The Linguist - Autumn 2019

Autumn edition 2019

editorial Dear readers,

Our issue for this term’s “Linguist” is linguistics.

Focusing on women in linguistics, therefore highlighting the effect gender plays in languages even through idiomatic expressions. Through researching this highly important topic, we learnt how Linguistics connects all languages we know today. We thoroughly enjoyed researching this topic, and our journalists did a fantastic job at encompassing different aspects of linguistics, in a variety of languages ranging from Swedish to Portuguese! We hope you enjoy reading this issue, as well as learning something new.

Thank you!

Priyanka Shah & Issy Viviano

Contents: Section 1: History Artemiz Van Den Brouke, Yaşasın burjuvazi!

p4

Aimee Shah, La influencia de otras lenguas en español

p6

Len Park, La influencia del español en la cultural filipina

p8

Taehong Min, La influencia de los árabes en el español

p 10

Bunny Seol, Les emprunts français de Pays du matin calme

p 12

Jong Wong Lim, Kinshasa: la ville la plus francophone que Paris

p 14

Section 2: Evolution Isabel Viviano, Die Entwicklung der deutschen Rechtschreibung, insbesondere nach der Reform von 1996 p 16 Larissa Giles, Rückläufige Dialekte - Eine Platte Stelle Für Plattdeutsche?

p 18

Jermaine Chong, 汉字的演变

p 20

Katie Min, La influencia lingüística y cultural del inglés en Corea

p 22

Doyeon Kim, Abreviamos demasiado: ¿xp s fcl?

p 24

Seojun Lee, Similitudes y diferencias entre el español y el portugués

p 26

Section 3: In the land of idioms and untranslatable words Matilde Vaz, Aqui há gato!

p 28

Maia Dixit, Español y Catalán

p 30

Isabelle Lever, Esperanto

p 32

Tami Schwarzmann, Expresiones Idiomáticas en el inglés y el español: la complejidad del lenguaje

p 34

Alex Kim, Les mots uniques de Corée

p 36

Section 4: Winds of change

Emilie Jung-Andersson, ”Hen” som ett könsneutralt personligt pronomen

p 38

Shama Sasikumar , ¿La lengua que hablas afecta tu moralidad?

p 40

Priyanka Shah, Sexismo en la lengua española

p 42

Shine Lee, Le «déterminisme linguistique», oui ou non?

p 44

Jidam Yoo, Les vocabulaires de jeux video

p 46

Chief Editors: Priyanka Shah and Isabel Viviano Front Cover: Frangan Li (NLCS Jeju)

Yaşasın burjuvazi!

Türkiye'de seyahat etiğinizde, GCSE Fransızcanızın nihayet faydasını göreceğinizi bilmek sizi şaşırtabilir, çünkü Türk dili garip bir şekilde birçok Fransızca kelime ve kök kullanır. Aslında, genel olarak Türkçe, gazetelerin dedektif romanlarında olduğu gibi benzer okuduğunu belirten bazılarıyla iletişim kurmak için gizemli bir kanaldır.

Fransızca, Osmanlı imparatorluğunun sonuna doğru Türkçe'de kök ya da özdeş kelimlerle sık sık ortaya çıkmaya başladı. Bu, 2. Dünya Savaşı sonrası sürdü, Atatürk ile laik bir devlet haline gelmek için Avrupa ile ilişkilendirme ve İslam'la bağlarını koparma arzusu olduğu için devam edildi. Türkiye'nin batılılaşmaya çalıştığı bu dönemde, Fransızlar, son yüzyılların en popüler yabancı diliydi. En önemlisi Fransızca, diplomasinin diliydi ve birçoğu tarafından à la mode olarak kabul edildi. Osmanlı imparatorluğunda olduğu gibi, Rusya’da ilk olarak 1869’da Tolstoy’un Savaş ve Barış’ın ilk baskısı Fransızca basılmış ve sonra Rusça’ya çevrilmiş; Rusya’da tercih edilen aristokratların dili olduğu bilinmektedir. Türkçeye Fransızca entegrasyonu, aynı zamanda Fransa’ya giden ve kültür ve uygarlığı izleyen ve benimseyen öğrenciler tarafından da onaylandı.

Yani Türkiye'de tatildeyken, bazı ipuçları:

Türkiye'de bir dondurma almak istiyorsanız, konuşmada çok kullanılan türkçe kelime olan "ahududu" a tercih edilen ahududu için fransız kelimesini "framboise" isteyebilirsiniz. "Pantalon" getirmeyin, bunun yerine şorta ihtiyacınız olacaktır. Sahilde bir rendevous / randevu nuz mı var? Yol tarifine ihtiyacınız olacak, bu nedenle ‘plage / plaj’ı isteyin, belki kamyon“ camion / kamyon ”veya bisiklet “ bicyclette / bisiklet“ gerekebilir.

Kıbrıs'ta dediğimiz gibi, çok merci!

Artemiz Van Den Brouke

4

Long live the bourgeoisie!

You may be surprised to know that taking a trip to Turkey, you will find your GCSE French finally paying off as the Turkish language strangely uses many French words and roots. In fact Turkish in general is a mysterious conduit for communicating with some noting that newspapers read similarly to detective novels.

French began to feature frequently as either a root or an identical word in Turkish towards the end of the Ottoman empire. This was perpetuated post ww2, when there was a strong desire to associate with Europe and sever links with Islam in order to become a secular state under Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal). At this time where Turkey sought to westernise, French was the most popular foreign language of the last centuries. Most notably French was the language of diplomacy and regarded by many as à la mode. It was well known within the Ottoman empire that French was the preferred language of aristocrats in Russia, with a portion of War & Peace by Tolstoy, first published in 1869, written in French with the rest in Russian. French integration into Turkish was also catalysed by students going to France, observing and adopting the culture and civilisation.

So your on holiday in Turkey, here are some tips: If you want to buy an ice-cream in Turkey you may be tempted to go for ‘framboise’ flavour the french word for raspberry which is favoured over ‘ahududu’ the turkish word hardly used in conversation. Don’t bring you ‘pantalon’ you will need shorts instead. Having a rendevous/randevu at the beach? You’ll need directions so ask for the ‘plage/plaj’ perhaps by truck “camion/kamyon” or by bike, “bicyclette/bisiklet”.

As we say in Cyprus, çok merci!

Artemiz Van Den Brouke 5

La influencia de otras lenguas en español Hay 3 idiomas clave que influyen en el español que incluyen latín, árabe y griego. La influencia se debe al asentamiento de los romanos, árabes y griegos en tierras españolas.

La evolución de los idiomas es principalmente el resultado de que los niños recogen la gramática y la sintaxis de otras lenguas y la incrustan en su propio lenguaje materno. Además, hay influencias modernas del inglés, el italiano y el francés debido al comercio entre sus respectivos países.

El español, junto con el francés y el italiano es una lengua románica debido a sus raíces latinas. Este influjo se refleja en una parte significativa del vocabulario español como el vocablo 'agustus' en latín y 'agosto' en español o el 'lunes' siendo 'lunae' en latín. La gramática también da una idea de esto, por ejemplo, el pronombre personal 'nosotros' en latín es 'nosalteros'. Esto muestra cómo la lengua latina se ha convertido en parte de la española, aunque haya algunas adaptaciones leves. Sin embargo, estas variaciones fonéticas se han convertido en un patrón dentro del lenguaje. Por ejemplo, 'qu' en latín va principalmente a una 'c' o una 'g' en español, por ejemplo 'aquam' (agua) cambia a 'aqua' o una 'ct' en latín con frecuencia se convierte en un 'ch' en español como 'octo' (ocho) convirtiéndose en 'ocho'.

La influencia de la lengua árabe dentro del español comenzó cuando los moros dominaron la Península Ibérica entre el 711 AD y 1492. Los árabes controlaban muchas partes de España y Portugal, por lo que dominaban gran parte de la lengua allí. Alrededor de 3000 palabras en español derivan de palabras árabes que constituyen el 8% de la lengua española. Muchas de ellas tienen un sonido 'g' o 'j' que proviene de muchas palabras árabes. Sin embargo, la dominación principal de la lengua árabe dentro del español fue el uso de la 'al' por ejemplo 'alcalde' en español de 'al-qadi' en árabe. El árabe se convirtió en una parte integral del español debido a que la mayoría de la gente en las zonas musulmanas hablaban árabe, que era el idioma asociado con los alfabetizados. Esta combinación tanto del español como del árabe se puede ver en la frase 'hasta la vista' que significa 'hasta que nos volvamos a encontrar' y que deriva del árabe 'hatta' que significa 'hasta' y el español 'la vista'.

El griego fue otra de las lenguas que influyó en el español. La influencia griega clave que recibió el idioma fue el nombre de su país 'España'. Esto se debe a que los griegos llamaron 'Emporium' a una ciudad española donde fueron encontrados abundantes recursos naturales. La palabra significa 'empire' y con el tiempo evolucionó en 'Spania Gaia', que significa 'gaia rara'. Gaia era la tierra personificada como una diosa por los griegos. A su vez, esto se acortó para convertirse en 'Espania' y así llegó a 'España', que es el nombre que conocemos hoy en día. Esta fue la única influencia directa principal que el griego tuvo en el español, independientemente del hecho de que los griegos se establecieran en España en el siglo VI a. C. Sin embargo, una similitud más sutil entre las dos lenguas que muestra el asentamiento del griego es que son idiomas fonéticamente similares. A su vez, el griego tuvo una influencia indirecta en el latín, por lo que el latín que influyó en el español ya era una lengua con vestigios de otras. Como resultado, esto refleja, por tanto, la adaptación y evolución de los lenguajes y las similitudes entre diferentes lenguas.

Aimee Shah

6

The influence of other languages on Spanish There are 3 key languages that influence Spanish which include Latin, Arabic and Greek.

All three were due to the settlement of the Roman, Arabs or Greek on Spanish land. The evolution of languages is mainly a result of children picking up grammar and syntax from other languages and embedding it into their own mother language. On top of this, there are modern influences which have adapted the Spanish language such as English, Italian and French largely due to trade between their respective countries.

Spanish, along with French and Italian is a Romance language due to its Latin influence which came from the Roman rule beginning in 205BC. This influence is reflected in a significant portion of the Spanish vocabulary such as august being ‘agustus’ in Latin and ‘agosto’ in Spanish or Monday in Latin being ‘lunae’ and in Spanish being ‘lunes’. The grammar also gives an idea of this for example the personal pronoun of we in Latin is ‘nosalteros’ and in Spanish it is ‘nosotros’. These show how the Latin language has become a part of the Spanish one although there are some slight adaptions. However these phonetic variations have become a pattern within the language. For example, ‘qu’ in Latin mostly goes to a ‘c’ or a ‘g’ in Spanish for example ‘aquam’ (water) changes to ‘aqua’ or a ‘ct’ in Latin frequently becomes a ‘ch’ in Spanish such as ‘octo’ (eight) becoming ‘ocho’.

The influence of the Arabic language within Spanish began when the Moors dominated the Iberian Peninsula between 711AD and 1492. The Arabs controlled many parts of Spain and Portugal and so they dominated a large part of the language there. Around 3000 Spanish words are derived from Arabic words which makes up 8% of the Spanish language. Many of these words have a ‘g’ or ‘j’ sound which comes from many Arabic words. However, the main domination of the Arabic language within the Spanish was the use of the ‘al’ for example ‘alcade’ (mayor) in Spanish reflecting the ‘al-qadi’ in Arabic.

