as indicated above,

of truth-telling, in some sense or other.

encouraging shirking with respect to those contribu-

Second, and here economic analysis again provides par-

tions to academic life that are not and/or cannot be indi-

ticular insight, there is almost never any attempt to esti-

vidually contracted for. Explicit or implicit performance

mate the net benefit from proposed regulatory and audit

indicators, particularly when applied down to the level

policies. This is primarily because the costs of regulation

of the individual academic, tend to crowd out whatever

are largely externalised by those who implement it (the

is not included in them; for example, reviewing, journal

implementation and compliance costs in particular), and

editing, refereeing – activities traditionally regarded as

rather, borne by those further down the food chain. Under

important service undertaken by good academic ‘corpo-

these conditions, with most of the costs ignored by the

rate citizens’, for the benefit of academic communities.

decision-makers, there is a natural inclination to extend

They also deter elements of good teaching for which

regulation until the perceived or supposed increment of

robust empirical evidence can never be provided, and

benefit falls to zero, even if any additional benefit (real or

service activities that are not career-enhancing.

illusory), net of the costs of acquiring that benefit, is nega-

Second, given the great limitations on the capacity of

tive (i.e., marginal supposed benefit is less than marginal

degree consumers to ascertain quality (both before and

cost).The managerialist regulatory and performance audit

after undertaking a degree), competition between degree

processes, with all the attendant acquisition, measure-

providers leads to a diminution of degree quality. This

ment and processing of data, themselves absorb resources

tendency will be reinforced to the extent that there is an

that could otherwise better be devoted to research, teach-

inclination on the part of the degree consumers, individu-

ing and service. Governments impose regulation on the

ally, to minimise their effort in acquiring a degree. Indeed,

universities; the university bosses push the costs down

to the extent that degree consumers’ primary motivation

to the faculties; the faculty deans push them down to the

in acquiring a degree is their perception of its usefulness

schools and departments – with the last port of call for

in advantaging them in the labour market, merely rela-

the costs, the working academic. To put the economic

tive to others, they may be rather indifferent to the intrin-

point of view bluntly, in most human activities, the opti-

sic usefulness of their education. This is possible so long

mal number of screw-ups is unlikely to be zero; rather,

as lack of intrinsic degree quality does not compromise

some positive number.

the relative advantage in the labour market, provided by

It was asserted earlier (five paragraphs above) that

possession of the degree. It is then tempting to wonder

managerialism and quasi-competition will not deliver a

whether the universities and many of their students are in

quality university system. In fact, they are impediments to

a kind of tacit conspiracy to advance a pretence concern-

that. The managerial class, probably more or less uncon-

ing the educational enterprise.

sciously, supposes that its recourse to contractual modes of governance of academic life will leave traditional norm-

Suffice it to conclude by noting that quality is easier to destroy than it is to rebuild.

governed academic conduct intact. It will not. Not only are managerialism and quasi-competition not substitutes

Tony Aspromourgos is a professor at the School of Econom-

for traditional quality assurance grounded in professional

ics, University of Sydney, Australia.

ethics, they serve to undermine it. Two examples suffice

Acknowledgement

to make the point. First, the contract mentality which is part and parcel of the Management 101 approach to governance seeks

The author is indebted to P. Docherty, T. Fisher, M. Paton,

to reduce the entire conduct of academic life to an

R. Swain, A. Thomas and two anonymous referees for

exchange process in which rewards and punishments,

comment, without thereby implicating them in the final

at the level of the individual academic, are traded for

product.

‘outcomes’. A key point of our argument above is that a quality university product, of research plus teaching plus service, cannot be reduced to key performance indicators, and therefore its provision cannot be ensured merely by recourse to more or less explicit individual vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

The managerialist university: an economic interpretation, Tony Aspromourgos

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Placing a value on academic work The development and implementation of a time-based academic workload model John Kenny, Andrew Fluck & Tim Jetson University of Tasmania

This paper presents a detailed case study of the development and implementation of a quantifiable academic workload model in the education faculty of an Australian university. Flowing from the enterprise bargaining process, the Academic Staff Agreement required the implementation of a workload allocation model for academics that was quantifiable in terms of hours with a stipulated annual maximum. Upon its eventual implementation, evidence emerged of academic workloads well beyond the supposed upper limit to hours. The case study demonstrates the highly political nature of defining academic work. With the emphasis in a modern university on competition driven by reduced funding and limited resources, academics are increasingly held accountable through performance management for teaching and research outcomes. The case study revealed the inherent tensions that arose between academics and managers as the related issues were negotiated.

Introduction In recent years, changes to the university operating envi-

accountability. Meeting challenges to deliver outputs and outcomes while simultaneously preserving valued process and academic discourse is a complex balancing act (Houston et al., 2006, p. 20).

ronment have resulted in reduced funding for higher education and greater external and internal accountability

The academic role includes teaching, research, engage-

for academic work. The push for efficiencies and a focus

ment with students, local communities and professional

on mass education which has placed increasing empha-

bodies, and leadership within the university. The degree

sis on utilitarian forms of knowledge and research have

of complexity of the role makes its definition somewhat

occurred contemporaneously with issues about good

problematic. Individual differences, due to discipline,

teaching and research. Increasingly staff are expected to

career stage or emphasis placed on research, teaching or

conform to externally defined performance outcomes in

administrative duties, add an extra layer to nominally simi-

research, teaching and administration (Barnett & Middle-

lar roles. Houston et al. (2006, p.27) argued that the com-

hurst, 1993; Henkel, 2007; Houston, Meyer & Paewai, 2006;

plexity of universities and the diversity of academic work

Lyons & Ingersoll, 2010; Vardi, 2009). In this new context:

both within and across disciplines make any attempt to

Managers, leaders and individual academics are expected to be responsive to diverse student needs and expectations, a competitive research environment, community expectations for relevance, declining public funding, and increased administrative and fiscal

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;standardise workload expectations... is fraught by differ-

50

ent realitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Traditionally, many academics approach their role as a vocation (Lyons & Ingersoll, 2010), characterised by a high degree of personal commitment, intrinsic motivation

Placing a value on academic work, John Kenny, Andrew Fluck & Tim Jetson

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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to succeed, self-regulation, flexibility and autonomy (Bel-

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Managing academic workload

lamy, Morley & Watty, 2003), which is difficult to reconcile with the new managerial approach. The consequences

Despite the difficulty of defining academic work, many

include intensification, de-professionalisation, increased

universities have developed models to allocate and moni-

casualisation, along with a more demanding and diverse

tor academic work (Houston et al., 2006; Lazarsfeld Jensen

student cohort and greater use of technology in mass

& Morgan, 2009; Soliman, 1999; Vardi, 2009). A National

education (Barnett & Middlehurst, 1993; Bexley, James &

Tertiary Education Industry Union (NTEU, 2011) report

Arkoudis, 2011; Burgess, Lewis & Mobbs, 2003; Coates, et

reveals that in 32 of 34 Australian universities, industrial

al., 2009; Dearn, Fraser & Ryan, 2002; Kenny, 2008, 2009;

agreements include an academic workload clause with

Langford, 2010; Lyons & Ingersoll, 2010; McInnes, 2000;

an upper annual time limit on academic working hours.

Vardi, 2009; Winter & Saros, 2002) to the extent that ‘(t)

Many also contain provisions for transparent, equitable

ime for research appeared to be that remaining after

and quantifiable mechanisms to determine academic

teaching and administrative requirements had been met’

work, including the establishment of a committee with

(Houston et al., 2006, p.25).

union representation.

Although intensification of academic work is an inter-

Vardi (2009) described some advantages and disad-

national issue (Altbach, Reisberg & Rumbley, 2009), it was

vantages of three basic types of workload models: Con-

observed by Coates et al. (2009, p.27) that by comparison

tact hours model, based on actual time spent teaching;

‘Australian academics – both in junior and senior ranks –

Actual hours model, which attempts to allocate time for

report among the highest number of hours worked per

various activities and; Points based model, which assigns

week’, 43.8 and 50.4 hours respectively. Langford’s (2010)

relative points to a range of activities. Another approach

benchmarking survey of 17 Australian universities, 26000

not mentioned by Vardi (2009) is one based on Equiva-

respondents, comparing 31 work practices and outcomes

lent Full-time Student Load (EFTSL). She noted a trade-off

with a range of other industries, is also pertinent. Over

between complexity and simplicity in the models, adding

half, 17, of the practices were significantly worse than in

that ‘where academics are required to undertake a wide

other occupations. It was concluded that ‘the high levels

variety of duties, or where the work duties between aca-

of stress’ reported by academic and general staff ‘are worse

demic staff vary greatly within an area, greater detail in a

than observed in many other industries’ (p.41) and, more

model is often demanded.’ She therefore advocated using

disturbingly, the levels of stress ‘may be the combined

an approach with a blend of allocated times (presumably

result of both high work demands and poor work con-

for components such as teaching) and undifferentiated

trol’ (p.50). Despite academic workloads being the second

times for other duties (e.g. research) as a way of meeting

worst of ‘all other measured practices and outcomes’, and

these needs.

experiencing the highest levels of stress the ‘dissatisfac-

Research also links the success of academic workload

tion with many management practices … is outweighed

models to other factors such as the degree of collabora-

by the belief...that they are involved in important work

tion, transparency, credibility and regular review (Burgess

and contributing to the community’ (Langford, 2010,

et al., 2003; Houston et al., 2006; Vardi, 2009), but this

p.52). Furthermore, academic staff were ‘moderately sat-

provides no description of how the collaboration should

isfied with their jobs’ (Langford, 2010, p.50). This sense

occur, or to what extent academic staff had input into the

of mission and commitment to work is also reported by

development of the workload processes. A key goal of

Houston et al. (2006, p. 27) with the qualification ‘that

this research was to fill this gap.

workloads allocation (is) underpinned by principles of equity and transparency.’ unless workloads are managed well and… time is provided for scholarship and research as well as teaching and service - those things that are valued by academics… the lifestyle of an academic will be affected and the original motivators for career choice may dissipate’ (Houston, et al., 2006, p.28). The previous quote implies ‘staff well-being, motivation and work performance’ are central to the effectiveness of modern universities (Vardi, 2009, p. 500; Kenny, 2009). vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

The apparent failure of workload models to prevent work overload is linked to factors such as the lack of credible time allocations and issues not usually covered in workload models, such as the number of staff available, the budget, and change initiatives within an organisation (Houston et al., 2006; Vardi, 2009): Some departments were simply attempting to do too much, leaving the achievement of objectives largely dependent on the willingness of a dedicated workforce to add additional work without corresponding decreases in other duties. Concerns were also raised

Placing a value on academic work, John Kenny, Andrew Fluck & Tim Jetson

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about the match between resource distribution and work requirements (Houston et al., 2006, p. 25).

issues that arose during the development and implemen-

Burgess (1996, p.69) noted that in time-based models

1. What factors impinge on academic workload?

‘workload hours which do not accurately reflect actual hours are no better than utility values. In fact they may be worse since they foster a spurious sense of accuracy.’

tation of the model and address three key questions: 2. What are the characteristics of a realistic and fair academic workload model? 3. What are the future implications for academic work?

Lyons & Ingersoll (2010, p.144) identified more general limitations: ineffectiveness in placing ‘limits on the exer-

Methodology

cise of managerial prerogative in the development of workload policies generally, and the resolution of disputes

A case study approach, involving the study of a bounded

concerning the allocation of academic workloads in par-

system, (Creswell, 2008) was chosen because it provided

ticular’. Kenny (2008, p.6) attributed managerial reluc-

a rich description of the events which unfolded as the

tance for meaningful engagement to an awareness that

workload model was developed.

‘the process of truly quantifying what academics actually

This account clearly reflects the authors’ perspective

do would finally expose the extent of ‘good will’ associ-

as participants and insiders, faculty members and elected

ated with academic work’ and ‘would provide hard evi-

academic representatives in the events. In acknowledg-

dence … that many academics are working significantly

ing this potential for bias, the authors point out that they

over what might be considered a fair and reasonable

drew extensively on a wide range of evidence such as cor-

workload…’

respondence, minutes of meetings, records of emails and

Although noting the inverse link between increased

discussions with many academic colleagues and manage-

complexity of workload models and transparency, Vardi

ment representatives during the relevant period. Because

(2009, p.506) commented on the comprehensiveness of

the case study is localised, the findings are not necessar-

time-based models’ coverage of academic work and their

ily generalisable to other situations, but some factors may

direct link to ‘human resourcing and costing of units’.

have relevance.

To explore how academic work can be managed in the

The 2006 Enterprise Bargaining Agreement guidelines

context of broader organisational and sectoral concerns,

were very general, specifying the need for transparency,

this paper reports on a case study in which academic staff

equity and balance, whilst allowing faculty and school dis-

took a leading role in the development and implementa-

cretion in balancing the components of academic work,

tion of a time-based academic workload model in a faculty

teaching, research and administration/service.

of education over the period 2005-2010.

As there was no systematic analysis or evaluation of the

The aim was to reflectively explore the situation in

implementation of the workload clause at the University

detail as the academics and faculty managers, often with

during this period, the degree of staff input into the vari-

competing priorities and perspectives, dealt with the

ous models remains unknown.

A Case Study: Developing and implementing an academic workload model

hours in class. Workload was therefore spread unevenly between staff.

Workload balance, funding sources Context In accordance with the Academic Staff Agreement Prior to the case study period, the Faculty of Education

(2006-2008) (ASA) and ‘Guidelines for the Allocation of

operated a legacy system of workload allocation, largely

Academic Work’ (The Guidelines), negotiations began

based on effective full-time student load (i.e. teaching

in 2005 between management and academic staff in

duties only). Over the previous decade the load per staff

the Faculty to devise a time-based academic workload

member had slowly risen from about 15 EFTSL to 20-25

model. A model based on a workload balance of teach-

EFTSL. In terms of workload, EFTSL did not adequately

ing (40 per cent), research (40 per cent), and service/

distinguish between many related tasks related to teach-

administrative related duties (20 per cent) (40:40:20)

ing such as the time involved in preparation or actual

was proposed. To be compliant with the ASA, the model

52

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had to be demonstrably fair, transparent and equitable

Academic staff were soon disappointed in their hopes

and ensure the annual workload for academics was no

for a more collegial approach to the workload issue.The

greater than 1800 hours.

