The Insight

THE INSIGHT See the world with psychology

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

04 06 09 11 13 15

The Effect of Circadian Rhythms on

Emotion

The Psychology of Sugar

Psychology And It’s Role In the Judicial

System

Consumerism and Psychology

How Athletes Gain the Edge

The Psychodynamic Approach to

Psychology

18 20 21 22 24 25

Types of Phobias

The World of a Schizophrenic: Delusion

or Reality?

The Act behind Juries and Criminal Law

Consumer Psychology During The

Covid19 Pandemic

Spreading Awareness on Eating

Disorders

The Importance of Cognitive

Psychology

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Editor's Note “Start with why”- the book that emboldened my curiosity to understand the multifaceted discipline known as psychology. The moment I read it my search for meaning began, the question that seemed to arise constantly in my mind was, what is it exactly that underpins an individuals persona? My scrutiny to find an answer led to an insightful exploration of the intersections between biological, cognitive & social-cultural aspects of psychology.

This edition of The Insight will reflect on the literary richness of the human mind by demonstrating the versatility that can be found within psychological paradigms. In support of that it puts forward developing knowledge about idiosyncratic behaviours and reasonings behind our own cognitive functioning’s .

The rationale behind creating The Insight was to allow individuals to explore their inquisitiveness from an analytical lens. These articles contradict the element of reductionism that exists in psychological theories.

Additionally, the 12 articles delineate themes of clinical, cognitive, sports, criminal, or consumer psychology.

Therefore, providing conceptions that allow readers to comprehend the metaphysical phenomenas that occur in themselves and others.

This issue will hopefully end with you having more questions rather than answers about the complexity of the human mind-& that is okay as it gives you an opportunity to explore!

ANANYA Editor of The Insight

Special thanks to:

Isabelle for designing the front cover for the first edition of 'The Insight’.

I aimed to keep the cover minimalistic with the use of incongruity between the illustration and the diction

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The Effect of Circadian Rhythms on Emotion -By Ananya Emotions exert a significant influence on an individual's cognitions but the hindrance factor that seems to encompass our well-being is the desynchronization of our Circadian Rhythms.

To define Circadian Rhythms, it can be enunciated that they are endogenous processes that consist of physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hour cycle. The functioning of these rhythms also has a relationship with memory consolidation which is the formation of long-term memories during sleep. It also looks over the timing of hormone secretion. An example of a hormone would be that the hormones controlling body growth work most effectively at night. These rhythms have an indirect connection to mood states & wellbeing. This is because a person's circadian tendency can affect their choice of emotional coping skills, such as assertiveness or rationalization, and their predisposition to psychological disorders.

The menstrual cycle in women and the hibernation cycle in bears are two examples of these rhythms but our sleeping patterns are the most common type of circadian rhythm. In order to comprehend the intersection of sleep and circadian rhythmicity, the understanding of the master clock needs to be developed. The master clock is a structure called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), it contains over 15,000 nerve cells and orchestrates physiological and behavioral circadian rhythms. It also receives direct input from the eyes & that light keeps the circadian rhythm in sync with a 24-hour day.

Therefore, in support of that, it can be stated that signals from the environment such as light also affect circadian rhythms.

To illustrate that statement, When there is less light, the SCN tells the brain to make more melatonin( sleep hormone) so you get drowsy.

Melatonin is known to summit around 2–4 A.M and then diminish by morning to allow for wakefulness. The prime linkage between Sleep Circadian Rhythms and emotional intelligence- is the constituent that asynchronism of the rhythms influence sleep quality and quantity.

Consequently, contributing to mental health problems and physiological changes. However, it is vital to bear in mind that genetic perturbations of SCN rhythms could derange brain workings. To further understand the role of genes in this process, there are two highlighted genes which are the Period and Cryptochrome genes.

The motive behind these genes is to code for proteins that build up in the cell's nucleus at night and lessen during the day. Chronobiologists conducted studies on fruit flies and concluded their findings saying these proteins help activate feelings of wakefulness, alertness, and sleepiness.

A repetitive extraneous factor that is seen is light and even with these genes, the exposure to light at an unusual time of day can reset when the body turns on Period and Cryptochrome genes.

A supplemental connection in this topic is the relationship between circadian typology and emotion regulation. The typology is a construct with the dimension of categorizing individuals in the spectra of Morning-ness to evening-ness. The difference between the morning chronotype individuals and the evening ones is that the morning ones are adjusted to the light-dark cycle so they sleep and wake up earlier. Whereas, on the contrary, the evening type is less adjusted to the light-dark cycle so they sleep and wake up later.

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To further elucidate, a recent study at Harvard hypothesized that the night-owl type person might have a greater predisposition to psychological disturbances. They theorized this because prior research suggested the higher the synchronization with the light-dark cycle the lower the risk factor for the development of mental disturbances. The study sampled 2283 participants and classified them into the three circadian typologies and then made them complete several questionnaires to analyze variables such as cognitive reappraisal, metacognition, or negative beliefs.

The results of this study provide us with a clear conclusion of the Effect of Circadian Rhythms on Emotion. The first result said that Evening-type people may have a greater proclivity to endorse maladaptive views, as well as a lower proclivity to reappraise, as well as to assert their rights respectfully. Regarding protective factors, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire helped to evaluate that evening-type individuals have a risk factor for the development of psychological disturbances and a morning-type as a protective factor against those. The role of negative beliefs in successful emotional intelligence is prominent and this study illustrated that participants closer to the evening-ness pole have a higher tendency for expressive suppression.

To expound expressive suppression, involves reducing negative facial expression and controlling positive and negative feelings of emotion. This type of emotion regulation strategy augments the buildup of mood disorders as this strategy leads to distrusting own memory, monitoring thoughts, and feeling the need to control thoughts.

