Classics and Biology

The extent to which Aristotle's observations about bees are corroborated by modern science, and what this tells us about ancient Greek science in general.

Jimi Aiyeola, Olivia Fanthorpe-Collings, Isabella Pagadala, Tony Shi

Aristotle’s Observations on Bees

An Outline of Aristotle’s Observations

Aristotle's observations about bees were accurate and adept for his time; he demonstrated understanding in both the physical biology of bees and the structure of beehives. By forming clear hypotheses, Aristotle's methodology is like that of modern science. However, he excessively applies the beliefs of his society (such as misogynistic views) to his scientific conclusions. In the Generation of Animals, Aristotle (284–322 BC) writes that “no males are in the habit of working for their offspring, but as it is, the bees do this.”1 Here, he questions his own, empirical conclusion, as it deviates from his societal norms.

Reproduction and Origin of Bees In an initial observation, Aristotle remarked that many species “produce eggs without copulation” and that this probably applied to bees, “to judge from appearances.”2 He proposed three theories about the origin of bees: spontaneous generation, sexual reproduction, and a combination of both. Although he observed

1 Aristotle (trans. A. Peck), Generation of Animals (Harvard University Press, 1942), bk. 3, Ch. 10. 2 Ibid. Aristotle liked to apply his conclusions to not just one animal, but all similar animals too. 5

bees engaging in sexual reproduction, he stubbornly held onto his theory of spontaneous generation, which he also applied to snails.3

Aristotle’s Observations according to Secondary Sources In The Lagoon, Aristotle observes that the brood cells, which contain honeybee larvae, reside in the walls of the honeycomb,4 providing the larvae with nourishment. He further observes that when the bees leave the brood cells, they begin to instinctively clean the comb. After 11 days, the bee's hypopharyngeal glands allow them to feed other bees with nectar. This is a process which Aristotle has described as "nursing." Gender Bias in Aristotle’s Observations In Aristotle’s research, he identified nine different categories of bees.5 Kings and drones were the two main categories. Aristotle could not comprehend why bees that worked to maintain the hives had "weapons" whereas those who guarded the hive did not. Hence, he classified worker bees as a third category. Aristotle thought of “kings” as “dominant” beings, “drones” as “lesser,” and “workers” as “least important.” This draws clear parallels between his findings and the “ideal” Greek city-state proposed by his teacher, Plato (c.420s–c.340s BC). It resembled the structured patriarchy of the Republic, with its tripartite classification of “guardians”, “auxiliaries,” and “producers.”6

Aristotle further investigated which bee deposits the larva to be incubated and how it is selected. To solve this, Aristotle employed gender bias in his research: he examined the physical structure of honeybee classes and inferred that male drones have no stinger as their role is to mate, and the workers and the Queen are female. Aristotle's observations led to biological breakthroughs concerning bees, although the conclusions he drew from them were significantly influenced by the strong gender bias of ancient Greece.

3 Aristotle (trans. David Balme), The History of Animals Book IV (Harvard University Press, 1991). Again, this shows Aristotle under the influence of contemporary belief, that small organisms do not copulate. 4 Leroi, A. The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2004). Moller, L. Bees and Their Keepers: In Religion, Revolution and Evolution (Hachee Australia, 2020). 5 Aristotle (trans. David Balme), The History of Animals Books VII–X (Harvard University Press, 1991). 6 See Plato (trans. Robin Waterfield), The Republic (Oxford University Press, 2008). 6

Ancient Greek Science

Aristotle’s Biology Aristotle represented the epitome of Greek philosophy; not only concerning himself with “first philosophy” (viz. traditional metaphysics), Aristotle also explored the “philosophy of life” (viz. biology).7 Earlier Greek philosophers had proposed theories on the origins of life, with Plato discussing the human body and its functions in his dialogue Timaeus. 8 However, Aristotle was the first to explore biology systematically, questioning both the purpose of life and what living things are made from.9 Though his biology had once been marginalised, Aristotle is now regarded as the “originator of the scientific study of life.”10

Aristotle’s Methodology Aristotle regarded biology investigation very highly; a quarter of his corpus is devoted to his biological works.11 In his research, Aristotle utilised a systematic and empirical approach, akin to the “Scientific Method.”12 This is explained in Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics; he first made observations, and then established causal claims.13 Most of Aristotle’s biological writings were based on observations near the lagoon on the island of Lesbos.14 These observations were recorded in Aristotle’s History of

7 Cohen, S. Marc, and C. D. C. Reeve, "Aristotle’s Metaphysics", The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/aristotle-metaphysics. Accessed 6 October 2022. Aristotle. (350 BC). Metaphysics. (W. D. Ross, Trans.) The Internet Classics Archive. hp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.html. Accessed 6 October 2022. 8 Lennox, James, "Aristotle’s Biology," The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/aristotle-biology. Accessed 6 October 2022. 9 Leroi, A., Haimichali, M. and Connell, M. Aristotle’s Biology, Bragg M. 07 February 2019. Recording. 10 Connell, S. M. (2001). “Toward an Integrated Approach to Aristotle as a Biological Philosopher.” The Review of Metaphysics, 55(2), 301. hp://jstor.org/stable/20131709, Accessed 6 October 2022. Lennox, James, "Aristotle’s Biology”, The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/aristotle-biology. Accessed 6 October 2022. 11 Ibid. 12 Leroi, A., Haimichali, M. and Connell, M. Aristotle’s Biology, Bragg M. 07 February 2019. Recording. 13 Aristotle. (350 BC). Posterior Analytics. (G. R. G. Mure, Trans.) The Internet Classics Archive, hp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/posterior.1.i.html. Accessed 6 October 2022. 14 D'Arcy Thompson, Aristotle's Historia Animalium (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910). 7

Animals. 15 Then, Aristotle syllogistically used this evidence to draw his conclusions, in works such as The Generation of Animals. 16

A Background to Ancient Greek Science Ancient Greek science was built upon foundations laid by Thales (c. 620–545 BC) and Pythagoras (c. 570–490 BC). It reached its zenith in the works of Aristotle and Archimedes. Aristotle represents its first qualitative forms and teleology. He was a biologist whose observations of marine organisms were unsurpassed until the nineteenth century.17 Biology in Hellenic (Greek) times was mostly teleological: the parts of a living organism were understood in terms of what they did in and for the organism. Aristotle’s biological works provided the framework for this science until the time of Charles Darwin.18

The Greeks’ Teleological View on Science

Ancient Greek science was almost entirely philosophical. It did not look far into the reasoning for any discoveries, making it impossible to be encompassed by any philosophy of science.19 This is because the Greeks were a polytheistic society, meaning there was a god for every phenomenon, so any of these discoveries could simply be explained by one of their various gods. This became the Greeks’ fatal flaw as it resulted in the process of making deductions based on observation becoming undervalued. Indeed, the Greeks did not realise that thought was the only way to obtain pure knowledge.

15 Aristotle (trans. David Balme), The History of Animals Books VII–X (Harvard University Press, 1991). 16 Aristotle (trans. A. Peck), Generation of Animals (Harvard University Press, 1942). 17 Amadio, Anselm H. and Kenny, Anthony J.P. "Aristotle". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Accessed 6 October 2022. 18 Idem. 19 Drabkin, I. E. (1936). An Appraisal of Greek Science. The Classical Weekly, 30(6), 57–63, Accessed 10 September 2022.