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U When prescriptions fail: V-Tech fills the gap U What makes a diet truly purr-fect or tail-wag worthy? U Feathers, food, and feelings: A companion bird guide From science to solutions in veterinary care

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Vet’s Hub

Contents

Volume 1 | No. 1 EDITORIAL EDITOR: René Bosman René.Bosman@media24.com SUB EDITOR: Gill Abrahams LAYOUT & DESIGN: Allison McCallum ADVERTISING KEY ACCOUNT MANAGER Cindy Riederer | 082 492 0229 Cindy.Riederer@media24.com DISTRIBUTION & SUBSCRIPTIONS Felicity Garbers Felicity.Garbers@media24.com PUBLISHING TEAM General Manager: Dev Naidoo Head of Content & Digital Strategy: Varushka Padayachi Production Manager: Angela Silver Group Art Director: David Kyslinger MEDIA24 MEDIA CEO: Minette Ferreira CFO: Lana Goliath MEDIA24 CORPORATE CEO MEDIA24: Raj Lalbahadur CFO MEDIA24: Nelmarie Beyers B2B JOHANNESBURG OFFICE Building 13, The Woodlands Office Park, 20 Woodlands Drive, Woodmead, Sandton PO Box 784698, Sandton 2146 Tel: +27 11 867 6111 Published by Media24 B2B www.medicalacademic.co.za PRINTING Printed by Novus Print, Cape Town

SOURCES: Getty Images, supplied images, editorial staff. While precautions have been taken to ensure the accuracy of its contents and information given to readers, neither the editor, publisher, or its agents can accept responsibility for damages or injury which may arise therefrom. All rights reserved. © Vet’s Hub. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, photocopying, electronic, mechanical or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright owners.

Disclaimer: Please take note that the products featured in this journal are available in South Africa. Products may be marketed under a different name or might not be registered in your country. For more information, contact your local representative. All content in Vet’s Hub is sourced independently and under no circumstances should articles be considered promotional unless specified with a postscript. Articles are created with the assistance of artificial intelligence (AI) tools to aid in research and drafting. The content has been reviewed and edited by a human expert for quality and reliability. Please note that all advertising is intended for healthcare professionals only.

take centre stage

5 Practice Management

Measure, monitor, manage: Numbers driving practice success

7 News 9 13 Spotlight

UK cracks down on vet costs: South Africa to follow? hen prescriptions fail: W V-Tech fills the gap

What makes a diet truly purrfect or tail-wag worthy?

18 21

A tail of two dogs: One fight for survival, one gift that saves a life

P aws and Effect

A peep into the complex world of animal ophthalmology with Dr Paul Burger

25 Unless previously agreed in writing, Vet’s Hub owns all rights to all contributions, whether image or text.

Ed’s note Where veterinary voices

F lock and Feather

Feathers, food, and feelings: A companion bird guide

29 32 34 Wildside 36 40

W orking Partners

Back in action: Managing horses with ‘kissing spine’ Adapting for success: Understanding lamb performance in feedlots

Groundbreaking research on sustainable feed for indigenous chickens

When giraffes fall, ecosystems shift forever Biting into the wild: Prof Gerhard Steenkamp on the evolution of veterinary dentistry

Vet’s Hub

Editor’s Note

Volume 1 | No. 1

Where veterinary voices take centre stage Welcome to the launch issue of Vet’s Hub, Media24’s new B2B veterinary magazine. Our mission is simple: To celebrate, inform, and connect South Africa’s dynamic animal-health community, and to shine a spotlight on the incredible work of veterinary professionals across every corner of the field.

From cherished pets to feathered friends,

In our Working Partners section, Dr Jared Morris

performance horses to production animals, and South

examines lamb performance in feedlots. We also chat

Africa’s unique wildlife, Vet’s Hub exists to honour the

to Melokuhle Magagula, an MSc graduate at North-

depth and diversity of your expertise. We also aim

West University, who is making waves nationally

to bridge the gap between research and real-world

and internationally with her research on sustainable

practice, turning evidence into actionable insights that

alternative poultry feed.

improve clinical outcomes and animal welfare.