The reasoning behind this study was that different circadian types were likely to have different coping styles to emotional stressors. Therefore, if more research exists on which type is more beneficial for successful emotional cognition then it could help to prevent the development of many mood and mental health disorders. For example, many clinical psychologists opt for bright light therapy, wake therapy, and interpersonal and social rhythm therapy when treating depression this is because the severity of a person's depression correlates with the degree of misalignment of the circadian and sleep cycles. A statistic that supports the information above is that One meta-analysis showed that nightshift workers are 40% more likely to develop depression than daytime workers.

To conclude, your mood and emotional coping could be a clear indicator of how synced your Circadian Rhythms are.

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The Psychology of Sugar -By Lara During lockdown in 2020, I overheard a group of teenagers discussing their sugar cravings and which dessert counters they would rush to first once stores reopened! But afterwards, it got me thinking, where does this craving for sugar stem from? Why do we all long for sugar and admit to being so-called chocoholics! My research unearthed some interesting revelations. In truth, it exposed more negative than positive side effects, on the brain in particular, for adults who overindulged on sugar as children.

In her article, Juliana Cohen, an assistant professor of nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health in Massachusetts, acknowledged that, “Even during infancy, new-borns have an innate preference for breast milk because of its sweetness.”

This can be linked back to the theory that a taste for sugary foods offered early humans an evolutionary advantage. In nature, sweet foods like fruits or honey tended to be both safe and rich in calories, while bitter foods were more likely to be toxic. So, from a psychological standpoint, does this mean humans may be born with an inherent desire for sugary foods? Cohen’s colleague at Harvard, Dr. Daniel Lieberman, concurred that “sugar is a deep, deep ancient craving!” During the paleolithic era for example, when food was scarce and meals inconsistent, hunting was significantly less reliable than a drive-through! Early humans stored fat from sugar as a boost to their survival hopes, not a health risk. Lieberman concluded that if someone hated sugar in the Paleolithic era then they wouldn't have enough energy to have children or even survive. It has become apparent that our earliest ancestors went through a period of significant starvation around 15 million years ago, in a time of global cooling and all the food challenges they faced during this era means that biologically, we have trained ourselves to crave sweetness in foods.

The prevailing issue today however, is that humans have too much of the so-called ‘sweet stuff’ available to them. Recent research (Noble et. al 2021) highlighted the adverse effects of an adult’s cognitive functionality, if they were raised on a high sugar diet as a child. Interestingly, such effects were exposed by deeper research into the area of our brain, which is largely responsible for our everyday learning, the hippocampus.

As the hippocampus plays a huge role in a variety of cognitive functions and considering that it continues to develop into late adolescence, researchers sought, in a recent study, to investigate its vulnerability to a high-sugar diet.

They used two groups of juvenile rats as the subjects of the study. One group was given an 11% sugar solution, which is comparable to commercially available sugar-sweetened beverages, and the control group was not given anything sweet. Researchers then had the rats perform a hippocampus-dependent memory task designed to measure episodic contextual memory (their ability to remember the context where they had seen a familiar object before).

The rats that consumed sugar, during their developing stages of life, all had an impaired capacity to discriminate that an object was novel to a specific context. However, the rats who consumed no sugar were able to complete the hippocampus-dependent task easily.

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Furthermore, the hippocampal-independent memory function of both groups of rats was also measured as a comparison. In the recognition task, which did not require the use of the hippocampus, sugar had no effect on the animals’ recognition memory. One might ask, how does excessive sugar consumption, while the brain is developing, affect hippocampal memory in such a way? To offer an explanation for their findings, the researchers determined that high sugar consumption led to elevated levels of parabacteroides, in the gut microbiome in particular. They concluded that there is a direct link between elevated parabacteroide levels in the gastrointestinal tract and impairments in hippocampal memory tasks.

A 2018 Purdue University study also explored the effects of high sugar intake on neurological development. The results revealed how toddlers who drank beverages sweetened with added sugar, as well as children born to mothers who drank these beverages while pregnant, tended to score lower on childhood intelligence and aptitude tests.

High fructose corn syrup, a sweetener that turns up in many artificially sweetened beverages as well as in many packaged sweets, was acknowledged as being especially harmful to cognitive processing. The researchers concluded that high levels of fructose corn syrup intake can impact hippocampal function during important periods of development, thereby reducing learning ability.

Evidently, there are negative impacts on hippocampal functionality as a result of high sugar intake but don't be overly alarmed as I did do some further research for all of you sugar advocates out there! Two esteemed American psychologists from Youngstown State University unearthed some intriguing results in their research on the effects of one’s sugar consumption on their behaviours in particular.

Flora and Polenick posit that a high level of sugar consumption actually improves athletic, academic and cognitive performance, and also enhances self-control.

Have you ever found yourself or witnessed someone acting hyperactive after it seemed like they just overdosed on sugar?! Interestingly, Flora and Polenick did manage to debunk the theory that sugar consumption is directly linked to behavioral changes. They suggested that the myth has been maintained within our society through social reinforcement and confirmation bias, which is the tendency to look for pieces of evidence that confirm pre-existing opinions and biases. The belief that sugar consumption has negative behavioral effects is common worldwide among the general public and professionals alike. Thus, certain instances, such as when a parent perceives a child to be more active than usual during a party at which sugar has been consumed, confirm this pre-existing belief.

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Securing the agreement of others functions as social reinforcement, thereby increasing the likelihood that individuals will continue to seek conformational evidence. As per the researchers’ findings, it was evident that parents who claimed that their children were behaviorally “sugar sensitive” rated their children’s behavior as more hyperactive when they had been told that their children had consumed a large dose of sugar, even though the children had consumed a sugar-free placebo, not sugar.

