The Toolbox Collection | Vol. 1: Course Design

TOOLBOX COLLECTION

VOLUME 1: COURSE DESIGN

Editor Brad Garner

VOLUME ONE:

KEY ELEMENTS OF COURSE DESIGN CONTENTS Introduction ……………………………………………………….

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Learning Outcomes and Course Expectations ……………………………………………………….

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The Physics of Teaching: Time and Space ……………………………………………………….

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Rhythm and Flow ……………………………………………………….

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Pursuing Academic Rigor, One Course at a Time ……………………………………………………….

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An Aggregated Content Approach to Course Development ……………………………………………………….

16 Deadlines and Due Dates ……………………………………………………….

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What About Textbooks? ……………………………………………………….

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Building a Syllabus ……………………………………………………….

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References ……………………………………………………….

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Published by: National Resource Center for The First-Year Experience and Students in Transition University of South Carolina 1728 College Street, Columbia, SC 29208 www.sc.edu/fye The First-Year Experience® is a service mark of the University of South Carolina. A license may be granted upon written request to use the term “The First-Year Experience.” This license is not transferable without written approval of the University of South Carolina.

Production Staff for the National Resource Center Tracy L. Skipper, Assistant Director for Publications Brad Garner, Founding Editor Todd Money, Editor Stephanie McFerrin, Graphic Artist

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INTRODUCTION

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magine that you are responsible for baking a cake for an upcoming event. Given this task, you begin to reflect on your personal experience with various types of pastries. Because of your extensive experience enjoying many different types and flavors of cakes, you mentally create an informal list of the qualities that you value most (e.g., flavors, textures, ingredients, cake and icing combinations).

In spite of this experience, however, you quickly acknowledge that simply eating large quantities of these sweet delicacies does not qualify you as an expert baker. You now realize that to fulfill your responsibilities you will have to consult and follow previous research on the topic of cake baking. After a series of web searches on the suggested process for baking a cake, you can make several key observations: »» Cake recipes generally share several common ingredients (e.g., flour, eggs, baking powder, oil, sugar) but can also require unique ingredients (e.g., coconut, pecans, fruit, alcoholic beverages). »» Successful baking requires adhering to a specific set of procedures that must be performed in a prescribed order (e.g., preheating oven to designated temperature, preparing ingredients, mixing ingredients, greasing the cake pan). »» Timing elements are specific (e.g., bake for 35 minutes at 350 degrees). »» Baking a cake presupposes the use of specific types of equipment (e.g., oven, baking pans, measuring cups, mixing spoons). »» The quality of the final product (i.e., your beautiful, delicious cake) is largely an indication of whether you followed the prescribed process with accuracy.

Design is a funny word.

Some people think design means how it looks. But, of course, if you dig deeper, it’s really how it works.

-Steve Jobs, Founder, Apple Computer

Actually, designing a high-quality course for students in higher education is much like baking a delicious cake. Consider the following similarities: »» Courses often contain several common ingredients (e.g., assigned readings, lectures, writing assignments, quizzes/examinations) but can also include unique ingredients (e.g., websites, videos, interactive software).

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 »» Successfully designing a course requires adhering to a specific set of procedures performed in a prescribed order (e.g., learning experiences, assessments). »» The timing elements in college courses are specific (e.g., semester length, announced due dates). »» Designing a course presupposes the use of specific types of equipment (e.g., textbooks, a computer, Internet access). »» The final product (i.e., student achievement of learning outcomes) is the measure of whether the course design and delivery were well conceived and followed with accuracy.

In this volume of The Toolbox Series, we will explore some of the key ingredients and processes in course design. As a backdrop to this conversation, it is important to have a common language that describes a framework for course design, much like the language used to describe the varied components of a cake recipe. For the purposes of this discussion, we will approach the task of course creation through the pathway of backward design.This approach was selected primarily because of its relative simplicity and elegance. Additionally, however, this approach to course design is one that faculty can easily apply to their own course development needs.

Wiggins and McTighe (2005) operationalized the process of backward design into three distinct steps: 1. Identify the desired results (i.e., articulate the course learning outcomes); 2. Determine acceptable evidence (i.e., create assessment strategies related to the learning outcomes); and 3. Plan learning experiences and instruction (i.e., identify a plan of instruction to facilitate accomplishment of the learning outcomes).

The excerpts from The Toolbox included in this collection will presuppose a course design process that adheres to this process. In this volume of The Toolbox Collection, we will examine a variety of critical issues that contribute to excellence in the design of teaching and learning: »» Learning Outcomes and Course Expectations »» The Physics of Teaching: Time and Space »» Rhythm and Flow »» Pursuing Academic Rigor, One Course at a Time »» An Aggregated Content Approach to Course Design »» Deadlines and Due Dates »» What About Textbooks? »» Building a Syllabus Subsequent issues of The Toolbox Series will supplement this content in the following areas: »» Active Learning »» Assessment of Student Learning »» Learning in a Digital Context »» The Role of Faculty in Student Success

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LEARNING OUTCOMES AND COURSE EXPECTATIONS I

t all begins with learning outcomes. Learning outcomes specify the desired results that are important for your students to accomplish over the span of the courses you teach. In colleges and universities around the world, a vetting process to assure the quality of learning outcomes is common. This process contributes to consistency within academic programs, particularly in courses where a variety of instructors teach multiple sections.

Suskie (2009) defined learning outcomes as “the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and habits of mind that students have and take with them when they successfully complete a course or program” (p. 38). Wiggins and McTighe (2005) described the importance of designing instruction guided by a clear set of learning outcomes: We cannot stress enough the importance of long-term priorities in planning. Justifiable decisions about what to teach, what to leave out, what to emphasize, and what to minimize can be made only if there are agreed-upon priorities related to exit-level objectives. With no long-term goals, there is no perspective, hence, no check on the teacher habit of merely teaching to short-term, content-related objectives. (p. 56) Scott (2011) provided an excellent analysis of the role that these learning outcomes can, do, and should play in the course design process in higher education: The pedagogic purposes of learning outcomes are clear, in that they are designed to give a clear indication of the learning destiny that the learning opportunity provider intends the learner to reach. In doing so they give power to the learner, as armed with knowledge of the destiny the learner can if they wish, chart their own journey to this destination … .