Finally, wildlife specialists Prof Gerhard Steenkamp

In this issue, we tackle a wide range of topics

and Prof Francois Deacon take us on a journey from

shaping the profession. In our practice management

pioneering wildlife dental surgery to groundbreaking

section, we explore how running a successful

giraffe research infrastructure, showcasing

veterinary practice requires more than clinical skill. It

the intersection of science, conservation, and

requires solid business management, knowing your

animal welfare.

numbers, and measuring what matters, because what

Vet’s Hub is your platform. If you’d like to feature

gets measured, improves.

your work in a future issue, email rene.bosman@

We spoke to the South African Veterinary Council

media24.com. For advertising opportunities, contact

to see how local regulations compare with proposed

Cindy Riederer at 082 492 0229 or cindy.riederer@

United Kingdom reforms, and whether similar changes

media24.com U

might be on the horison here. We also unpack updates from the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority, including medicine-approval timelines, and highlight the vital role compounding medicines play in filling therapeutic gaps. Our clinical spotlight features leading specialists: Dr Shona Elliott on the life-saving value of blooddonor programmes, Dr Paul Burger on the latest in animal ophthalmology, and equine surgeon Dr Roy Gottschalk on overriding dorsal spinous processes (kissing spine), and associated pain syndromes.

Renè Bosman

Writer & Editor

Vet’s Hub

Practice Management

Volume 1 | No. 1

Marianne van Wyk, CEO Vetmaster Online

Measure, monitor, manage Numbers driving practice success

Running a successful veterinary practice requires more than clinical expertise – it demands sound business management and a good understanding of your numbers. The key to growth, sustainability, and profitability lies in measurement. As the saying goes: What gets measured, improves.

If you don’t know – through facts and data – how many of each

will show how much you are spending to generate income

procedure you perform, what items you sell, or how your practice

and help you identify inefficiencies in purchasing, pricing or

is performing across different areas, it becomes impossible to tell

stock control.

whether you’re improving or not. In short, data turns guesswork into strategy.

Average transaction value The Average transaction value (ATV) gives insight into the value

Do you have a business dashboard?

of each visit or sale. It can be calculated as:

Every veterinary practice should have a business dashboard –

ATV = Total Income ÷ Number of Invoices

a clear view of the key figures that show how the practice is

Tracking your ATV over time helps you understand whether

performing. But having a dashboard isn’t enough. Ask yourself:

your team is consistently adding value to each client interaction.

U Do you actually know how to use it?

Know your break-even point

U Or are you simply glancing at numbers without understanding

You should know your break-even point – not only for the

what they mean? A good practice management system provides a variety of reports and analytics. The secret is not to try and track everything – that leads to paralysis by analysis. Rather, focus on the few figures that matter most to your specific practice and review them consistently. Examples include: U Turnover U Number of consults U Cost of sales U Average transaction value (ATV). Monitor these daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly and annually – and always compare them to previous periods to spot trends early.

Measuring financial performance

Cost of sales

Your cost of sales is one of the most important indicators of profitability. Regularly reviewing this figure

year, but also quarterly, monthly, weekly and even daily. A simple formula is: Income – Cost of Sales = Profit (or Loss) It is far better to discover a potential issue early than to realise twelve months down the line that your practice has been losing

Vet’s Hub

Practice Management money. Regular measurement allows for timely adjustments and better decision-making.

Volume 1 | No. 1

and build client loyalty. Some practical ideas include: U Maintaining an active website and social media presence

Measuring by cost centre Every practice has different cost centres – typically drugs, services, food, surgery, and retail or vet shop items. You should be able to answer: U Which cost centres are profitable? U Which are underperforming? U What is the profit margin of each?

(such as Facebook or Instagram) U Using your practice management software’s built-in loyalty and reminder systems U Sending targeted SMS or email reminders for vaccinations, chronic medication, follow-ups or special offers U Offering convenient online services such as appointment bookings or an integrated online shop.

Understanding this breakdown helps you identify where to focus

Personalised, consistent communication strengthens

your energy and where changes might be needed.

relationships and encourages repeat visits.