Wolraich Et. Al in their research further reinforced the hypothesis that children, whose parents say they are sensitive to sugar, simply do not show adverse behavioural effects or decrements in cognitive performance, even when consuming large amounts of sugar. To justify their reasoning, they conducted a double-blind controlled trial over 9 consecutive weeks. The families of 25 preschool children and 23 school-aged children, who were described by their parents as sugar sensitive, followed a diet high in sucrose (sugar) with no artificial sweeteners for first three weeks, a diet low in sugar but high in aspartame (an artificial sweetener also falsely said to cause behavior problems) for the second three weeks, and then a diet low in sugar with saccharin as a sweetener for the final three weeks. The children were scored on numerous behavioural and cognitive measures.

The researchers found that for the children described as sugar sensitive, there were no significant differences among the three diets in the 39 behavioural and cognitive variables. The researchers concluded that the results of the study did not support the hypothesis that a diet high in sucrose or aspartame had adverse effects on the cognitive functionality of children.

Neither sucrose nor aspartame was found to produce discernible cognitive or behavioural effects in normal preschool children or in school-age children believed to be sensitive to sugar.

Maybe by now, you are weighing up both sides of the argument above. Personally, I do believe our evolution as a species has drawn us towards a dietary sugar craving but as with all food intake, portions, sizes and amounts need to be monitored and duly accounted for. I will leave you with this Ayurvedic proverb to ponder:

"When diet is wrong, medicine is of no use.

When diet is correct, medicine is of no need.”

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Psychology And It’s Role In the Judicial System -By Marta During the hearing of a criminal case, the psychology of the criminal has a certain impact on the use of criminal law. With the aim to make contemporary criminal law fair and efficient in case discrimination, psychologists are assigned to evaluate and analyse influencing factors of criminals. Criminal psychology and forensic psychology are both strongly connected to law enforcement. Each profession supports investigations, whether criminal or civil. It is the aim of professionals in both fields to work with law enforcement to understand the psychology of criminals and aid legal representatives solve crimes.

The question of why people choose to commit crimes, often in the face of severe consequences, is at the root of criminal psychology, a branch of study that focuses on the intentions and behaviours of those who plan and carry out criminal acts. Criminal psychologists seek to understand the motivations of criminals and develop a psychological profile to understand or apprehend them. They examine individual criminal behaviours and diagnose any mental health conditions. They frequently step into the courtroom to provide expert testimony. Other duties include counselling individuals who have committed crimes or evaluating their risk of recidivism. The goal of criminal profiling is to provide law enforcement with a psychological assessment of the suspect and to provide strategies and suggestions that can be used in the interviewing process.

Criminal psychology does more than provide a glimpse into a criminal's psyche. It also plays a role in how the law is applied. In the courtroom, legal practitioners require a grasp of defendants' motivations and actions in order to render fair judgment. Criminal psychology findings may help identify suspects, potentially allowing authorities to prevent future crime or catch a serial criminal. On a larger scale, understanding what motivates criminals to break the law, whether poverty, personality, or otherwise, is necessary for

creating the societal conditions that may allow for a decline in criminal activity. tendencies.

Some individuals commit crimes out of necessity; others are driven by anger, rejection of authority, a manipulative personality, or psychopathic.

While stereotypes that all mentally ill people are prone to crime is not accurate, there are instances where mental illness such as psychosis, substance abuse or severe bipolar disorder can all influence people to break the law.

In the judicial system, forensic psychologists play a vital role in shedding light on the mental functioning of defendants. They may be called by prosecutors or defence attorneys to evaluate a defendant, provide a psychological assessment, and testify on their findings in court. These assessments can range from evaluating the presence of a psychological disorder to determining if the defendant has diminished mental capacity. Forensic psychologists will often work with victims of crime as well, both in an investigative and a therapeutic capacity. Forensic psychology, can also play a role in punishing and preventing crimes. The word forensic is defined as “the scientific method for investigation of crime”. Therefore, forensic psychology is often described as the merger of law and psychology.

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The practice helps to determine whether an accused person should be convicted or pardoned for his or her actions. Chapter 490 of Florida statutes, aptly titled Psychological Services, provides a basis for the application of forensic psychology in the criminal justice system in an increasingly complex society where emotional survival plays a key role in human behaviour.

Many forensic psychologists are in private practice and are hired by attorneys or by the court system to evaluate defendants and provide an expert opinion for clients. These opinions may explore, for example, whether a defendant has a mental disorder that prevents him or her from going on trial or what a defendant's mental state may have been at the time of the offence. In civil cases, forensic psychologists may also evaluate plaintiffs in workers' compensation cases, as well as children and their parents in divorce and custody cases.

Psychological and psychiatric findings have had a significant influence on the legal system, particularly since the beginning of the 20th century. Among significant changes include the push towards deinstitutionalisation of the mentally ill, which coincided with the development of more advanced psychiatric medications and a greater understanding of the causes and potential treatments for mental disorders. Both psychology and law, both examine human behaviour. The first seeks to understand it, and the second seeks to regulate it where necessary. Psychologists study people’s needs and desires, why they follow laws, and how they understand fairness and justice, and these findings, in turn, can help policymakers write laws that are in the public interest.

“Science gave us forensics.

Law gave us crime.” ― Mokokoma

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Consumerism and Psychology -By Réneh When a consumer has to choose between several possible purchases, there are four main types of thought processes, or consumer behaviors, that will pass through their minds and which they will analyze and delve into in order to decide on what to buy.