To the potential learner, the learning outcomes describe what will be learnt; to the potential employer they describe what should have been learnt; to the quality agencies they provide a system for audit; and for the funders (if there are still any left) they provide a means to account for how the money was spent. (p. 1) Learning outcomes serve multiple roles as they guide faculty members in the selection of assessment strategies and the creation of learning experiences that form the substance of designed courses (e.g., reading assignments, lectures, group discussions, simulations, and online learning tasks).

PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES

Faculty can examine and plan for the learning outcomes included in their courses through a variety of ways. Two prominent ways to accomplish these tasks are Bloom’s Taxonomy and the structure of knowledge, skills, and dispositions.

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BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

In 1956, Dr. Benjamin Bloom led a group of educational psychologists in creating a hierarchy of intellectual behaviors that can occur during the learning process. The chart below depicts this hierarchy of learning as it was revised by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001). This graphic provides an excellent tool for thinking about the types of tasks that we require of our students as we ask questions, design assignments, and create assessment tools. Anderson and Krathwohl would encourage teachers to think seriously about designing instructional experiences and assessment strategies that move beyond a simple recall of facts. We should think about ways of teaching and assessment that require higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and creation. Where do your course objectives, teaching strategies, questions, and assessments fit in this hierarchy? How might you revise the courses you teach to encourage your students to engage in higher order thinking?

KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND DISPOSITIONS

The National Council on Accreditation in Teacher Education (NCATE) is primarily responsible for assessing and accrediting teacher education programs in the United States. As part of NCATE’s framework, prospective teachers are expected to demonstrate competencies in the areas of knowledge, skills, and dispositions.These three categories of performance can also provide a relevant and meaningful way of thinking about the kinds of learning outcomes that can be articulated for the college classroom. Consider these dimensions when thinking about the competencies you wish for students to acquire in your courses: »» Knowledge: defined as “empirical research, disciplined inquiry, informed theory, and the wisdom of practice” (NCATE, 2008, p. 87). In this way, we acquaint our students with the importance of a scholarly frame of reference to explore their discipline. »» Skills: defined as “the ability to use content, professional, and pedagogical knowledge effectively and readily in diverse teaching settings … ” (NCATE, 2008, p. 91). This performance area would also include prescribed proficiencies and techniques that can be selected and applied appropriately in varied settings and under various circumstances.

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 »» Dispositions: defined as “professional attitudes, values, and beliefs demonstrated through both verbal and nonverbal behaviors … ” (NCATE, 2008, p. 89). Dispositions include those habitual inclinations, tendencies, values, commitments, and professional ethics that influence behaviors, choices, and courses of action.

Check out the syllabi you use and the course objectives that are identified for student learning. Do these outcomes reflect a variety of vantage points on learning that include knowledge, skills, and dispositions? In what ways could you modify these course objectives to mirror these competencies?

CONNECTING LEARNING OUTCOMES WITH COURSE DESIGN

As we think about the importance of learning outcomes in course design, two illustrations will help clarify the importance of this connection.

The Sea Horse and the Shark. The first illustration is a story about the dangers that can arise when destinations or outcomes are not clear: Once upon a time a Sea Horse gathered up his seven pieces of eight and cantered out to find his fortune. Before he had traveled very far, he met an Eel, who said, “Psst. Hey bud. Where ya goin’?”

“I’m going out to find my fortune,” replied the Sea Horse, proudly.

“You’re in luck,” said the Eel. “For four pieces of eight you can have this speedy flipper, and then you will be able to get there a lot faster.”

“Gee, that’s swell,” said the Sea Horse. He paid the money, put on the flipper, and slithered off at twice the speed.

Soon he came upon a Sponge, who said, “Psst. Hey bud. Where ya goin’?”

“I’m going out to find my fortune,” replied the Sea Horse.

“You’re in luck,” said the Sponge. “For a small fee I will let you have this jet-propelled scooter so that you will be able to travel a lot faster.”

So the Sea Horse bought the scooter with his remaining money and went zooming

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A goal is a dream with a deadline.

-Napoleon Hill, American author (1883-1970)

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 through the sea five times faster. Soon he came upon a Shark, who said, “Psst. Hey bud.

Where ya goin’?”

“I’m going out to find my fortune,” replied the Sea Horse.

“You’re in luck. If you’ll take this shortcut,” said the Shark, pointing to his open mouth, “ … you’ll save yourself a lot of time.”

“Gee, thanks,” said the Sea Horse, and zoomed off into the interior of the Shark, and was never heard from again. (Mager, 1984, p.v.)

As this story illustrates, if we don’t know exactly where we are headed, we likely will find ourselves (and our students) taking a variety of detours and shortcuts, wandering aimlessly with no real destination. Like the sea horse, we may find this to be a dangerous place in which to function. In teaching, it is critically important to keep our eyes on the course learning outcomes as our final destination.

Orienteering and Teaching. According to Wikipedia, orienteering is: a running sport involving navigation with a map and compass. … The competition is a timed race in which individual participants use a special-purpose map and a magnetic compass to navigate through diverse terrain (often wooded) and visit, in sequence, control points that are indicated on the map. (Orienteering, n.d.)

Doesn’t that sound like what faculty members and students do every semester (e.g., running a timed race, using a special purpose map, navigating difficult terrain)?

For the American Association of Colleges and Universities (2002), this connection between orienteering and learning outcomes was expanded in the following ways: »» Orienteers use an accurate and detailed map and a compass (and faculty members use curricula that articulate student learning outcomes). »» Novice orienteers begin with simple courses and proceed to more difficult courses (and students progress through courses of varied developmental and academic difficulty). »» A standard orienteering course has a starting point, a series of control points, and a final destination (and courses include a finite collection of checkpoints for progress and a final set of identified learning outcomes).

As faculty, it is critically important to remember the classes we teach are a journey. We have an obligation to help our students find their way to the final destination in each course.