Acting Dean, appointed in mid 2006, proposed an alter-

Problems soon arose when the then Dean disagreed

native model (deemed the ‘Trust model’) describing it

with the assumption of (40:40:20) and proposed an

as a more ‘flexible’ approach to the ‘complex’ May 19th

alternative, 50:30:20 model. Its implementation, without

model.8 Despite the overwhelming vote in its favour,

staff consultation, in 2006 increased staff teaching time

many academics remained unsure about the time-based

and reduced that for research. At the behest of staff,

May 19th model, and were willing to try the Trust Model,

the NTEU became involved and, in February, mooted

even though it was not supported by any documenta-

a ‘Workload Review Committee’(WRC) to develop an

tion nor quantified academic work time in any transpar-

ASA-compliant workload model. The brief of the WRC,

ent way. Some well-established academics feared that a

consisting primarily of academic staff, was to ‘consult

time-based model would prevent them from pursuing

widely with staff, … collect data and mak(e) workload

their research and feared the focus on time would de-

comparisons both within and external to the university’

professionalise their work. Other staff, generally those

and offer advice to academics on workload.’1

less established in their careers or with large under-

In response, the Deputy Vice-Chancellor and the Director of Finance, asserted that academic research should be self-funded so to justify a 35 per cent research allocation for staff:

graduate teaching loads, wanted the more transparent time-based model. NTEU sent an open letter to the VC expressing its concern that there was still no academic workload

‘would need to generate approx (sic) 35 per cent of their salary cost. A staff member earning $85000 (pa) would need to earn block grant funding of $30000 (pa)…The faculty currently earns less than 5 per cent of its income from research…I would suggest 15 per cent allocation to research at most. Within that overall allocation of 15 per cent, some staff might be allocated much higher allocations for research and others might dedicate most of their time to teaching.’3

model compliant with the Academic Staff Agreement, ASA(2006-2008),7 and soon after the Acting Dean released a one page description called ‘Workload Principles 2007’ proposing a balance of 80 per cent teaching and 20 per cent research.9

Tactics of delay

Following this directive, the Dean then altered her

The catalyst for further action was a letter from the NTEU

proposal to (70:15:15), with teaching clearly to be the

of intending formal dispute, 2 May 2007, on the grounds

overwhelming priority for academics. 2, 3, 4, 6 It emerged

of non-compliance with the ASA and citing underfunding

from the development of a workload model that there

of the Faculty as a cause.10 A response by the Director

was a clear divide between staff and management on the

of Human Resources rejecting both claims increased dis-

place of research and the earning capacity of the Faculty.

satisfaction11 and led to the initiation of a formal dispute

Despite some further resistance, the WRC was

by the NTEU. The Acting Dean proposed a series of fora

established4 and with staff consultation, developed a

for staff to discuss ‘further revisions to the current work-

revised model, the ‘May 19th model’ which proposed

load model which both reflect the needs of individual col-

a (50:30:20 ) workload balance and provided for

leagues and the Faculty and are consistent with the EBA’.12

more realistic times for teaching and related duties;

However, these fora were delayed until late August due to

but left research and administrative tasks less clearly

the Acting Dean taking leave, meaning staff workloads for

defined. At an extraordinary Faculty meeting, called by

2007 could not be revised. Two one-hour ‘workshops’ for

the WRC under University ordinances, the May 19th

staff were scheduled in September, with a decision on the

model was overwhelmingly accepted by staff, with

revised workload model to be made at a full faculty meet-

one abstention. Again the Dean objected on financial

ing on October 23.13, 14 The aim was to implement the

grounds and insisted on the (70:15:15) model. Con-

new model ‘…BEFORE the end of the year’.15

5

tinued opposition by the Dean resulted in academic

The workshops and discussions were conducted

staff protest, the Vice-Chancellor’s intervention, an

in good spirit16 resulting in a report17 proposing some

offer of another post for the Dean and the appoint-

‘Notional Reference Points’ (NRPs), or estimates of the

ment of an Acting Dean.6

times to be allocated for a range of academic tasks. The

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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report stressed the aspirational goal of having a 40:40:20

with the suggestion of the AIRC, the Dean agreed to the

model implemented by 2010.17 To help staff calculate

formation of an Academic Workload Review Committee

workloads, the NTEU developed a spreadsheet with the

(AWRC), to develop a time-based workload model compli-

NRPs built in, which enabled academic staff to easily

ant with the ASA.The AWRC comprised three representa-

estimate their total workload on a holistic basis.

tives of Faculty management (Head of School, Associate

In December 2007, the Acting Dean accepted the report and committed to its implementation.

18

The

Dean Teaching and Learning and a senior professor) and three staff representatives (the authors of this paper).

NTEU was prepared to work with the newly negoti-

Fundamental differences between the two parties

ated model, despite noting the limited range of NRPs

were soon apparent. The appointed chair (the Head of

for teaching duties. Unexpectedly, however, the Acting

School) insisted that the workload allocation process

Dean stepped down in January 2008 and was replaced

had to operate within the constraints of the Faculty

by another Acting Dean.

Despite initially avowing to

budget whereas staff representatives insisted that the

implement the new model, adding that ‘our intention is

model had to be able to quantify individual workloads to

not just to fix the immediate issues but to put in place

determine whether they were ASA-compliant. The staff

better processes which will provide greater certainty

representatives also argued that the model should allow

and transparency’20, the new Acting Dean unilaterally

for the aggregation of individual loads, so the Faculty

reduced a key NRP, the preparation time for a 12.5 per

would be better able to estimate the Faculty’s teaching

cent unit, from 75 to 36 hours.21, 22 In arguing for this

resource needs and thus help frame the budget.

19

change, the new Acting Dean also indicated the need for

The decision was made to build on the existing NRPs

further changes ‘to ensure a more equitable distribution

and to determine realistic time allocations for other tasks

of workload across staff…’21 The NTEU raised concerns

not covered in the earlier consultations. The workload

about the lack of transparency and suggested a joint con-

spreadsheet was used to calculate academic workloads,

sultative committee of management and NTEU nomi-

with individuals reporting estimates of 124 per cent, 168

nees to discuss the situation. 22, 23 This idea was dismissed

per cent, 165 per cent, 130 per cent, 104 per cent (an

on financial grounds, with the Acting Dean arguing the

average of 138 per cent), equivalent to an average of over

NRP was ‘not reasonable (or even sensible)’, without

50 hours per week, with a maximum of over 60 hours.29

presenting any evidence to support this claim. 24

Comments gave further insight into staff attitudes:

Another formal dispute was initiated by the NTEU which was heard by an internal University ‘Dispute Resolution Committee’ (DRC) on April 17, 2008. 25 NTEU presented specific examples of staff who were disadvantaged and argued that the level of trust of the workload process in the Faculty was very low. 26 The DRC did not reach a consensus about the dispute and recommended further consultation to resolve the problems.27 Following receipt of the report of the DRC27 the VC opined that ‘an average research workload component of 40 per cent in a voca-

‘I was worried that …(protesting about workload)… would make me visible, vulnerable and a target for retribution. The track record of our management to date has been marked by vindictive responses to the issue of workloads….at no point has my performance manager looked at my total workload with me and considered my research or admin needs…’29, 30 ‘I face the dilemma of sacrificing my research while I seek to maintain high standards of teaching. I’m tired and saddened by a climate of despair amongst diligent staff members.’ 29, 30

tionally oriented discipline area sounds very high to me

The staff representatives presented a draft document

and it is something that the …Senior executive will need

to the AWRC, including a rationale for the model, re-

to discuss with Professor … (the soon to be appointed

stating the commitment to a 40:40:20 balance by 2012,

permanent Dean) shortly after his arrival.’28 It was at this

defining key terminology and descriptions of academic

stage that the NTEU decided to pursue the case in the

activities. The teaching section expanded to cover tasks

Australian Industrial Relations Commission (AIRC).

not included in previous staff consultations and recognised gradations within teaching patterns. It followed a

Going to court

similar pattern for research and service/administration to ensure a holistic coverage of workload. The time allo-

By the time the case reached the AIRC for the formal hear-

cations were benchmarked against models collected

ing, a new permanent Dean had taken up his post. In line

from other universities and faculties. Management rep-

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resentatives opposed some time allocations but did not

summary data for planning by identifying overloaded

support their views by research or evidence. In regular

staff or areas needing more resources. The data also re-

meetings, the AWRC progressively refined the draft and

confirmed that staff were working considerably over

periodically presented it to staff for consultation and

1800 hours, (even allowing for a 10 per cent tolerance

comment over the remainder of 2008.31 A negotiated

margin), estimates indicated that 50 per cent of the staff

revised workload model was eventually adopted for trial

were working over 150 per cent of the annual limit, and

at the start of the 2009 academic year.

60 per cent of staff were working over 130 per cent.32

31, 37

The revised model provided a rationale, a compre-

AWRC meetings continued throughout 2009-2010,

hensive set of transparent time-based allocations for

consulting with individual staff, groups such as course

key aspects of academic work, a common language to

coordinators and new academic appointments. Gradu-

discuss workload, and outlined a process to raise griev-

ally the workload model began to be embedded within

ances about workload.The spreadsheet was also further

normal Faculty processes. Once again, however, finan-

refined to enable individual academic staff and their per-

cial considerations threatened the model. The centrally-

formance managers to accurately estimate workloads on

determined Faculty budget had not increased to support

a holistic basis and negotiate adjustments as needed. .To

the adoption of the new model and the Dean’s requests

ensure transparency, the documentation was made avail-

for more funds were unsuccessful. Early in 2010, with

able to staff, along with the spreadsheet via the Faculty

a $1 million deficit looming, University management

website. For those less inclined to accept a time-based

insisted that the Dean balance the budget.

model, the notion of ‘allocated hours’ was introduced.

In a specially convened meeting of senior Faculty staff

This deemed that the time for which academic staff

that followed, the AWRC managerial representatives, led

could be held accountable was limited to 1800 hours

by the Head of School, argued that the workload model

p.a., thus enabling those who wished to work longer

was unaffordable and had exacerbated the financial prob-

hours to do so by choice.

lems. However, the staff representatives pointed to other factors, such as the Faculty decision to initiate a full rede-

Implementation of the workload model

velopment of all degree courses during 2009-2011, which also involved duplication of all courses for delivery in a

Implementing the model in practice, however, presented

fully online mode in 2010 were more relevant. Arguing

new problems. It was complex, and neither staff nor their

that these course changes had created significant extra

managers were used to looking at their work this way.The

teaching work and required substantial additional sup-

staff representatives designed and conducted a series of

port staff and infrastructure costs, the staff representa-

training sessions, including scenarios of typical cases, with

tives claimed that the workload model simply quantified

individual staff and performance managers to facilitate

the increased teaching burden, but had not created the

understanding of the model and use of the spreadsheet.

problem. When it was revealed at the meeting that the

As predicted, implementation of the model had con-

Faculty had unsuccessfully applied for $1 million in stra-

sequences for the Faculty budget, framed on the pre-

tegic funds to finance the course redevelopments, the real

sumption of 70 per cent teaching loads, resulting in an

source of the financial stress became evident.

increase in the expenditure on casual teaching. Some

So at the start of 2010, after 18 months of meetings

senior staff remained skeptical and uncommitted to the

and a year of operation, rather than abandon or modify

model, complaining of staff ‘double dipping’ or inflating

the course re-development project, the AWRC manage-

their workloads, and arguing that aspects of the model

ment representatives targeted the workload model.They

were ‘generous’. Staff representatives countered that

expressed a lack of confidence in the model and with-

these were training or performance management issues

drew from the AWRC. The Dean re-structured the AWRC

rather than faults with the model, adding that the pro-

into an ‘Academic Workload Advisory Panel’ (AWAP) to

cess was in trial so needed monitoring and evaluation.

conduct further benchmarking and advise on changes

Eventually, a table was compiled summarising the total

to the model.32

and balance of workload for 95 per cent of the academic

The benchmarking, however, re-confirmed the reason-

staff and made available at a school meeting.32 Here the

ableness of the teaching time allocations. Some minor

Dean noted the ‘artistry’ of the model and usefulness of

adjustments and improvements were made, based on

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Placing a value on academic work, John Kenny, Andrew Fluck & Tim Jetson

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the experience in 2009, and a revised model was used in

guidelines which are published on the UTAS website

2010. No aggregate summary workload data was made

and set minimum ‘thresholds’ for research, and standard

available for 2010 because some senior staff expressed

time allocations for teaching duties and administrative

concerns about privacy. Without this information the

roles.36 These are to be implemented across the Univer-

staff representatives argued that transparency of the

sity in 2012.

process was compromised. In September 2010, a new industrial agreement was implemented, ASA (2010-2012)34 which contained an amended workload clause that stipulated a (40:40:20) model for most academics. This required some further refinement of the model for 2011 because it also stipulated a reduction in the total working hours to 1717 p.a. Aggregated workload summary data published at the

References – Documentary evidence 1. Email: NTEU to Dean, Feb 21, 2006. 2. Memorandum: Dean to NTEU, Feb 21, 2006. 3. Email: Dean to Faculty of Education staff, Feb 21, 2006, 7:08pm. 4. Email: NTEU to Dean, Feb 28, 2006. 5. Email from Dean to staff, Fri June 2, 2006. 6. Memorandum: VC to Education staff, July 10, 2006.

end of 2011 indicated the persistence of high overall

7. Letter: NTEU to VC, December 20, 2006.

allocated workloads for individuals, with an average of

8. Letter: Director of Human Resources (HR) to NTEU, Jan 3, 2007

128 per cent (one as high as 183 per cent).33 On aver-

9. Document: ‘Workload Principles 2007’ Feb 2007.

age, teaching loads had not reduced significantly but

10. Letter NTEU to Director of Human Resources, May 2, 2007.

there was evidence of staff increasingly negotiating

11. Letter from Director of HR, May 23, 2007.

teaching relief which was not presented in the data.