Firstly, there is the ‘Complex Buying Behavior’. This is most commonly applicable to any expensive purchases or uncommon purchases as more often than not; the consumer will be extra attentive when buying something that would make a great dent in their bank account or when they are not sure of the outcome of their purchase.

This will lead to them doing deeper research, consulting more people for their opinions and overall investing more time and effort into the purchase. For example, buying something for the first time, or purchasing something that may require you to take out a loan in order to invest, will be some examples of where this behavior is common. In order to respond to this, people who will market the product must keep all influential information out on the table so that the consumer is able to see everything at a glance, allowing them to feel a sense of reassurance in their purchase – which would prevent them from purchasing elsewhere. Customer marketers should aim to have a great product knowledge so that they can influence the buyers’ beliefs and convince them.

Secondly, there is the ‘Dissonance-reducing Buying Behavior’. Here, although customer involvement in the purchase is high and although there is a range of products available, there are not many significant differences between the products available to be bought.

Thus, the differentiating factor relies on how easily available the object is for the consumer in order to save any further hassle. It is common for them to quite blindly buy a product on appearance, budget, time limitations, or what they may have heard or seen to be popular – thus playing on the common herd mentality complex, which is also a principle of consumer influence. Here, consumers may lean towards buying products that they see other people buying, or products that seem to be in high demand as they would think that the product would thus have substance.

A key factor for such a product is for marketers to keep discounts and offers in mind to make their product more appealing to the consumer’s mind.

Thirdly, there is the ‘Habitual Buying Behavior’. This is applicable when the buyer does not put much thought into what they are buying as it is a reliable brand or something that they buy often as in basic consumerism, consumers will always choose what is familiar to them due to a sense of security that is formed. Products that filter into this category are regular household products that are commonly purchased, meaning that the consumer does not have to pay too much attention to what it is that they are buying.

“Knowing who your customers are is great, but knowing how they behave is even better” -John Miller

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In a marketer’s perspective, they need to build the trust between the consumer and the product as although there is no brand loyalty, there is brand familiarity, and so, marketers must use this to their benefit and constantly use repetitive advertisements in order to keep their product in the minds of the consumer.

This is because, in the subconscious of the consumers mind will be influenced by what they hear and see on a day-to-day basis, and thus, the more frequently they hear of a certain brand, the more likely they are to remember it.

Moreover, marketers should try to make the product rememberable. This could be in the form of correlating symbols to the product, or even slogans – anything that would click in the consumers and be an evocative visual.

Finally, there is the ‘Variety Seeking Buying Behavior’. Here there is a significant difference in the products and the consumer is more likely to switch between brands as the cost of switching products may be low and so consumers may be more inclined to trying out new products. Hence, consumers buy and explore different products due to curiosity and the search for variety rather than not being satisfied by one product. In order to supply for this behavior, it is key for marketers to invest in shelf space so that their product and their brand is greatly visible amongst other products.

In conclusion, understanding consumer psychology is a key factor in producing a product and attracting customers, not only when the product is released, but also as time passes as keeping in touch with the way your consumers think is the best way to increase its popularity and longevity.

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How Athletes Gain the Edge -By Asa Have you ever wondered how the world's top athletes gain the edge over everyone else? If you ask any champion, they will most likely tell you that the answer lies in mindset and possessing mental fortitude. While athletes need to train and become physically strong, the mental side of a sport can often be what separates the winners from everyone else. Kobe Bryant was an elite athlete outspoken about his 'Mamba Mentality. He talks about how you must have a killer mentality and be able to bounce back from disappointments. Many athletes hire sports psychologists to help them improve and hone in on their mental game.

Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise, and physical activity. Sports psychologists often help athletes cope with the pressures that come from competition, recover from injuries, improve attentional focus, improve motivation, and improve performance. However, sports psychologists are not restricted to helping professional athletes. They also help regular people learn how to enjoy sports and learn to stick to an exercise program. Here are a few ways you can use sports psychology to help you improve your sporting ability.

One of the most well-known exercises taught to athletes is visualization. Before performing a task, visualize what you are going to do. If you are running a 100m sprint, imagine what you will do when you hear the whistle blow, imagine how you will move your arms and legs, imagine what it will feel like having the wind rushing past you and imagine yourself winning. After visualization, you will be able to complete the task to a higher level.

After Usain Bolt's record-breaking 100m sprint, he said, "I just visualized and then executed my plan."

Michael Phelps uses visualization techniques every day and has been doing so since the age of 11.

Many young and experienced athletes can find themselves nervous before an important event.

This is entirely normal and can be worked upon using sports psychology. If you ever find yourself fretting, repeatedly tell yourself, "I am excited."

Many people tell themselves to calm down; however, this never works because a state of calm is too far away from a state of anxiousness It is far more beneficial to tell yourself that you are excited. Six-time Olympic champion Sir Chris Hoy said, "Never use the words nervous or anxious; use the words exciting and adrenalised." Another similar strategy is to talk to yourself. Many professional athletes talk to themselves. However, make sure that any self-talk is positive, not negative. Muhammad Ali was known to say, "I am the greatest". But he said this long before he gained any fame. This leads us to the following strategy: building self-confidence. Your beliefs direct your actions, so having greater confidence about your abilities can lead to higher performance.

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In order to do this, athletes practice self-talk and learn to learn from their mistakes instead of taking them to heart. Try not to get stuck on your mistakes and wish they did not happen; instead, take them as an opportunity to learn and improve.

When competing, it is crucial for athletes to stay focused and relaxed under pressure. Athletes practice attentional focus, which is the ability to tune out distractions, such as a stadium full of screaming fans. To improve your concentration, you can set short goals and focus on one thing at a time.