Arabic became an integral part of Spanish due to most people in Muslim areas, including the Chritians, all spoke Arabic as it was associated with the language of the literate. This combination of both the Spanish and Arabic can be seen through the modern Spanish phrase of ‘hasta la vista’ meaning ‘until we meet again’ as it is derived from the Arabic of ‘hatta’ meaning until and the Spanish of ‘la vista’.

Greek was also one of the languages which helped to influence Spanish. The key Greek influence the language received was the name of its country ’Espana’. This is because the Greeks named a Spanish city were the found an abundance of natural resources ‘Emporium’ (Εμπόριον) meaning ‘empire’ and over time it evolved into ‘Spania Gaia’ (Σπάνια Γαία) meaning ‘rare Gaia’. Gaia was the earth personified as a Goddess by the Greeks. In turn this was then shortened to become ‘Espania’ and so came ‘Espana’ which is the name we know today. This was the only main direct influence Greek had on Spanish regardless of the fact that the Greeks settled in Spain in the 6th century BC however a more subtle similarity between the two languages that shows the Greek’s settlement is that they are phonetically similar languages. The indirect influence of Greek is that they largely influenced the Latin language and so in turn, when Latin influenced Spanish they were passing on an already influenced language. As a result, this therefore reflects the adaptation and evolution of languages and the vitality of noticing the similarity within languages.

Aimee Shah

7

La influencia del español en la cultura filipina Sin duda, el idioma es una forma efectiva de formar a la identidad cultural de una sociedad.

Durante la era colonial de Filipinas, el idioma español se difundió por todas las Filipinas. El idioma español influyó muchos aspectos de la cultura filipina. Incluso después de su liberación, todavía podemos ver muchas culturas españolas infundidas en la cultura filipina.

El aspecto más destacado de la cultura española en la cultura de Filipinas es la similitud entre su idioma. Aunque el español no es un idioma oficial designado por el gobierno, su idioma filipino se deriva en gran medida del español. El filipino oficial es una forma estandarizada de ‘tagalo’, que tiene muchos préstamos lingüísticos en español. Por lo tanto, español y filipino comparten muchas palabras similares. Algunos ejemplos incluyen las palabras miércoles, lunes, edad, guapo y gratis.

Otro hecho interesante sobre Filipinas es que la mayoría de los nombres de sus ciudades también son del español. De hecho, el nombre de Filipinas también se deriva de Felipe II, el rey de España durante la era colonial. Te sorprenderá la cantidad de ciudades con nombres españoles en Filipinas: Las Piñas, Prosperidad, La Paz, La Libertad y La Trinidad. Estos son solo la punta del témpano.

También existen varias fiestas tradicionales hispanas. Algunos ejemplos incluyen el Día de los Muertos y la Semana Santa. Además, cada tercio del domingo de enero, Filipinas celebra el festival del "Santo Niño". Filipinas es uno de los dos países predominantemente cristianos en Asia, y alrededor del 86% de la población es católica. Esto también fue influenciado por la cultura hispana también. Los filipinos en casa instalaron altares en la tradición hispana, decorados con imágenes católicas, flores y velas.

Es sorprendente como el idioma puede influir la cultura y las tradiciones. Los idiomas proporcionan un espejo cultural en el que podemos ver claramente nuestra propia sociedad. Especialmente en el caso de Filipinas, es importante que sepamos la raíz de su idioma, para comprender su cultura. Como un estudiante aprendiendo español, estoy agradecido que puedo usar mi conocimiento para comprender las culturas de los países con antecedentes hispanos. Ojalá que más personas reconozcan la importancia de aprender idiomas y aprovechen la oportunidad de aprenderlo.

Len Park

El día de los Muertos en Filipinas

8

Influence of Spanish in the Philippines culture Without a doubt, language is an effective way of shaping the cultural identity of a society.

During the colonial era of the Philippines, the Spanish language was spread across the Philippines. The Spanish language influenced many aspects of the Philippines culture. Even after their liberation until today, we can still see many Spanish cultures infused in the Philippines culture.

The most prominent aspect of Spanish culture in the Philippines culture is the similarity between their language. Although Spanish is not an official language designated by the government, their official language is largely derived from Spanish. The official Filipino is a standardised form of ‘Tagalog’, which has many Spanish loanwords. Therefore, Spanish and Filipino share many similar words. Some examples include miércoles, lunes, edad, guapo and gratis.

One more interesting fact about the Philippines is that the majority of their city name is also from Spanish. In fact, the name Philippines is also derived from Philip II, the king of Spain.

You will be surprised at the amount of Spanish named cities in the Philippines: Las Piñas, Prosperidad, La Paz, La Libertad, and La Trinidad. These are only the tip of the iceberg.

Various Hispanic traditional holidays still exists too. Some examples include the Day of the Dead, and Semana Santa. Furthermore, every 3rd Sunday of January, the Philippines celebrates the festival of the "Santo Niño". The Philippines is one of two predominantly Christian countries in Asia, and about 86% of the population is Catholic. This was also influenced by the Hispanic culture too. Filipinos at home set up altars in the Hispanic tradition, decorated with Catholic images, flowers, and candles.

It is stunning how language can influence one’s culture and traditions. languages provides a cultural mirror in which we can clearly see our own society. Especially in the Philippines’ case, it is important that we understand the stem of their language, in order to understand their culture. As a student who is learning Spanish, I am grateful that I can use my knowledge to understand the culture of countries that has a Hispanic background. I hope that more people would recognize the significance of learning languages, and embrace the opportunity to learn it.

Len Park

9

La influencia de los árabes en el español Los árabes ocuparon la península ibérica por ocho siglos, así que influyeron mucho de España y la lengua española. La influencia se puede notar en casi todos las partes de la cultura española como la palabra “álgebra” que origina de la palabra árabe “al-jabr” y Rafael Lapesa dice que más de 4000 palabras en la lengua española provienen del árabe, desde el punto de vista lingüístico, por lo tanto las palabras árabes en español están en categorías muy específicas. La mayoría son sustantivos y nombres de lugares pero hay muy pocos adjetivos y verbos. Algunos vocabulario de manera bastante interesante tienen orígenes árabe y latín que designan la misma cosa, por ejemplo “aceituna” y “oliva”, “alacrán” y “escorpión”, “aceite” y “óleo” o “jaqueca” y “migraña”.

Además en el idioma español se guardaron muchos refranes o fraseología que vienen del árabe. Muchos de ellos se adaptaron a la lengua romance. Así que es posible encontrar en el español por ejemplo los refranes de procedencia religiosa: “que Dios guarde”, “si Dios quiere”, “bendita sea la madre que te parió”. Muchos refranes tienen el origen en el árabe: “Un hombre es sabio mientras busca la sabiduría; si llega a cree que a la ha encontrado, se convierte en idiota”, “Que nadie le diga lo que tiene hacer a alguien que ya ha decidido cuál tiene que ser su destino”. La cultura árabe ha puesto su huella no solo en la lengua española sino también en los costumbres artísticos y culturales de toda la Península Ibérica, innovaciones como la alquimia, el álgebra, el ajedrez, el uso de las cifras arábigas fueron introducidos por los árabes. Para concluir la influencia de los árabes en la cultura es-

pañola desempeñó un papel fundamental como una piedra angular para la cultura española y su lingüística.

Taehong Min

10

The influence of the Arabs in the Spanish language The Arabs have occupied the Iberian Peninsula for eight centuries, therefore their culture has influenced Spain and the Spanish language. The influence can be seen in almost all parts of Spanish culture as the word algebra that originates from the Arabic word “al-jabr”. Rafael Lapesa states that more than 4000 words in the Spanish language come from Arabic. From a linguistic point of view, Arabic words in Spanish are in very specific categories. Most are nouns and names of places but there are very few adjectives and verbs. For some vocabulary quite interestingly there are words of both Arabic and Latin origin that designate the same thing, for example ‘aceituna’ and ‘oliva’ for olive, ‘alacrán’ y ‘escorpión’ for scorpio, ‘aceite’ y ‘óleo’ for oil, and finally ‘jaqueca’ and ‘migraña’ for margarine.

In addition, many sayings or phraseology that come from Arabic were kept in the Spanish language. Many of them adapted to the Romance language. So it is possible to find in Spanish for example the sayings of religious origin: "May God keep you safe", "God willing", "blessed be the mother who gave birth to you". Many sayings originate in Arabic: "A man is wise as he seeks wisdom; if he comes to believe that he has found it, he becomes an idiot," "Let no one tell someone who has to do to someone who has already decided what their destiny has to be." The Arabic culture has put its mark not only in the Spanish language but also on the art and culture and customs of the entire Iberian Peninsula, innovations such as alchemy algebra, chess, the use of Arabic figures were introduced by Arabs. To conclude the influence of Arabic on Spanish cul-

ture has played a fundamental role as a cornerstone for Spanish culture and its linguistics.

Taehong Min

11

Les emprunts français de Pays du matin calme C'était Émile Martel (à gauche), un ancien élève de l’école des mines, qui a créé la première école de français en Corée, en 1985. Durant l’occupation de la Corée, les Japonais, qui sont restés en Corée pour 36 ans, interdisent l’enseignement des langues étrangères et à cause d’eux, les premiers professeurs coréens de la langue française ont formé. Paradoxalement, c’est en fait l’occupation japonaise qui avait amené des nombreux mots français utilisés en Corée de nos jours.

On peut dire que l’excellente réputation de la France domine les secteurs artistiques surtout et grâce à cela des mots d’origine française étaient empruntés. Par conséquent, nous, les coréens, utilisons quotidiennement les termes comme “dessin”, “croquis”, “avant-garde”, “nuance”, “collage”, et cetera. (Oh, et “et cetera” aussi!)

Parfois, les mots équivalents existent en coréen, mais certains dire que les mots français sonnent plus chics et c’est la raison pour laquelle, on utilise “restaurant” où quelquefois on peut aller se servir au “buffet”. Quelques coréens vont aussi en “discothèque”, au “cinéma” et ils peuvent aller voir un “ballet”. D’autres mots ont cependant une connotation plus grivoise, probablement liée aussi à la réputation de la France. Les “cabarets”, “salons”, ou “cafés” désignent plutôt des endroits où les hommes peuvent boire de l’alcool en présence des hôtesses. En plus, plupart de coréens souvent appellent la maîtresse d'un bar, café ou bijouterie “madame”. On peut aussi citer les mots comme «prolétariat», «bourgeois» et enfin «vacances» : une grande tradition française encore peu développé en Corée!

Certain nombre de mots français sont entré dans le vocabulaire coréen, avec un peu de transformation pour devenir phonétiquement coréen bien sûr! Ce sont notamment des termes tels que "빵"= “pang” (Pain), "까페"= “kape” (café) et "바게트"= “bagete” (baguette).

Il y a aussi des mots culturels qui sont passés du français au coréen par l'intermédiaire de l'anglais : "앙코르"(encore)[1], “데뷔”(debut)[2], "시네마"(cinéma), “누벨 바그” (nouvelle vague), “아방가르드”(avant-garde). Des termes politiques français sont également entrés dans le vocabulaire coréen, tels que "쿠데타" (coup d’État), "노블레스 오블리제" (noblesse obligée), "프롤레타리아"(prolétariat), et “레지스탕스”(résistance).

Tous ces mots étaient d'abord passé dans la langue anglaise. Enfin, des mots exprimant les sentiments sont également entrés dans le vocabulaire coréen, tels que "멜랑꼴 리"(mélancolie) (directement du français) et "랑데부"(rendez-vous)[3]. Alors, est-ce qu’on aura plus des mots français à la façon coréenne dans le futur étant donné que l’anglais, l'espagnol et le chinois sont plus dominants? On verra mais tant qu'étudiante du français, j'espère sincèrement que 오이 (oui)!