12. Letter: Acting Dean to the NTEU, June 7, 2007.

However, with the 40 per cent teaching component

13. Letter: NTEU to Acting Dean, September 3, 2007

largely accepted, there was evidence that teaching loads

14. Email: Acting Dean to staff, September 5, 2007.

reduced significantly in 2012. 33

15. Letter: Acting Dean to NTEU, September 19, 2007. 16. Email: Acting Dean to staff, November 13, 2007.

The Future- beyond the Faculty

17. ‘Report to Head of School of the results of Consultation of Academic Staff concerning Their Advice as to Workload Arrangements for 2008’, (no date)

While the model has undergone constant refinement, it

18. Acting Dean’s report, Faculty/School meeting, December 6, 2007.

still needs reasonable time allocations for administrative

19. Email: Acting Deans to staff, January 24, 2008.

tasks, and fair mechanisms to account for research. Gradually, however, the idea of the workload model is being accepted. Reduced teaching demands through marking relief has enabled many staff to improve their research performance: a recent Faculty report noted 120 per cent increase in research output in 2011 and contributions to research by 75 per cent of staff, in contrast to the situation in 2006-2008, where research was in decline. 35 The new industrial agreement, ASA (2010-2012)34, embedded the 40:40:20 workload balance across the

20. Email: new Acting Dean to staff, February 13, 2008. 21. Email: new Acting Dean to staff, February 18, 2008. 22. Email: person who led the workload discussion to one of the authors February 28, 2008. 23. Letter: NTEU to Director of HR, February 26, 2008. 24. Email: the new Acting Dean to Director of HR and NTEU, March 13, 2008. 25. Letter: NTEU to Director of HR, April 7, 2008 26. Minutes: the DRC, April 17, 2008. 27. Final report of the DRC, April 24, 2008. 28. Letter: VC to Director of HR and others, May 12, 2008.

University and also mandated the University to negoti-

29. Various emails and workload documents submitted to NTEU by individual staff members, May-June 2008.

ate with the NTEU to establish common workload guide-

30. Collated staff responses sent to AWRC administration officer.

lines for all academics, through the establishment of the

31. Academic Workload Model, draft for implementation in 2009.

Academic Workload Development Committee (AWDC), with equal membership of NTEU and University man-

32. Minutes: the Academic Workload Review Committee (AWRC) August-Sept 2008.

agement.This committee was to monitor compliance of

33. Summary of academic staff workloads, 2009, 2011, 2012.

all workload models at the University to ensure that fair, transparent and realistic workload expectations apply to all academics.34 Recently (April 2012) the AWDC and UTAS management agreed on a set of common academic workload

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34. Academic Staff Agreement (2010-2012). 35. Email: from Associate Dean Research to staff, March, 2012. 36. Academic Workload Guidelines, published and endorsed by NTEU and UTAS senior management, April 19, 2012.

Placing a value on academic work, John Kenny, Andrew Fluck & Tim Jetson

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the industrial agreement underpinning the results was the same for 2011 and 2012, statistical comparison was

The difficulties encountered in implementing an academic

done and a two tailed t-test reveals (p = 0.0094) indicat-

workload model in the Faculty, despite the existence of

ing a significant decline in teaching loads at the 99 per

a workload clause in the academic staff agreement, have

cent confidence level. Overall, this shows the model has

been used to illuminate a range of potential issues. Other

been effective in reducing teaching loads, and, the authors

faculties in the same university had managed to devise

argue, this is a key factor in the improved research perfor-

and successfully implement models in 2006, whereas the

mance reported in the case study.

Faculty took over five years. Thus, generalisations from this case study may be difficult because of specific factors

The final part of this article explores the three research questions.

and personalities involved. As Burgess (1996) and Burgess et al. (2003) warned, the case study demonstrates that an inadequate Faculty

What factors impinge on academic workload?

budget can cause conflict and affect the workload allocation process. In this case, differing priorities about

The case study illustrates explicitly the potential for politi-

resources to support research hindered the development

cal tensions inherent in considering academic workload

of the model. Whereas managers emphasised teaching

priorities in a climate of resource limitations (Burgess,

as the key source of funds for the Faculty, academic staff

1996; Burgess et al., 2003). In a higher education environ-

valued their research time. Thus the allocation of aca-

ment beset with insufficient funds and greater account-

demic work raised concomitant issues such as the nature

ability requirements, issues of power and control soon

of the academic role and equity for academics. In this

arose around the question of how to quantify the work of

context, the industrial agreement was crucial because it

academics. In this case, the main priority of management

required academic as well as managerial input to ensure

to meet a pre-determined budget clashed with the staff

credibility of the workload allocation process.

priority to develop a fair, transparent, quantifiable work-

Ultimately, the case study demonstrated some improve-

load model compliant with the ASA.

ment in workloads. As teaching was the only quantifiable

The research emphasising the importance of collabo-

component of academic work during this period, an anal-

ration in the development of a credible workload model

ysis of the teaching workloads was undertaken using the

(Burgess et al., 2003; Houston et al., 2006;Vardi, 2009) was

published summary data. Based on teaching loads of 19

illustrated in the case study, by the key role of the staff

staff who were continuously employed at the University

representatives. They insisted on realistic time estimates,

during this period (about 40 per cent of the on-going aca-

a fair and a transparent mechanism to quantify academic

demic workforce), Table 1 shows average teaching work-

work, and other key aspects of credibility. Under pres-

loads in 2009, 2011 and 2012.

sure to meet an inadequate budget, and with teaching the

The data collections in 2009 and 2010 were raw data

major source of Faculty income, managers tended to focus

derived from the workload spreadsheets. In 2011, there

on maximising the teaching component at the expense of

was anecdotal evidence of the workload model being

other aspects of the work.

used to negotiate lower workloads than indicated here. By

The industrial agreement, and the willingness to use

2012, the data collection was more reliable and showed

its legal status, provided the staff representatives with a

the actual teaching time (percentages).

degree of authority to back-up their insistence on an evi-

The data reveal that the average time (percentage) allo-

dence based process to determine realistic time alloca-

cated to academics for teaching remained constant for

tions. This avoided the situation noted by Vardi (2009, p.

the first two years, then changed significantly. Because

502) that in time-based workload models â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;allocation often underestimates the real time it takes to complete tasks.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Table 1: Available summary teaching workload data. Year

2009*

2011**

2012**

Mean time estimated for teaching (hours)

1037 (58%)

1035 (60%)

850 (49.5%)

Note: two different industrial agreements applied as indicated: *ASA(2006-2009) and **ASA(2010-2012) vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Equal staff and management representation on the AWRC ensured that this point had to be taken account of and attempts to distort the process could be challenged. The meetings provided an opportunity to discuss the issues and present alternative arguments. Due to the demands of the role, the NTEU insisted that the staff representatives were provided with some time release to do the neces-

Placing a value on academic work, John Kenny, Andrew Fluck & Tim Jetson

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sary background work and attend the meetings of the

mance expectations on academics. Academic staff were

committee.

empowered to enter performance management with a

With confidence that the model was realistic, due to the

realistic estimate of their work and a tool to negotiate a

consultation and benchmarking, the staff representatives

fair and reasonable outcome within the limitations of the

argued that the model should do more than simply ensure

allocated hours. Staff, however, remained free to devote

that everyone was equally overloaded. Rather, the mod-

any extra hours they wanted to their passions, but this

el’s validity should allow staff to confidently determine

would be a personal choice rather than a requirement

if their workload exceeded the annual limit, as provided

driven by unrealistic expectations. This approach pre-

for in the industrial agreement, and seek some reduction

served elements of a vocation attitude approach (Coates

accordingly.

et al., 2009; Langford, 2010; Barnett & Middlehurst, 1993).

The spreadsheet empowered academic staff to esti-

The case study’s evidence indicates this approach has

mate easily their workloads on a holistic basis for the

contributed to a significant improvement in research

first time. It provided objective quantifiable evidence

output in the Faculty.

rather than the more anecdotal or self-reported data in much of the research, and coupled with the release of the aggregated academic workload data, it provided evi-

What are the characteristics of a realistic and fair academic workload model?

dence which forced management to take genuine steps to reduce workload.

Despite the need to quantify academic work, and the

The case study revealed inherent doubts for some aca-

fact that workload models from other faculties and insti-

demics which impinged on the model’s development and

tutions indicated that such a task was possible, the case

acceptance. Consistent with Soliman (1999, p.4) some

study documents a highly fraught process. This chiefly

felt using time to quantify academic work compromised

arose due to the different priorities of the management

‘the notion of professionalism.’ In particular for some

and academic staff.

more established in their careers, or some younger ambi-

Staff AWDR representatives, supported by the NTEU,

tious academics, it raised fears that a workload limit might

were intent on meeting the requirements of the ASA

prevent them from pursuing their research passions and

(2006-2009) by working with the AWRC to develop a

thus negatively affect their career or promotion pros-

credible time-based workload model. Through an evi-

pects. When the first estimates from the model appeared,

dence based process of consultation with academic staff

many academics and managers doubted the credibility

and benchmarking against existing models, the AWRC was

of the model. It also highlighted the inherent tensions

able to identify the range of activities in academic work,

between the traditional self-regulation that many aca-

develop clear definitions, consistent terminology and real-

demics wanted to retain over their work and the mana-

istic associated time allocations. The model was framed

gerial paradigm requiring control over the allocation of

to included a range of measures including both input

resources (Lyons & Ingersoll, 2010; Bellamy et al., 2003).

(e.g. preparation for teaching) and output activities (e.g.

The data revealed a degree of normalisation of work

research publications, or number of students taught) and

overload, probably flowing from the way in which many

process guidelines for the allocation of work and internal

academics approached their work as a vocation. The

resolution of any grievances.

authors argued, however, that in a managerial paradigm,

Extensive consultations with staff and the benchmark-

the quantification of this level of commitment is neces-

ing against other workload models added considerable

sary, as individuals, particularly younger academics, are

validity to the figures in the model. In discussions about

increasingly held externally accountable for performance

the draft documentation in the AWRC, any attempts to

and have less control over their work.The deterioration in

adjust time allocations were met with a call for evidence

working conditions for academics in the Faculty occurred

to support their view. This prevented the previous prac-

in the absence of a fair and transparent mechanism. The

tice where time allocations were determined according to

development of a credible model was the first step in put-

financial considerations, rather than reflecting the actual

ting limitations on ever increasing workload demands and

nature and complexity of the tasks which would under-

expectations.

mine the model’s credibility (Houston et al., 2007; Burgess

The dedication of 40 per cent of self-regulated work-

et al., 2003).

load time specifically to research, and the workload limit

Ultimately, time based allowances were developed for

on ‘allocated hours’, provided a means to limit perfor-

all identifiable activities with a ‘catch-all’ allowance to

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acknowledge a range of unforeseen minor tasks. By 2010-

As the case study illustrates, the problems were largely

2011 the model had evolved into a hybrid of the models

budget driven, but while the resource needs are more

described and recommended by Vardi (2009). It contained

clearly quantifiable, the constraints on the Faculty remain,

detailed time-based elements for teaching, incorporat-

as these decisions are made centrally by University man-

ing allocations for tasks that were independent of stu-

agement. At the time of writing, in early 2012, political

dent numbers (e.g. preparing a lecture); some that were

and economic factors within the Faculty and University

dependent on student numbers (e.g. marking & consul-

again threaten the implementation of the model. This

tation); and undifferentiated time allocations for adminis-

emphasises the importance of an institutional approach

trative and research duties. Consistent with the research,

to these matters and does not imply ineffectiveness of

while this tended to increase the model’s complexity it

the model.

also contributed to its credibility (Vardi, 2009).

Central to driving through these changes in the face

Lazarsfeld Jensen and Morgan (2009) emphasised

of contradictory cost pressures to increase teaching

that a lack of understanding of the model could be a

loads and improve research performance, a clear picture

major source of dissatisfaction. In an attempt to allevi-

of what the academic role entails is essential. The vision

ate the unavoidable complexity of the model, training

underpinning this model is that research and scholarship

was organised to explain it and instruct staff and per-

are fundamental to the role of academics.This view is also

formance managers in the use of the spreadsheet. Indi-

embodied in the industrial agreement ASA (2010-2012)

vidual staff could quickly obtain an accurate and holistic

which has required the formation of an joint committee

estimate of their total workload, including breakdown

of management and NTEU representation, to review and

of the teaching, research and administration-service

develop common standard guidelines for academic work

components. This improved transparency of the process

to apply across the institution.

and enabled staff to approach their performance man-

The case study indicates that the AWDC can be an effec-

agement with a clearer picture of the demands on their

tive way to develop a meaningful approach to allocating

time, and led to more meaningful discussions about their

academic work. It also has a monitoring role to ensure

workload and career priorities.

adherence to the ASA. The intention is to build on the

Transparency and fairness was further enhanced by

experiences of the last five years and improve on the

the aggregation of individual workload data into a sum-

existing situation by providing a common language to

mary workload document showing the total workload

discuss workload, common transparent time-based allo-

and percentage of teaching, research and administrative

cations and other measures to equitably determine aca-

duties for every academic in the faculty. Consistent with

demic workload across the Institution. This outcome will

the research (Burgess et al., 2003; Vardi, 2009), the case

ensure a more transparent link between the budget pro-

study showed that this information could assist Faculty

cess and staffing needs in all schools, and a more reliable

managers to better determine the level of staff resources

and fair platform to gauge the performance of academics.

to meet the work demands and to identify gaps and staff

This will lead to further research, as called for by Lazarfeld

who may be overloaded.