If you are swimming a 100m race, the first goal would be to dive in properly, next focus on your underwater kicks and then your stroke. If you can focus on a single thing and tune out distractions, then your performance should improve. To reduce pressure, you can use methods like deep breathing and engaging in a routine. Many athletes have a pregame routine to calm them down and take the pressure off. If you find music relaxing, then you may want to listen to some music before competing.

The last strategies are to stay motivated and maintain a positive attitude. Motivation is achieved through intrinsic motivators, like a personal desire to win, and extrinsic motivators, like a medal.

You need to figure out what you want and work towards that. If you feel low on motivation, listen to one of your idols and hear about their story to inspire you.

It is also important to set goals to get you back on track. Set short term, achievable goals that will give you a boost when completed. A decrease in motivation could occur due to a negative attitude. If an athlete does not feel like they will win or perform well, then they are not likely to excel. Always be optimistic about your chances and what you can accomplish. A negative attitude will only weigh you down.

These are all strategies employed by sports psychologists to give athletes an edge. However, they can also be applied to other aspects of your life.

You can practice all of these exercises before an exam. You are more likely to do well in an exam if you believe in yourself and have a positive attitude.

If you go into an exam thinking you will fail, it becomes more challenging for you to do well.

Psychology can be used to help people improve in any profession, and sports is no different.

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The Psychodynamic Approach to Psychology -By Sara Psychology's most famous figure is also one of the most influential and controversial thinkers of the twentieth century. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian pioneer neurologist developed significant theories which created the base of the Psychodynamic Approach. Many other major thinkers have contributed work that grew out of Freud's legacy, while other's developed new theories out of opposition to his ideas. Either way Freud's work set the stage for creating a whole new ideology and perspective of psychology.

The primary assumption of Freud's work is the belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. Based on this concept Freud developed his theory of Psychoanalysis. It is a set of psychological theories and therapeutic techniques developed by Freud which help people find relief from psychological distress by tapping into the content of their unconscious mind.

Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. According to the psychodynamic approach these three interacting agents of personality develop at different times and play different roles, but work together to form a whole and contribute to an individual's behavior. The id creates the demands, the ego adds the needs of reality and the superego adds morality to the action which is taken. An imbalance between these elements would lead to a maladaptive personality.

Based on these ideas Freud developed a collection of theories between 1890 and 1930. His theories were clinically derived; meaning that they were based on what his patients told him during therapy. Most of these patients would have been suffering from depression or anxiety related disorders as that is what a psychodynamic therapist would usually be treating patients for.

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Sigmund Freud developed many techniques while using psychoanalysis as a therapy.

Since psychoanalysis is interested in the exploration of the unconscious; the key techniques used were interpretation and analysis of dreams, interpretation of Freudian slips and mistakes, interpretation of symbols, analysis of transference and the free association method which replaced hypnosis in Freud's theory.

"The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind."

-Sigmund Freud

Many people often confuse the words psychodynamic and psychoanalysis as perhaps interchangeable or synonymous. In fact, however, psychoanalysis refers to the theories that Freud developed; whereas the term psychodynamic refers to theories that both Freud and his followers developed.

As with psychoanalysis, psychodynamic theories propose that there are psychological forces underlying human behaviour, feelings and emotions. However, the psychodynamic perspective marks a pendulum swing back towards more systematic and abstract concepts and their influence on the more concrete behaviours and actions.

Carl Jung, Freud's designated successor to lead the growth and development of the newly developed discipline, is also the most noted psychodynamic theorist after him. Alfred Adler and Erik Erikson and Karen Homey are also very well-known theorist of this approach. Often they are also referred to as the neo-Freudians. Together the work of all these great people have stemmed a whole new field; Psychodynamic Psychology.

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Types of Phobias -By Shahd A phobia is an unrealistic and recurrent fear of an item, an individual, an animal, an activity or a situation. It's an example of anxiety disorder. A phobic person either seeks to escape the trigger of the fear or suffers from great anxiety and distress.

Some phobias are very limited and very specific. For example, a person may only fear spiders (arachnophobia) or cats (ailurophobia). In this situation the person can live reasonably well without having sever anxiety by avoiding the thing they fear. However, some phobias cause more difficulties in a wider circumstance or situation. For example, acrophobia (fear of height) symptoms may be caused by looking out at a building's office window or driving over a high bridge. The fear of enclosed spaces (claustrophobia) can be caused by being on an elevator or by using a small restroom. People who suffer from these phobias need to dramatically alter their lives to suit their phobias.

Childhood phobias are most common between the ages of 5 and 9, and they typically only last a few years. The majority of long-term phobias develop later in life, especially in people in their twenties. Adult phobias can persist for years and are unlikely to vanish on their own unless they are treated. Adults with phobias are more likely to develop other mental illnesses, such as other anxiety disorders, depression, and drug abuse.

Experts aren't sure why people develop phobias. Many different hypotheses on how phobias develop have been suggested by psychologists, and therapeutic approaches based on those theories have been developed to treat phobic individuals.

Genetic Inheritance Theory Research at Emory University indicates that phobia can originate from genes passed down from ancestors across generations. In order to survive, memories and learned experiences of those who have lived in past generations were important.

Evolutionary psychologists think the instincts of survival among human beings in prehistoric times can be understood through phobias. For example, it was dangerous to be around strangers in prehistoric times, many of whom today believe it is a possible cause for modern social phobia (i.e. social anxiety disorder).

There is also reason to believe that the fear of living in circumstances or areas where assistance is available in times of danger is not associated with the prehistoric risk of being in open spaces where people are vulnerable to attack from fatal predators of animals. The study indicates also, as a result of chemical changes in DNA, that phobias are biologically responsible. The researchers found that rats are able to transfer negative or traumatic experience, such as fear of the cherry blossom, onto future generations of rats.