[1] [ankoreu] L’idée de bis au théâtre [2] [debui] Le premier concert d’un chanteur ou le groupe [3] [rangdebu] Se réfère généralement à un rendez-vous entre amoureux

Bunny Seol

The French Loanwords used in Korea It was Émile Martel (left), an old student of l’école des mines, who created the first French school in Korea, in 1985. During the colonial period in Korea, the Japanese, who were staying in Korea for 36 years, prohibited teaching foreign languages and because of them, the first Korean teachers of foreign languages came to life.

Paradoxically, it was, in fact, the Japanese occupation that had brought many French words used in Korea today.

It can be said that the excellent reputation of France dominates the artistic sectors especially and thanks to that, words of French origin were borrowed. Therefore, us, the Koreans, use terms such as "dessin", "croquis", "avant-garde", "nuance", "collage", et cetera. (Oh, and “et cetera” as well!)

Sometimes the equivalent words exist in Korean, but some say that the French words sound chicer and that's why we use "restaurant" where sometimes we can go to the "buffet". Some Koreans also would go to "discothèque", to "cinéma" and they can go see a "ballet". Other words, however, have a more sinister connotation, probably also linked to the reputation of France. "Cabarets", "salons", or "cafés" are more places where men can drink alcohol in the presence of hostesses. In addition, most Koreans often call the mistress of a bar, café or jewellery "madame". One can also quote the words like "prolétariat", "bourgeois" and finally "vacances": a great French tradition still little developed in Korea!

A number of French words have entered the Korean vocabulary, with some transformation to become phonetically Korean of course! These are terms such as "빵" = "pang" (pain), "까페" = "kape" (café) and "바게트" = "bagete" (baguette).

There are also cultural words that went from French to Korean via English: "앙코 르" (encore)[1], "데뷔" (debut)[2], "시네마" (cinéma), "누벨 바그" (nouvelle vague), "아방 가르드" (avant-garde). French political terms have also entered the Korean vocabulary, such as "쿠데타" (coup d'état), "노블레스 오블리제" (noblesse obligée), "프롤레타리 아" (prolétariat), and "레지스탕스" (résistance). All these words were first passed in the English language. Finally, words expressing feelings have also entered the Korean vocabulary, such as "멜랑꼴리" (mélancolie) (directly from French) and "랑데부" (rendezvous)[3]. So, will we have more French words ‘in the Korean style’ in the future as English, Spanish and Chinese are more dominant nowadays? We will see but as a French learning student, I sincerely hope 오이 (oui)!

[1] [ankoreu] Shouted at the end of a performance to get the performer(s) to sing or play more [2] [debui] The first concert of a singer or a band [3] [rangdebu] Especially referred to the meeting between a man and a woman who love each other

Bunny Seol

Kinshasa: la ville la plus francophone que Paris En sachant qu'il y a plus de pays francophones que de pays du Commonwealth, nous savons que certains pays utilisent le français comme langue officielle. Par exemple, le Canada a déclaré le français comme la langue officielle, avec l'anglais. Il est peutêtre choquant que la ville qui utilise le plus le français n’est pas située en France, au Cana-

da ou d’autres pays de la France. En fait, la ville s'appelle Kinshasa, qui est située au Congo. Après 2016, Kinshasa est devenu la ville avec le plus citadins francophones que Paris, l’ancien champion!

Alors pourquoi 92% de la population totale de Kinshasa parle français? C’est dû au contexte historique. Au 18ème siècle, les nations européennes avaient un intérêt direct dans l'idée du colonialisme en cherchant des avantages économiques. Après l’introduction des bateaux dans cette époque, les Européens ont pu aller en Afrique. Par conséquent, de nombreux pays se sont battus les uns contre les autres pour conquérir la plupart des nations. Cette ruée vers la colonisation est nommé «Scramble for Africa».

Le Congo n'était pas non plus une exception. En 1881, le commissaire belge est arrivé à Kinshasa et a annexé le Congo. Kinshasa s'appelait Léopoldville, nommé en l'honneur du roi de l'époque. Depuis que la Belgique utilisait le français à cette époque, le pays était fortement influencé par les langues et les cultures francophones. Après 150 ans, les descendants toujours utilisent le français naturellement. À son tour, tout au long des 150 années d’histoire, il y a eu des périodes où d’autres langues ont tenté de s’imposer, mais le gouvernement congolais a réfuté l’utilisation d’autres langues comme langue officielle. Cela a amené les citoyens à n'utiliser que le

Jong Wong Lim

Kinshasa: the city that is more francophone than Paris Knowing that there are more Francophone countries than Commonwealth nations, we know that some countries use French as an official language. For example, Canada declared French as an official language, along with English.

It might be misleading in a way that the city that uses French the most is not in France, Canada, or countries around France. The city is actually called Kinshasa, situated in the Congo. In fact, in 2016, Kinshasa has been named the city with the most Frenchspeaking city-dwellers, more than Paris the old champion.

Then why does 92% of the total population of Kinshasa speak French? This is mainly due to historical reasons. In the 18th century, the European nations had a vested interest in the idea of colonisation for economical advantages. As the technology for transportation has developed, Europeans were able to travel to Africa. In turn, many countries were fighting against each other to conquer most of the nations. This rush of colonisation was called “Scramble for Africa” The Congo was also not an exception. In 1881, the Belgian commissioner arrived at Kinshasa and annexed the Congo. Back then, Kinshasa was called Léopoldville, in honour of the king at that time. Since Belgium used French at the time, the nation was heavily influenced by Francophone language and culture. As 150

years have passed since then, the descendants are still using French naturally.

Jong Wong Lim

Die Entwicklung der deutschen Rechtschreibung, insbesondere nach der Reform von 1996

Die erste Standardisierung der deutschen Sprache in ihrer schriftlichen Form erfolgte 1901.

Die nächste Änderung dieser Regeln war die umstrittene deutsche Rechtschreibreform von 1996. Ziel war es zu vereinfachen, damit Kinder aus Familien mit geringer formaler Bildung, die die Rechtschreibung besonders schwierig fanden, nicht vom sozialen Aufstieg abgehalten würden.

Die ersten Vorschläge waren radikal: Man wollte zum Beispiel Boot als Bot und Kaiser als Keiser schreiben. Das Konzept wurde bis Juli 1996 diskutiert, abgeändert und fertig gestellt.

Die bekannteste Änderung war die des deutschen Buchstaben ß zum Doppel-s nach einem kurzen Vokal: Aus Wörtern wie Kuß, Fluß und Schluß wurden Kuss, Fluss und Schluss.

Fremdwörter wurden “verdeutscht” z.B. Potenzial statt Potential. Außerdem sollten mehr Wörter getrennt geschrieben werden, zum Beispiel Rad fahren statt radfahren oder kennen lernen statt kennenlernen.

Es gab jedoch viele Kritiker, die sogar vor Gericht gingen. Sie sahen die Vereinfachung als eine Degeneration der Sprache, z.B. meinten sie, dass bestimmte Bedeutungen verloren gingen, wenn aus ursprünglich einem Wort nach den neuen Regeln zwei gemacht würden.

Dieser Streit dauerte jahrelang. Viele Zeitungen, die die neuen Rechtschreibregeln eingeführt hatten, kehrten zur traditionellen Schreibweise zurück. Es herrschte Chaos und die Reform scheiterte fast.

Eine Gruppe wurde gebildet, um einen Kompromiss zu finden, und einige Regeln aus dem Jahr 1996 wurden fallengelassen, andere blieben bestehen. So zum Beispiel das doppelte S nach einem kurzen Vokal. Bei kennen lernen statt kennenlernen wurden beide Versionen erlaubt. Diese „reformierte Reform“ ist im August 2006 in Kraft getreten und entspricht weitgehend den aktuellen Regeln. Sie hat den Streit endgültig beendet. Das neue System hat sich etabliert und ist das einzige System, das die Schüler von heute kennen.

Isabel Viviano 16

The Evolution of the written German Language, especially following the reform of 1996 The first standardization of the German language in its written form occurred in 1901. The next set of changes to these rules were the controversial German orthography reform of 1996. The goal was to simplify, so that children from families with little formal education, who faced particular difficulties in learning to spell, would not face a barrier to social advancement.

The first proposals were radical: they wanted, for example, to spell Boot (German for boat) as Bot and Kaiser (German for emperor) as Keiser.The concept was discussed, amended and completed by July 1996. The best known change was the one from the German letter ß to the double-s after a short vowel: German words like Kuß (kiss), Fluß (river) and Schluß (end) became Kuss, Fluss and Schluss. Foreign words were germanised, such as Potenzial rather than Potential. In addition, more words were to be written as two words, for example, Rad fahren instead of radfahren (to cycle) or kennen lernen instead of kennenlernen (to get to know).

However there were many detractors who even went to court. They saw the simplification as a degeneration of the language e.g. when writing an old word as two words in the new system certain meanings would be lost. This dispute dragged on for years. Many newspapers who had introduced the new spelling rules went back to the traditional ones. Chaos reigned and the reform almost failed.

A council was formed to find a compromise and some rules from 1996 were dropped, others retained, for example, the double-s after a short vowel. In the case of kennen lernen instead

of kennenlernen (to get to know), both versions were permitted. This “reformed reform” came into force in August 2006 and corresponds more or less to the present rules – and it also finally put an end to the debate. The new system established itself and it is the only system today's students know.

Isabel Viviano 17

Rückläufige Dialekte - Eine Platte Stelle Für Plattdeutsche?

Plattdeutsch heißt nicht Plattdeutsch weil es aus dem platten, oder flachen, Land kommt.

Obwohl der Dialekt in Norddeutschland gesprochen wird, wo das Land wirklich sehr flach ist.

Platt steht für einfach/ leicht verständlich, weil die Menschen früher es verstehen konnten, während das Hochdeutsche damals für viele schwer verständlich war.

Es hat sich seitdem viel geändert. Heute spricht weniger als drei Prozent der deutschen Bevölkerung Plattdeutsch. Es gibt fast keine Bücher, die auf Plattdeutsch geschrieben werden, und noch weniger Filme. Das ist traurig, aber der Grund weshalb nicht viele Personen Plattdeutsch sprechen ist, dass Plattdeutsch sehr anders ist als die Dialekte, die von der deutschen Mehrheit gesprochen werden. Es gibt mehr Unterschiede zwischen Hochdeutsch und Plattdeutsch als zwischen Hochdeutsch und anderen deutschen Dialekten.

Auch andere Dialekte als Plattdeutsch werden heute immer weniger benutzt. Die meisten Deutschen sprechen ausschließlich Hochdeutsch. Außerdem wird in der deutschen Literatur, den Massenmedien und der Regierung ausschließlich Hochdeutsch benutzt. Alle Jugendlichen lernen Hochdeutsch, weil es sehr wichtig für ihre Ausbildung und ihr späteres Leben ist.

Trotzdem lernen manche Schülerinnen und Schüler Plattdeutsch auf Grund eines Programms der Regierung von Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Dieser norddeutsche Staat führte Plattdeutschunterricht in sechs Schulen ein, um den Dialekt zu schützen. Dieses Programm hat Vorteile sowohl für die Schülerinnen und Schüler, als auch für die Lehrer, weil auch die Lehrer den Dialekt lernen müssen, bevor sie die Schülerinnen und Schüler unterrichten können. Dadurch lebt Plattdeutsch in mehreren Generationen.