Jensen and Morgan (2009, p. 69) for ‘comparative information about the methods of (workload) calculation other

What are the future implications for academic work?

universities are using at schools level, and how agree-

The case study illustrates the inherently political nature of

deterioration in academic working conditions as reported

developing a workload model because it raises tensions

in the research, requires an urgent response from profes-

between the managerial and collaborative paradigms. In

sional bodies, such as the NTEU, to capture workload data

this case, it manifested itself as the different priorities

across the nation. Taking control of the development of a

relating to meeting an existing budget model. The trans-

set of common, credible, academic workload guidelines

parency of the process involved a fundamental change in

and practices for the academic profession as a whole will

the way managers had to negotiate workloads with indi-

be a step towards adequate resourcing of universities.The

viduals. Gradually, as academics learned about the process

proposition here is that in many ways this managerial

and it became embedded in the normal operations of

debate has been lost. In this reality, the only option is for

the Faculty it changed the way many academics thought

the academic staff to be actively involved in the develop-

about their work.

ment of credible workload processes that are designed to

ments are invigilated.’ The authors also contend that tackling the widespread

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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retain the essence of their work, and serve the needs of the institution. In a modern university environment, to be effective in their work, academics need credible and transparent mechanisms to quantify and justify what they do and to place reasonable limits on the performance expectations imposed on them. A credible workload model, developed by genuine consultation, as outlined here, is an important step towards this outcome; one which will protect the health and well-being of academics by limiting excessive demands on them.

Summary Our goal in this research was to use the case of the development of a quantifiable time-based academic workload model in an education faculty in an Australian university to explore issues around academic workload. With increasing managerial control, accountability and reduced funding having a dramatic effect on the way universities operate, the quantification of academic work has become an important issue throughout the tertiary education sector. If academic performance is to be properly evaluated and universities are to be effective, then clear, credible and meaningful guidelines for defining and estimating reasonable workload expectations are needed. These guidelines must account for the nature and extent of academic work in a credible and transparent way such that the processes for allocating the work and measuring performance are demonstrably fair and retain the essence of academic work. The authors point out that the serious deterioration of academic work has occurred in the absence of clarity about how to quantify academic work within a managerial paradigm that mandates accountability and measureable outcomes. The case study indicates that the development of a quantifiable model is only the beginning. Implementing a time-based model requires a significant cultural change in how many academics, and their managers perceive and support academic work. The processes must link into broader organisational performance mechanisms and provide credible data for planning purposes and to ensure adequate resourcing through the budget. John Kenny, Andrew Fluck and Tim Jetson are academics in the Faculty of Education at the University of Tasmania.

References

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Barnet, R. & Middlehurst, R. (1993). The lost profession. Higher Education in Europe, 18(2), 110-128. Bellamy, S., Morley, C. & Watty, K. (2003). Why business academics remain in Australian universities despite deteriorating working conditions and reduced job satisfaction: An intellectual puzzle. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 25 (1), 13-28. Bexley, E., James, R. & Arkoudis, S. (2011). The Australian academic profession in transition: Addressing the challenge of reconceptualising academic work and regenerating the academic workforce. Centre for the Study of Higher Education, The University of Melbourne. Burgess, T.F. (1996). Planning the academic’s workload: different approaches to allocating work to university academics. Higher Education 32, 63-75. Burgess, T.F., Lewis, H.A., & Mobbs, T. (2003). Academic workload planning revisited. Higher Education, 46 (2), 215-233. Coates, H., Dobson, I., Edwards, D., Friedman, T. Goedegebuure, L., & Meek, L. (2009). The Attractiveness of the Australian Academic Profession: A comparative analysis. A research briefing paper, Melbourne: ACER: University of Melbourne. Retrieved from: http://www.lhmartininstitute.edu.au/about-theinstitute/our-staff/2-assoc-prof-leo-goedegebuure ] Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (3rd Ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. Dearn, J, Fraser, K. & Ryan, Y (2002). Investigation into the Provision of Professional Development for University Teaching in Australia: A Discussion Paper. DEST programme. Henkel, M. (2007). Can academic autonomy survive in the knowledge society? A perspective from Britain, Higher Education Research and Development, 26 (1), 87-99. Houston, D., Meyer, L.H., & Paewai, S. (2007). Academic staff workloads and job satisfaction: Expectations and values in academe. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 28 (1), 17-30. Kenny, J. (2008). Efficiency and effectiveness in higher Education: Who is accountable for what? Australian Universities’ Review, 50(1), 11-19. Kenny, J. (2009), Managing a modern university: is it time for a rethink? Higher Education Research & Development, 28 (6), 629-642. Langford, P.H., (2010. Benchmarking work practices and outcomes in Australian universities using an employee survey. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(1), 41-53 Lazarsfeld Jensen, A. & Morgan, K. (2009). The vanishing idea of a scholarly life: Workload calculations and the loss of academic integrity in Western Sydney. Australian Universities’ Review, 51(2), 62-69. Lyons, M. & Ingersoll, L. (2010). Regulated autonomy or autonomous regulation? Collective bargaining and academic workloads in Australian universities. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(2), 137-148. NTEU (2011). Analysis of Round 5 Outcomes. Melbourne: National Tertiary Education Industry Union. Soliman, I. (1999). The academic workload problematic. Paper presented at HERDSA Annual International Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 12-15 July. [Retrieved from: http://www.herdsa.org.au/wpcontent/uploads/conference/1999/ pdf/Soliman.PDF] Vardi, I. (2009). The impacts of different types of workload allocation models on academic satisfaction and working life. Higher Education, 57 (4), 499-508. Winter, R. & Saros, J. (2002). The academic work environment in Australian universities: A motivating place to work? Higher Education Research & Development, 21(3). 241-258.

Altbach, P.G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L.E. (2009). Trends in global higher education: tracking an academic revolution. A report prepared for the UNESCO 2009 World Conference on Higher Education.

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OPINION

Transfer of teaching materials between universities Where is the boundary between legitimate transaction and violation of moral intellectual property rights? Matthias Maiwald KK Women’s and Children’s Hospital, Singapore, and National University of Singapore

Kathy Harrington National Tertiary Education Union, University of South Australia Branch, Adelaide, Australia

Intellectual property rights have various facets. The best-known one is copyright, enabling the owner to legally utilise intellectual materials. However, there is a separate set of legal entitlements, termed moral intellectual property rights. The purpose of these is to prevent false attribution, damage to an author’s reputation and some forms of plagiarism. In the current example, a teaching curriculum was licensed by one Australian university to several others. While this is consistent with copyright ownership, the moral rights aspect was overlooked. Teaching materials had the names of the original authors removed and were used at the receiving institution either without attribution, or with sole attribution to the other set of staff. This constitutes a breach of authors’ moral rights and would also fulfil common definitions of plagiarism.

Background and introduction

Around 2006/07, it became known to academic staff at Flinders Medical School that the curriculum would be

The Flinders University of South Australia’s School of

licensed to other medical schools; the names of Deakin Uni-

Medicine is a well-respected medical school within Aus-

versity in Victoria, Griffith University in Queensland, and St.

tralia. The curriculum is that of a four-year postgraduate

George’s Medical School in the UK were mentioned. This

entry medical course, whereby having a prior degree is

was generally commented upon and viewed as a sign of rec-

an entry requirement.The curriculum is also described as

ognition and success for the School. It also made sense; the

a hybrid course; a major emphasis is placed on problem-

other medical schools were start-up medical schools at uni-

based learning (PBL), but there are also more traditional

versities that previously had only offered other disciplines.

teaching elements, such as lectures, practical classes and

A transfer of the Flinders curriculum would allow these

electives. The typical intake of Flinders Medical School is

other schools to become functional much more quickly

120-130 students per year.

than if they had to develop their own curricula de novo.

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Transfer of teaching materials between universities, Matthias Maiwald & Kathy Harrington

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Deakin academic staff. This pattern was characteristic of systematic usage.

In late 2008, a Flinders academic staff member happened to see some of the teaching materials at Deakin University,

Raising the issue

one of the universities that had obtained the Flinders curriculum. The picture was intriguing. The PBL cases in use

In September 2008, a Flinders academic staff member

at Deakin were almost identical – except for very minor

raised the issue in a letter to the Medical School, described

adaptations – to the PBL cases that were in use at Flinders

the findings and asked for appropriate attribution and

University. However, what was missing was the attribution

acknowledgement of authorship. It was stated that the

to the Flinders academic staff who had been involved in

hard work of Flinders academics should be appropriately

writing and updating the cases. It is worth noting that the

acknowledged and recognised. However, in a response in

writing of good PBL cases is quite a demanding task, since

July 2009, the School effectively declined this request.The

it requires a combination of good clinical knowledge and

letter stated that the teaching materials at Deakin were

teaching skills.

used appropriately and in accordance with the terms of

A slightly different picture was seen for the lecture mate-

the Licence Agreement (i.e. the one between Flinders and

rials. The degree of identity of the Deakin lectures with

Deakin concerning the transfer of teaching materials). In

the Flinders lectures varied, but generally one-half to twothirds of the Deakin lectures were identical with the corresponding Flinders lectures. The rest were different by way of modification, extension or shortening.There was

addition, the letter stated that

Most of the Deakin lecture slides were not direct digital copies; the text appeared to have been retyped. However, some Deakin lectures also contained images that looked like copied and pasted images from digital files of the Flinders lectures.

also variation between differ-

only PBL cases but no lectures had been transferred. It was further stated that according to a statement received from Deakin Medical School, the lectures had been independently developed by Deakin academic staff.

ent lectures and between dif-

However, what was evi-

ferent Deakin staff; some lectures had very little similarity

dent from reviewing the materials was that the Deakin

to the Flinders originals, and a few were more than 90 per

lectures were so strikingly similar to the Flinders ones

cent identical to the originals. However, what was strik-

(see description above) that independent development

ing was that none of the Deakin lectures showed any of

appeared to have been next to impossible.

the names of the Flinders academic staff who were the original authors. Instead, the names of Deakin academic

Involving the NTEU

staff not only appeared on the title slides of the lectures (as was the practice at Flinders), but were recorded on

In late 2009, the National Tertiary Education Industry

every one of the lecture slides. Examples of lectures and

Union (NTEU) became formally involved in the matter.

PBL cases from Flinders and the corresponding ones from

First, the NTEU provided an analysis and further infor-

Deakin University are on file.

mation. The legal situation is that there are different

Some of the features seen in the teaching materials are

requirements for copyright and authorship. While most

worth noting. The lectures commonly contained text pas-

Australian universities, including Flinders (Flinders Uni-

sages that were either (i) word-for-word copies of the Flin-

versity 1998; Reid 2004), assert the copyright to intellec-

ders texts, or (ii) passages that were essentially the same

tual materials developed by their academic staff, and with

text but with some changed wording. Most of the Deakin

it the right to utilise and market the materials, there are

lecture slides were not direct digital copies; the text

separate requirements for authorship. The latter is part of

appeared to have been retyped. However, some Deakin

Australian Commonwealth law, regulated in the Copyright

lectures also contained images that looked like copied

Act 1968 Part IX (Commonwealth of Australia 1968), and

and pasted images from digital files of the Flinders lec-

is termed Moral Intellectual Property Rights. Under the

tures. That means it appears conceivable that Deakin had

Act, a creator’s moral rights are defined as the rights: (i)

been in possession of digital file versions of the Flinders

to be attributed as the creator of their work; (ii) to take

lectures. Overall, there was a clear pattern with significant

action if their work is falsely attributed; and (iii) to take

amounts of similarity or identity, but sole attribution to

action if their work is distorted or treated in a way that

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is prejudicial to the creator’s honour or reputation. While

was still no path to authorship attribution on the actual

moral rights cannot be sold or transferred, an author can

lectures. The University also offered a formal apology, but

consent to have his/her moral rights waived (e.g. elect not

only to the single individual who had originally raised

to be named as author).

the issue. The situation at the other universities that had

Effectively, the Copyright Act intends to prohibit some

been recipients of Flinders materials was not addressed.

forms of plagiarism: falsely claiming to have authored,

Further, the University advised that it was now review-

invented or created something that someone else has,

ing its own processes and had engaged one of its deputy

by omitting appropriate attribution to the appropriate

vice-chancellors to ensure that the issues of copyright

source(s), or by providing false attribution. This is also

and attribution of authorship would be systematically

consistent with the widely known principles of academic

addressed when curriculum materials would be provided

integrity that when the work of others is used, appropri-

to third parties.

ate credit and attribution should be given.

At the time of writing, the matter is still under investigation and a full resolution is still pending.

Further developments Further analysis In February 2010, the then NTEU President, Dr Carolyn Allport, wrote to the Vice-Chancellor of Flinders Uni-

It was interesting to see that some of the lectures at Deakin

versity, describing what was happening as a violation

University contained material that looked like it had origi-

of intellectual property moral rights. She asked the

nated from digital file versions of the corresponding lec-

University to seek a remedy of the situation. As part of

tures at Flinders. A potential source is Flinders Learning

the remedy, the University should: (i) acknowledge that

Online (FLO), a digital repository of teaching materials

there is a problem, (ii) take steps to rectify the situation,

at Flinders University. Flinders academic staff regularly

(iii) apologise to any academic staff whose moral rights

deposited their lecture files in FLO, which was meant as

had been violated, and (iv) undertake a review to ensure

a resource for students. Could this have made it possible

that all teaching materials contained appropriate attribu-

to transfer digital lecture files to other universities? This is

tion of authorship.

unknown, but none of the Flinders University academics

Flinders University responded in June 2010. A path to

were informed that such a transfer would take place.

acknowledge the authors of the PBL cases was agreed

There is another interesting aspect to this case. Staff

to. However, other concerns that had been raised were

members of the receiving institution would be expected

still not resolved.This included a failure to provide a clear

to be familiar with basic academic principles. What trig-

path to appropriate attribution of authorship of lecture

gered anyone to think that it is acceptable to have the

materials to their original authors, a failure to address the

names of originators removed from the materials and to

situation at the recipient universities other than Deakin

replace them with other names as if they were the authors?

of Flinders materials (despite the fact that this had been

This is despite the common negative notions surrounding

raised and queried in earlier correspondence), and a fail-

plagiarism, and the fact that Deakin University apparently

ure to provide a formal apology to academic staff. The

has a strong anti-plagiarism policy in place towards its stu-

University’s response also contained a number of factual

dents that is also frequently highlighted to them by aca-

inconsistencies, such as a claim that only materials from

demic staff. While the actual reasons are again unknown, a

one teaching block were affected and a claim that the sim-

potential explanation comes from what has been defined

ilarity between the lectures only pertained to images and

as ‘institutionalised plagiarism’ (Martin, 1994). According to

other components that were in the public domain. In fact,

this definition, there may be a hierarchical or contextual

materials from other blocks were part of the observed

framework at some institutions that suggests that certain

pattern and extensive identical written text passages

ways of dealing with authorship and intellectual property

were present. Subsequent correspondence in which the

issues are convenient and acceptable.