Using data for marketing Your practice data can be one of your most powerful marketing

Practice data are a powerful marketing engine to spot trends, set smart reminders, and deliver targeted promotions that truly add value. When marketing is measurable, your practice wins

tools. Use it to identify trends, set up reminder campaigns, and create targeted promotions that genuinely add value for clients.

Consider: U Running specials in collaboration with suppliers U Setting up a loyalty programme that rewards repeat business U Tracking the results of your campaigns through your reporting tools. Marketing is most effective when it is measurable – and your practice management system can help make that possible.

Measuring productivity

Monitoring and fraud prevention

Your staff are your greatest asset, and their productivity directly

A good practice management system includes an audit trail that

impacts your bottom line.

automatically records all actions and transactions. This helps

Track productivity by measuring:

detect irregularities, ensures accountability, and protects your

U Sales per staff member (weekly, monthly and annually).

business against internal fraud – often without staff even realising

U Sales per cost centre per staff member.

it is running in the background.

U Income generated compared to salary cost. As a guideline, staff should generally generate at least five times their salary in income per month.

Tools to enhance practice performance

Consider using incentives to reward high performance and

Many practice management systems now offer add-on tools

systems such as fingerprint sensors or user log in tracking to

designed to help your business run more efficiently, such as:

ensure accountability.

U Integrated online shops to boost product sales

Stock control Effective stock management is critical to financial health. Good stock control habits include: U Doing a full stock take at least twice per month U Conducting random spot checks at unexpected times U Using barcodes and scanners wherever possible to minimise human error.

U Automated stock and drug management systems U Virtual business advisory tools that provide management insights and guidance. Using these effectively can save time, improve accuracy, and help you focus on what matters most – your patients and clients.

Conclusion Running a veterinary practice is a balance between professional

Proper stock management prevents losses, improves cash flow

care and sound business management. By focusing on

and ensures that you always have the right products available

measurable data, you can make informed decisions, improve

when needed.

efficiency, and grow profitability. Whatever system you use, the

Attracting more clients and increasing sales

principle remains the same: Measure, monitor and manage. Because at the end of the day, one truth stands firm – what gets measured, improves. Vetmaster online helps you to have a 100%

Your client database is one of your most valuable assets. Keeping

success rate with practice management in your practice. For more

it accurate and up to date allows you to communicate effectively

information, visit www.vetmaster.co.za. U

Vet’s Hub

News

Volume 1 | No. 1

UK cracks down on vet costs South Africa to follow?

In the latter part of last year, the United Kingdom’s (UK) Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) proposed a series of far-reaching reforms aimed at curbing rising veterinary costs and improving transparency in the industry. These include requiring veterinary practices to publish comprehensive price lists and ownership details, ensuring pet owners receive written, itemised bills for treatments costing >R11 700 (£500), and capping prescription fees at ~R375 (£16).

The CMA also called on the government to prioritise a new

clinic’s reception area, which removes the obligation to provide

Veterinary Surgeons Act (VSA) to strengthen regulation and

individual estimates for those procedures.

improve the complaints process. Vet’s Hub spoke to the South Africa’s regulatory landscape compares to the UK’s proposed

Why South Africa cannot standardise fees

measures – and whether similar reforms might be on the

In December 2013, the Competition Commission Tribunal

horizon locally.

determined that the SAVC’s historical fee guideline for veterinary

African Veterinary Council (SAVC) to understand how South

While the UK proposals are still under consultation, they have already sparked global discussion about transparency, pricing, and consumer rights in veterinary care – including in South Africa.

Price transparency in South Africa

services amounted to anti-competitive behaviour, notes Stoltz. For decades, the SAVC had published guidelines for minimum and maximum fees to help standardise pricing across the profession. However, the Tribunal found this practice violated the Competition Act, amounting to price fixing and market allocation.