Der größte Unterschied zwischen Hochdeutsch und Plattdeutsch liegt nicht in der Schrift, sondern in der Aussprache. Trotzdem wird Plattdeutsch fast ausschließlich in der Umgangssprache benutzt. Einige plattdeutsche Ausdrücke werden in ganz Deutschland verstanden. Ein paar Beispiele für plattdeutsche Ausdrücke (entnommen aus www.goethe.de ): Schietbüdel - literally translated as diaper is used as a name for toddlers Döspaddel - blockhead Trantüte - slow coach

Larissa Giles 18

Retrograde Dialects - A Record Spot For "Plattdeutsche" ?

Plattdeutsch is not called Plattdeutsch (=”Lowgerman”) because it comes from the lowlands in Germany. Although the dialect is spoken in the North of Germany where the land is flat, the syllabus “platt”=”flat” refers to being easy to understand, because originally people understood it while they had problems to understand “Hochdeutsch”(“High German”).

Today less than three percent of the German population speak Plattdeutsch. There are few books in Plattdeutsch and even less films. That is sad, but the reason is that Plattdeutsch differs more from Hochdeutsch than any other German dialect. Also other German dialects are used less and less nowadays. Most Germans only speak Hochdeutsch. Furthermore, Hochdeutsch is used exclusively in German literature, mass media and the government. All German children learn Hochdeutsch because it is important for their education and later life.

Despite this, some children learn Plattdeutsch because of a programme established by the Mecklenburg-Western Pomeranian government. This North German State established Plattdeutsch classes in six schools in order to protect the dialect. The programme has advantages for both the students and the teachers because the teachers must also learn the dialect before they can teach the students and as a result Plattdeutsch is kept alive in multiple generations.

The greatest difference between Hochdeutsch and Plattdeutsch is not in writing but in the spoken language. In spite of this Plattdeutsch is used mostly in colloquial German. and some Plattdeutsch expressions are understood by people all across Germany. Some examples for plattdeutsche expressions (from www.goethe.de): Schietbüdel - literally translated as diaper is used as a name for toddlers Döspaddel - blockhead Trantüte - slow coach

Larissa Giles 19

汉字的演变

在甲骨文之前， 约四千年前， 人们把字刻砂锅上。这些古代的字大部分是图像的。比如，‘旦’这个字，

表示太阳（‘日’）从云上升起。汉字从甲骨文演变到今天， 经历过很多不同的字体。

以下是‘好’这个字的演变。‘好’最早的字体是从妈妈抱着她的小婴儿的图像形成的。左边的‘女’代表妈

妈，右边的‘子’代表小婴儿； 所以，这个字 传达了 ‘好’的思想。

Jermaine Chong 20

The Evolution of Chinese Characters Even before the inscription of the earliest sophisticated characters (jiaguwen甲骨文), which were written onto tortoise shells and animal bones, people were found to have carved etchings onto earthenware over four thousand years ago. These ancient etchings were more pictographic, and originated from drawings; the character 旦 (dàn), meaning dawn, represents the sun (日) rising upwards through the clouds. After the early etchings onto animal bones, there were many different forms of the same characters before they became the characters we know today.

This is the evolution of the word 好 (hao, meaning ‘good’). The earlier versions of 好 stem from the image of a mother holding her child, which is said to represent goodness. This original purpose for the character ‘好’ is made clear even by looking at its character today; ‘女’ (nü) means ‘woman’ or ‘female’ and ‘子’ (zi) can mean ‘child’.

Jermaine Chong 21

La influencia lingüística y cultural del inglés en Corea Durante La Guerra de Corea en 1950, los coreanos sintieron la necesidad del inglés para comunicarse con los soldados de la ONU. A partir de ahí, cada vez más, los coreanos fueron interesados por este idioma extranjero y empezaban a aprender el inglés extensamente. Ahora, en 2019, se puede ver los carteles ingleses delante las tiendas en casi todas partes de Corea. Cuando escuchas la música de las estrellas del K-pop o vas al supermerca-

do, se dará cuenta que muchas palabras suenan como inglés, conocido como las palabras de préstamos o “Konglish”.

Konglish es una palabra compuesta de "inglés" y "coreano" que significa nuevas palabras que se utilizan entre los coreanos que se origina en el vocabulario inglés o suenan como inglés. Por ejemplo, muchos nombres de frutas son palabras que están escritas en coreano, exactamente cómo se pronuncian y significan en inglés, como "banana 바나나", "melon 멜론" o "lemon 레몬". Por otro lado, hay algunas palabras que suenan como inglés pero tienen significados diferentes o ni siquiera existen en el idioma inglés. La palabra “fighting 화이팅” en Konglish es la frase de apoyo y estímulo que en inglés se significa “pelear”. Sin embargo, la frase correcta inglesa es “cheer up”. “TV”, “hand-phone”, “computer”, estos son todos los ejemplos de las palabras que los coreanos utilizan en la vida diaria que se originan en inglés.

Igualmente, los coreanos modernos utilizan “Konglish” en su vida diaria como resultado de la globalización. En mi opinión, la invasión del inglés es inevitable ya que el inglés se ha convertido en un elemento necesario para ir a la universidad, conseguir un trabajo o para salir del país para viajar. No obstante, es muy importante que las nuevas generaciones trabajen duro para preservar y proteger nuestro propio idioma y cultura desde el mundo exterior. Si pudiera, me animaría mis amigas para reducir la cantidad de las palabras konglish y utilizar la lengua coreana pura en la vida cotidiana. Por ejemplo, cuando estamos enviando mensajes a nuestros amigos a través de las redes sociales, podemos usar palabras coreanas puras en lugar de abreviaturas o palabras Konglish.

Katie (Kyungyeon) Min 22

The linguistic and cultural influence of English in Korea During the Korean War in 1950, Koreans felt the need for English to communicate with UN soldiers. From there on, more and more, Koreans were interested in this foreign language and began to learn English widely. Now, in 2019, you can see posters written in English in front of the stores almost everywhere in Korea. When you listen to K-pop stars or go to the supermarket, you will notice many words that sound like English, known as loan words or "Konglish".

Konglish is a word composed of "English" and "Korean" which means new words that are used among Koreans that originate in English vocabulary or sound like English. For example, many fruit names are words that are written in Korean, exactly how they are pronounced with the same meaning in English, such as "banana 바나나", "melon 멜론" or "lemon 레몬". On the other hand, there are some words that sound like English but have different meanings or do not even exist in the English language. The word “fighting 화이팅” in Konglish is an expression of support and encouragement that in English means “fight”. However, the correct English phrase is "cheer up". "TV", "hand-phone", "computer", these are all examples of the words that Koreans use in everyday life that originate in English.

Similarly, modern Koreans use "Konglish" in their daily lives as a result of globalization. In my opinion, the invasion of English is inevitable since English has become a necessary element to go to university, get a job or leave the country for a trip. However, it is very important for us, the new generations, to work hard to preserve and protect our own language and culture from the outside world. If I could, I would encourage my friends to reduce the amount of Konglish words and use pure Korean language in everyday life. For example, when we are sending messages to our friends through social networks, we can use pure Korean words instead of abbreviations or Konglish words.

Katie (Kyungyeon) Min 23

¿Abreviamos demasiado: xp s fcl?

Debido al uso de Internet y la escasez de tiempo que los jugadores en línea tienen para escribir durante los juegos y también la gente perezosa que no quiere perder tiempo mientras mandando mensajes de texto, muchas palabras se abrevian. Estas palabras abreviadas siguen las tendencias de la generación más joven, que a menudo hace dificultades en la comunicación entre generaciones. Esto no es un fenómeno en un área particular, sino es una peculiaridad internacional.

En Corea, la abreviatura más común de palabras utilizadas en la vida diaria es "아아" [ah-ah], que es una palabra abreviada para helado americano, porque es los primeros sonidos de las dos palabras combinadas en inglés (ice americano) para describir un café cortado (que se llama normalmente americano) con hielo. Otra abreviatura muy común es la palabra “혼코노" [hon-ko-no], que proviene de la frase "혼자 코인 노 래방", que significa estar solo en coin-karaoke. Coin-Karaoke es un karaoke que se opera con monedas y tiene un tamaño de cabina de fotos por lo que es perfecto para que una o dos personas canten. El hecho de que tal abreviatura exista y se utilice en realidad muestra la nueva ola de moda coreana.

También hay abreviaturas utilizadas por las generaciones más jóvenes en español. Al igual que "love you" se acorta como "ly" en inglés, "te quiero mucho" a menudo se abrevia como "tqm" en español.

Tanto "como" y "cómo" se acorta a "cm", "porque" a "xp", "cuídate" a "cdt", y tal. En comparación con la lengua coreana, nosotros también usamos la misma regla como el español - sólo letras cruciales de una palabra se utiliza para formar una abreviatura de modo que la forma original de la palabra se reconoce fácilmente.

Aunque las abreviaturas son rápidas, fáciles de escribir y reflejan las tendencias de la sociedad, pueden fácilmente causar falta de comunicación entre la gente especialmente si una persona no está familiarizada con la propia cultura o la tendencia. ¡Por ejemplo, como se ha mostrado anteriormente, "cm" no tiene ninguna indicación de si tiene un acento o no así que, uno podría entenderlo como ‘centímetro’, en lugar de ‘como’!

Doyeon Kim

24

Do we abbreviate too much: coz its ezy?

Many words have been abbreviated recently due to the excessive use of the internet, lack of time, the need to type quickly while playing online games and the pure laziness of those who spend a lot of time texting. These shortened words tend to follow the internet trend of the younger generation of a society, which often creates difficulties when communicating between different generations. This is not a phenomenon shown in a particular area, but a worldwide issue.

In Korea, the most commonly abbreviated word used in our daily lives would be "아 아" [ah-ah], which is an abbreviated word for iced americano. Another common abbreviation is the word “혼코노" [hon-ko-no], which originates from the phrase "혼자 코인 노래방", meaning, being alone in a coin-karaoke. Coin-karaoke is a karaoke operated with coins that has an area of a photo booth, the perfect size to fit one or two people. The fact that such abbreviation exists and that it is actually used often shows a current trend and aspects of the younger generation in Korea.

These abbreviations exist in the Spanish language as well. Just like how “love you” is shortened to “ly” when texting in English, “te quiero mucho” is abbreviated to “tqm” in Spanish. Also, “como” and “cómo” are shortened to “cm”, “porque” to “xp”, “cuidate” to “cdt” , and more. Compared to the Korean language, the same rule applies to the words only crucial letters from a word are used to form an abbreviation so that the original form of the word is easily recognized.

Although abbreviations are fast, easy to write, and reflect a trend or a culture of a society, miscommunication can easily occur when they are used between people who are not familiar with the trends of a particular society. For example, as shown previously, “cm” has no indication if the original word has an accent or not -thus making a drastic change to its meaning - and it can be simply interpreted as centimetre to some others instead of ‘como’!

Doyeon Kim 25

Similitudes y diferencias entre el español y el portugués Existen muchos rasgos comunes y relaciones entre el español y el portugués: ambos idiomas son lenguas romances modernas que evolucionaron del latín vulgar. Así que son parecidos con el francés e el italiano también. Los idiomas se originaron desde la península ibérica que contiene España y Portugal y Andorra. Cada idioma fue convertido independientemente en el siglo XIV. Por lo tanto, los dos idiomas desarrollaron como si fueron dos parientes cercanos.

