Spectrum - Spring 2021

Spectrum NLCS Middle school magazine

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Table of Contents What are carcinogens and why are they dangerous? ............................................ 3 The Use of Telemedicine and Artificial Intelligence in the Ageing Population ..... 5 Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin .................... 7 Professor Doudna................................... 9 Exploration through experimentation .. 10 Hidden Figures Movie Review: ............. 11 SCIENCE JOKES ..................................... 12 CROSSWORD ........................................ 12 CROSSWORD ANSWERS ....................... 15

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What are carcinogens and why are they dangerous?

You probably have been advised to avoid carcinogenic material in daily life, but have you ever wondered what it is and why it can be so dangerous? The definition of a carcinogen is a substance which can cause cancer (the “uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body”) in living tissue. Carcinogens come in groups, defined as the following by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): Group 1: Carcinogenic to humans Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans Group 3: Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans Common carcinogens include tobacco, ultraviolet radiation and alcohol, all of which are Group 1 carcinogens. What makes these unsafe is the chemicals that they contain or release when used.

At least 70 chemicals found in tobacco are confirmed to be carcinogenic, 3 of which are formaldehyde, arsenic and benzene. Formaldehyde is a colourless gas with a strong smell. It is frequently found in pressed-wood products, glues, the coatings of paper products and, tobacco. It has been deemed carcinogenic because studies have shown that workers who have been exposed to formaldehyde have a higher risk of myeloid leukaemia (the cancer of the white blood cells). Another study has shown that these workers had abnormal levels of mutations in their chromosomes of early white blood cells in their bone marrow. This suggests that there is likely a link between exposure to formaldehyde and developing leukaemia. Based on this evidence, the National Toxicology Program (NTP), a section of the United States' Department of Health and Human Services, listed formaldehyde as a known human carcinogen. Benzene exposure is also similar – it has been proven to be linked to the cancers of blood cells. The IARC has deemed arsenic to be a carcinogen, able to cause lung, bladder and skin cancer. Inorganic arsenic compounds have proved they cause cancer by affecting DNA repair mechanisms, and chromosomal anomalies are seen in those exposed to arsenic. The smoking of tobacco causes 15% of the UK’s cancer cases.

UV radiation contains three main groups: UVA rays, UVB rays, and UVC rays, in order from lowest to highest energy. UVA rays have the least energy, meaning they can indirectly damage the DNA in cells and are usually responsible for ageing skin cells. The damage they cause is over long-term in most cases; however, it is suggested that they contribute to certain skin cancers. UVB rays have more energy than UVA rays, and they damage DNA more directly – this makes them cause the majority of skin cancers, in addition to being responsible for

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sunburn. UVC rays have the most energy, but they react with the ozone layer and do not come into contact with humans. As they originate from the sun, they are not as notable a risk as UVB rays for skin cancer. The damage that UV radiation does to DNA can get repaired by the body. However, repeated exposure does not allow the cells’ DNA to repair fully, which can trigger genetic mutations, leading to skin cells to multiplying quickly, causing cancerous tumours.

Regular intake of alcoholic beverages can also cause cancer because when ethanol has been consumed, the liver converts it into a chemical called acetaldehyde. Sometimes a little bit of the ethanol can break down in the mouth and stomach into acetaldehyde too. If there is an excess of alcohol consumed, the body will not be able to process it fast enough, so acetaldehyde builds up in the body. Acetaldehyde is a toxic chemical which can lead to DNA damage which is irreversible. This can cause cancers of the bowel, mouth, oesophagus and throat. Excessive alcohol intake can also cause breast cancer; it can lead to a rise in oestrogen levels, which can in turn affect the development of breast tissue, increase the production of cells and damage DNA. Furthermore, if alcohol remains in the mouth, it can act as a solvent for other carcinogens to absorb into the cells, namely chemicals in tobacco from smoking.