In South Africa, there are no formal requirements for veterinary

The Council was forced to withdraw the guidelines immediately,

practices to publish price lists or provide standardised fees for

facing a potential administrative fine of 10% of its annual turnover,

common treatments. According to Dinamarie Stoltz, the SAVC’s

>R1m at the time.

director of Legal Affairs, it is currently up to each veterinarian to ensure that an estimate of costs is provided to each client. Even for so-called ‘standard’ procedures, the SAVC notes that

As a result, the SAVC is now prohibited from issuing or endorsing any form of fee guideline, leaving pricing entirely at the discretion of individual practices. This position also means the

complications or adverse reactions may arise, which can increase

SAVC cannot monitor or regulate pricing practices, even among

costs beyond the original estimate. As such, setting or publishing

large corporate-owned veterinary groups.

fixed prices for procedures is not considered practical or fair in many cases. Under Rule 9 of the SAVC Rules for Veterinarians,

Access to affordable medicines One of the CMA’s more consumer-friendly proposals is the cap

practitioners are legally required to provide clients with an estimate

on prescription fees at R375 (£16), alongside a requirement that

of fees before rendering services, except in emergencies. The rule

veterinarians automatically provide written prescriptions to pet

specifies that:

owners. This would allow clients to purchase medications from

U An approximate fee must be given as soon as reasonably

online pharmacies or alternative suppliers, improving competition

possible after examination. U In emergencies, estimates must be provided once the patient is stabilised.

and affordability. In South Africa, however, prescription and medicine pricing fall under the jurisdiction of the Medicines and Related Substances

U Clients must be kept informed if further expenses are likely.

Act (Act 101 of 1965) – not the SAVC. The Council therefore has no

U Veterinarians must provide an itemised account within 30-

authority to regulate medicine costs or prescription fees, nor can it

days of the service. In addition, fees for standard procedures may be advertised in a

mandate that veterinarians provide written prescriptions for clients to buy medicines elsewhere.

Vet’s Hub

News

Volume 1 | No. 1

Understanding the SAVC’s role in veterinary fee complaints The SAVC mandate is limited to cases involving double billing, charging for services not rendered, or failing to provide an estimate of fees. It is not authorised to address pricing matters, explains Stolz. She notes that the outcome of any complaint depends on the specific facts of the case, and the disciplinary process may result in anything from the dismissal of a complaint to sanctions against the veterinarian involved. However, Stolz emphasises that pricing disputes alone do not generally constitute grounds for disciplinary action – especially when additional costs result from complications or unforeseen circumstances during treatment. patient. It’s a case of being damned if they do, and damned if

Ongoing communication and education

they don’t.”

To promote transparency and accountability, the SAVC

The practicality challenge

periodically reminds veterinarians of their obligations regarding

While greater price transparency sounds ideal in theory, the SAVC

estimates and itemised billing through its regular newsletter. This

points out several practical limitations. Veterinary treatment is

serves as an ongoing educational effort to ensure compliance

inherently unpredictable.

with Rule 9 and to reinforce good communication with clients. Still, these measures fall short of the CMA’s more systemic transparency approach, which seeks to empower consumers through public access to pricing and ownership information, a concept currently absent in South African regulation.

“Even standard procedures may lead to complications,” explains Stoltz, “and if complications do arise, those will not be provided for in the original cost estimate.” For this reason, fully itemised pre-procedure price lists – particularly for elective surgeries – could create unrealistic expectations among clients, who might later insist that post-

The flip side of transparency According to Stolz, the flip side of providing estimates can be

operative complications be treated as part of the ‘standard’ fee.

challenging in practice. “I often get confronted by pet owners

Looking ahead

accusing veterinarians of being in it only for the money if the

Asked whether the SAVC is considering some reforms inspired

veterinarian discusses the costs upfront, she explains.

by the CMA’s recommendations, Stoltz reiterates that it cannot

“Then the veterinarian is seen as greedy and unconcerned about the welfare of the patient. Even worse, the veterinarian is often accused of inflating the account or performing unnecessary

regulate prices or set fee caps, due to competition law constraints. It also lacks jurisdiction over medicine pricing. Nevertheless, transparency and ethical pricing remain a

procedures just to charge more. These arguments tend to

professional responsibility under existing rules. South African

intensify in emergencies, where the veterinarian is accused of

veterinarians must provide estimates, communicate cost changes,

caring more about money than the immediate needs of the

and issue itemised accounts, standards that mirror many of the CMA’s transparency objectives, albeit within a more decentralised framework. As the debate over veterinary affordability continues abroad, the UK’s reform agenda has placed renewed focus on the balance between consumer protection and professional autonomy, a balance that South Africa’s regulatory framework continues to navigate with caution. For now, the SAVC’s position is clear: While it supports ethical conduct and open communication between veterinarians and clients, price regulation and standardisation remain outside its legal authority. Whether future consumer pressures will drive change, as seen in the UK, remains to be seen. U