University’s response was criticised ensued.

There is an interesting potential twist to the typical

In January 2011, the University responded again and

scenario whereby universities can lay claim to copyright

advised that steps had now been taken by Deakin Uni-

ownership of intellectual materials generated by academic

versity to provide, on their internal website for students,

staff employed and paid by the university. In most Austral-

a list of original Flinders lectures and their authors, and

ian medical schools, including Flinders, there is often a sig-

also, in the lectures, a reference to that list. However, there

nificant number of hospital-employed medical specialists

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Transfer of teaching materials between universities, Matthias Maiwald & Kathy Harrington

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who have unpaid academic joint appointments and teach

principles of academic integrity and to respect the moral

at the schools. Whether universities own the copyright to

intellectual property rights of academics. These issues

these authors’ work appears unclear and is untested in

may ultimately need to be addressed by way of national or

Australian courts. In the Flinders example, materials gen-

international standards or codes of conduct.

erated by hospital-employed specialists were clearly also a significant part of what was transferred and in use at

Matthias Maiwald was an Associate Professor of Medical

Deakin University.

Microbiology at Flinders University School of Medicine,

There are a number of other examples of Australian

and is now a Consultant Microbiologist at KK Women’s and

universities that have transferred curriculum materials to

Children’s Hospital, Singapore, and an Adjunct Associate Pro-

other institutions. Some universities have involved their

fessor at the Department of Microbiology, National University

academic staff in legal arrangements concerning these

of Singapore.

transactions, and in some instances, monetary arrangements were made with the authors (source: unpublished

Kathy Harrington was the NTEU Flinders University Branch

observations coming from casual conversation with aca-

Division Industrial Officer, and is now at the University of

demics from other universities). However, the extent to

South Australia Branch of the NTEU.

which moral intellectual property rights of academics from other institutions are respected or not respected is

Acknowledgements

unknown. It appears that there are no publicly available data in Australia concerning these kinds of details pertain-

The authors thank Paul Kniest, NTEU, for insightful discus-

ing to these transfers.

sions and helpful comments on the manuscript, and Brian Martin, University of Wollongong, for other useful informa-

Conclusions

tion surrounding questions of academic integrity.

This report provides an example of a transfer of teach-

References

ing materials between universities where the way in which the materials were handled constitutes a breach of authors’ moral intellectual property rights. The case was raised with Flinders University by the NTEU. A number of conclusions and interesting viewpoints emerge from this case. First, it needs to be pointed out that academic staff have a legal entitlement to be named as authors or creators of their work, even if the copyright (and with it the right to engage in commercial licence

Commonwealth of Australia. (1968). Copyright Act 1968. Retrieved from http:// www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca1968133 Flinders University. (1998). Intellectual Property Policy (amended January 2011). Retrieved from http://www.flinders.edu.au/ppmanual/policySecretariat/ ip.htm Martin, B. (1994). Plagiarism: a misplaced emphasis. Journal of Information Ethics 3 (2), 36-47. Retrieved from http://www.uow.edu.au/~bmartin/ pubs/94jie.html Reid, T. (2004). Academics and intellectual property: treading the tightrope. Deakin Law Review 9 (2), 759-774.

agreements) lies with their employer. Second, the way in which the teaching materials in this case were handled is clearly against the established principles and common notions surrounding academic integrity, even aside from a legal framework. Third, it even meets the common definitions of plagiarism. This case also has broader implications for Australian academia than just being an incident between Flinders University and Deakin University. Potentially, there are also implications for academics in other parts of the world. Transfer of intellectual property between institutions is increasingly becoming an important part of academic interaction. Entire curricula are being transferred between institutions via licensing arrangements, and there are usually benefits on both sides. However, as the level of commercialisation of intellectual property increases, it is also becoming clear that there is a need to maintain the

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Grand crews Tasting notes on the Group of Eight universities Arthur O’Neill Retired gentleperson

The intentions of makers and the experiences of drinkers are brought into a concert by quaffing wine. Likewise, the bouquets of universities are fruitful sources of appreciation for teachers and consumers. Here, in a selection of offerings, reds and whites are presented for tasting by each of the self-styled ‘great growths’ of Australian higher education. Supplemented by the author’s comments, the body of the paper consists of extracts from appraisals of these wines (sources of quotations are given at the end). The author suggests that tasting panels, call them focus groups if you will, be established by the Quality and Standards Agency; and that a bibulous candidate, such as himself, has strong claims for membership.

Introduction Of course, to talk of ‘teachers’ is old hat. The brave new

So little is measurable, and nothing is reproducible, about the senses of smell and taste. Language serves them only lamely, leaning on simile and metaphor for almost everything illuminating that can be said.

higher education enterprise is conducted by coaches and mentors; and to fit them for work, new chums must

The wonder is, as he notes, that there is so much

undergo coaching and mentoring by those who used to

common ground between several people tasting the same

be employed in Education Resources and like-named

wine. There is a more-or-less shared language of appre-

support units. Since there are new tricks of trade, modes

ciation because varieties of grape can be related to their

of discourse will alter. Rather than learning to be coach

aromas and to bouquets of the wines made from them.

and/or mentor, the tyro academic must, as the celebrated

In providing a catalogue, Max Lake says that ‘These [the

Australian comedian, Mo MacCackie (Roy Rene 1892-

words he uses to refer to typical grape aromas and wine

1954), used to say,‘suck it and see’. In-service taste train-

bouquets] are memory hooks only.You may well perceive

ing is required.

them differently. Not all occur at the one time’ (1989, p.

The same applies at the consumer end: student course

123).A lexicon of sorts is made by associating wine smells

experience questionnaires, with their reliance on Likert

and tastes with what are held to be typical smells and

scales, will need to be replaced with tasting scorecards

tastes of animals, minerals, fruits, vegetables and some

like the one produced by Michael Broadbent and Hugh

manufactured products; and so, I argue, the senses can be

Johnson in 1975 (Johnson, 1991, p. 555). Some extensions

employed in higher education.

are needed in order to allow report of scarcely realised

To assist the preparation of guides to the appraisal of

olfactory repellents and attractants – not only ‘did the

quality, I put together tasting notes on some Australian

course stink or smell like roses?’ but also ‘what subtle

universities, members of the self-styled Group of Eight

odours does the place give off?’

(Go8), that distinguish themselves from the rest by their

It can be argued that objectivity is not well-served by the senses. Hugh Johnson (1991, p. 552) says:

superior characteristics, like: ‘Go8 universities have nurtured every Nobel Prize winner educated at an Australian University’; and ‘Go8 universities count among their

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Grand crews, Arthur O’Neill

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alumni 83 per cent of all current Australian Government Ministers including the Prime Minister, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Innovation, Industry, Science and Research’ (Group of Eight Australia, 2011, p. 3). We must smack our lips and get stuck into these bottlers.

Tasting Notes

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However, one wrote: I was curious about this brew with shiraz but nothing like a shiraz here. Only the faintest tartness. Almost watery pale ale like, and then the high carbonation with giant bubbles making it more like pale ale with coca cola. A few codgers from colleges still feel like that about amalgamating with universities.

Adelaide Since the University’s administrative actions in recent

Australian National

years are said by disaffected staff to have been marked

A hard one, but where better to start than with a Merlot?

by rigidity and heavy-handedness, it is fitting that we are

– ‘Yet another well-made wine in the Ministry Series

offered a red made in South Australia by the outrider of

releases; has unequivocal varietal character from the cassis

an Austrian winery. Its Syrah and Virgonier blend offers

fruit and spicy tannins.’ A Reserve Shiraz from this winery,

‘syrupy black fruit aromas with an overlay of exotic

described as being ‘all about controlled power’, might be

spice, earthiness and maybe a hint of Vegemite …’. I am

closer to the University’s mark; but we must work with

reminded by the ‘hint’ of a reviewer finding a Barossa

the Merlot we are given.

Shiraz to have ‘… a concentrated essence-like assembly

Like the ANU, this variety does not take easily to dif-

of rich, ripe dark black fruits, leather, tar, black cherry

ficult conditions.As Hugh Johnson says, Merlot ‘is a preco-

and hoisin sauce …’; and of Max Schubert repeating

cious grape that buds, flowers and ripens early, making

an unnamed taster’s comment about his early vintages

it more vulnerable in spring … Unfortunately, at harvest

of Grange Hermitage: ‘A concoction of wild fruits and

time its tight bunches need only a little rain to start them

sundry berries with crushed ants predominating’.Withal,

rotting’ (Johnson, 1991, p. 50). There are folks at the Uni-

many have remarked on unlikely tastes left with them

versity who reckon Canberra is an unseasonable place.

after encounters with the University. But back to the

They cop the frosts of government expenditure reviews

Syrah and Virgonier blend: ‘A long finish and finely bal-

and endure showers of indignation from colleagues in the

anced tannic grip complete the picture’. Is this akin to

States over supposedly preferential treatment given to the

the Masonic grip practised at the Temple on the other

ANU by federal authorities.

side of North Terrace from the University?

Methinks they do complain too much. But if life is not

A second red was considered. I give an extract from the

all Merlot and Skittles beside Lake Burley Griffin then we

opinion of those promoting it: ‘This delicious Shiraz has

must seek out a means of relief. How about a glass or two

hints of chocolate, menthol and tobacco leaf on the nose’.

of a local chardonnay that captures (or maybe causes) the

I recollect those dear old days when someone was always

feistiness that is so often encountered at University House,

chewing cough lollies in the Staff Room, and you could

at a nearby dining place in the University’s grounds, and

smoke a pipe in there. Smells of wet wool and leather

on the surrounding highways: ‘Bold barrel ferment wine

are also common in tasting notes, perhaps because Harris

with ripe peachy fruit, and just enough acidity to keep the

Tweed jackets with leather elbows used to be de rigeur

show on the road’.

for academic chaps taking their beverages. The University’s reputation was much improved by the

Melbourne

incorporation of oenology courses after the Roseworthy

A promotion sheet for the Shiraz says that it has the ‘Typi-

College of Advanced Education joined it in 1991. A white

cal One Eye nose of black fruits, tar and violets. A hint

from Roseworthy does not offer itself and instead, an

of gum leaf and spice lifts and complexes the bouquet’.

interesting substance casts symbolic light on the merger

Some assert that the University’s foray into postgraduate

process. A label says, coyly, that the product ‘…

brings

professional education is one-eyed and on the nose; and,

together the best in craft brewing and contemporary

somehow, the combined smells of black fruits, tar and

Barossa winemaking’; and that contents include the pro-

violets does accurately convey mixed opinions about this

ducing winery’s ‘… very own Barossa Valley Shiraz’. While

institution. That it is well endowed is made plain: ‘Mid

sticking Shiraz grape concentrate in beer sounds like

pallet [sic] richness is a hallmark of One Eye’.

mixing theory and craft, academic toffs and vocational

One taster described the Sparkling White as exhibit-

proles, beer tasters have been positive about the blend.

ing ‘a kaleidoscope of mega-rich citrus flavours, minerals,

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wet slate and divine nuttiness’. Who can resist divine nut-

New South Wales

tiness, especially when political scientists and psycholo-

As they say at Kensington, you can take ‘Technology’ out of

gists have their feet in the crushing, and when mouthfuls

the title but you can’t take the University out of technology.

of unadulterated lemon flavour emanate from Law and

It may have absorbed a Paddington arts mob but an indus-

Social Work?

trial strength university deserves an industrial strength

I’ve had to eat crow in my time but felt obliged to savour

winemaking company. One brand fits the University’s bill:

that roofing staple of august institutions – wet slate. I did

‘…whilst proud of heritage, [the company] lies still at the

so by climbing atop Old Arts at night in order not to draw

cutting edge of modern winemaking technology’.

attention and found it wet and cold, which fits the presen-

Besides, this winery has undergone more takeovers,

tation of a sparkling white. But wait! I made a mistake! A

mergers and makeovers than ever Dawkins dreamed of.

wine expert lists the aroma of slate in the course of advis-

Its latest incarnation is as one of numerous brands owned

ing that names be matched to smells (Schuster, 2000, pp

by a newly-minted Australian company with a majority of

12-14). Smelly Old Arts …

private equity backing. Its Chief Executive Officer says:

Monash

‘Our mission is about being global, our global brand and our global footprint’. The mission is quite in line with a

Here, the long lunch was perfected as a device for real-

reason given for the existence of the Group of Eight:‘[To]

ising amalgamations. Mind you, the Greater Monash pro-

strengthen Australia’s capacity to engage in and benefit

vides timely reminder of the error promulgated by some

from global developments and opportunities to respond

in its Business School (in business schools more generally

to global and local challenges’ (Group of Eight, 2011, p. 2).

and amongst purported management experts): that silos are an organisational no-no. I say: long live departmental fermentation vats! A Shiraz Mourvèdre whose ‘intensity and length are prodigious’ suggests the thrusting style of the University’s negotiators during merger discussions. But the wine was

The massification of Australian higher education runs parallel to output: The winery now has an impressive 45,000 tonne crushing capacity and ‘state of the art’ technology, which allows 12 million litres of grape juice to be cold fermented fortnightly during vintage.

ruled out of contention because it did not come from Vic-

The product is four litre bladders of wine in cardboard

toria and, surprisingly, Monash has not sought out univer-

boxes. Since tasters do not write about wines produced

sity brands from near-by Australian States for takeovers.

in large volumes and at low cost, the task fell to me, at high

Something grand is required, to match the University’s

cost to my liver. Of the thirteen sorts at last count, I chose

ambitions; and something sweet, to convey the veneer

the Shiraz Cabernet, described on the box as ‘An appeal-

of its bonhomie. As perfumers relay their international

ing medium bodied dry red wine exhibiting vanillin oak

credentials with location statements in advertisements

characters and ripe berry fruit flavour’; and what is called

(‘London – Paris – Tokyo’) so also does Monash tell read-

a Fresh Dry White, described as ‘An aromatic, fresh, fruity

ers of its global reach: ‘Australia –Malaysia – South Africa

dry white wine’.