This article was originally published in January 2007 as “Learning Outcomes and Expectations.”

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THE PHYSICS OF TEACHING: TIME AND SPACE T

eaching in higher education takes place within a specific framework: assigned rooms, master schedules of course offerings, credit hours, semesters, and clock hours invested in the classroom. Within that framework, faculty members must make a series of instructional decisions that are dramatically affected by the physics of teaching, namely time and space.

THE ELEMENT OF TIME

Once the semester starts, college faculty must make a variety of instructional decisions that direct what is to be taught and the pace at which content is shared and learned. To illustrate this challenge, consider a distraught faculty member who comments at midsemester: “I am so far behind. I will never be able to catch up.” This comment, made frequently, contains several key assumptions: »» There is a specified body of knowledge that I must deliver to my students in this course and during this semester; »» The pace at which I am sharing information with my students is slower than I had anticipated; »» To make up the difference, I will need to talk faster and move more quickly through the course content (e.g., often translated into the number of remaining PowerPoint slides that are yet to be shown); and »» “Covering” the material is the highest, most important, and most noble instructional outcome.

The only reason for time is so that everything doesn’t happen at once.

-Albert Einstein, Theoretical physicist (1879-1955)

Consider another example. Imagine you have been invited to participate in a lecture/discussion on an important topic about which you are only vaguely familiar. The presentation is guided by a well-known expert in the field. The session, although filled with valuable informational tidbits, has not been very well planned.

As time runs out, the presenter laments that there is much more information that needs to be covered, but time will not permit that

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 to occur. The presenter agrees to provide a copy of the PowerPoint slides. You appreciate that gesture but also feel that the slides do not adequately capture the information at a level that will be helpful. You would like to hear the bullet points on the slides discussed, reviewed, and illuminated. That, however, will not happen because the allotted time has elapsed. Sadly, many college classroom sessions relive this dilemma on a far too frequent basis.

The amount of classroom time available to teach each and every college class, over the span of a semester, is always a known quantity. This reality should result in faculty members asking several key questions: »» What content do I actually need to teach my students this semester in this particular course? »» What process will I use to determine, narrow, and verify the course content that is most important and critical? »» Based upon this inventory of knowledge, skills, and dispositions (i.e., learning outcomes for the course), what are some things I may need to leave out of this course or ask students to pursue outside of class time? »» How will I apportion the time available? »» What strategies will I use to reapportion the time in response to schedule changes and student learning patterns?

Time is, indeed, a variable in the instructional process—a variable we must master to assure the quality of instruction.

WAYS TO CAPITALIZE ON TIME

As you think about the variable of time in your teaching, consider the following strategies for maximizing and managing this variable as part of the instructional process: »» Prior to the beginning of every course and every semester, create a “game plan” that summarizes the content to be covered during each of the scheduled classes. For planning purposes, this tentative schedule can simply be a listing of topics, learning outcomes, assigned readings, and assignments that are due. Share this information with your students. »» Design an agenda for each class session. Smith, Sheppard, Johnson, and Johnson (2005) have proposed a bookshelf approach to the design of classroom teaching sessions. This agenda could include, for example: »» an introduction or advance organizer that helps students know the learning outcomes/topics for that particular class; »» an interspersed mixture of lecture, small-group and large-group discussion, and technology (e.g., PowerPoint, video, audio); and »» a cohesion builder that helps students encapsulate the content covered, listing topics, learning outcomes, assigned readings, and assignments that are due. Share this information with your students.

It is a virtual certainty that the schedule you develop for the semester will be disrupted by unexpected events or miscalculated pace related to content coverage and student learning. Be flexible and creative in developing ways to adjust the schedule of topics/times for the remainder of the semester. This may, in fact, mean reassessing the remaining content and cutting the depth of coverage on certain topics. Good learning always trumps simple content “coverage.”

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THE ELEMENT OF SPACE

A wide variety of classroom configurations and architectural styles are represented on college campuses: lecture halls with sloped floors and fixed seating, rooms with movable furniture, rooms with tables and chairs, conference rooms, etc. It is interesting to note that the seating styles found in academic buildings can be traced to the time when these buildings were constructed (e.g., buildings from the 1970s feature large lecture halls with sloped floors; buildings built after 2000 feature movable tables and chairs). As Bligh (2000) observes in the book What’s the Use of Lectures?, the architectural style of the classroom reflects certain beliefs about faculty, students, teaching, and learning.

This architecture can dramatically impact the choice of instructional strategies and even the range of options that are seemingly available.

For example, in a classroom with sloped floors and fixed seating, it is generally difficult to use interactive/smallgroup learning strategies. Although it is possible to ask students in these settings to dialogue with their neighbor or those seated around them, large-group lecture settings generally encourage participants to, at best, face forward and passively watch the speaker or PowerPoint projection screen. As a counterpoint, for faculty who are inclined to lecture, a classroom where students are seated around tables facing different directions can be distracting and invite inattention. Space is a challenge that must be addressed in pursuit of the most favorable learning conditions.

WAYS TO CAPITALIZE ON SPACE

As you think about the spaces in which you will teach, consider the following strategies for maximizing this important instructional variable: »» Think of classroom space as a blank palette. After determining the nature of the chosen classroom activities and teaching strategies, begin to think about how the room can be reconfigured to maximize impact on learning (e.g., moving chairs and tables, using empty space around the edges of the room). »» Logistically, if you plan to alter the seating arrangement in your classroom, it may be necessary to move the seats at the beginning of class and then move them back to their original position at the end. Students, if prompted, will easily and naturally get into the routine of helping this to happen at the beginning and end of class. »» If the classroom you are assigned is not compatible with the chosen teaching strategies, consider other possibilities. Look around campus and seek approval to move to another location. Use the hallways and other open/gathering spaces adjacent to your assigned classroom for small-group discussions/activities. You can then circulate to make sure students remain on task, while also giving them guidance and assistance. Make sure you remain true to the position that architecture should not dictate pedagogy.

This article was originally published in September 2008.