Vet’s Hub

Industry News

Volume 1 | No. 1

When prescriptions fail, V-Tech fills the gap

For most veterinarians, the treatment plan on paper and the medicines actually available on the shelf do not always match. You know the list: Chronic patients that need a non-standard dose, cats that refuse the only formulation on the market; rabbits, reptiles and birds with no labelled options, wildlife and production animals where a ‘human generic’ is not good enough – or where the product you’ve relied on for years is suddenly discontinued or out of stock. That gap between what a case needs and what the market supplies is the space V-Tech has deliberately stepped into.

Established in 2003 in Midrand by veterinarians Drs Johan

that have never had a labelled medicine, especially within wildlife

Oosthuyse and David Gerber, V-Tech was born out of a simple,

and exotic practice.

uncomfortable truth: There was a ‘desperate call’ from vets for

V-Tech’s compounding capability is deliberately broad.

reliable compounded medicines that could be tailored to real-world

Between the V-Tech Prescriptions Pharmacy and the V-Tech

clinical needs.

Veterinary Solutions Pharmacy, the business produces an array

What started as a conservation-focused community

of dosage forms: Large-volume dry powders and liquids, creams,

pharmacy has grown into the largest veterinary compounding

gels, lotions and shampoos, tablets, capsules and pastes, as well

pharmacy in South Africa, serving companion animals (including

as small-volume sterile injectables.

exotics), poultry, livestock and wildlife across South and Southern

For the vet in practice, this means a single partner can help

Africa from a 2500m², two-pharmacy facility and contract

solve day-to-day compliance problems in small animals, design

manufacturing plant in Midrand, South Africa. For many clinicians

medicated feed or water treatments for intensive systems, and

today, V-Tech is not a ‘nice-to-have extra’, but part of their

support highly specialised protocols in exotic pets or wildlife.

standard therapeutic toolbox.

Tailored meds beyond the ordinary

Custom meds for every patient

Wildlife and exotic work remain one of V-Tech’s signature

At its core, V-Tech’s business is veterinary compounding: Creating

strengths. Traditional veterinary medicines are often inappropriate

customised medications in specific strengths, combinations

or unavailable for the diversity of species seen in parks, private

and dosage forms when off-the-shelf options are unsuitable,

game reserves, zoos, aquariums and specialist practices.

unavailable or simply do not exist. That may mean converting a

From its early days, the company’s pharmacists and wildlife

tablet into an accurately dosed, flavoured liquid for a toy-breed

veterinarians have worked with field specialists to develop and

dog, producing a small, easy-to-hide capsule for a cat that has to

refine medicines for sedation, translocation, immobilisation,

stay on long-term therapy, or reformulating to remove excipients

ongoing treatment and supportive care in wild species, as well

that a particular patient cannot tolerate. In other cases, it involves

as a dedicated exotics range for birds, small mammals, reptiles

building completely new formulations for species and conditions

and fish.

Vet’s Hub

Industry News

Volume 1 | No. 1

and auditing, the use of active pharmaceutical ingredients that comply with the relevant British Pharmacopoeia, United States Pharmacopoeia and/or European Pharmacopoeia standards, batch documentation and traceability, external laboratory testing where required, and structured non-conformance and Corrective and These

Preventive Action processes.

formulations are tested

Risk assessments, data analysis

in real conditions through a network of specialist vets and conservation programmes, with feedback loops that feed directly into formulation improvement and dosing guidance.

Keeping patients on track when medicines vanish

and regular internal and external audits guide decisions on everything from process changes to facility upgrades. For veterinarians, the result is confidence that a compounded medicine is not an informal ‘mix up’, but the output of a controlled, documented and auditable system.