Ya que hay muchas similitudes, se puede argumentar que el español y el portugués son entendidos fácilmente por ambos los hispanohablantes y los hablantes de portugués. ¡Yo también lo pensé! De hecho, existen más diferencias que había pensado. Obviamente, comparten mucho vocabulario: precisamente ochenta y nueve por ciento de las palabras son compartidas. No obstante, curiosamente, los hispanohablantes que nunca han estado expuestos al portugués tendrán dificultades en entenderlo. Al contrario, dicen que para los hablantes de portugués será pan comido entender el español. Según los estudios, alrededor de cuarenta y cinco por ciento del español hablado será entendido por los hablantes portugueses y eso se debe a la gran diferencia en pronunciación no en vocabulario; el español tiene veinte y cuatro fonemas mientras el portugués tiene treinta y siete fonemas.

Como mencioné antes en el párrafo anterior, ambas lenguas comparten la mayoría de sus vocabularios. Por otra parte, hay algunos falsos amigos: una palabra de otro idioma que parece lo mismo, pero tiene un significado diferente. Por ejemplo, ‘oficina’, lo que significa taller en portugués, ‘largo’, lo que significa ancho en portugués. Además, ‘acodar’, quiere decir levantarse en portugués. ¿Muy extraño pero interesante a la vez, no?

Aunque exista una diferencia fundamental entre el español y el portugués, si usted sabe cualquiera de las dos lenguas, se ayudará aprender la otra lengua fácilmente.

Es una buena idea aprender lenguas nuevas, ¡por eso le aconsejo aprender el portugués ya (si usted está leyendo este artículo en español obviamente)!

Seojun Lee

Similarities and differences between Spanish and Portuguese There are many common traits and relationships between Spanish and Portuguese: both languages are modern Romance languages that evolved from vulgar Latin. So they are similar to French and Italian too. These languages originated from the Iberian peninsula containing Spain and Portugal and Andorra. Each language evolved independently in the 14th century. Therefore, the two languages were developed closely like long lost relatives.

Since they have many similarities, it can be argued that Spanish or Portuguese speakers could understand one another. I thought so too! But, they still have differences even though they are minor. Obviously, they share a lot of vocabulary: precisely eighty nine percent. Interestingly, Spanish speakers who have never been exposed to Portuguese will have difficulty understanding Portuguese. However, for Portuguese speakers it’s a piece of cake understanding Spanish. According to research, about forty-five percent of spoken Spanish will be understood by Portuguese speakers. However the greatest difference is in pronunciation not in vocabulary; Spanish has twenty-four phonemes whilst Portuguese has thirty-seven phonemes.

As I mentioned earlier in the previous paragraph, both languages share most of their vocabulary. Moreover, there are some false friends - a word from another language that seems similar but has a different meaning. For example, oficina (office), means workshop in Portuguese, largo (long), means wide in Portuguese. Besides, acordar (to agree) means getting up in Portuguese. Very strange and interesting at the same time, right?

Although there is a fundamental difference between Spanish and Portuguese, if you know either language, it will help you to learn the other language. It's a good idea to learn a new language and therefore the time has come for you to learn Portuguese (if you are reading this article in Spanish obviously)!

Seojun Lee

Aqui há gato!

O lugar conferido pelos linguistas às expressões idiomáticas ou idiotismos – do grego, “linguagem dos simples particulares; linguagem corrente ou vulgar” – numa língua, é algo marginal.

Para além da diversidade terminológica, a própria natureza das expressões incluídas na designação expressão idiomática contêm expressões que se comportam como interjeições ou provérbios, desde grupos nominais a frases simples (ou complexas). Assim, considerando o nome “gato”, poder-se-á encontrar as seguintes expressões: “gato pingado”, “aqui há gato!”, “de noite todos os gatos são pardos”, “mais azedo que rabo de gato”, “comer/ comprar gato por lebre”.

Por conseguinte, as expressões têm sido tratadas como objetos linguísticos anómalos, sendo empurradas para uma zona de indefinição. Porém, tem-se assistido ultimamente a um crescente interesse pelas expressões idiomáticas, sobretudo por parte do processamento das línguas naturais necessário para a tradução automática.

Outra área de interesse diz respeito à aprendizagem de línguas estrangeiras (LE) ou à aquisição de uma língua segunda (L2). Tomando em consideração a definição, quando estamos na presença de uma “locução própria de uma língua, cuja tradução literal não faz sentido numa outra língua de estrutura análoga”, é expectável que um falante não nativo de uma língua experimente dificuldades na compreensão destas expressões. Não é por isso de estranhar que um professor de LE ou de L2 desenvolva trabalho a este respeito. De outro modo, seria impossível interpretar corretamente as expressões seguintes: “perder a cabeça” (perder a calma), “cabeça-de-alho-chocho” (ser distraído), “sem pés nem cabeça” (sem sentido) e “atirar-se de cabeça” (envolver-se numa situação nova sem hesitar).

Nem sempre é fácil descortinar a origem destas expressões. São apresentadas inúmeras expressões fixas bem conhecidas e são sugeridas explicações quanto à sua origem. Uma bem popular, vem da publicidade, correspondendo a um slogan criado por Alexandre O’Neill: “há mar e mar, há ir e voltar”. Como o Instituto de Socorros a Náufragos estava preocupado com os afogamentos nas praias portuguesas, decidiu lançar uma campanha de segurança. O poeta foi o responsável pelo slogan, que agora pode ser dito como alerta em diferentes situações. Aparentemente, no processo de criação artística, o autor, conhecido pelo seu humor negro, terá considerado outras hipóteses: “Passe um verão desafogado”.

Outra expressão popular é aquela frase que dizemos quando queremos impor os limites a alguém que não tem consciência deles: “Isto não é a casa da Joana” ou, como diz o povo, à vontade não é à vontadinha. Esta expressão remonta ao séc. XIV, estando relacionada com Joana, condessa da Provença e rainha de Nápoles. Depois da sua fuga para Avignon, ou porque é suspeita da morte do marido ou porque teria sido expulsa pela Igreja pela vida dissoluta que levava, em 1347, Joana, com apenas 21 anos, decide impor regras aos bordéis de Avignon. A regra é muito simples: todos os estabelecimentos de prostituição tinham de ter uma porta (fechada) para bater antes de entrar.

Por conseguinte, parece fazer sentido tratar as expressões idiomáticas como as outras unidades lexicais de uma língua. Da mesma forma que os falantes vão interiorizando e acomodando no seu léxico as palavras de uma língua, assim deverão acomodar estes idiotismos para que possam compreender e fazer-se compreender quando constroem enunciados e textos.

Matilde Vaz

28

There’s a cat here/There’s something up!

The place given by linguists to idiomatic expressions - from Greek, “language of the simple particulars; ordinary or vulgar language”- in a language, it is a marginal one.

In addition to terminological diversity, the very nature of the expressions included in the designation of idiomatic expression contain expressions that behave as interjections or proverbs, from nominal groups to simple (or complex) sentences. Thus, considering the name "cat", one can find the following expressions: "dripping cat" (someone of low importance), "here is a cat!" (something suspicious happened here), "At night all cats are brown" (in the dark, everything looks similar), "sourer than cat tail" (something sour, comes from the sour chenille plant), “Eat / buy cat for hare” (when someone is fooled by something).

Therefore, the idiomatic expressions have been treated as anomalous linguistic objects, being pushed into a blurred zone. However, there has lately been a growing interest in these idiomatic expressions, especially in the processing of natural languages required for machine translation.

Another area of interest concerns foreign language learning (FL) or the acquisition of a second language (L2). Considering the definition, when we are in the presence of a “language-specific locution whose literal translation makes no sense in another language of similar structure”, it is expected that a non-native speaker of a language will have trouble in understanding these expressions. It is not surprising, then, that an FL or L2 teacher develops work in this regard. Otherwise, it would be impossible to correctly interpret the following expressions: “lose your head” (lose your temper), “leek head” (be distracted), “without feet or head” (meaningless) and “shoot head on” (get involved in a new situation without hesitation).

It is not always easy to unravel the origin of these expressions. Let us look at some well-known idiomatic expressions and their origin as suggested. A very popular one comes from advertising, corresponding to a slogan created by Alexandre O'Neill: “there is sea and sea, there is going back and forth”. As the Shipwreck Relief Institute (Instituto de Socorros a Naufragos) was concerned about drowning on Portuguese beaches, it decided to launch a safety campaign. The poet was responsible for the slogan, which can now be said to alert in different situations. Apparently, in the process of artistic creation, the author, known for his dark humour, had considered other choices: "Spend a summer undrowned" in Portuguese: “Passe um verão desafogado” which includes a pun with the word “desafogado” - being “afogado” the Portuguese word for drowned and the prefix “des” to mean the opposite.

Another popular expression is that phrase we say when we want to impose the limits on someone who is unaware of them: “This is not Joana’s house” or, as they say, “at ease is not at will”.

This expression dates back to the XIV century, being related to Joana, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. After her escape to Avignon, either because she was suspected of her husband's death or because she was allegedly expelled by the Church for the dissolute life she led, in 1347, 21year-old Joana decides to impose rules on the Avignon brothels. The rule is very simple: all prostitution establishments had to have a (closed) door to knock on before entering.

It therefore seems to make sense to treat idiomatic expressions like the other lexical units of a language. Just as speakers internalize and accommodate in their lexicon the words of a language, so they should accommodate these idioms so that they can understand and make themselves understood when they construct utterances and texts.

Matilde Vaz

29

Español y Catalán Desafortunadamente, algunos suponen que el español es el único idioma de España y el catalán es sólo un dialecto regional pero en realidad, eso es falso – ambos son idiomas separados. El catalán es una de cuatro lenguas cooficiales en España, junto al vasco, el gallego y el aranés. Sin embargo, ¿por qué más personas hablan español que catalán? Y, ¿hay grandes diferencias entre estos dos idiomas?

Ambas lenguas romances comenzaron a formarse en el siglo IX d.C. y evolucionaron desde el latín vulgar. El español, originado del castellano, se desarrolló en el centro y norte de España y es el idioma que es famoso y enseñado en las escuelas hoy en día. Al mismo tiempo, el catalán se desarrolló a ambos lados de los Pirineos, en el noreste de España. Con el tiempo, los idiomas extendieron – el español a la España del Sur y el catalán alcanzó Valencia.

Con el paso del tiempo, cada vez más personas hablaban español y menos catalán. Eso ocurrió en gran medida cuando hubo una unificación entre las Coronas de Castilla y Aragón en 1479. El castellano era considerado más prestigioso y por eso ganó más popularidad entre los hablantes. Hacia al final del siglo XV, este idioma se convirtió en una lengua mundial debido a la exploración española del nuevo mundo por conquistadores como Cristóbal Colón. Los países que hoy en día conocemos como Argentina, México, Colombia o Panamá entre otros empezaron a hablar español.

Durante el período bajo la dictadura franquista, la desigualdad entre español y catalán fue creciendo – él quería que la lengua española fuera dominante en toda España, así que prohibió la enseñanza del catalán en los colegios o, incluso, hablarlo en los edificios públicos. Afortunadamente, después de la muerte de Franco en 1975, esas reglas fueron invertidas y el gobierno catalán fue fundado de nuevo.

Los dos idiomas son muy similares, pero también tienen sus diferencias. Se estima que aproximadamente el 85% del vocabulario es compartido entre las dos lenguas – aunque hay pequeñas variaciones en la ortografía y la pronunciación. También hay similitudes en la gramática– por ejemplo, ambos idiomas sólo tienen los géneros masculino y femenino para sus sustantivos, y la letra ‘v’ es pronunciado como la letra ‘b’ tanto en español como en catalán.

Sin embargo, el español sólo tiene acentos agudos (é , á), mientras que catalán también los tiene graves (è , à).

Para concluir, las similitudes y las diferencias entre español y catalán evidencian cómo los idiomas se desarrollan en general. Son afectados por las ubicaciones geográficas, los cambios históricos y los climas políticos. Además, recuerda a la gente que cada país no tiene por qué tener una sola lengua y que el hecho de que España tenga múltiples idiomas sugiere que la cultura del país es muy diversa.