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RHYTHM AND FLOW O

ne of the biggest challenges faculty face when planning a course is how to pace content delivery and assignments so that students (and instructor) manage the workload effectively. Two concepts—rhythm and flow—can help faculty think through the overall organization of the work as they plan their courses.

Rhythm is the pattern of emotions often observed over the course of a term. Duffy and Jones (1995) note, “As class begins, the possibilities are vast. Energies and expectations are high, and professors and students are anxious about the new beginning. ...

Students start the class hopeful that it will be their best class yet” (p. 36).Yet, instructors might lose their sense of rhythm. The course could start off slowly but then build rapidly to a crashing crescendo as due dates for assignments, readings, projects, and examinations collide. To promote a better rhythm and create an academic term with a steady and predictable beat, faculty can take a more global approach to course planning. For example, the course syllabus can help create a big-picture view to orchestrate how learning experiences are planned, sequenced, and distributed over the span of the term.

The second concept, flow, is a state of mind characterized by total immersion and attention to a topic or activity, even to the extent that concerns about self are surrendered to the joy that comes from participation (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Walker (2010) describes the phenomena of flow as it might be observed in the classroom: Flow is an intrinsically rewarding, highly absorbing state in which people lose a sense of time and the awareness of self. Flow states are likely when individuals freely choose activities, goals are clear, performance feedback is immediate and concrete, and challenges are high, but the performer has the competencies to gracefully dispatch the challenges. (p. 3) Walker’s description incorporates many of the key elements of effective teaching (i.e., choice, clear outcomes, immediate feedback, high expectations, growing competencies). Instructors can quickly apply the concept of flow to individual classes as they think about the levels at which the learning experiences are engaging, informative, and interactive.They can implement the same principle

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Action and reaction, ebb and flow, trial and error, change—this is the rhythm of living.

Out of our overconfidence, fear; out of fear, clearer vision, fresh hope. And out of hope, progress.

-Bruce Barton, American author (1886-1967)

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 over the course of a term as they think about the ebb and flow of energy and involvement (i.e., both theirs and their students).

STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING RHYTHM AND FLOW An academic term demonstrates both rhythm and flow when

»» topics and learning experiences are thoughtfully distributed over the term and progress logically and systematically; »» students and faculty are thoroughly aware of the schedule, expectations, and process of acquiring and sharing newly acquired knowledge, skills, and dispositions; and »» the initial burst of energy at the start of a course is sustained systematically over the entire term.

Here are some suggestions for making rhythm and flow happen: Visualize the entire term. When preparing the syllabus, first create a course-long calendar to visualize the pace, difficulty, and spacing of individual assignments and learning experiences (Pregent, 1994). Make sure the plan is spaced, balanced, and sequenced.

Slice and dice big assignments into pieces. If a course requires, for example, a lengthy writing project that will be due at the end of the term, consider breaking up the assignment into smaller pieces due across the span of the term (e.g., outline, rough draft, peer editing and review, final draft). This strategy will spread the work out and create built-in accountability for students.

Create hand-in dates. Typically, course syllabi specify the assignments that students are to complete during the term and the due dates for those assignments. An alternative is the hand-in date strategy: »» At the beginning of the term, give students a list of the assigned projects, papers, and presentations. »» Instead of providing specific due dates for each assignment, provide a series of completion dates (e.g., completion date No. 1, completion date No. 2). »» Let students choose the order they complete the assigned tasks for the term and submit one completed assignment on each of the designated completion dates.

This strategy allows students to decide which assignments they can complete first and which assignments will require more time to finish. They also can front-load assignments to prevent the common practice of requiring a massive amount of work to be completed during the final two weeks of the term. In other words, this strategy invites students to create their own levels of rhythm and flow (Garner, 2012).

MONITOR YOUR OWN STRESS LEVELS

Periodically assess levels of stress, anxiety, or fatigue over the academic term. Ask: Is the stress related to the course schedule? If faculty are stressed, students likely are feeling the pressure, too.

ALWAYS DO A POSTMORTEM

Always, always, always take some time at the end of each course and each academic term to reflect on what has been learned about how to make the course more efficient, effective, and conducive to good learning.

LET THE TERM BEGIN—WITH RHYTHM AND FLOW! This article was originally published in September 2012 as “Teaching With a Dose of Rhythm and Flow.”

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PURSUING ACADEMIC RIGOR, ONE COURSE AT A TIME I

n their controversial book Academically Adrift, Arum and Roksa (2011) call attention to the lack of academic rigor in American colleges and universities. Citing surveys, transcript analyses, and results from the Collegiate Learning Assessment, the authors reported that 2,300 students at 24 institutions demonstrated few, if any, gains in critical thinking, complex reasoning, and written communication from their first to sophomore years.

Throughout the book, Arum and Roksa (2011) maintain that educational practices promoting academic rigor— coursework requiring reading and writing at significant levels, for example—improve student performance, and they describe specific variables that contribute to higher levels of learning. In particular, they propose that faculty who maintain high expectations for performance and instructional programs that emphasize student learning demonstrate evidence of academic rigor. Other variables include the availability of educational experiences reflecting best practices and research in the scholarship of teaching and learning, and an institutional commitment to transparency and accountability. In other words, colleges and universities are urged to use the best possible approaches to teaching —engage students in challenging academic tasks, assess students’ learning levels, and openly share the derived results.

Individual faculty may not be able to change the culture of their institution, but they can use Arum and Roksa’s (2011) variables as a guide to promote high academic expectations, select best practices, and design solid assessments. Here are some recommended approaches to achieve academic rigor and excellence in the first-year classroom: Promote excellent student performance through carefully selected learning outcomes and assessments. Great courses begin with well-defined learning outcomes, including the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that students are expected to attain by participating in a course or program. Faculty must have a clear sense of these outcomes and connect them with robust assessment strategies. The course syllabus should clearly outline identified learning outcomes, but faculty members also should make frequent and intentional references to them throughout the semester. It is critical that faculty members know for themselves and define for their students the destination before beginning the semester’s journey (Gahagan, Dingfelder, & Pei, 2010).