Heavy alcohol consumption is the cause of 3.3% of cancer cases in the UK. It is difficult to find all the carcinogenic substances that exist,and prove they can cause cancer as tests and research do not always give definite answers. There are many possible carcinogens you may not have expected – one being a chemical in French fries. When some types of foods with a high starch content – e.g. potatoes – are fried, a natural chemical reaction can occur to form acrylamide. Acrylamide is a Group 2A carcinogen. Some studies have shown that rats who drank water containing acrylamide developed cancer, so researchers have concluded that human bodies may act in the same way. Another can be found in microwave popcorn: the actual popcorn, you may be relieved to hear, is safe, although the lining of the microwaveable bag contains perfluorooctanoic acid (a Group 2B carcinogenic acid). Lab studies have exposed animals to perfluorooctanoic acid to monitor any signs of tumours and found there was an increased risk of developing malignant tumours in certain areas. Although, not enough research has been done to confirm that these are carcinogens – do not worry just yet!

So, in summary, carcinogens are substances which can cause cancer by damaging the DNA of cells. There are many types of carcinogens, which have been classified in groups of their suspected carcinogenicity. Further research is required to prove whether something can cause cancer or not. This can be achieved using epidemiology studies as well as lab studies of animals. However, it remains there are still many more carcinogens to be discovered.

By Kat 9M

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The Use of Telemedicine and Artificial Intelligence in the Ageing Population The global demographic population is ageing at a rapid pace. In the UK alone, one-fifth of the residents, roughly 11.8 million citizens are more than 65 years of age or older. This evergrowing elderly population suffer from multiple chronic diseases (multimorbidity) such as cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and dementia. Although there has been an increase in life expectancy, the vast majority tend to live in ill health throughout their lives. As a result, there is an increased need for hospital visits and rehabilitation, placing an immense burden on the healthcare system.

Polypharmacy is the use of multiple drugs or more than medically appropriate. It is a burgeoning concern amongst older patients with multimorbidity. The research undertaken by the National Institutes of Health has shown that polypharmacy has become increasingly and alarmingly common in older adults with the highest number of drugs taken by those residing in nursing homes. Nearly 50% of the elderly population take one or more medications that are not medically necessary. The increased use of polypharmacy by doctors and overprescription of unnecessary medications leads to drug-to-drug interactions contributing to the increased risk of falls in the elderly population, delirium and other related healthcare complications. Current evidence in medical literature establishes a strong link between polypharmacy and detrimental clinical consequences in later life. Due to this, hospitals see an increased number of hospital admissions and re-admissions. This increased healthcare demand places undue strain on NHS healthcare workforce and infrastructure, causing a supply and demand mismatch.

The advancements in digital health technologies, such as Telemedicine and Artificial Intelligence (AI), has contributed to the use of remote-monitoring devices in elderly patients.

AI technologies and interconnected personal devices have made it possible to audit, examine and assimilate extensive medical data throughout the elderly population. A research conducted by Professor Arnold Milstein at Stanford University using thermal imaging cameras and AI algorithms has identified patients at risk of falls and injuries in the community thereby preventing these by district nurses visiting their homes before an event. The use of thermal imaging and other medical technologies has proven to show the reduction in hospital admissions, due to prophylactic interventions beforehand and early treatment of infections such as urinary tract infections. This has also assisted remote monitoring of ageing and vulnerable patients and, has delivered highly targeted and direct diagnostics, healthcare and treatment. The use of technology in healthcare and AI has opened up access to personalised and precision medicine.

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The ongoing Covid-19 pandemic has pushed digital technology into the forefront of medicine through virtual clinics and telemonitoring of patients who are unable to visit the hospital due to self-isolation and distancing measures. Broader use of this technology in the daily lives of elderly patients will help identify those patients in need of help before they become unwell and needing hospital care. The usage of Artificial Intelligence and remote monitoring of patients using advanced digital health technology will undeniably transform healthcare delivery in the future by taking hospital care to the doorstep of communities.

By Shriyaa 10M

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Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin was born in Cairo on the Twelfth of May 1910 and died in Shipston-on-Stour, Warwickshire, England on July 29 1994 (aged 84). Cairo was where her father, John Winter Crowfoot, was working in the Egyptian Education Service however he moved soon afterwards to Sudan, where he later became both Director of Education and Antiquities. Dorothy visited Sudan as a girl in 1923 and acquired a strong affection for the country. After his retirement in 1926, her father gave most of his time to archaeology, working for some years as Director of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem and carrying out excavations on Mount Ophel, at Jerash, Bosra and Samaria.

Her mother, Grace Mary Crowfoot (born Hood), was actively involved in all her father’s work and became an authority in her own right on early weaving techniques. Furthermore, in her spare time, she was a botanist who drew the illustrations of the official Flora of Sudan.