– Italy – India’. A Victorian-made varietal, Sagrantino, reso-

A taster only can go so far at one sitting when faced

nates with the University’s foothold in Italy – a holiday

with eight litres of wine (or eight universities, for that

retreat in Prato; and fits in with labyrinthine workings of

matter). My rather indecipherable notes say that the red

its managers at headquarters in Clayton: ‘There’s a mix of

and white were fruity and on the bland side; eminently

berries and a foxy, almost feral, gamy complexity here; and

drinkable, mind you, but unmemorable. Both improved

there’s herbs in the mix too’. In the good old days, there

by being made sparkling with the infusion of soda water.

used to be an abundance of herbs in the Student Union

Tasting them accords with my limited experience of the

building too.

University: a bit overripe but reliable.

Blended whites from a South African producer capture the university’s global pretensions: ‘Reputation is slightly

Queensland

ahead of quality at this stage’.To think local for a moment,

I have but vague memories from youth of a Port from

a Noble Riesling from Gippsland ticked all the boxes. It

Bassett’s Romavilla winery: of a next-morning aftertaste

delivered ‘sweet, fragrant floral aromas, lime marmalade,

of dry fur on the tongue and of pervasive, sickly aromas.

quince and spiced apple’. The palate is ‘underpinned by

The sensations reminded me of post-examination experi-

brisk, crunchy acid that ensures the sweetness doesn’t go

ences when attending this University as an undergradu-

unchecked’.

ate. In those days we may not have been very selective

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Grand crews, Arthur O’Neill

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but we drank exceeding deep from the demijohn of for-

no aroma other than a minerally tingle and perhaps the

tified knowledge.

faintest wisp of grass or herb … ‘; after five years, ‘the

The University is represented by wineries that dem-

wine will start to open up, the colour moving to pale

onstrate its preference for family-owned and family-run

green-gold, the bouquet releasing lemon-citrus, herb

businesses, and this may affect judgment. There is a no-

and a hint of toast …’; and after another five years, ‘the

doubt biased but long-standing opinion that winemaking,

colour will intensify, glowing green-gold as if lit from

like intellectual work, does not prosper in the tropics. As

within by a tiny unseen light bulb’ (surely the Eureka!

our taster said about a Stanthorpe white: ‘Vibrant colour;

moment at the end of doctoral studies); the bouquet

lifted and smoky tropical fruit bouquet; quite juicy on the

will have ‘a mix of honey, grilled nuts and lightly

palate; a little simple’.

browned toast’; and the palate ‘will be a magical com-

The 2005 Cabernet Merlot drew similar reserve, with the same taster reporting:

bination of honey, fig and buttered toast on the one hand, and lively acidity on the other’. There you have

An altogether strange feeling when you pick up the plastic bottle – is it empty? No, it’s full. Also it has the positive statement ‘best before 30 June 2010’. The wine itself is not as remarkable as the package.

it: doing an Arts course at this University is all about

One is left with the impression that the University

In comparison with the rest, this University is the ‘Quiet

is resting in the shade of its membership of the Grand

Man’ of the Group of Eight; and the first selection goes

Crews. The best that can be gleaned from tasting authori-

some way to explain why: ‘A light- to medium-bodied

ties is that, as an external assessor might say, ‘promising

spicy/savoury red, with good balance but not a lot of

advances have been made from a poor start but more

thrust or character’. How could this be? There are pretty

work needs to be done to meet entry standards’.

interesting characters at the University (not least, the Vice-

Sydney Lusty Hermitage and Semillon wines from the Hunter Valley represent a university with historic links to the Push. The amorous red – called Kiss Shiraz – is rated amongst ‘The Best of the Best’ wines made from this grape variety. A reviewer says that it is impressive for the depth, ripeness and weight that it carries – even the first impression bowls you over. Aromas of ultra-ripe dark plums and spice here: cola, toasty oak and dark cherries, super-concentrated…. Will cellar like a trooper . From a panel report on the frisky white: ‘Lemon and ruby grapefruit zest are striking upfront and very inviting;

nosing armpits and scoffing toast.

Western Australia

Chancellor). However lively the inner person the trick for lower academic growths, like tutors, is to keep their heads down. Sticking them up is to risk pruning. The white does indicate that staff can hide their talents under a barrel: … an engaging combination of grapefruit, sandalwood, bacon bones and ginger are all evident on the bouquet; the palate is lacy and fine, and while oak is present the fruit handles it with ease; surprisingly powerful and precise … When such a combination of odours invades their noggins, we can understand why a few staff have been heard to refer to their university as the piggery, and why others have supplicated for the taste of fried eggs.

leading to buttered toast with lots of complexity and well woven richness throughout’. Here, it is timely to remem-

Conclusion

ber what Max Lake had to say about the powerful sexual influence of bodily odours. He goes on: There are other pheromones in wines. Some great rieslings and semillons occasionally have a ‘sweaty’ tone among the fragrances. Not a five-day unwashed labourer, rather the freshly bathed underarm of an excited and nubile female, or male, if you wish. Not everybody denies this attraction (Lake, 1989, p. 30).

As Dan Murphy insists, ‘It is the vineyard that matters … Top quality wine is obtained only from top quality vineyards’; and ‘… tasting is the only criterion which should be used’ to decide on the overall quality of wines from particular areas (Murphy, 1974, pp. 20 & 21). However, ‘not every wine from a great wine area is a great wine’, the reason very often being ‘that the maker does not know

The formation of students as they move through this

how to use the first class material that is available to him’

august academy is in line with the maturation of Semi-

– which suggests that ‘wines should be classified accord-

llon from the Hunter Valley. To quote James Halliday

ing to their makers as well as according to their districts’.

(2004, pp 63-64): ‘When bottled there will be little or

But ‘a classification according to winemakers and labels

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will be entirely variable’ as makers come and go, and the

Here is as plain a ‘buy me’ hook as the gold disc stuck

management of wineries changes for good or ill. Besides,

on a wine bottle, announcing First Prize in Class 11 at the

they produce many blends from disparate areas and from

Bindiwallop Agricultural Show.

vineyards in their own areas (pp. 53-54).

When it comes to choosing what and where to study,

Here are guides to classification in a grape skin. First,

I’d forget the Group’s marketing hoopla, the institutional

the system has to be relatively stable in its application.

hype of slate and hoisin sauce, and head for the place

Second, criteria for placement will depend on location

running a course that has, as Len Evans wrote (1973, p.

while giving due heed, if not recompense, to smelly under-

292) about a Morris Imperial Dry Red from Rutherglen:

armed labourers in the vineyard.Third, though blends can

‘a very good straightforward flavour, with plenty of it, and

turn out trumps, they are best ignored for the purposes of

finishes agreeably crisp and firm’.

maintaining the classification. So it is with the Group of Eight. Age is on their side.

Acknowledgements

They have what real estate agents call ‘position’ in their favour. Occasionally they pay heed to hired hands, at least,

This article owes much to the assistance of and com-

to the ones who they can boast about. By and large, they

ments by: Bob Speechley, long-suffering member of the

have avoided mixing the product with the fruits of more

wine tasting panel at University House, The University of

recent higher education plantings; or if they have, like

Melbourne; and Jon Burfurd, with Antoinette, proprietors

Monash, then a glossy blue label will serve to cover a mul-

of the Lincoln Hotel, Carlton, Melbourne. Opinions about

titude of Terroirs.

the universities are all my own.

But there must be a spring to a classification, to the manner it which facts and objects are assembled. Darwin

Arthur O’Neill is a retired gentleperson, and regular imbiber

says he learnt a good lesson from an early error: ‘never to

of a fine drop or three.

trust in science to the principle of exclusion’ (Darwin, 1995 [1876], p. 31). That is just the principle followed by the Group of Eight: members establish themselves as a group by making other universities into a class apart. For example, a graph is presented to support the characteristic that ‘International students [at Go8 universities] succeed at a similarly high level as Australian students’. Universities

References Darwin, C. (1995 [1876]) ‘Autobiography’, pp 5-54 (Ch. II), in Darwin, F. (1995 [1902]) The Life of Charles Darwin, 2nd ed. London: Senate. Evans, L. (1973) ‘Wine of Australia’, in Evans, L., comp. (1973) Australia and New Zealand Complete Book of Wine, pp 173-384. Sydney: Paul Hamlyn.

are plotted as dots (or as stars for Go8 members) on x

Group of Eight Australia (2011) ‘Characteristics of Go8 Universities’ in Brochure, Group of Eight Australia. www.go8.edu.au

and y axes of ‘International student progress rate (%)’ and

Halliday, J. (2004) Varietal Wines. Pymble, Sydney: Collins.

‘Australian student progress rate (%)’ (Group of Eight Aus-

Halliday, J. (2009) Australian Wine Companion, 2010 Edition. Melbourne: Hardie Grant Books.

tralia, 2011, p. 3). Some dots intermingle with stars. In other words, there is a degree of overlap, with some non-Go8 universities doing as well as or better than some Go8 universities in comparative international/local progress rates. It is only by lumping the eight together that a principle of exclusion can be applied and a binary classification of universities can be presented. For all their terminological shortcomings, wine writers do not fall into this trap. In sum, members of the Group of Eight define them-

Johnson, H. (1991) Hugh Johnson’s Modern Encyclopedia of Wine (3rd rev. ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. Lake, M. (1989) Scents and Sensuality. The Essence of Excitement. London: John Murray. Murphy, D (1974) Dan Murphy’s Classification of Australian Wines. Melbourne: Sun Books. Schubert, M. (1979) ‘The Story of Grange’, pp 260-270. In Caillard, A. (2004) The Rewards of Patience. A Definitive Guide to Cellaring and Enjoying Penfolds Wines, 5th ed. Adelaide: Penfolds.

selves, and hawk for recruits, by the sweet smell of their

Schuster, M. (2000) Essential Winetasting. London: Mitchell Beazley.

success. Collectively, they are in the Grange range; and

Stock, N. (2011) The Age/The Sydney Morning Herald Good Wine Guide 2012. Camberwell: Penguin.

they sing their individual praises on house labels.The University of Melbourne has posters on one of its street walls that announce in big bold lettering above and small type below:

No. 1 In Australia* Melbourne’s world standing reaffirmed * 2011 Academic Rankings of World Universities Shanghai Jiao Tong University vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Tasting Notes Passages in quotation marks come from the following sources: Adelaide ‘… offers syrupy black fruit … ‘, Salomon Fleurieu Peninsula Syrah Viognier Grand crews, Arthur O’Neill

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2009, Salomon Estate, McLaren Vale, S. A. Ralph Kyte-Powell, ‘Wine of the week’, The Age, Epicure, 11 October 2011, p. 23. ‘… a concentrated essence-like assembly … ‘, The Laird Shiraz 2005, Torbreck Vintners, Marananga, S. A. Stock, 2009, p. 335. ‘A concoction of wild fruits and sundry berries with crushed ants …’. Schubert, 1979, p. 267. ‘This delicious Shiraz has hints of … ‘, Heartland 2006 Shiraz, Langhorne Creek/Limestone Coast, S. A. In a flyer promoting the wine, n. d. (2011). ‘… brings together the best in craft brewing … ‘ and ‘… very own Barossa Valley Shiraz’. From neck label on bottle of Pepperjack Hand Crafted Ale, Saltram Wine Estate, Angaston, S. A. ‘I was curious about this brew with shiraz … ‘. Review by jesperhammer – Copenhagen, Denmark, on 14 February 2011 & posted the next day on www. ratebeer.com/beer/saltram-of-barossa-pepperjack-hand-crafted-ale/78565 Australian National ‘Yet another well-made wine in the Ministry Series … ‘, The Backbencher Merlot 2006, Capital Wines, Weetangera, ACT Halliday, 2009, p.142. ‘… all about controlled power … ‘, Kyeema Vineyard Reserve Shiraz 2007, Capital Wines, Weetangera, ACT Halliday, 2009, p.142. ‘Bold barrel ferment wine … ‘, Canberra District Chardonnay 2006, Lambert Vineyards, Wamboin, N. S. W. Halliday, 2009, p. 369. Melbourne ‘Typical One Eye nose … ‘, One Eye Shiraz, 2005, Heathcote, Vic. In a promotion sheet for this wine, n. d. (2011). ‘… a kaleidoscope of mega-rich …’, Blanc de Blancs, Yarra Burn, Yarra Valley, Vic. In brochure: Dan Murphy’s 20 Recommended Sparkling Wines, n. d. (2011). Monash ‘… intensity and length are prodigious … ‘, Private Cellar Barossa Valley Shiraz Mourvèdre 2009, Hewitson, Mile End, S. A. ‘James Halliday’s Top 100 Wines’, The Weekend Australian Magazine, ‘The Wine Issue’, November 19-20, 2011, p. 35.

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New South Wales ‘… the Stanley Wine Company, whilst proud of heritage, lies still at the cutting edge of modern winemaking technology’. www.cwines.com.au ‘Our mission is about being global, … ‘. Troy Christensen, CEO of Accolade Wines, in ‘New Name, New Vision, New Mission’, 27 June 2011. www.accoladewines.com ‘The winery now has an impressive 45,000 tonne … ‘. www.stanleywines.com.au ‘An appealing medium bodied dry red … ’ & ‘An aromatic, fresh, fruity …’. On cask labels for Shiraz Cabernet & Fresh Dry White, The Stanley Wine Company, Buronga, N. S. W. Queensland ‘An altogether strange feeling … ‘, First Step Reduced Carbon Footprint Cabernet Merlot 2005, Sirromet Wines, Mount Cotton, Qld. Halliday, 2009, p. 592. ‘Vibrant colour; lifted and smoky tropical fruit … ‘, Co-inoculated Granite Belt Verdelho 2008, Witches Falls Winery, North Tamborine, Qld. Halliday, 2009, p. 707. Sydney ‘The Best of the Best’ & ‘…for the depth, ripeness and weight … ‘, Kiss Shiraz 2009, Thomas Wines, Hunter Valley, NSW. In Stock, 2011, pp. 16 & 334. ‘Lemon and ruby grapefruit zest … ‘, Mount Pleasant Blue Label Hunter Valley Semillon 2006, McWilliams, Pokolbin, NSW. Dan Murphy’s Fine Wine Buyer’s Guide, 10th ed. (October 2011), p. 5. Western Australia ‘A light-to medium-bodied spicy/savoury … ‘, Margaret River Classic Red 2007, Evans & Tate, Wilyabrup, W.A. Halliday, 2009, p.231. ‘… an engaging combination of grapefruit …’, Cherubino Chardonnay 2010, Larry Cherubino Wines, Margaret River, W. A. James Halliday (winecompanion. com.au), quoted in Dan Murphy’s Fine Wine Buyers Guide, 10th ed. (October 2011), p. 5.