Avoid the twin sins of course design. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) have defined these as »» teaching in a manner that promotes hands-on learning without being minds-on (i.e., assignments and other experiences that do not require students to engage in critical thinking); and »» the tyranny of coverage (i.e., a tendency to march through a textbook or PowerPoint slides in an effort to present course content without engaging students in real learning).

These principles impede academic rigor. Well-designed courses focus on experiences that view content as a vehicle for learning and require students to engage their minds and wrestle with the complexity of ideas, concepts, and uncertainties. For example, students can be systematically exposed to course content through classroombased learning experiences or assigned readings and then engage critically with that content though discussions,

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 problem-based learning tasks, or projects involving higher-order thinking skills (i.e., application, analysis, evaluation, and creation).

Communicate high expectations for student performance and define excellence. Arum and Roksa (2011) reported that students learn more when instructors have high expectations of their academic performance. To ensure high expectations, faculty should define what excellence means in a course and outline the steps students need to follow to achieve that level of performance. The path to excellent performance should give students multiple opportunities to demonstrate their learning through varied types of assessments, including examinations, projects, written communication, presentations, and problem-based learning tasks.

Provide feedback to students promptly and often. The path to excellence also requires frequent assessment from faculty so students know how they are progressing. If an assessment strategy has enough value to be a required experience for students in a course, faculty should be expected to provide prompt and detailed feedback that will assist students in their learning. For example, if students are required to create written products (e.g., research papers, memoranda, journal entries), faculty should be willing to provide prescriptive feedback that identifies strengths and weaknesses of the final product. By knowing what they have done well and where improvement is needed, students have the information necessary to improve and grow in relation to the course-related learning outcomes.

SUMMARY

Academic rigor often is portrayed as a macro issue of the entire academy or institution, yet it begins with the decisions and actions of individual instructors. Faculty can play a critical role in establishing and maintaining rigor by ensuring that the courses they teach set high expectations for student performance, focus on learning, and provide prompt, precise feedback on assignments.

Thinking is like exercise, it requires consistency and rigor. Like barbells in a weightlifting room, the classics force us to either put them down or exert our minds. They require us to think.

-Oliver DeMille, American author

This article was originally published in May 2013.

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AN AGGREGATED CONTENT APPROACH TO COURSE DEVELOPMENT W

e live in a rapidly changing world where information and knowledge are being created and shared at an ever-increasing rate. Futurist Ray Kurzweil has actually predicted that, in the near future, the quantity of available knowledge will double every 12 hours (Wolf, 2008)! One reason for this phenomenal rate of growth is the corresponding and pervasive development of digital technologies (e.g., digital learning tools, search engines, open-source documents, apps, massive open online courses). It is this factor that will greatly impact the way higher education defines and manages the parameters of knowledge.

The manner in which individual instructors define knowledge is central to the process of effective course design (e.g., the types and quantity of information that are selectively included or excluded from the content, the sources of information that are modeled and students are exposed to, methodologies used for determining the veracity of information). Whereas previously, faculty may have focused their course design efforts on a textbook, a set of PowerPoint slides, and articles from the professional literature, they must now consider the Internet, where vast storehouses of knowledge and information are literally at students’ fingertips. Given a set of learning outcomes for a designated course, instructors often first turn their attention to selecting a textbook.This decision is generally based on a number of factors, including readability, scope, chapter organization, and supplementary resources (Durwin & Sherman, 2008). The expectation in this process is that a chosen textbook provides adequate coverage for the identified topics, concepts, skills, and knowledge that faculty wish their students to master.

Textbook publishers have recently become inventive in designing a variety of digital tools (e.g., test question banks, videos, interactive digital tools, PowerPoint slides, web-based resources) that can be used to supplement the basic textbook. A well-written textbook provides a basic framework for conversations and exploration on the topic of choice. That said, in the 21st century it is highly unlikely

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How absurd that our students tuck their cellphones, BlackBerrys, iPads, and iPods into their backpacks when they enter a classroom and pull out a tattered textbook.

-Eli L. Broad, American philanthropist and entrepreneur 15

The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 a single textbook, even with all of the bundled bells and whistles, can singlehandedly capture an entire topic with all of the best available information.Textbooks, even at the time of publication, have been in development for two years or more and therefore may already have diminishing currency. Given these inherent limitations, another factor to consider in the selection process is how the text can be used as a starting point for creating a collection of resources to assist students in their learning.

AN AGGREGATED APPROACH

Aggregation involves bringing together a diverse collection of content and resources in such a way that they create a unified whole. Although the textbook will probably continue to be a central feature in course design, faculty should also give thought to aggregating that source with other digital assets that will supplement and enrich the basic content. For example, instructors might consider these tools to assist in the aggregation process: »» Textbook evaluation—The degree to which the chosen textbook provides desired levels of emphasis for the course topics and content articulated in the learning outcomes needs to be assessed. This initial examination provides guidance in identifying topics and content that may need additional coverage or that might be better examined by using alternative resources. »» Video supplements—A variety of free, online searchable databases provide rich, vibrant resources that can be used inside (i.e., as part of presentations) or outside (i.e., as assigned content students can watch on their own) the classroom. Examples include: »» TED (http://www.ted.com), »» YouTube (http://www.youtube.com), »» Educator.com (http://www.educator.com), and »» Khan Academy (https://www.khanacademy.org). »» Electronic database articles—University libraries are rapidly transitioning to an emphasis on digital resources that supplement traditional, hard-copy documentation. Part of this transition is the availability of searchable online databases that provide access to digital versions of current academic publications. Links to selected articles can be easily assembled into a collection of assigned readings for students. This process assures that students are being exposed to the best and most current thinking in the discipline. »» Open educational resources (OER)—Defined as “high-quality, openly licensed, online educational materials that offer an extraordinary opportunity for people everywhere to share, use, and reuse knowledge” (The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, n.d., para. 1), these resources include documents, videos, simulations, activities and labs, case studies, lecture notes, and assessment strategies.