Maia Dixit 30

Spanish and Catalan Unfortunately, some people assume that Spanish is the only language of Spain and that Catalan is just a regional dialect but actually this is completely false – they are both languages in their own right. Catalan is one of the four co-official languages spoken in Spain, alongside Basque, Galician and Occitan. But why do many more people speak Spanish than Catalan?

And are there major differences between these two languages?

Both Romance languages started forming in the 9th Century AD, and developed from Vulgar Latin. Spanish, originated as Castilian, developed in central and northern Spain, and this is what is widely regarded and taught as ‘Spanish’ today. But, at the same time, Catalan developed on either side of the Pyrenees in North-Eastern Spain. Over time the languages spread – Spanish expanded to Southern Spain, and Catalan managed to reach Valencia.

However, over time more people were speaking Spanish and less people were speaking Catalan. This largely happened when there was the unification between the Castile and Aragon crowns in 1479. Castilian Spanish was considered more prestigious, and therefore gained more popularity among speakers. Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Spanish also became a world language due to the Spanish exploration of the New World, by people such as Christopher Columbus. Countries such as modern day Argentina, Guatemala, Mexico, Columbia and Panama (and many more) all started to speak Spanish. During the period under Franco dictatorship, the difference in speakers was only worsened – he wanted the Spanish language to be dominated all over Spain, so it was banned to teach Catalan in schools or speak it in public buildings. Thankfully, after Franco’s death in 1975, these rules were reversed and the Catalan government was founded again.

The two languages are very similar, but they also do have their differences. It is estimated that around eighty five per cent of vocabulary is shared between the two languages – although there are slight variants on spelling and pronunciation. There are similarities in grammar as well – for example both languages only have masculine and feminine genders for their nouns, and the letter ‘v’ is pronounced as a letter ‘b’ in Spanish and Catalan. However, whereas Spanish only has acute accents (é , á), Catalan also has their grave equivalent (è , à).

In conclusion, the similarities and differences between Spanish and Catalan highlight how languages develop in general. They are affected by geographical locations, historical changes and political climates. It also reminds people that each country doesn’t just have one language, but that a language is a mirror for a rich culture, and the fact that Spain has multiple languages suggests that it is has a very diverse culture.

Maia Dixit 31

L’Esperanto L’Esperanto. Qu’est-ce-que c’est ? L’Esperanto est une langue qui a été développée par un homme qui s’appelle L.L Zamenhof – un juif polonais qui avait envie de créer une langue qui pourrait arrêter le conflit et la guerre. Le mot ‘Esperanto’ signifie ‘espoir’. L.L Zamenhof pensait que – si tout le monde pouvait parler la même langue – il y aurait moins de malentendus entre les nations. Malheureusement, son idée n’a pas marché – il n’y a guère de “Esperantophones” dans le monde ; en fait, le nombre s’élève à moins de 2 millions.

Alors ; quelles sont les règles élémentaires de l’Esperanto et comment pouvons-nous le parler ?

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La langue utilise l’alphabet latin, un alphabet qui est utilisé par la majorité des pays dans le monde (a, b, c, d, e, f...). Les racines de l’esperanto sont, pour la plupart, dans les langues romanes comme le latin, l’espagnol et le français. Mais il y a aussi des racines dans les langues germaniques comme l’allemand.

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Il n’y a pas d’exception aux règles de grammaire (il n’y a pas de verbes irréguliers etc.). Pour cette raison, l’esperanto est plus facile à apprendre que le français ou l’anglais, par exemple.

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Tous les adjectifs se terminent par la lettre ‘a’. Comme les noms, les adjectifs pluriels se terminent en ‘j’ et les accusatifs se terminent en ‘n’. Si l’adjectif suivait le nom, l’accent serait sur l’adjectif.

•

Tous les noms se terminent par la lettre ‘o’. S’il y avait un nom pluriel, il se terminerait par la lettre ‘j’, et si le nom était accusatif, il se terminerait par la lettre ‘n’.

Par exemple : tablo = la table tabloj = les tables tablojn = les tables (accusatives) hundo = le chien hundoj = les chiens hundojn = les chiens (accusatifs

C’est clair que l’Esperanto est très facile à apprendre. Si vous voulez continuer d’apprendre l’Esperanto, visitez le site web ‘lernu!’, où vous pourrez suivre un cours d’Esperanto complètement gratuit!

Isabelle Lever 32

Esperanto Esperanto. What is it? Esperanto is a language which was developped by a man called L.L Zamenhof – a polish Jew who wanted to create a language which would be able to stop conflict and war. The word ‘Esperanto’ means hope. Zamenhof hoped that if everyone across the world was able to speak the same language then there would be fewer misunderstandings between nations. Unfortunately, his idea was not entirely successful – there are hardly Esperanto speakers in the world; in fact there are less than 2 million.

So; what are the basic rules of Esperanto and how can we learn to speak it?

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The language uses the latin alphabet. This is the alphabet used by the majority of the world’s countries (a,b,c,d,e,f...). Esperanto has linguistic roots largely in Romantic languages, such as Latin, Spanish or French. However there are also some roots in Germanic languages – such as German.

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There are no exceptions to any of the grammar rules, for example there are no irregular verbs or anything like that. For this reason, Esperanto is considered to be much easier to learn than other languages such as English or French.

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All adjectives in Esperanto end with the letter ‘a’. Like nouns; for plural adjectives you add a ‘j’ and accusatives add an ‘n’. If the adjective comes after the noun in the sentence, then the emphasis will be on the adjective.

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All singular nouns end with the letter ‘o’. If the noun is plural it will finish in a ‘j’, and if the noun is accusative it will end with an ‘n’.

For example: tablo = table tabloj = tables tablojn = tables (in the accusative case) hundo = dog hundoj = dogs hundojn = dogs (in the accusative case) Tablo is a word taken from Romantic languages (e.g french = la table) Hundo is a word taken from Germanic languages (e.g german = der Hund)

From the little we have done so far, it is quite clear that Esperanto is an easy language to learn. If you’d like to continue learning Esperanto, visit the website ‘lernu!’ where you can take a course in Esperanto absolutely free of charge!

Isabelle Lever 33

Expresiones Idiomáticas en el inglés y el español: la complejidad del

lenguaje Durante siglos, las expresiones idiomáticas, frases que llevan un sentido figurado en vez de literal, han seguido siendo un aspecto significativo de la comunicación. El interés de los modismos no solo está en el hecho de que llevan más implicaciones que cualquier otra forma de construcción de la oración, sino que también difieren de lengua a lengua, incluyendo la complejidad de los dialectos.

Las expresiones idiomáticas implican la complejidad de las lenguas porque muestran que, si se quiere conservar el significando de un modismo, no se puede traducir palabra por palabra de una lengua a otra. Por ejemplo, el modismo “estoy sudando como un pollo”, que en inglés significaría literalmente “I am sweating like a chicken” se traduce, en realidad, como “I am sweating like a pig”. Esto muestra claramente que los modismos no deberían traducirse literalmente, sino metafóricamente. Así, desarrollan la complejidad de las lenguas al añadir otra dimensión a la comunicación, una que no es literal.

Además, las expresiones idiomáticas ponen énfasis en la complejidad de las lenguas al sobresaltar el sexismo en la gramática. En español, todos los sustantivos tienen designado un género con el cual el adjetivo debe concordar, mientras que el inglés tiene muchos más sustantivos neutrales. Por ejemplo, en inglés, cuando usamos el artículo de género neutro “the”, en español usaríamos el artículo en masculino o femenino: “la” o “el”. Este tono sexista es evidente en conversaciones generales en español, por ejemplo, donde en inglés simplemente diríamos “the doctor”, sin género específico a la profesión masculina, en español se diría “el médico” sin importar el género del profesional. Esta diferencia en la comunicación de género se hace incluso más evidente en los modismos. La expresión en español “estar hecho un ají” que significa “estar muy enfadado”, utiliza la metáfora de un pimiento (un ají) como símbolo de enfado. En inglés, el pimiento no tiene connotación femenina o masculina, sin embargo, en español es “un ají” en vez de “una ají”, lo que hace parecer que el enfado solo es una característica masculina y no femenina.

Además, la construcción de expresiones idiomáticas no tiene fórmula. Se puede discutir que los cambios en la raíz de los verbos son igualmente confusos para la gente que está aprendiendo la lengua, sin embargo, muchos de los cambios de las raíces de los verbos siguen el mismo patrón, mientras que no hay correlación entre la construcción de una expresión idiomática y otra. Por lo tanto, su complejidad estructural causa que la gente aprenda modismos en vez de aprender a construirlos. Así que, los modismos demuestran la complejidad de la lengua al confirmar el hecho de que la lengua no sigue reglas, sino que su construcción sobrepasa el sentido común a la hora de formarlas.

A pesar del hecho de que varios aspectos de la lengua han cambiado, las expresiones idiomáticas no lo han hecho y se han grabado en la sociedad. Debido a que las expresiones idiomáticas no han cambiado, la complejidad de la lengua es mayor.

Tami Schwarzmann 34

Idiomatic expressions in English and Spanish: the complexity of the language For centuries idiomatic expressions, phrases which carry figurative rather than literal meaning, have remained a significant feature of communication. The interest of idioms not only lies in the fact that they carry greater implication than any other form of sentence construction, but that they differ from language to language, implying the depth of dialects.

Idiomatic expressions imply the intricacy of languages as they show that if the meaning of an idiom is to be retained, it can not be translated word for word, from one language to another. For example, the idiom ‘I am sweating like a pig’ translates to ‘estoy sudando como un pollo’ which literally means ‘I am sweating like a chicken’. To native English speakers it would make more sense that the Spanish idiom to sweat like a pig is ‘estoy sudando como un cerdo’ (cerdo meaning pig), however, this sentence would then not carry the same meaning to Spaniards. This demonstrates clearly that idioms are not supposed to be taken literally, but metaphorically, and so they develop depth to languages as they add another dimension to communication, one that isn’t literal.

Idiomatic expressions additionally emphasise the complexity of languages as they highlight the sexism within grammar. In Spanish all nouns have a designated gender in which the adjective which describes them must agree, whereas, English is based much more on neutral nouns. For example, in English where we would use the gender neutral article ‘the’, sentences in Spanish are constructed off the grounds of masculine and feminine articles: ‘el’ or ‘la’. This sexist pattern of behaviour is evident in general Spanish conversation, for example, where we would simply say ‘the doctor’ in English, designating no specific gender to the profession, Spanish identifies it as a masculine profession as one would say ‘el médico’, despite the gender of the designee. This difference in gender communication becomes even more apparent in idioms. The Spanish idiomatic expression ‘estar hecho un ají’ which means to be very angry, uses the metaphor of a pepper (un ají) as a symbol of anger. In English, the pepper is neither made out to have feminine or masculine connotations, however, in Spanish as it is un ají rather than una ají, it makes it seem as if anger is a male rather than a female characteristic.

Moreover, the construction of idiomatic expressions is not formulaic. It can be argued that stem changing verbs are equally as confusing to newcomers of a language, however, many stem changing verbs follow the same pattern, whereas, there is no correlation between the formation of one idiomatic expression and another. Their structural complexity therefore causes people to learn idioms rather than learn how to form them. Therefore, idioms prove the depth of language as they substantiate the fact that language does not follow a rule book, but its formation extends past the guidelines of common sentence formation.