Neuroscience Neuroscientists believe that some parts of the brain are responsible for preserving knowledge about harmful and fatal events that can invoke a physiological panic response if reminded. If the person is faced with a similar occurrence, the brain recovers these old memories and immediately shows a response of physiologic fear, as if these occurs again.

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Neuroscientists contend that patients can be treated with more pleasant memories by removing their negative ones. But it would be hard to treat the idea as the areas of the brain which hold these negative memories are able to continuously recall them.

There are three major types of phobia 1)Specific phobia People who suffer from this most common type of phobia can be afraid of particular animals (such as dogs, cats, spiders, and snakes), people (such as clowns, dentists, and doctors), environments (such as dark areas, thunderstorms, and high places), or circumstances (such as flying in a plane, riding on a train, being in a confined space) These disorders seem to be genetic (inherited) and runs in families.

2) Social anxiety disorder People with social anxiety disorders are anxious about social circumstances in which others could humiliate, embarrass or judge them. When new people are involved, they are extremely worried. The apprehension may be limited to events such as lectures, concerts or presentations. Or it could be extended to prevent many social conditions such as public dining or using a public toilet. Social phobia seems to occur within the family. People who are shy or lonely, or who have a history of unfortunate or unpleasant social interactions in their childhood, tend to develop this disorder more likely.

3)Agoraphobia Agoraphobia is a feeling that it is hard or embarrassing to go suddenly into public places. An individual with agoraphobia can prevent themselves from going to a film, a concert or on a bus or train. Many people with agoraphobia often suffer from panic symptoms or panic disorder (this includes extreme anxiety as well as unpleasant physical symptoms such as shaking, heart palpitations, and sweating).

Behavior therapy also helps to overcome phobias. In such treatment, the phobic individual is introduced gradually to the object or circumstance that causes anxiety in a controlled way until they finally cease to feel anxiety and is conscious that their fearful expectations have not been met.

In this way, the clear ties between the fearful situation, the apprehension of the individual and the consequent avoidance of that situation are broken and are replaced by a less maladaptive collection of answers. In the treatment of phobias psychotherapy can also be helpful.

Finally, several studies have started examining in detail what occurs during and after the treatment for phobia in the brain Psychologists Tomas Furmark, PhD, Mats Fredrikson, PhD and colleagues at Uppsala University in Sweden have been using PET scans to study brain activity of 18 individuals with social phobia while speaking in front of a group. One third was subjected to the Citalopram selective serotonin recapture inhibitor for nine weeks of cognitive-behavioral therapy and one-third received no medication. In nine weeks and once more after a year, the investigators checked the patients with the same public speaking task They discovered that activation at nine weeks in the amygdala and associated cortical areas could determine which patients’ systems would improve after a year. While all these results shape the perception of the brain areas that contribute to phobias, the picture is far from complete and there is so much that is yet unknown.

“When you explore your fears then you set yourself free.” ― Stephen Richards

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The World of a Schizophrenic: Delusion or Reality?

-By Sara Philip Kindred, a famous American science fiction and paranoid fiction writer, once said; "Maybe each human being lives in a unique world, a private world different from those inhabited and experienced by all other humans... If reality differs from person to person, can we speak of reality singular, or shouldn't we really be talking about plural realities? And if there are plural realities, are some more real than others? What about the world of a schizophrenic? Maybe it's as real as our world!"

As can be understood from Philip's words; schizophrenia makes people see and interpret reality differently. The word schizophrenia comes from the Greek and literally means "split mind", which has led to the myth that people with the condition have split personalities, but they do not. Instead they suffer from delusions and hallucinations that they believe are real.

This condition appears to result from a combination of physical, genetic, psychological, and environmental factors. IVIRI scans have also identified abnormal levels of neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin and unusual brain structure in some schizophrenics.

By the second half of the twentieth century family dysfunction theories became very popular as a main trigger of schizophrenia. One such theory was the 'double bind'; where people are faced with contradictory, irreconcilable demands for different courses of action.

Since then mental health specialists have observed that hearing voices or feeling paranoid are common reactions to trauma, abuse or deprivation. Stress can also trigger acute schizophrenic episodes and learning to recognize their onset can help with management of the condition.

Schizophrenia has different types. The main ones are Paranoid (hallucinations and delusions), Catatonic (unusual movements, switching between being very active and very still) as well as Disorganized, which has aspects of both. Despite popular beliefs individuals with schizophrenia are not always violent.

They are however more prone to drug and alcohol abuse. It is these habits combined with their condition that can make them aggressive. To diagnose a patient with schizophrenia you might want to look for these symptoms; hearing voices, hallucinations, feeling sensations, smelling and tasting things, delusions and feelings of being controlled. These symptoms are classed as positive (psychotic) because they are additions to a person's mental state and represent new ways of thinking and behaving that only develops with the condition.

Different treatments and therapies have been devised and tested for schizophrenia over the decades. Family therapy is thought to be very effective and it can improve relationships and coping skills within the family. Cognitive behavioural therapy and the technique of reality testing can also help with management of symptoms such as delusions. Medication in the form of antipsychotics is prescribed to reduce mostly positive symptoms, but it does not cure the condition. Our best hope, however, is a thorough support network like the social workers, occupational therapists, pharmacists, psychologists and psychiatrists working together to develop ways to help a person in this condition to stay stable and progress towards a more functional and normalized way of life.

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The Act behind Juries and Criminal Law -By Veeva PA jury is a body of people who are convened to render an impartial verdict officially submitted to them by court, or to set a penalty or judgement.