Most of the web-based repositories provide searchable databases that add efficiency to the process of locating resources. Examples include: »» Open Educational Resources (https://www.oercommons.org), »» Merlot II (http://www.merlot.org/merlot/index.htm), and »» The Open University on iTunesU (http://www.open.edu/itunes).

By thoughtfully assembling a variety of instructional resources, instructors can deepen their students’ engagement with chosen content and widen the breadth of learning experiences in their courses. Consider the advantages in learning that can be realized through intentional aggregation!

This article was originally published in November 2014 as “Aggregated Content Approach to Course Development.”

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DEADLINES AND DUE DATES I

n this fast-paced world, there are always tasks to be completed and deadlines to be met. These realities are a constant part of daily life. If one of the purposes of college is to prepare students for the demands of the workplace, then to what extent are institutions exposing students to the rigor of meeting deadlines and working within a world of perpetual due dates? Murray (2008) argues that colleges are not effectively helping students with this real-world transition—that rather than creating policies and practices that challenge students to demonstrate personal responsibility, colleges tend to coddle them. This article examines the ways in which the development and enforcement of course deadlines can contribute to student growth and increased levels of responsibility.

LIFELONG COMPANIONS: DEADLINES AND EXCUSES

Given human nature, it is likely that for every deadline that has ever been set, there has been at least one excuse (if not more) offered as to why it was unavoidably missed. Schwartz (1986) identified the top five categories of student excuses for the late submission of assignments: (a) death of a grandparent, (b) an accident involving a friend or relative, (c) automotive problems, (d) animal or pet trauma, and (e) the unfortunate results of crime victimization.

The questions that arise for faculty when students use these excuses are: »» Is the student really telling the truth? »» What is the published class policy on submission of late assignments? »» Should I make an exception? »» Am I willing to enforce the stated policy in spite of the presented excuse?

LIFELONG ENEMIES: DEADLINES AND PROCRASTINATION

It is arguably a common human trait to stall the completion of assigned tasks in the shadow of a looming deadline.

Zarick and Stonebreaker (2009) cite the example of the well-known annual deadline for completing federal income tax forms: April 15.

Everyone knows this deadline will arrive on the same date each year. Yet thousands wait until the evening of April 14 to complete that onerous task and then race to the post office in the nick of time. According to Zarick and Stonebreaker (2009), possible reasons for this prevailing pattern of procrastination include (a) uncertainty (i.e., not sure what is expected), (b) aversion (i.e., people are less likely to start something they really do not want to do), (c) fear (i.e., of the consequences, the perceived inability to successfully complete the task), and (d) poor planning (i.e., time runs out in the midst of other demands). Waiting to complete a task that is not understood or is disliked, feared, or unplanned often results in poor performance and negative consequences.

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CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING EXPERIENCE (WITH DEADLINES ATTACHED)

To successfully incorporate firm assignment deadlines into a course, consider doing the following: »» Create a schedule for the semester that includes assignment deadlines. If deadlines are to become a part of course expectations, the syllabus must include a detailed schedule of the dates, times, and topics for all planned learning experiences, including assignments. »» Be specific about deadlines. A syllabus-based articulation of deadlines should include the date, time, and manner of submission (e.g., through the course management system, via e-mail, at the beginning of a scheduled class). »» Make clear the consequences for late or missing assignments. Students should be made aware, in advance and in the syllabus, of the consequences for submitting assignments after the deadline (e.g., for each 24-hour period an assignment is late, 25% of the available points will be deducted). »» Refrain from adding assignments to the schedule. A faculty behavior that often draws the greatest number of complaints from students is the unexpected addition of assignments not listed on the syllabus.

All work for the class should be clearly stated in the syllabus before the beginning of the semester. »» Avoid changing the schedule over the course of the semester. At times, unexpected and disruptive events occur during a term (e.g., cancellations because of weather, faculty cancellations because of illness). To resolve any delays caused by these unforeseen occurrences, discuss with the class how things will proceed from that date forward to the end of the semester. Make sure to announce a clear and precise resolution of these matters as related to due dates.

If it weren’t for the last minute, nothing would get done.

-Rita Mae Brown, American writer

»» Provide reminders of due dates for upcoming assignments. To help keep students and the class as a whole on track, as a general practice, consider providing routine reminders for upcoming

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 course-related events (e.g., Next week, we will be discussing … ;Your blog entries should be entered

by Friday at 5 p.m.). »» Be consistent in administering deadline policies. This is key. Make every effort to apply the rules of deadlines in a manner that is fair, equitable, and reasonable. On occasion, situations may require an exception (i.e., a documented illness); however, as a general rule, the policy should be maintained and enforced as written. »» Periodically review deadline policies and the consequences. Take time to routinely review the rules that are in place, whether they are working effectively, and how they can be communicated more clearly or administered more efficiently and fairly.

MAKE DEADLINE POLICIES A PART OF YOUR TEACHING AND YOUR SYLLABI. AND DON’T BE LATE IN GETTING THAT DONE!

This article was originally published in September 2011.

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WHAT ABOUT TEXTBOOKS? O

ne of the perpetual components of a college education is the textbook.Traditionally, it is thought, students sign up for their courses and then make that dreaded trek to the bookstore, where they pay large sums of money for their textbooks. The other part of that story is the assumption (dare we say fantasy) of faculty members that students will actually buy, read, and digest the content of those textbooks in some meaningful and lasting way. Available research data, on the other hand, may lead us to admit otherwise.

To be sure, textbooks are often considered part of the culture of a college campus—the calling card of a scholarly life. There is reason, however, to look closer at the assumptions guiding the use and selection of textbooks and their overall role in the learning process.

Assumption No. 1: Textbook production is a money-making industry. First and foremost, the people who publish and sell textbooks are in the business of generating profit. Their business is totally dependent upon attracting the attention of college faculty members for potential textbook adoptions. This is accomplished by clever marketing, the plentiful availability of examination copies, website resources, and prefabricated test question banks.This observation is not intended to demean the textbook publishing industry; it is intended, however, to reinforce the idea of “Let the buyer beware.” Be a wise and careful consumer and textbook adopter.