Despite the fact that various aspects of language have changed, idiomatic expressions have remained unchanged and their meaning has consequentially become engrained within society. The fact that idiomatic expressions have remained unchanged has indefinitely increased the depth and complexity of languages.

Tami Shcwarzmann

35

Les mots uniques de Corée La langue d’un pays montre le profondément de la culture et l’histoire de ce pays. Pour mon pays, la Corée, il existent des mots uniques. Dans cet article, j'expliquerai ces mots qui sont exceptionnellement coréens! Je trouve que mon pays natal a une culture très différente que la culture européenne, en conséquence il y a une grande quantité des mots qu’on ne peut pas traduire. Les exemples typiques sont les mots 시원해 et 정, quand même je vais essayer de les expliquer ! Et si je n’arrive pas à expliquer bien ces expressions complexes à cause de la nature de ces mots (ou si vous comprenez déjà le coréen) je m’excuse!

시원해 Tout d’abord, l'exemple le plus commun est le mot ‘시원해'. Normalement, 시원해 signifie ‘frais’ en francais ou ‘cool’ en anglais. Pourtant, ce n’est pas toujour vrai. 시원해 peut signifier le goût d’un plat, une émotion, et les deux températures c’est-à -dire chaud et froid à la fois. Le goût de 시원해 est simple, c’est comme ‘rafraîchissant’ en français mais pas exactement, par exemple c’est la sensation qu’on peut ressentir en été après avoir bu une verre de limonade ou de la bière. L'émotion de 시원해 est un petit peu similaire à l'émotion de la satisfaction. Les températures de 시원해 est le plus bizarre. En Corée on a des bains publics. Les pères, bizarrement, aussi utilisent ce mot ‘시원해' en entrant le bain chaud pour exprimer leur satisfaction avec la température de l’eau et leur confort.

정 L’explication de ce mot est difficile même en coréen! Le mot explique les personnes qui se connaît depuis longtemps. Mais le mot n’est pas un adjectif, c’est un nom. Donc, quand deux personnes sont des amis proches, ils ont beaucoup de 정. Cependant, ce n’est pas seulement pour les amis. Ce peut être utilisé pour un objet ou pour un person qui n’est pas proche. Conséquemment, les Coréens, nous l'utilise beaucoup mais, ce ne peut pas être traduit simplement. Une traduction vague peut être, ‘lien d'émotion avec d’autre choses’ cependant il y a peu de différence quand même.

Il y a beaucoup de mots similaire qui on ne peut pas traduire en plusieures langues. La Corée n’est qu’un exemple, chaque culture d’un pays est très unique est important. Les langues sont vitales pour apprendre les différentes cultures mais soyez prudents des faux amis et des mots uniques particulièrement en Corée!

Alex Kim

The unique words of Korea The language of a country shows the culture and the history of any given country. For my country, Korea, of course there are some unique words. In this article I will try to explain these words. I find that the culture of my country is very different to the European cultures, consequently there is a big number of words that cannot be translated. Typical examples are the words 시원해 and 정 but I am going to try to explain them. Therefore, I cannot translate them perfectly due to the complex nature of the words (or if you already speak Korean) please forgive me!

시원해 First of all, the most common example is the word ‘시원해’. Normally, 시원해 means cool in English. However, that is not always true. 시원해 can mean a taste, an emotion, and two types of temperatures; hot and cold. The taste of 시원해 is simple, it is the same as ‘refreshing’, for example the feeling you get after having drunk a cup of lemonade or beer on a hot summer day. The emotion 시원해 is quite similar to the feeling of being satisfied. The temperatures of 시원해 are the most weird, In Korea as you may or may not know there are public baths. Our fathers, strangely, use the word 시원해 when entering the hot bath to show their satisfaction with the temperature of the water and their comfort.

정 The explanation of this word is difficult even in Korean. The word explain the bond between people who know one another for a long time. However, the word is not an adjective, it is a noun. So, when two people are good friends, they have a lot of 정. Nonetheless, it is not only used for friends. It can be used for an object or for a person who is not close. Therefore, Koreans use this word a lot but it cannot be translated easily. A vague translation could be, ‘a bond of emotion with others’ however there is a small difference still.

There are many similar words which cannot be translated in other countries. Korea is only an example and each culture of a country is very unique and important. Languages are vital for learning a culture but please be careful when using ‘false friends’ and unique expression particularly when in Korea!

Alex Kim

”Hen” som ett könsneutralt personligt pronomen I April 2015 blev “hen” inkluderat i svenska Akademiens ordlista. Inspirerad av det finska ordet “hän“, som hänvisar en människa oavsett deras kön. Sedan tidigt 2010-tal har ”hen“ blivit mer och mer använt i officiella dokument samt media och även i skolutbildning. Huruvida, diskussionen om att inkludera ordet i det Svenska språket började runt 1960-talet.

Svenska är det första språket som har lagt till ett könsneutralt tredje person pronomen som existerar parallelt med två andra könspronomen, och har blivit känt av majoriteten. Men det könsneutrala begreppet är inte nytt; det diskuterades även på 60-talet när en lingvist, Rolf Dunås, argumenterade att det behövdes ett sådant ord i det svenska språket när han skrev för en lokal tidning. Huruvida, det var inte förrän 2012 som ordet ”hen“ blev mer generellt använt: I en upplaga av Nöjesguiden det året, användes ”hen” istället för ”hon” samt ”han” genom hela tidningen. I 2012 publicerades också ”Kivi och Monsterhund”, en barnbok av Jesper Lundqvist som använde bara ”hen” på samma sätt.

Det var i 2012 som detta ämnet diskuterades mest i svenska media. I 2011 gick det 13,000 “han” och “hon” på värje ”hen” i svensk press, och plötsligt gick det 416 året efter. Eventuellt, i 2018 gick det bara 133. Men ändringen i statistiken reflekterar bara en bråkdel av ändringen i attityden av svenska publiken. Givetvis, med införandet av ett sådant nytt och väldigt betydelsefullt ord, var det oundvikligt att debatt och missförstånd uppstod. Men attityder mot ”hen” har förbättrats mycket- Några skolor har också börjat att kalla värje barn inte ”han” eller ”hon” utan ”hen”. På Södermalm i Stockholm ligger en sådan skola, ”Egalia”, är språk väldig vikitigt och avsiktligt, och då har könsneutrala pronomenet varit mycket integrerad i språket som används där.

De använder inte ord som ”pojke” och ”flicka”, och de kallas alla barnen för ”hen” istället för könspronomen.

I sammanfattning, har användningen av ”hen” blivit utbrett i Sverige, och varit revolutionerande för könsjämställdhet inom ett brett spektrum av samhället.

Emilie Jung-Andersson 38

”Hen” as a gender neutral pronoun In April of 2015, “hen” was added to the Swedish “Akademiens ordlista” (published every few years, this is considered “the final arbiter of Swedish spelling”). Inspired by the Finnish word “hän”, which refers to a person regardless of their gender. Since the early 2010s, ”hen” has become more and more frequently used in official documents as well as in the media and in schools. However, the debate over whether or not to include the word in the Swedish language began around the 1960s.

Swedish is the first language which has added a gender neutral third person pronoun which is used in parallel with two other gendered pronouns, and has become well known by the majority. But this concept is not new; it was first discussed in the 1960s when a linguist, Rolf Dunås, argued that the Swedish language needed such a word when he was writing for a local newspaper. However, it was not until 2012 that ”hen” came into more general use: In an edition of ” Nöjesguiden” that year, ”hen” was used throughout the newspaper instead of ”hon” (she) and ”han”(he). In the same year, ”Kivi och Monsterhund”, a children’s picturebook by Jesper Lundqvist, was published, similarly using only ”hen” .

It was in 2012 that this topic was discussed the most in the Swedish media. In 2011, there were 13,000 ”han”s and ”hon”s for every ”hen” used in Swedish press, and suddenly there were only 416 the year after. Eventually, in 2018, there were only 133. But the change in statistics only reflects a fraction of the change in attitudes of the Swedish public. Naturally, with the addition of such a new and meaningful word, it was inevitable that debate and misunderstanding should arise. But attitudes toward “hen” have improved greatly- a handful of schools have also begun to call pupils “hen”, not “hon” or “han”. There is such a school in Södermalm, Stockholm, called ”Egalia”. The language used by teachers is very important and deliberate there, and so the gender neutral pronoun has been well integrated into the speech they use. They don’t use words such as ”boy” or ”girl”, and all children are called by ”hen” instead of by any gendered pronoun.

In conclusion, the use of ”hen” has become widespread in Sweden, and has been revolutionary in terms of gender equality within a wide range of communities.

Emilie Jung-Andersson 39

¿La lengua que hablas afecta tu moralidad?

En el año 2003 (que sé que fue hace mucho tiempo) una decisión importante tuvo que ser tomada. Esta decisión podría haber causado la destrucción de una ciudad con una población grande o una ciudad menos poblada. Los empleados de la carretera tuvieron que elegir entre dejar que un tren fugitivo golpeara toda la ciudad de Los Ángeles o desviarlo a Commerce California, que es una ciudad más pequeña que Los Ángeles. Al final, los empleados decidieron a desviar el tren hacia la pequeña ciudad que hirió a diez adultos y tres niños.

Mucha gente podría pensar esta decisión fue lo mejor que se podía hacer porque es más probable que menos personas se lesionaran. En filosofía, puedes haber encontrado un problema similar que se llama el problema del tren. En este problema hay un tren y este va a golpear a cinco personas, tú estás en el puente con un hombre que podría detener el tren si lo empujas del puente. La cuestión es si tu permitirías a un hombre morir para salvar a otras personas o si, por el contrario, no harías nada.

La mayoría de la gente, cuando habla una lengua en la que se sienten cómodos, elegiría no hacer nada porque ellos no quieren matar un hombre inocente, ya que no es moral, y porque ellos no quieren tomar la responsabilidad de la muerte del hombre.

Sin embargo, un experimento encontró que cuando hablamos una lengua que nosotros no conocemos con soltura nos olvidamos completamente sobre la moralidad. Cuando este problema se plantea en una lengua diferente, que no conocemos mucho, es más probable que decidiéramos empujar al hombre en el puente para salvar a los otros. El porcentaje de este fue 44%. Sin embargo, cuando conocemos la lengua completamente solo el 14% de la gente quiere empujar al hombre.

Esta diferencia sucedió solo porque la lengua de la pregunta era una a la que no estamos acostumbrados. Así que mucha gente cree que la razón para esta diferencia en la repuesta es porque no podemos entender toda la pregunta cuando nos la hacen en una lengua que nos incomoda y, así, nos pasamos más tiempo tratando de traducir lo que oímos y menos tiempo resolviendo el problema.

Este experimento se llevó a cabo con lenguas diferentes como el hebreo y el japonés, además del español, y para todos los experimentos el resultado fue similar.

Un problema con este experimento, sin embargo, es que no conocemos sus condiciones. Si una persona está cuando se hace la pregunta a otra persona, esta persona simplemente habría podido copiar la respuesta de la otra persona. Otro problema podría ser que la persona habría podido decir lo primero que escuchó. Estos problemas pueden hacer que los resultados del experimento sean falsos. ¿Qué piensas sobre este problema? ¿Piensas que tú podrías empujar al hombre para salvar las otras personas?

Shama Sasikumar 40

Does the language you speak affect your morality?

In 2003 which (I know is now quite a while ago) there was an important decision to be made. This decision could have led to the destruction of a well populated city or a less dense city. Employees of the rail road had to choose between letting a runaway train hit the whole of Los Angeles or divert it into a less populated city. At the end they chose to divert the train into the small city of Commerce California which injured 10 people and 3 children.