Dorothy Crowfoot spent one season between school and university with her parents, excavating at Jerash and making mosaic pavements. She enjoyed the experience so seriously that she considered giving up chemistry for archaeology. She had three sisters: Joan Crowfoot Payne, Diana Crowfoot Rowley and Elisabeth Crowfoot.

She went to the Sir John Leman School, Beccles, from 1921-1928 and by the end of her school career, she had decided to study chemistry and possibly biochemistry. She went on to study at Oxford and Somerville College from 1928-1932.

She became interested in chemistry and in crystals at about the age of 10 and said that “[she] was captured for life by chemistry and by crystals,” and for a brief time during her first year, she combined archaeology and chemistry, analysing glass tesserae from Jerash with E.G.J. Hartley. After attending a course about crystallography, she decided to research X-ray crystallography, following compelling advice from her tutor, F.M. Brewer.

She spent most of her working life as Official Fellow and Tutor in Natural Science at Somerville, responsible mainly for teaching chemistry for the women’s colleges. She became a University lecturer and demonstrator in 1946, University Reader in X-ray Crystallography in 1956 and Wolfson Research Professor of the Royal Society in 1960.

During her PhD years, in 1934, Dorothy first visited a consultant about pain in her hands. He observed ‘ulna deviation – ’a hand deformity caused by swelling in the knuckle joints, and prescribed rest, which Dorothy put off finishing some experiments. In 1938, aged 28, with a blossoming research career, an infection triggered Rheumatoid arthritis. She described that she “found … [she] had great difficulty and pain in getting up and dressing. Every joint in [her]

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body seemed to be affected.” After a few weeks ’treatments at a specialist clinic, Hodgkin returned to the lab. There she found her hands had been so affected that she could no longer use the main switch of the x-ray equipment required in her experiments. Undeterred, she had a long lever made and carried on with her research.

In 1941, Dorothy was aware of the urgent and secret wartime effort to refine the use of antibiotics by determining the structure of penicillin and wrote of being “irresistibly drawn to inject myself into the situation”; she proceeded to solve the structure in 1945 – coinciding with the end of the Second World War. The structure of vitamin B12 and organisational insights into various proteins followed. Of all the vitamins, vitamin B12 has the most complex (also the largest) chemical structure; this essential nutrient helps the body’s nerve and blood cells remain healthy and helps to create the DNA in our cells. Then, in 1969, when Dorothy was in her late 50s, she finally got the measure of insulin.

For her work, she was awarded The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1964), The Copley Medal (1976), The Royal Medal (1956) and The Lomonosov Gold Medal (1982). She is an inspirational figure because she persevered and didn’t let anything stand in the way of doing what she had always wanted to do. She followed her childhood dreams, overpowered her disability, and as a result, made many significant contributions to the field of science which have helped other scientists ever since.

By Maya 7G

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Professor Doudna Professor Doudna; a woman in search of the impossible. Jennifer Anne Doudna is an American biochemist, renowned worldwide for her inspiring work in the realms of the manipulation of DNA. Her journey to success: While she was in the early stages of her scientific career, Doudna worked on uncovering the structure and biological function of RNA enzymes, also known as ribozymes. During this period, Doudna’s prime focus was on engineering enzymes and understanding them in terms of structure and the way they act.

In 2002, Professor Doudna accepted a faculty position at the University of California, Berkeley. The role she occupied there was a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, joining her husband Jamie Cate who was a professor there.

In 2012, while Doudna was working at the university, she and her colleagues made a groundbreaking discovery that would lead to her fame today. Their discovery was a method that reduced the time and effort required to edit genomic data. Their unearthing relied on a protein named Cas-9 ‘’CRISPR’’ immune system that cooperates with guide RNA and works like scissors. The protein attacks its prey, the DNA of viruses and slices it up, preventing it from infecting cells. This CRISPR system creates a new way to edit or remove DNA. Due to this discovery, they applied for a patent to test out their theory. Her discovery proved correct, which led to further testing. Although she does not yet test her discovery on humans subjects, she has successfully tried the system of destroying harmful DNA on a range of animals.

What does she do now?

Even now in lockdown, Doudna has continued to help the world as she leads a COVID-19 testing centre at UC Berkeley. She has won numerous awards and nominations, proving how great a scientist she is.