Assumption No. 2: Textbooks are a vital and integral part of the learning process in the courses that we teach.

There is good reason to believe this assumption is accurate. Quite often, courses are designed and offered in deference to the content and organizational structures found in the textbooks chosen by faculty. The sequence of events that typically transpires is: »» Faculty members select a textbook (or textbooks) that best highlights the topics to be covered in the course. »» Lectures and tests are designed in accordance with the sequence of chapters in the chosen textbook(s). »» The course schedule is created based upon the sequence of chapters as they appear in the textbook(s).

The logical next question becomes whether these decisions about textbook selection impact student learning in the ways that we might envision and hope to realize.

Assumption No. 3: Students actually read their textbooks. The research available on the textbook-reading habits of college students is remarkably scarce. What is available, however, is rather disturbing. A study by Connor-Greene (2000) revealed that 72% of surveyed students never read their assignments by the due date. In another study, Sikorski et al. (2002) found that as many as 30% of the students surveyed indicated they did not purchase a text for at least one of their scheduled courses. Clump, Bauer, and Bradley (2004) report that many college students spend less than three hours per week reading assigned textbook materials.

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 Assumption No. 4: The question “Will this be on the test?” actually indicates dedication and motivation on the part of the student as learner. Although many students are committed to learning, there is also a sizeable group interested in doing only what is necessary to “pass” certain courses. One question to consider, however, is the source of the questions that are “on the test.” Do they come from class lectures, the text, or both?

Assumption No. 5: There are no other options to consider. We need textbooks in our courses. These and other reading materials are critically important to the learning process. Through these resources, students not only acquire new information but also learn the important skill of searching and seeking answers to the predominant questions in their field of study.

MAKING READING AN INTEGRAL PART OF STUDENTS’ LEARNING

Here are some strategies designed to increase the likelihood that students will take advantage of the reading materials included in your courses: »» Assign course-related point values to assigned readings. Surprisingly, and quite often, the expectation that students are actually required to read the assigned text is implied but not specifically stated.

Students may therefore assume that as long as they acquire the necessary material, reading the text is merely optional. By stating that course-related points are available for reading the textbook as assigned and in a timely manner, any misunderstandings are eliminated. At the end of the semester, students are asked to sign a document on which they indicate the number of points (e.g., 80/100) they are entitled to receive. Interestingly, students have frequently been observed downgrading the points they receive based on the level of work they have done, even at the cost of earning a lower grade. »» Consider using journal article collections as an alternative to published textbooks. The advent of electronic databases makes it possible to create a customized, Internet-based reading collection of full-text articles from a variety of journals and authors. This practice provides a means to select reading assignments that are more current and timely than textbooks, present varied and opposing viewpoints on the topics of discussion, expose students to the direct work of experts in the field, and provide a means for more in-depth investigations of key course issues. A single textbook cannot accomplish these outcomes. »» Assure that lectures are only supplements to assigned reading. Quite often, a high degree of overlap exists between the materials contained in assigned readings and the content of classroom lectures.

Students are quick to realize this condition and draw the conclusion that listening in class (and perhaps taking notes) is a more efficient strategy than listening in class and reading the assigned materials. For faculty members, it is advisable to periodically determine the level of overlap between lectures and readings. »» In lectures, reference information and illustrations in the course texts. During classroom discussions and lectures, consider making frequent references to the materials covered in assigned textbooks.

This strategy provides a coherent and comprehensive picture of course content and subtly reinforces the faculty member’s commitment to both sources of learning and information. »» Consider using occasional open-book tests. There are times in every class and every discipline when applying course content is more critical than recognition or recall of facts and concepts. At these times, students can be given questions or scenarios to resolve with the information in their textbook. »» Give quizzes on assigned reading materials. One way to encourage students to read the assigned course materials (e.g., text chapter, journal article, web-based information) is to schedule accountability procedures during class (e.g., group discussions on reading assignments, quizzes).

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 »» Provide written study guides that correspond with assigned course readings. In every course there are key pieces of information, concepts, and facts that are crucial (and that often form the core of examinations and evaluation procedures). Study guides provide students a means of focusing their attention and effort. If a portion of the information contained in the study guide can only be found in the textbook, students will need to explore and understand that information by using their textbook as a resource.

Textbooks are going to remain a key part of learning. They just need to go digital, become more interactive, and they need more analytics.

-Osman Rashid, Technology entrepreneur

This article was originally published in November 2005.

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BUILDING A SYLLABUS A

n essential aspect of teaching in higher education is the creation of course syllabi. As routine as this process may sound or even become, the development of thorough, complete, and well-conceived syllabi can provide the groundwork for a successful semester of learning. According to Slattery and Carlson (2005), citing the work of Littlefield (1999), the course syllabus performs seven major functions. A high-quality syllabus »» sets the tone for the course. A well-developed course syllabus sends the important message that the faculty member has given serious thought to course organization and delivery. A syllabus that is attractive, well organized, and captures the interest of students from the first day of class will pay benefits throughout the semester. »» motivates students to set high goals for themselves.

If students sense your excitement, passion, and commitment to the content of the course, they will be more likely to stretch themselves to achieve and produce. Consider your syllabus an invitation to your students to give their best efforts and get your best efforts. Expect great things from your students, and give them great teaching in exchange.

It’s in the syllabus.

-Every instructor on the planet

»» serves as a planning tool. A high-quality syllabus sets forth the teacher’s game plan for the semester.

As you go through the process of developing your syllabus, you also have the opportunity to plan your instructional strategies for the semester. »» provides a structure for student work. You are competing for the time, interest, and energies of your students. A well-conceived syllabus communicates your expectation that students will invest themselves in meeting the learning requirements of your course. This provision also encourages students to look ahead and plan effective ways to complete assigned tasks.