Many people would consider this the best thing to do as it means that less people are likely to get injured. In philosophy, you may have come across a similar type of problem called the ‘trolley problem’. In this problem a train is about to kill 5 people but on the bridge that you are on there is a large man who could stop the train if you pushed him of the bridge.

This problem asks whether you would kill one person in order to save 5 people or do nothing.

The majority of people when speaking a language that they are comfortable in; they choose to do nothing because they don’t want to kill an innocent man as it isn’t moral and because they don’t want to take the responsibility of killing a person.

However, an experiment found out that when we speak in a language that we don’t know fluently we completely forget about morality. When this problem was asked in a different language which we don’t know well its more probable that we decide to push the man near us on the bridge to save the others, the percentage of this was 44% ,however, when we know the language completely only 14% want to push the man.

This difference happened only because the language the question was asked was not one that we are used to. So many people think that the reason for this difference in the answer was because we can’t full understand everything said in the question when we are asked in a language that we are not fluent in and so we spend more time trying to translate what we hear and less time actually solving the problem.

This experiment was carried out using different languages like Hebrew, Japanese as well as Spanish and for all the experiments similar results were gathered.

A problem with this experiment is that we don’t know the conditions that the experiment was carried out in. If a person was asked when they were with another person they could have simply copied the answer of the other person they were with.

Another problem could be that the person had said the first thing that they heard. These problems could cause the results of the experiment to be false.

What do you think about this problem?

Do you think you would push the man to save the other people?

Do you agree that the language a question is asked to you in affects your response?

Shama Sasikumar 41

Sexismo en la lengua española En la lengua española, al referirnos a parents, se diría “padres”, que es lo mismo que el plural de “padre”. Quizás esto sea porque tradicionalmente la mayoría de las familias solían consistir de un padre, una madre, un hijo y una hija, donde era el padre la figura dominante en el hogar. Sin embargo en los últimos años todo ha cambiado, y esta familia de padres heterosexuales ya no es la norma. Hoy hay muchas familias formadas por dos mujeres. Por lo tanto, ¿por qué sus hijos llamarían a sus madres "padres", si ambas son mujeres? Además, hay más igualdad entre hombres y mujeres, por lo que debería haber un nombre de género neutro para los progenitores. Aun así, la palabra “progenitor” es sinónima de padre y existe tanto en la forma femenina como masculina. No obstante, este vocablo generalmente se refiere a un padre biológico y se utiliza en un registro más formal.

El sexismo en el lenguaje también se puede observar en el mundo del trabajo, ya que generalmente, cuanto más altos son los puestos de trabajo, más masculinos son los nombres empleados para designarlos. Un ejemplo de esto sería la palabra “gerente,” que tiene solo una la forma masculina. Entonces, ¿cómo deberíamos llamar a una mujer que es gerente? Ya que hoy en día hay muchas más mujeres con cargos de responsabilidad, sobre todo en comparación con hace unas décadas, debería haber un equivalente femenino que represente a la otra mitad.

Priyanka Shah 42

Sexism in the Spanish language In the Spanish language, when referring to parents, you would say ‘padres’, which is the same as the plural of father. Perhaps this is because, traditionally most families consisted of a father, mother, a child (boy) and a child (girl), and the father was the dominant person of the house. However, in the last few years, everything has changed, and this family of heterosexual parents isn’t the norm. Nowadays, there are many families, that consist of two women, therefore, why would their children call their parents "fathers," if both parents are women? Furthermore, there is more equality between men and women, so there should be a gender neutral name for parents. Nevertheless, the word progenitor also means parent and it exists in both the feminine and masculine, singular and plural forms. However this usually refers to a biological parent, and is used in a more formal sense.

The sexism in the language can also be seen in the world of work, as generally you'll find that the higher the job positions, the more masculine the job names are. An example of this would be the word “manager”, which is only in the masculine form, therefore what would you call a women who is a manager? Nowadays there are many more women who are managers, in comparison to a few decades ago, therefore if this is becoming a more popular job for women, there should be a female equivalent of the job.

Priyanka Shah 43

Le «déterminisme linguistique», oui ou non?

Quand les pensées et les esprits des gens se combinent avec leur style de vie, ça devient une culture. Chaque culture est donc unique. Le moyen de transmettre les pensées est le langage, et c’est la raison pour laquelle il fait partie de la culture. Une langue spécifique aura une signification propre pour ses locuteurs car elle contrôlera directement la façon dont les gens pensent et agissent. Cela concerne la théorie linguistique connue sous le nom de «déterminisme linguistique».

Le déterminisme linguistique peut être démontré de plusieurs manières. Les mots inuits pour «neige» sont en un exemple car ils ont de nombreuses versions du mot. Par exemple, il y a neuf mots qui font référence à «neige tombée» et certain d’entre eux sont «aniu» et «qanikcaq» (neige sur la terre). Selon Whorf, le principal défenseur de la théorie, cela montre que la langue inuite pour la neige leur permet de voir la «neige» de différentes manières par rapport à ceux qui parlent des langues qui ont moins de mots pour décrire la neige.

D’autre part, certains pourraient s’opposer au concept de déterminisme linguistique, basé sur leurs expériences et leur intuition. Selon cet argument, le langage ne contrôle pas les pensées et les actions des gens mais peut, au contraire, avoir seulement une influence sur la façon dont les gens perçoivent le monde qui les entoure. Prenons un exemple de la langue coréenne illustrant la couleur «rouge». Il existe environ 60 adjectifs différents qui peuvent exprimer le «rouge» dans le dictionnaire, composés de diverses combinaison de consonnes, voyelles et affixes. Mais cela signifie-t-il que les coréens ont une sensibilité remarquable aux lexiques de couleur? Probablement le contraire - les gens auraient pu créer des mots basés sur leurs sentiments simples et instinctifs envers la couleur.

Il semble que le langage ne soit qu’un facteur qui

influence le comportement et la cognition des personnes.

Pourtant, le langage et la cognition humaine sont fortement liés et une hypothèse comme le déterminisme linguistique se formera de temps à autre. Néanmoins, des recherches supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour déterminer la plausibilité des concepts en tant que tels.

Shine Lee 44

Linguistic determinism: Yes or no?

When thoughts and spirits of the people are combined with their lifestyle, they become culture. Each culture is, therefore, unique. The means of conveying the thoughts is language, and this is why language is a part of the culture. Specific language will have its own significance to its speakers, as it will directly control the way people think and act. This relates to the linguistic theory known as ‘linguistic determinism’.

Linguistic determinism can be demonstrated in several ways. One example is the Es-

kimo words for ‘snow’, as they have so many versions of the word. For instance, there are nine words that refer to ‘fallen snow’ and some of them are ‘aniu’ and ‘qanikcaq’ (snow on the ground). According to Whorf, the main proponent of the theory, this shows that Eskimo language for snow enables them to see ‘snow’ in different ways compared to those who speak languages that have fewer words to describe snow.

On the other hand, some might argue against the concept of linguistic determinism, based on their experiences and intuition. According to this argument, language does not control people’s thoughts and actions but, instead, may only have some influences on the way people perceive the world around themselves. Take an example from the Korean language of depicting the colour ‘red’. There are about 60 different adjectives that can express ‘red’ in the dictionary, made by various combinations of consonants, vowels and affixes. But does this mean that Koreans have outstanding sensitivity towards colour lexicons?

Probably the opposite - people might have created words based on their simple and instinctive feelings towards the colour.

It seems that language is only one factor that influences human behaviour and cognition. Yet, language and human cognition are strongly related to each other and so hypothesis as linguistic determinism will arise from time to time. Still, more research is required to determine the plausibility of concepts as such.

Shine Lee 45

Les vocabulaires de jeux vidéo En Corée, récemment, les nouveaux vocabulaires sont inventés particulièrement par les jeunes. Et ils sont utilisés fréquemment dans notre société. Beaucoup de personnes préfèrent ces termes et actuellement, le gouvernement a approuvé certains vocabulaires parmi eux. Bien que des vocabulaires de jeux ne soient pas certifiés officiellement, cet article soulignera les termes, quels sont utilisés souvent. Nous avons deux termes très connus cidessous, alors c’est partie!

Tout d’abord, la phrase “Faire l’aggro, ou gérer l’aggro”, ça veut dire : attirer l’attention d’ennemie afin que l’autre joueur pourrait l’attaquer. La phrase est utilisée au quotidien aussi. Il faut donner un exemple pour comprendre cette expression. On l’utilise si quelqu’un veut faire quelque chose, cependant il a besoin de l’aide. Donc on peut dire : “Alexandre, fait l’aggro devant le professeur”. Normalement, les gens utilisaient cette phrase pour accomplir une tâche négative, défendu ou pas conseillé.

Le deuxième, c’est un mot créé depuis quand le jeu vidéo ‘League of Legends’ était présenté. Dans ce jeu vidéo, il y a une expression appelée “Gank”. C’est une stratégie quand un autre joueur émerge soudain pour aider son allié. Simplement, c’est plus facile à penser tel que l’attaque surprise. Ce mot développait en ajoutant les parties de corps avant le mot. Par exemple, on dirait ‘yeux gank’ quand on a vu quelque chose dégoûtant ou horrible sans prévoir. Pour appliquer, si on écoute un très nul bruit ou voix, on pourra dire “oreille gank! Tu chant horrible !”. Quant à moi, cette expression est si direct et facile à comprendre.

Jusqu’à ici, qu’est-que vous en pensez? À mon avis, la création des mots créatifs est très intéressante et aussi agréables.

Cependant, il y aura quelques problèmes de compréhension

à cause de la naissance des tels vocabulaires. À part des terminologies de jeux vidéo, il y a des autres nouveaux vocabulaires aussi amusants et rafraîchissant qu’au-dessus. Malgré le changement des termes, c’est très important à protéger la langue de base en évitant d’utiliser les nouveaux termes excessivement. En fait, l’utilisation inconsidérée de ces vocabulaires serait nocif pour notre langue originale.

Jidam Yoo 46

Gaming vocabulary Recently in Korea, some new vocabulary has been invented especially by the young generation. And, they are used frequently in our society. Lots of people prefer these terms and actually, the government has approved some these vocabulary. Although the gaming vocabulary is not officially certified, this article will go through the terms often used. Below, we have two well-known terms, so let’s get started!

First, the phrase “cause aggro, or manage aggro”, means to attract the attention of the enemy so that the other player would be able to attack him. The phrase is used casually also. To understand, I’ll give an example. We use it if someone wants to do something, however he needs some help. Then, he would say : “Alexander, caused some aggro in front of the teacher”. Normally, people use this phrase to fulfill a negative task which is forbidden or not recommended.

Secondly, we have a word created since the release of the videogame ‘League of Legends’. In this game, there is an expression called “Gank”. It’s a strategy used when another player emerges suddenly to help their ally. Simply, it is easier to think of it as a surprise attack. This word is used by adding a body part in front of it. For example, we would say ‘eye gank’ when we see something disgusting or horrible without expecting it. For instance, when we hear a seriously bad noise or a voice, we could say “ear gank”! You sing horrible!”. For me, this expression is so direct and easy to understand.

Until here, what do you think? In my opinion, the creation of the creative words is very interesting and also enjoyable. However, there will be some problems due to the birth of these vocabulary.

A part from the gaming terminology, there are other new terms which are also fun and refreshing as above. Despite the change of terms, it is very important to protect our language by avoiding the excessive use of these new terms. The reckless use of these vocabulary could be harmful for our original language.

Jidam Yoo 47

6 jobs for graduates with a Linguistics Degree Teacher/

Computational Linguist in the Tech industry

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Translator

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Lexicographer