Another part of V-Tech’s role is ensuring continuity when

Partnering on antimicrobials and One Health

commercial products disappear. Using its compounding capacity,

Beyond individual prescriptions, V-Tech has also positioned itself

the company can step in when critical medicines are discontinued

as a technical partner to intensive livestock systems through

or temporarily out of stock, maintaining therapy so that chronic

its antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance and monitoring

and high-risk patients are not destabilised merely because a

programmes. The company’s laboratory produces specialised

manufacturer has changed strategy or a shipment has been

minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) plates containing panels

delayed. In a market where supply disruptions are becoming more

of antimicrobials.

common, that ‘bridge’ function is increasingly important to dayto-day practice.

Quality and compliance you can trust

Pathological bacteria, such as Escherichia coli isolates from post-mortem samples or trans-tracheal washes, are tested against these plates to determine the most appropriate drug and dosing regimen for a specific unit. In parallel, a monitoring

Behind the visible products is a business model that looks and

programme checks that compounded antibiotics added to feed

behaves much more like a pharmaceutical manufacturer than

or water are present at the intended concentration and that, at

a traditional pharmacy. V-Tech’s South African site operates

slaughter, tissue samples comply with residue limits for meat

under ISO 9001:2015 and ISO 13485:2016 certification, issued by

destined for human consumption.

international bodies, signalling rigorous quality management and medical-device standards. Both pharmacies hold Grade A community pharmacy licences

For vets working in poultry, beef or pork production, this means the pharmacy is not only supplying medicines, but also supporting evidence-based, responsible antimicrobial use. It also

with the South African Pharmacy Council and are registered

underscores V-Tech’s broader positioning within a One Health

as training facilities. The company is licensed by the National

frame: Animal health solutions that are compatible with human

Department of Health to compound veterinary medicines, by

food safety and long-term stewardship goals.

the Department of Agriculture to manufacture and export stock remedies, and by SAHPRA to distribute certain medical devices. That regulatory backbone is supported by detailed internal systems. Quality assurance at V-Tech spans supplier selection

Precision manufacturing beyond the pharmacy Another important strand of the business is specialised

When an off-the-shelf medicine isn’t the solution – turn to V-Tech. We compound veterinary medicines, trusted for over 20 years.

www.v-tech.co.za / Tel: +27 87 150 5925 (SA)

Vet’s Hub

Industry News

Volume 1 | No. 1

contract manufacturing. Drawing on its facilities and staff,

In a landscape where regulation, enforcement and

V-Tech manufactures feed supplements, oral powders, topical

professional responsibility are under increasing scrutiny, this

preparations, liquids, gels and lotions on behalf of veterinary

advocacy positions the company as more than a supplier: It is a

pharmaceutical companies in South Africa and other SADC

stakeholder in the future of the profession’s therapeutic freedom.

countries, under the requirements of Act 36 of 1947.

Philosophically, V-Tech remains distinctly veterinary-led.

These products are manufactured to the same quality

The company grew out of nature conservation work where the

standards that apply to V-Tech’s own compounded medicines.

patients were high-value wild animals and the margin for error was

In addition, the company distributes selected veterinary

very small.

medical devices for the region under Act 101 of 1965, including

The origin story still informs the way the business approaches

technologies such as regenerative and joint therapies from

problem-solving: Start with the animal and the case, consider the

international partners.

practicalities of the field or the production system, then design the

Building skills and confidence in veterinary compounding

pharmacy solution. On any given day, that might involve working with a smallanimal clinician to design a more practical regimen for a fractious

Internally, V-Tech invests in skills and professional development

cat, helping a wildlife vet refine a darting or translocation protocol,

through the V-Tech Training Academy, which runs programmes

or partnering with a poultry veterinarian to re-evaluate an

for both internal staff and external participants. Training spans

antimicrobial programme in response to new MIC data.

technical compounding, quality systems, AMR, and the

For veterinarians, the value of a partner like V-Tech is not just

regulatory context of compounded medicines. For younger vets

the list of products in a catalogue. It is the combination of clinical

and practice teams, these sessions help demystify compounding,

understanding, formulation science, manufacturing capacity,

clarify where it fits within South African law, and highlight both its

quality systems and regulatory insight that sits behind each

power and its limits as a therapeutic tool.