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 »» helps faculty plan and meet course requirements and expectations. Planning time spent in advance of the semester (e.g., order of approaching topics, timing of assignments, planning of instructional activities) will pay dividends in the quality of your teaching.You have a sense of where you are headed and can lead your students’ learning in that clear direction. »» provides a contractual arrangement between faculty and students. Any disagreements that may arise in regard to grading practices, due dates, and attendance policies can be referred back to the stated course policies and procedures. »» becomes a portfolio artifact for tenure and promotion portfolios. As time passes and you prepare for promotion and the preparation of a portfolio, course syllabi serve as a means for documenting the quality of your teaching and the ways in which you addressed the learning needs of your students.

HELP STUDENTS RELY ON YOUR SYLLABI

»» General information: This introductory section of the syllabus provides such basic information as the course title, section number(s), classroom location, dates and times of class meetings, and faculty contact information (e.g., telephone numbers, e-mail addresses), required texts and course materials, and your office hours.

»» Course rationale: This is your opportunity to share the reasons why this course is critically important and how the content connects with the life and learning experiences of your students. »» Your passion and purpose in teaching this course: In this section of the syllabus, you have a chance to share your personal and professional passion for this course and the things that will be taught and learned. Share your heart and your faith with your students. »» Course objectives: Articulate the knowledge, skills, and dispositions you believe are important for students to master over the course of the semester. »» Topical schedule: How do you plan to approach the breadth and depth of the topics that comprise this area of study? In this section, provide your students a dated schedule of the topics they will learn about on this semester-long adventure. »» Course reading: Students are not naturally inclined to read required course materials. Through your prompting, however, they can be encouraged to see the value of reading along as they learn. »» Course products: Students need to know in detail what it is that you will expect them to produce over the semester, the parameters of those assignments, and when they are due. Although some may choose to procrastinate, for others it gives an important target date for task completion. »» Assessment scheme: “Will this be on the test?” is a common refrain of the college classroom. Prepare in advance for the assessment strategies you will use (e.g., quizzes and examinations, research papers, group projects, presentations, online activities). Provide your students with information on these tasks and their relative levels of importance (e.g., point values). »» Course/university policies: What are the policies and procedures your students need to understand as they enter this course? Examples include attendance procedures, reasonable and acceptable absences, and cheating/academic dishonesty. Spell these out in your syllabus or give reference points so students can remain well informed. »» Motivational thoughts: As an added touch, consider using graphics or text boxes with quotes that connect with your course and your teaching. »» Additional resources and assistance: Provide students with resources or information on how to get additional assistance, appropriate Internet links, and campus resources that will help in their learning.

This article was originally published in January 2006.

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VOLUME ONE:

KEY ELEMENTS OF COURSE DESIGN REFERENCES American Association of Colleges and Universities. (2002). Greater expectations: A new vision for learning as a nation goes to college. Washington, DC: Author.

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives: Complete edition. New York, NY: Longman.

Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011). Academically adrift: Limited learning on college campuses. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Bligh, D. A. (2000). What’s the use of lectures? San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Clump, M., Bauer, H., & Bradley, C. (2004). The extent to which psychology students read textbooks: A multiple class analysis of reading across the psychology curriculum. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 31(3), 227–232.

Connor-Greene, P. (2000). Assessing and promoting student learning: Blurring the line between teaching and testing.

Teaching of Psychology, 27(2), 84–88.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Duffy, D. K., & Jones, J. W. (1995). Teaching within the rhythms of the semester. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Durwin, C., & Sherman, W. M. (2008). Does choice of college textbook make a difference in student comprehension? College Teaching, 56(1), 28–34.

Gahagan, J., Dingfelder, J., & Pei, K. (2010). A faculty and staff guide to creating learning outcomes. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina, National Resource Center for The First-Year Experience and Students in Transition.

Garner, B. (2012). The first-year seminar: Designing, implementing, and assessing courses to support student learning and success: Vol. III. Teaching in the seminar. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina, National Resource Center for The First-Year Experience and Students in Transition.

Littlefield, V.M. (1999). My syllabus? It’s fine. Why do you ask? Or the syllabus: A tool for improving teaching and learning.

Paper presented at the Society for the Improvement of Teaching and Learning, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Mager, R. (1984). Preparing instructional objectives. Belmont, CA: Pitman Management and Training.

Murray, C. (2008). College daze. Forbes, 182(3), 32.

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). (2008). Professional standards accreditation of teacher preparation institutions. Washington, DC: Author.

Orienteering. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved August 2, 2016, from https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Orienteering

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The Toolbox Collection • Volume 1, June 2018 Pregent, R. (1994). Charting your course: How to prepare to teach more effectively. Madison, WI: Magna Publications.

Schwartz, M. (1986). An investigation of bad karma and its relationship to the grades of college students. Journal of Polymorphous Perversity, 3, 9–12.

Scott, I. (2011). The learning outcome in higher education: Time to think again? Worcester Journal of Learning and Teaching (5), 1–8. Retrieved March 12, 2018, from https://eprints.worc.ac.uk/1241/ Sikorski, J., Rich, K., Saville, B., Buskist, W., Drogan, O., & Davis, S. (2002). Student use of introductory texts: Comparative survey findings from two universities. Teaching of Psychology, 29(4), 312.

Slattery, J. M., & Carlson, J. F. (2005). Preparing an effective syllabus. College Teaching, 53, 159–165.

Smith, K. A., Sheppard, S. D., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2005). Pedagogies of engagement: Classroom-based practices. Journal of Engineering Education, 94, 87–101.

Suskie, L. (2009). Using assessment results to inform teaching practice and promote lasting learning. In G. Jouglin (Ed.), Assessment, learning and judgement in higher education (pp. 1–20). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8905-3_8 Walker, C.J. (2010). Experiencing flow: Is doing it together better than doing it alone? Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(1), 3–11. doi:10.1080/17439760903271116 Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design (Expanded 2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. (n.d.). Open educational resources. Retrieved October 8, 2014, from http:// www.hewlett.org/programs/education/open-educational-resources Wolf, J. (2008). Futurist Ray Kurzweil pulls out all the stops (and pills) to live to witness the singularity. Wired, 16(4), 160–167.

Zarick, L. M., & Stonebreaker, R. (2009). I’ll do it tomorrow: The logic of procrastination. College Teaching, 57(4), 211– 215.

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