‘There’s a mix of berries and a foxy … ‘, Chalmers Sagrantino, 2008, Chalmers Wines, Mildura, Vic. Stock, 2011, p. 375. ‘Reputation is slightly ahead of quality at this stage’, about wines of the Boschendal vineyards, Groot Drakenstein, South Africa. In Johnson, 1991, p. 515. ‘… sweet, fragrant floral aromas …’, & ‘… underpinned by brisk, crunchy acid ... ‘, Friends of Punch Berrys Creek Vineyard, Noble Riesling, 2009, Gippsland, Vic. Stock, 2011, p. 403.

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Uncapped university Andee Jones

Apart from the odd compulsive student, like me, or the

the academic equivalent of a chockers London Under-

odd obsolete teacher (also like me), few people know that

ground lift. For the first tutorial, 25 students sidled into

what now passes for a university isn’t a university.

a 35-degree, airless closet. I scored a seat at a back table,

More than a decade ago, philosopher Raimond Gaita

straddled the corner, balanced a notepad on my knees,

(1997) reported an exchange between UK philosophers

wedged my pen and specs on the table between my

and a Minister for Education about the closure of univer-

neighbours’ clipboards — and waited. My joy of joys is

sity philosophy departments. The philosophers said that

a new course brimming with the promise of passionate

no institution that lacked a philosophy department could

intellectual engagement.

rightly call itself a university.The Minister — described by

As in the petri-dish question on biology exams, within

Gaita as a cultured man — listened carefully but finally

five minutes the class had doubled. The latecomers sat

replied,‘In that case, we will call it something else!’

on the floor, backs against the walls, knees jammed into

They haven’t had to bother. Penny pinching by federal

the behinds of the lucky sods that’d scored chairs. Just

governments has destroyed everything but the name. By

as any semblance of humanity was long gone from the

2007, compared to public university education in the rest

London Underground lift, so all vestiges of teaching had

of the OECD,Australian students paid amongst the highest

fled the uncapped classroom.

tuition fees in the world and their governments contrib-

The airless closet was a taste of things to come. From

uted less than half the amount they once did per student.

2012, the Australian government will fund universities for

Over the decade to 2005, student fees increased by 70

as many students as they can enrol (excepting postgradu-

per cent and resources per student fell, saving the govern-

ate and medical students). In the three years prior to the

ment the equivalent of $1 billion (NTEU, 2007).

anticipated uncapping, Australian universities increased

Staff cuts and student increases have forced universi-

their enrolments by 20 per cent (DEEWR, 2012). At RMIT

ties into a two-stream system in which islets of senior academics supervise shoals of research students, while a sea of casual staff — desperate to make landfall before they hit retirement — carry the vast bulk of the teaching load. As a

this year, places report-

As in the petri-dish question on biology exams, within five minutes the class had doubled. The latecomers sat on the floor, backs against the walls, knees jammed into the behinds of the lucky sods that’d scored chairs.

university teacher last century, I learnt to teach while treading water and also on dry land but nothing prepared me for my experience as a student in 2011.

edly increased by 1,343 while the cut-off scores for admission to some courses plunged. For one business course the entry rank fell from nearly 70 last year to 50 this year; for one civil engineering course, 79 to 62; and for one psychology

course, 81 to 68 (Topsfield & Butt, 2012). As enrolments skyrocket and cut-off scores plummet,

Last year I enrolled in masters-level courses at two

many universities are slashing staff numbers — and play-

self-exulted Australian universities. I wanted to choose

ing the old blame tune. Announcing cuts of 340 at Sydney

the one that better suited me. I didn’t realise I’d entered

University, Vice-Chancellor Dr Martin Spence said the

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

Uncapped university, Andee Jones

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university could no longer carry those staff members ‘not pulling their weight’ (Bennet, 2011). In the university context, ‘not pulling their weight’ is executive-speak for ‘publishing fewer papers than Canberra wants’. To Canberra, only numbers count. It doesn’t matter to an auditor that one timely, substantial paper might contribute more to scholarship than four light-weight pieces put together. Muttering ‘not pulling their weight’ in the general direction of academics keeps them treading water. The slogan taps into community suspicions — already trained by the tabloids — that university teachers don’t have enough to do. But on Canberra’s publish-or-perish showboat, the survivors try to keep the sharks at bay. Sometimes against

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References DEEWR (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations). (2012). Demand driven funding for undergraduate student places Fact Sheet, Canberra: DEEWR Retrieved from: http://www.deewr.gov.au/HigherEducation/Resources/Pages/FundingUndergradStudent.aspx Bennet, J. (2011). Sydney University confirms job losses. Campus Review 21 Nov. Retrieved from: http://www.campusreview.com.au/blog/news/sydney-universityconfirms-job-losses/ Gaita, R. (1997). Truth and the Idea of a University. Australian Universities’ Review, 40(2), 13-18. NTEU (National Tertiary Education Union). (2007). The Funding of Australian Universities 1996-2005. Retrieved from: http://www.nteu.org.au/library/ view/id/477 Topsfield, J. & Butt, C. (2012). 3000 more uni places. The Age 17 Jan.

their better academic judgment they publish prematurely or turn one paper into several. After all, why feed Jaws a single prey when tossing him two halves has him behaving as if he’s twice as full? Under-the-knife and underpublished academics join forces, set up new journals and publish each other. Meanwhile, in vain, scholars scour the literature for something that’s still breathing. Back in the airless closet, the masters-level subject comprised a series of unpaid visitors ad-libbing on ‘what I do to earn a buck in this industry’. At both universities the justification for the absence of teaching was that we masters students were already proficient. What we’d get out of the course was the know-how to sell our wares in the marketplace. So why wouldn’t we just do a marketing course? ‘Indeed,’ said one lecturer, ‘some of our best students have’. In his article, philosopher Raimond Gaita mourned the loss not only of a serious conception of the value of learning for its own sake, but also of the very language with which to articulate such a conception. He quoted Hazel Rowley: ‘Never before has there been so much talk of “excellence and quality assurance” and never before [has there been] so little concern for either’, and added, ‘For a long time we did not notice what we had lost’. Not that it’ll worry the auditors; they’ll just call it something else. Andee Jones is a retired psychologist and academic.

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Déjà vu all over again: what next for universities? Warren Bebbington University of Adelaide

Unter den Linden is old Berlin’s most picturesque boule-

many, and the rigorous secondary schools (Gymnasien)

vard. Its west end is marked by the imposing Brandenburg

that still exist today. But he had already implemented his

Gate, and the aisle of lime trees for which it is named runs

plan for a new kind of university.

down the centre to Schlossbrücke, bridge to the palace

Humboldt did not want his university to offer a rigid

gardens in the east. Frederick the Great sits in stone on

curriculum like the vocational Stuttgart Hochschule

horseback at the centre, glancing towards the rebuilt State

where his friend the poet Schiller had passed a miserable

Opera he inspired, his eyes averted from the neo-Baroque

time. Nor did he want the traditional university pattern,

State Library, for which he cared little.

where the focus was on the study of often ancient books,

It is a street redolent with history. Napoleon’s troops

transmitted by the professor in lectures for students to

paraded through the Gate in 1806 after defeating Prus-

copy, summarise and memorise, for he was sceptical of

sia; Hitler led a torchlight parade there when he became

granting any book unquestioned authority. One modern

Chancellor.The Berlin Wall still divided the city in the early

book he was in more sympathy with was Diderot’s lively

1980s when I came to study in the State Library, and armed

Encyclopédie (1751-80), which invited readers to educate

border guards watched from gun turrets at the Gate to see

themselves in any branch of knowledge, all contained

no-one approached too closely. All that has changed now.

in a single work. But Humboldt believed the discovery

Yet one thing that has survived two centuries is in the

of knowledge was an unending scientific process, and

rebuilt palace next to the Library: Berlin University, opened

doubted it could be codified in this way. Scientific dis-

in 1810 and now renamed after its founder, whose statue

covery was pursued at meetings of the Royal Society in

graces the entrance—Wilhelm von Humboldt.

London and the Prussian Academy of Sciences in oral

Philosopher, diplomat and admirer of the Enlighten-

demonstrations, but those he felt lacked the stimulation

ment, Humboldt had travelled to Paris in 1789 during

dealing with students would bring. His aim was to bring

the storming of the Bastille. He was amongst the circle of

objective scientific discovery and subjective student

reformers who, in the wake of Napoleon’s occupation of

learning together as one (McNeely & Wolverton, 2008).

Berlin, were charged with rebuilding Prussia as a modern

In his 1810 paper ‘On the Internal and External Organi-

state. In 1809 he was appointed head of culture and educa-

sation of the Higher Scientific Institutions in Berlin,’

tion of the Prussian Ministry of the Interior, and he imme-

Humboldt explained his vision of ‘work on knowledge

diately proposed a reform of the entire Prussian education

[Wissenschaft] in the deepest and broadest sense of

system, arranging it into three tiers. He resigned after just

the word.’ Around a seminar table, students would orally

16 months, too soon to see the lower tiers come to reality:

report on projects they had chosen to work at under

the 30,000 free primary schools that spread across Ger-

their own guidance. The successful work of one would

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thus inspire the others: it would be ‘a collaboration that

attraction of science was especially great; flushed from

is uninterrupted, constantly self-renewing, but unforced

wartime achievements in the hour of national need, and

and without specific purpose.’There would be no curricu-

confident of ongoing government funding for the Space

lum, no exams, and no grades; the learning would be stu-

Race and other ambitions, science seemed to offer limit-

dent-centred, with professors present not to lecture but

less horizons. Staff members were free to work at applied

to guide these ‘inherently undetermined and in a sense

research or choose to follow their curiosities into long-

accidental activities.’ The credential would be a new

term basic research, some of which was funded in the

degree, the PhD, awarded for a dissertation demonstrating

research and development departments of commercial

original research, orally defended in a seminar. Students

companies as well. And not all needed to pursue research:

would graduate as rational, critical and independent think-

it was accepted that some would be immersed in teach-

ers, ready to follow careers in law, medicine, education

ing instead. Universities catered for the traditional profes-

or the church. The professors, appointed and salaried by

sions, while training for the growing number of skilled

the State, would be required to give public lectures, but

occupations and for teachers—where employment

otherwise had ‘solitariness and freedom’ to pursue topics

opportunities and demand were now strongest—were

as their curiosity dictated. The State was to refrain from

handled by technical institutes and teachers’ colleges. It

prescribing them particular technical problems: it was to

was a steadily expanding binary system of higher educa-

have ‘the inner conviction that when they achieve their

tion, a divide legislated by the Menzies Government in

final purpose, they will also fulfil its purposes, namely

1958, as it later was in the UK in 1963 (Larkins, 2011).

from a much more elevated perspective.’ Basic research

No-one much complained that just four per cent of school

would take time, and the university’s autonomy was

leavers attended a university: concerns over social restric-

important (Humboldt, 1809).

tion in university participation were yet to become a

Needless to say, the student who could at once embark

major preoccupation.

on independent research under his own guidance would

Contrast this with the present situation. Numbers in

require rigorous high school preparation to ‘bear within

Australian universities now are huge—more than 1 mil-

himself a yearning to lift himself to science.’ And thus a

lion students are enrolled. The student: staff ratio aver-

problem was entrenched: while Humboldt had sought to

ages 20:1, and classes of 1,000 or even 1,500 students are

end aristocratic privilege, the Gymnasien remained all-male,

not unknown in first-year subjects. Few campuses have

elite fee-charging institutions throughout the 19th century,

grown in proportion to accommodate such numbers, and

and thus admission to the university was socially restricted.

not surprisingly, students are unhappy with their expe-

Still, Humboldt’s university attracted brilliant professors

rience, expressing in the national Course Experience

and students from across Germany, from Schopenhauer

Questionnaire and other surveys often modest levels of

and Hegel to Karl Marx and Albert Einstein. It inspired

overall satisfaction. Few of them are on campus full-time,

the German research university which, by the Great War

though most are enrolled as if they were, for the average

in 1914, was admired throughout the world. To be sure,

student is now employed 12-15 hours a week, and a size-

it was not the only locus for research at the time: Louis

able minority over 20. Not at the kind of work they want

Pasteur in France had shown that important and useful

in the future, however: they are well aware that over a

science could thrive in free-standing research institu-

third of all employment in Australia now requires a profes-

tions too. But many British and American scholars were

sional qualification, and most worry that their courses are

attracted to study in Germany in the 19th century, and

not specifically preparing them for work after graduation.

the German research university model eventually came to

They sit in classes often overtired from work, distracted

reshape their own universities, from Harvard in the USA

by texting from friends on ever-present laptops or smart-

to Oxford in the UK (Anderson, 2009).

phones, or even online gaming which, as one recent study

In Australia, the German research university model was

shows, some believe is a legitimate activity in lectures.

more slowly assimilated, the PhD at last adopted in the

The digital world impacts students in other ways too.

late 1940s and 1950s. The early 1960s were halcyon days:

For a decade now fewer have bought prescribed text-

student: staff ratios were a luxurious 8:1 and many classes

books, believing that if the lecturer’s online materials fail

were small, offering close encounter with a lecturer. The

to serve, then they can always make do with searching

students arrived at university generally well prepared by

Google or reading Wikipedia which, despite its own dis-

school matriculation classes, and being supported by their

claimers, many treat as if it were no less reliable than a text

families or on scholarships most had no need to work.The

by academic experts.They are thus ill equipped to read or

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understand the research literature in their field, and when

they find more attractive rewards and more stimulating

an enterprising lecturer refers them to a research article,

work outside universities.

those that read it come away often mystified and irritated

Yet despite their massive size, universities cater for a

at its obscurity, and seldom energised by the idea of the

participation rate of no more than 32 per cent in Australia,

search for new knowledge. The chance that independent

so some social inequity remains.To achieve the goal of 40

research would play a significant role in such undergradu-

per cent set by government since the Bradley Report, let

ate teaching seems remote.

alone the 50 per cent aspiration in the UK, requires yet

Moreover, the promises of e-learning have not yet cap-

further expansion. Subjects with 2,000 students perhaps?

tured their attention in ways we might have hoped. They

Anything Humboldt would have recognised will then be

love downloadable lectures, for they like being able to

very hard to find.

review and revise through that format, being free to skip,

How did our universities come to this? The turning

highlight, or replay passages as they wish—just as their

points were in the 1970s. The Oil Shock and the western

forebears did with a textbook—or even play at double

economic crisis that followed brought the first significant

speed, to make the droning of a particularly ponderous

constraints in government block grants to universities in

lecturer more interesting. They also like on-line drills and

Australia, and with those came the development of more

quizzes where there is instant response. But they com-

rigorous selectivity measures and quality assurance con-

plain that other kinds of online learning resources are

trol in national research grants. It was the worst possible

often poorly executed, boring, or only vaguely related to

moment for universities to expand, and a tidal wave of baby

the subject.Their lecturers are too often not skilled in the

boomers reaching school leaving age had already struck:

full potential of digital resources, using them simply to

the capacity to accommodate more students was at an

reinforce or substitute for face-to-face lectures.

end. Entrance quotas based on school scores were intro-

For these staff meanwhile, the pressures of research

duced, and for the first time, high school matriculation no

have come to dominate teaching. In an environment

longer meant a place at university.Tension rose over social

where available grant funding is far from adequate, com-

inequity in universities, and it was clear the binary systems

petition is fierce, and calls for measures of ‘impact’ alarm

would not last much longer. The end approached in 1988

those committed to long-term basic research where no

(and in the UK around the same time) when under John

impact may be detectable for many years. Pressure to

Dawkins a ‘Unified National System’ came into law. Fund-

climb the university ranking tables adds to the focus on

ing would now significantly increase, but the colleges and

research, for most such tables rank research rather than

technical institutes would all combine or be merged with

teaching, which they cannot seem to measure directly

existing universities; henceforth all higher education insti-

(Rauhvargersm, 2011).

tutions would be called universities, and thus all would be

Meanwhile, the cost of researching some of the most

required to adopt a research-intensive mission. In Australia

important problems has exploded beyond the capacity of

and the UK, all higher education institutions were now

any single university to afford. What Australian university

shaped by a single mould.

could purchase a $200 million Synchotron, or run a Very

Some countries had more nuanced ways of manag-

Large Array at $15 million a year? In one of the welcome

ing the enrolment explosion of those years. By far the

developments of the past decade, this has led to signifi-

most impressive was in the USA, where in California, the

cant partnerships, where universities, research institutes,

State’s university, teachers colleges and junior colleges

governments and corporations have formed consortia to

had been coordinated under a Master Plan for Higher

jointly purchase and operate research facilities none could

Education in 1960. The Plan mandated a tripartite system

afford alone. Some such partnerships have brought insti-

under a California Postsecondary Education Commission,

tutions together around the world, constructing global

in which the University of California would take the top

research capacity of impressive size. But ‘Big Science’

eighth of school leavers, the state teachers colleges (now

demands large numbers of staff too: a particle collider

renamed California State University and focussed on

may need a hundred research-only staff to run it, and this

applied research) the top third and the vocational junior

stresses further the tension between research and teach-

(now community) colleges would be open to all who had

ing. Such facilities often offer too few properly-funded

finished high school and are 18. All three tiers would be

opportunities for students. Research-Only staff numbers

tuition fee-free, and each would have its separate gov-

have grown strongly, while nationally research higher

ernance. It was a bold, quintessentially democratic solu-

degree student numbers have now started to decline, as

tion, which allowed significant and ongoing expansion

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of higher education, but based on academic merit rather

also needs to be made more attractive, finding ways to

than social class.

improve its rewards and widening opportunities for stu-

In the past few years the Master Plan has been revised,

dents pursuing higher degrees by research to work along-

the California Postsecondary Education Commission abol-

side staff in our most exciting research frontiers, including

ished, the global financial crisis (GFC) has brought finan-

even the most complex of our ‘Big Science’ projects.

cial crisis, and the gap between access to a university and

We need to embed cultivation of the character we wish

local junior college is substantial. But it remains a hugely

for in our graduates. Most universities have statements of

admired model, (Douglass, 2000) and several other US

graduate attributes, some only thinly connected with the

states followed suit: in New York, the State University and

actual learning. Every course needs to contribute in some

the City University (CUNY) systems were created, bring-

way to producing independent, critical, tolerant and open-

ing together senior and community colleges, and creating

minded thinking; to learning the skills of acquiring knowl-

a hierarchy of merit which serves between them over a

edge by navigating, analysing, and discerning credibility in

million students. At CUNY, despite its staggering size, the

information sources; and to developing interpersonal and

hierarchy of course types and teaching modes means that

communication skills, motivation, and the personal atti-

most undergraduate classes are under 30, and its graduate

tudes and work ethic essential to successful collaboration,

seminars usually less than half that.

discovery and—as it happens — to graduate employment.

What would Humboldt have made of Australia’s uni-

We will also need to develop e-learning resources that

versities today? No doubt he would have marvelled at

better support discovery and collaboration. Beyond pres-

the complex questions and imaginative methods of our

entation software like PowerPoint we need easily-usable

research, while likely censuring government for attempts

design tools and software that enable interactive discus-

to influence research autonomy. In large research centres

sion environments, runnable simulations, guided analysis

he would have thought the lack of a teaching programme

tools, process change exercises for example. These will

the same shortcoming he saw in the science academies

enrich face-to-face teaching, and enhance flexible learn-

of his own day. Likely he would have thought the set cur-

ing, improving a university’s ability to cut loose from set

ricula and limited scope in many courses a step back to

class timetables to serve the growing number of students

the vocational institutions he disliked. He would have

whose work commitments or geographical location pre-

seen the current uses of online resources as little more

vent them from attendance (Laurillard, 2002).

than continuation of the text transmission model he

Inevitably we will also need to intensify academic staff

sought to supersede, and in Wikipedia a compilation of

development in teaching, to equip staff with small group,

information no closer to spreading true knowledge than

collaborative teaching strategies and new IT skills. Aca-

the encyclopaedias of the 18th century. Everywhere he

demics typically spend most of their time teaching yet are

would have seen an urgent need to reconfigure teaching

least trained for it, and often least rewarded for it too. Uni-

for small group seminars, to liberate curricula and timeta-

versities need to professionalise teaching and its rewards,

bles for flexible learning, and to reinvent anew the close

so staff who choose to pursue teaching excellence may

interaction of teacher and students in an uninterrupted,

enjoy the same status as those who pursue research excel-

self-renewing collaboration of discovery.

lence (Seldin, n.d.).

So what can be done? Fundamentally, we need to

Finally, we need to share the excitement of discovery

affirm the vital importance of small-group learning and

with the public, by more often placing our leading aca-

close encounter with a teacher in high-quality university

demics on the public lecture podium or in the media to

learning. By this I mean finding a place in our courses for

speak of their work.

the self-renewing, open-ended collaboration Humboldt

Of course, no single model is right for all students: in

described—the oral seminar or interactive group encoun-

a truly inclusive university we are unlikely to have Hum-

ter where students take part in content design, peer

boldt’s restriction to rigorously-prepared students ready

assessment, and quality evaluation and where the teacher

to work independently. As they move towards 40 per cent

is a guide and partner rather than a lecturer.

participation rates,Australian universities will increasingly

We need to recapture the excitement of discovery

need to adapt to students of varying aptitudes, achieve-

in undergraduate programmes. There should be some

ments and interests. And in any case, ratios of 8:1 are

chance even for the first year undergraduate to experi-

unlikely to be seen again. How then do we simulate the

ence learning through independent inquiry and sharing

small cohort experience where it is appropriate in the

their findings in a small group. Graduate research training

midst of a diverse, mass enrolment?

76

Déjà vu all over again: what next for universities?, Warren Bebbington

vol. 54, no. 2, 2012

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Some are trying to address this. At the University of

munism that followed; today it does not feature among the

California–Santa Barbara, a university ranked No. 32 in the

Top 100 of the ranking tables.And across the world the uni-

world (ARWU – Academic Ranking of World Universities)

versity model it inspired has all but drowned in the flood

with five Nobel Prize winners on its current staff, there

of massed enrolments and the weight of research demands.

are dual paths through undergraduate degree. Most stu-

Sensibly, the way forward is going back to Humboldt’s ideal.

dents choose from amongst majors taught in the custom-

Thus history repeats itself. Search for ‘historic recur-

ary classes; a smaller group, having met additional entry

rence’ and Google will lead you to long lists of sayings,

requirements, take independent work from the outset,

including ‘There is nothing new under the sun,’ ‘Those

working closely with full professors. Santa Barbara calls

who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat

it ‘graduate school for undergraduates’; it does not let all

it,’ and ‘Its déjà vu all over again.’ Wikipedia will tell you

have a taste of small cohorts, however.

the authors of these are respectively Ecclesiastes, Santay-

Ultimately, governments need to sanction a broader

ana, and Yogi Bera. But to grasp the different context and

variety of missions from universities, instead of the single,

significance of each—the ancient pronouncement whose

research-intensive mould. Universities elsewhere choose

power transcends translation from Hebrew, the ironical

their characteristics based on their location and their envi-

aphorism of the Spanish-American poet, or the comic

ronment: in the USA over half the 4,400 degree-granting

malapropism of the American baseball legend—requires

institutions focus entirely on teaching. Australian universi-

knowledge not so easily extracted from an online search

ties need to be able to choose where they wish to place

engine. Which to choose to summarise this paper and

themselves on the continuum between teaching and

why? Perhaps the question for a seminar. . .

research, between transmitting known knowledge and discovering the unknown, between short-term applied

Warren Bebbington is the recently-appointed Vice Chancellor

and long-term basic research, between cultivating stu-

and President of the University of Adelaide, and this paper is

dents’ character and deepening their specific expertise, as

his inaugural address, delivered on 18 July 2012.

well as between building international scholarly reputation and building national identity, between serving the professions as they exist and changing their social shape, between partnering with the community and standing apart as its independent critic (McNeely, 2002). In Australia, we have not suffered from the model described by Harry Lewis in Excellence Without a Soul, where in some elite US universities the leading professors are seen only in graduate seminars, while green doctoral students handle the bulk of undergraduate teaching (Lewis, 2006). Yet at present Australian staff are not much motivated about teaching. In a survey of academics in 18 countries, US academics had the highest preference for teaching, while Australian had the fourth lowest. Australian students report much less frequent communication with staff than American students, they are less likely to receive prompt feedback, and thus are not motivated to work as hard to meet their teacher’s expectations (Norton, 2012). All in all, American universities offer students closer interaction with a lecturer. The single mould of government funding which has concentrated Australian focus on research means staff struggle to see teaching as a satisfying alternative. Like much else on Unter den Linden, Humboldt University suffered from the years of Nazism. Einstein and other distinguished professors fled and its academic standing plunged, to be rebuilt only slowly during the years of Comvol. 54, no. 2, 2012

References Anderson, R. (2004). European Universities from the Enlightenment to 1914. London: Oxford University Press, 2004. Anderson, R. (2009). The ‘Idea of a University’ Today. In K, Withers, ed., First Class? Challenges and Opportunities for the UK’s University Sector. London: Institute for Public Policy Research, 2009. Douglass, J. A. (2000). The California Idea and American Higher Education 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan. Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press, 2000. Humboldt, W. von. (1809). Schriften zur Politik und zum Bildungsesen [Writings on Politics and Education]. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 3rd ed., 1982, IV, 253-65. Translated by Thomas Dunlap, German History in Documents and Images, vol. II. Larkins, F. (2011). Australian Higher Education Research Policies and Performance, 1987-2010. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2011. Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking Teaching for the Knowledge Society. EDUCAUSE Review 37/1 (Jan-Feb 2002), 16-25. Lewis, H. (2006). Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education. New York: Public Affairs, Perseus Books, 2006. McNeely, I. (2002). The Unity of Teaching and Research: Humboldt’s Educational Revolution. Oregon Humanities (Fall 2002), 32-35. McNeely, I. & Wolverton, L. (2008). Reinventing Knowledge: From Alexandria to the Internet. New York: W.W. Norton. Norton , A. (2012). Mapping Australian Higher Education. Melbourne: Grattan Institute Report, 2012. Rauhvargersm, A. (2011). Global University Rankings and Their Impact EUA Report on Rankings. Brussels: European University Association, 2011. Seldin, P. (n.d.) Improving College Teaching. Retrieved from: www.olemiss. edu/depts/vc_academic_affairs/improve.html.

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Quality in teaching and learning One path to improvement Geoff Sharrock L H Martin Institute, University of Melbourne

In response to the concerns raised by John Buchanan in his recent article about the uses and abuses of student surveys (AUR vol. 53, no. 1), this paper outlines one method for using student feedback to inquire into the quality of teaching and learning in classroom settings, and identify improvements to this and other aspects of a program of study at the subject level.

Introduction

to reaffirm my own sense that all was indeed well, and to reassure my programme coordinator of this. But, as a

I read John Buchanan’s article just after receiving the results

systematic way of using survey-based student feedback to

of a short ‘quality of teaching’ survey with nine items and a

gain insights into the dynamics of a specific teaching and

rating scale, widely used at my own institution, for a subject