By Sujana 7L

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Exploration through experimentation While waiting for a cure and vaccine for covid-19, it is difficult not to wonder how significant breakthroughs of the past came about. Although we learn about scientists and discoveries in our school curriculum, the one that inspires me most is a British one. I am referring to the inspiring story of Michael Faraday. It represents what was possible in England in those days, and shines as a light that illuminates the ingenuity and spirit of experimentation. His efforts helped humanity to uncover the hidden secrets of the world of electricity. It is unimaginable to picture modern life without electronic products. His life story represents humility, perseverance, religious-scientific harmony, serendipity and exploration through tireless experimentation.

The practical legacy of Michael Faraday is not immediately evident physically. Whilst he did not make a machine or gadget, such as a telephone, he impacted our world with his scientific discoveries. Faraday’s legacy allowed us to help others build the machines we use in our everyday lives. Today, all public supplies of electricity use motors, generators and transformers. The credit of these inventions stems from Faraday’s discovery of Electrical Induction. He discovered this whilst working at the Royal Institution in London.

Faraday’s work in chemistry, magnetism and electrolysis helped create the modern electrochemical industry. These electrochemical processes used in the manufacture of aluminium and the plating of metals with substances like chrome, tin and silver are dependent on his discovery. He inspired the theory of electromagnetic waves, which led to the possibility of radio transmission.

For all his fame he was unspoilt by success. He worked not for wealth, but the truth. Faraday’s response to his discoveries was to share it with others. He was famous for teaching through demonstration. His Christmas lectures were very popular in London.

These Christmas lectures and regular discourses are ongoing at the Royal Institution. I am confident that with relentless experimentation, fine-tuning and knowledge sharing, we will yield successful results for newer answers to today’s questions.

By Vidya 9N

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Hidden Figures Movie Review: The movie ‘Hidden Figures ’is about three influential black women (Mary Jackson, Katherine Johnson and Dorothy Vaughan) working in a white male-dominated industry in the early 1960s at NASA. It shows the courage and bravery each woman had to overcome the sexism and racism that all women and black people face.

My favourite scene in this movie was when Katherine yelled at her colleagues and boss, standing up for herself. She explained why she was taking so long off work each day, without fear. Having been forced to walk a mile each time she wanted to use the restroom as she had to use a ‘coloured only ’bathroom; demonstrating how racism was still evident in ways we could not easily see. I also enjoyed the following scene where her boss declared there would be no more ‘coloured ’restrooms, because of Katherine’s complaint, which shows her courageousness proved beneficial.

My favourite characters were Katherine and Mary. Katherine was determined, resilient and intelligent; and refused to conform to stereotypes (e.g., she turned down Jim Johnson after he questioned her work as a woman.) When it comes to Mary, she defended herself against people thinking she was out of her mind for attending an all-white school for her work as an engineer. However, she powered through and achieved greatness and promotions by working hard. I would like to know more about what happened after Mary Jackson graduated and what happened with her career as an engineer and her promotion, and how Dorothy Vaughan felt whilst leading as a supervisor, her dream job.

Lastly, I WOULD recommend this movie because it taught me the pressures of living in the 1960’s as a black woman, pressures I do not face because of my skin colour and gender, which I didn’t get to choose and neither did they. It taught me how unfair the world was (and still is) and that we have to look out for ourselves and stand up for ourselves.

By Daniela 7G

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SCIENCE JOKES

By Aarya 7G

Q. How do we know that Saturn was married more than once?

A. Because she has a lot of rings

Q. Should you do when no one laughs at your science jokes?

A. Keep trying until you get a reaction

Q. Why can’t you trust atoms?

A. Because they make up everything

Q. When a plant is sad what do other plants do?

A. Photo sympathize

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A cylindrical piece of apparatus often placed in a rack Used to pick up hot boiling tubes

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Used to accurately time reactions

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the flame used for a flame test

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A high energy state of matter

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A unit of temperature A term used for metals in reference to how easily it can be turned into a wire The state of matter that mercury is in at room temperature

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A piece of equipment used as a heat source The state of matter with the lowest energy A piece of equipment used to add liquids dropwise to a container A piece of equipment used to hold objects for you A common 6 carbon sugar used frequently in respiration The unit for potential difference The unit for electrical resistance 13

CROSSWORD ANSWERS on the next page – how did you do?

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