Juries in criminal courts listen to evidence presented by the lawyers and decide upon a verdict of ‘guilty’ or ‘not guilty’ for the defendant.

The selection of a jury is quite interesting. Attorneys must select a jury from a panel of community members who have reported for jury duty. However, rather than choosing potential jurors to be kept, counsel must select jurors who would have to be excused and therefore, not included. During voir dire, to select an impartial, perfect for their defence jury, the counsel asks unique, unexpected questions to the jurors which allows them to perceive their behaviour, ideology, and beliefs.

For example, you are a brilliant trial lawyer who is currently defending a young boy charged with murder. Firstly, the most important aspect of choosing the best jury for your case, you need to have all the research of the client as well as each person on the jury. This allows to compare behaviour patterns across the jurors as well as if there is any strong link that might be related to the client and the jury.

Questions such as ‘would you go on a rollercoaster?’ and ‘who has a son?’ allow the defence to explicitly create connections between what they are going to present as their main defence idea and if that idea is going to win over most of the jury if not all.

Simply, in many traditional jury selections, attorneys attempt to collect as much meaningful information as they can during voir dire and mainly rely on stereotypes, instinct, hunches, and common sense to interpret that information.

For example, a prosecutor might assume that females are ideal jurors for a rape case because women are more inclined to identify and sympathize with the victim and are more likely to render a guilty verdict. However, a defence attorney might prefer female jurors on a rape case because women may need to believe that the victim put herself in a vulnerable position so that they can continue to believe that the world is just. on.

While considering the stereotypes and hunches, trial consultants/lawyers have to carefully assess the extra features and expressions they give up such as their body language and facial expressions.

This can easily explain their behaviour towards the accused and the likely verdict they would give.

It can tell you if they are stressed, relieved, happy or even if they are very sure (the worst kind for the defence), because then it would be extremely difficult to nudge that specific juror towards the opposite vote. Another small, important thing that might influence the way jurors see the accused is the way they are perceived. Therefore, their overall posture, stance and demeanour is the only thing that matters in the courtroom.

Extra note: If you greatly enjoyed this article and would like to know more, I highly recommend the show ‘Bull’ which is dependent on the idea of trial consultancy and focuses on jury selection and winning criminal cases with behavioural psychology and technology. It is a perfect show for those interested in law/psychology or enjoy some drama and action shows.

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Consumer Psychology During The Covid19 Pandemic -By Marta Consumer psychology is a branch of psychological study that enables an understanding of the purchase decisions made by consumers, or their emotional, mental and behavioural response to products and services. Consumer psychology is becoming a more prominent area of focus, specifically looking at the future of subject specific areas like economics, business and psychology.

With the primary purpose of a business being to maximise profits for its owners or stakeholders while maintaining corporate social responsibility, or to maximise revenue, consumer psychology plays an important role within the tertiary and quaternary sector of the economy. Consumer psychologists examine the preferences, customs, and habits of various consumer groups, and their research on consumer attitudes is often used to help design advertising campaigns and to formulate new products to maximise profits, revenue or loyalty.

The process of researching consumer behaviour through experiments and observations can be lengthy, and with the recent surge in digital marketing in the last two or three years, as well as the disruption caused by the Covid19 pandemic, consumer behaviour has shifted greatly. The new consumer behaviour paradigm amid the Covid19 pandemic can be seen to be a permanent change.

The pandemic has disrupted nearly every routine in day-to-day life. The extent and duration of mandated lockdowns and business closures have forced people to give up even some of their most deeply ingrained habits, and this has caused conflict with many businesses and psychologists studying their consumer behaviour. In ordinary times, consumers tend to stick stubbornly to their habits, due to brand loyalty. With habit being the major driver of consumer purchasing, the COVID-19 crisis has caused consumers around the globe to alter their consumer behaviour rapidly and in large numbers.

Consumers across the globe have responded to the crisis and its associated disruption to normal consumer purchasing by trying different shopping behaviours and expressing a high intent, of over sixty five percent to incorporate these behaviours post-pandemic.

In the United States, 75 percent of consumers have tried a new store, brand, or different methods of shopping during the pandemic. Even though the impetus for that behaviour change may be specific to the pandemic and transient, consumer companies would do well to find ways to meet consumers where they are today and satisfy their needs in the post-crisis period.

So how does consumer behaviour change in a time of crisis, specifically Covid19?

The approaches explaining consumer behaviour are divided into the three groups: psychical-based on the relation between the psyche and behaviour of the consumer; sociological approach—which is devoted to the reactions of consumers in different situations or how the behaviour is influenced by various social occasions, social leaders; and economic approach, which is grounded on basic knowledge of micro economy in which consumers define their requirements. In a time of crisis, new trends in consumer behaviour emerge. The most important factors which model the consumer’s behaviour in a crisis are risk attitude and risk perception.

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Risk attitude reflects consumer’s interpretation concerning to the risk content and how much they are willing to take or sacrifice for that risk. Risk perception reflects the interpretation of the consumer of the chance of being exposed to the risk content. The changes in consumption behaviour arising from an economic crisis may be moderated by personality characteristics too.

These characteristics of personality include dimensions like the degree to which consumers are risk averse, value conscious and materialistic. Earlier studies were indicative of behavioural changes among consumer in times of crises with significant change in utility pattern.

A study conducted by Flatters and Willmott, in 2009, identified few new trends during crisis which include simplification of demand because of limited offers during crisis which tends to continue post-crisis where people buy simpler offering with great value. The study also reported that even the rich people, post-crisis expressed dissatisfaction with excess consumption and focused on recycle and teach their children simple and traditional values. Some trends are advanced by the recession, while others are slowed or completely arrested. The most central trends in crisis include the demand for simplicity, which indicates that consumers seek uncomplicated, value-oriented products and services that simplify their lives and focus on the enactment of a company where consumers are outraged by the unlawful conduct and unethical company behaviour. The change in consumer behaviour during crisis times led consumer psychologists to explore consumer behaviour during COVID-19.

As uncertainty moves to alter consumption patterns, consumer decision making has been further exacerbated by periods of governmentenforced self-isolation for returning travellers or individuals who might have been exposed to the virus, as well as broader city- or country-wide periods of social distancing where people were largely restricted to their homes.

Hence, as regular consumer movement, capabilities and purchases were restricted, and as the fear of infection rose globally, consumer behaviour began to change in a capacity more than the typical geographic presentation of purchases, to affect the timing, breadth and volume of purchases.

Although the fear and concern generated by the current economic and social crisis are visibly affecting both social behaviour and purchasing behaviour, finding effective ways to inform and communicate with consumers to facilitate their access to up-to-date and highly accurate information is essential both to meet the growing need for information in conditions of risk and uncertainty, and to guide the purchasing decision towards the best alternative for the consumer.

Additionally, new consumer habits will also emerge by technology advances, changing demographics and innovative ways consumers have learned to cope with blurring the work, leisure, and education boundaries.

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Spreading Awareness on Eating Disorders -By Anika Eating disorders are behavioural issues designed by serious and continuous problems in eating habits and are linked to worrying thoughts and feelings. They can cause significant difficulties- changing ones physical, mental and social aspects. Somebody with an eating disorder focuses majority of their time and energy thinking about their diet and their body weight. Eating disorders primarily affects girls between the ages of 11 and 36. There are two main types of eating disorders: bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder.

Binge eating disorder: A binge eating disorder is when someone eats a lot of food rapidly and in a short period of time.

Another cause of this disorder is when an individual cannot control what they are consuming. To further elaborate with an example, it is when no matter how much you eat, you never feel satisfied. If someone has a binge eating disorder, they might be very upset by their eating habits. They might also feel ashamed and embarrassed and try to hide their problem. Therefore, this can further lead to the development of anxiety, depression and even further affect their interpersonal relationships.

This disorder can lead to weight gain and obesity. This leads to a chain reaction causing more health problems such as heart disease, type two diabetes, joint/ muscle pain, problems with their digestive system, and even certain types of cancers.

“I won’t let a number on a scale own me.”

Bulimia nervosa: Bulimia (bulimia nervosa) is a psychological eating disorder in which you binge eat and have no control over it and then you try to get rid of the food you have just consumed in inappropriate and dangerous ways. Examples of these ways are forcefully vomiting, excessively using drugs like diuretics, exercising until you feel like you want to pass out or fasting . People with bulimia feel unhappy and self-conscious when they binge and satisfied once they puke. All of these dangerous ways to lose weight can result in Kidney failure due to dehydration, heart problems such as abnormal heartbeat or heart failure, dental issues, nutrient deficiencies, and more. Anxiety, depression and drug or alcohol misuse can be regular in people with bulimia.

Comparing bulimia with binge eating disorder: Unlike someone with a binge eating disorder, someone who has bulimia tries to stop gaining weight after binge eating , which can cause people to pass out or even be admitted to the hospital.

However, they are both more common in females and can both can lead to tragic mental effects.

To conclude, we don't comprehend the increase of these eating disorder cases . The severity may vary and we may not realize it but worrying about food is more common than enjoying it unfortunately.

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The Importance of Cognitive Psychology -By Navya Cognitive psychology is the study of how the brain mentally processes different information.

If someone were to study cognitive psychology, they would research what is known as the complex information processors of the brain.

The most common areas people study in this field are Attention, memory, language use, perception, problem-solving, creativity, and thinking. There are many jobs relating to this field of science such as Psychiatry, therapist, Marketing, Behaviour analyst, and more.

Cognitive psychology is important because therapists have gained a deeper insight into what mental well-being is and how the human brain works and how it differs from other people.

Different jobs in the field of psychology have different methods to gain an analytical insight about the mind and mental well-being. For example, if you take the job of a therapist, their mission is to help calm patients & they have a vital responsibility of that individuals wellbeing . Moreover, they gain interesting knowledge they would’ve never known before which helps them to treat more patients but in a different perspective. Most jobs in the field of Cognitive psychology are to do with calming a person’s mind or to help their patients cope up with stress, anxiety or disorders. Another example of a job is Behaviour analyst, and this job is about finding out new types of design therapy programs for patients with disorders (mental, social or learning disorders.)

In this field of medicine ,social skills are very important and there are many social factors that are involved. This form of psychology takes care of societies mindset. It also helps the advancements of technology in neuroscience. Therefore, particular organisations can adapt the use of technology that is safe and helpful for protecting not only the physical but mental health of a person. For example Cognitive behavioral therapy and Acceptance & Commitment therapy have been modified with technological based behavioral experiments to increase the efficacy on the patients recovery.

In my opinion, cognitive psychology is to help the mental well-being of a person and to find out more about how the mind works and how it gets stressed or how the person feels a burnout and how that has an impact to the brain. It is a belief that humans only use 10% of their brain and that information was collected from a survey conducted in America. If our brain can experience so much from just 10%, we can just imagine it to its full potential . But to think on the contrary, the human race could wither because of too much power. Due to this, an optimistic thought could be that this 10 percent usage is an evolutionary adaptation from generations ago to stop that from happening which might be the reason that humans only use 10% instead of unlocking their full potential.

Fol l ow your curi osi ty.

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Ananya