bottle, blister, vial or sachet. It is having a team that can say ‘yes,

Partnering on solutions when standard is not enough The focus on the regulatory environment is not merely academic. V-Tech has taken an active role in discussions around how veterinary compounding is governed, contributing

that is possible’ when a case does not fit the standard template or ‘no, that is not justified’ when the risk–benefit balance is not in the animal’s favour. As pressures on the profession increase – from economic constraints and supply-chain volatility to AMR concerns and shifting regulations – the ability to individualise therapy safely will only become more important.

to industry and professional forums

V-Tech’s trajectory over the past two decades suggests

and, where necessary, turning to

one model for how a veterinary compounding business can

litigation to defend veterinarians’ ability to prescribe and use compounded medicines when they are clinically indicated.

support that: Deeply embedded in the profession, technically robust, and willing to innovate while remaining grounded in quality and compliance. For those long nights when you are still thinking about a complex case or a fragile production system, that does not remove the weight of clinical responsibility. But it does mean that when the perfect product isn’t on the shelf, there is a specialist pharmacy in Midrand whose core business is to help you build the next best option for the animal in front of you. U

Vet’s Hub

Spotlight

Volume 1 | No. 1

What makes a diet truly

purr-fect or tail-wag worthy? Nutrition is a cornerstone of preventive and therapeutic care in veterinary medicine. From tailored growth formulas to diets designed for ageing pets, every ingredient, nutrient level, and formulation decision is guided by extensive scientific evidence. Vet’s Hub interviewed Drs Angeliki Kaldelis and Debby Bain, Scientific Communications Managers at Royal Canin South Africa. They shared insights on trends, dietary strategies, and the latest evidence in small animal nutrition, helping veterinarians better support the health and wellbeing of their patients.

Q: What are some of the most common dietary challenges in cats and dogs? A: Obesity/overweight, dermatological issues, and gastrointestinal (GI) issues are the top three problems seen by veterinarians. Q: How do your nutritional formulations differ for developmental versus maintenance life stages, and is there new evidence guiding these distinctions? A: Growth is a more demanding life stage compared to adult maintenance. Puppies and kittens need enough nutrients and energy to support normal body functions and growth, so their diets are more nutrient- and energy-dense. They also require proper mineral balance, particularly calcium and phosphorus, for healthy bone and joint development; and support for their immature immune and digestive systems Unique needs vary by breed and size. All Royal Canin products comply with global nutritional guidelines published by the American Association of Food Control Officers and the European Pet Food Industry Federation, and neonatology research continues to inform best practices. Q: What role does nutrition play in mitigating age-related sarcopenia, cognitive decline, and metabolic slowdown in senior pets? A: Nutrition plays a critical role in supporting ageing pets. Diets with highly digestible protein’s help manage sarcopenia, antioxidants and essential fatty acids support brain function, lower phosphorus levels protect

Vet’s Hub

Spotlight

Volume 1 | No. 1

Innovation on the horizon: What’s next from Royal Canin Royal Canin’s research and development team is continuously monitoring the latest scientific publications in small animal nutrition and assessing the evolving needs of pets and their owners. This commitment ensures that new products are grounded in evidence and designed to address real-world veterinary challenges. From concept to market, the development of a new diet typically takes around four years, with timelines varying depending on product complexity and regulatory requirements in each country. Looking ahead, Royal Canin has several renovations and innovations planned for 2026, reflecting the company’s ongoing focus on advancing pet health through nutrition. Veterinarians can expect exciting new offerings in the coming year - stay tuned! kidney function, and palatability ensures adequate intake. These strategies address the complex needs

into smaller components, preventing immune reactions. Novel protein diets rely on feeding a protein source the pet hasn’t encountered before. Hydrolysed diets are the gold standard when conducting a food elimination trial. Q: Are there emerging biomarkers to distinguish adverse food reactions from environmental allergies? A: While serological tests may contribute to diagnosis, they are not definitive. Not all adverse food reactions (AFRs) are immunological, not all immunological AFRs are potentially immunoglobulin E-mediated, and cross-reactions or chronic inflammation can complicate interpretation. Elimination diet trials remain the gold standard. Q: How do your GI-support diets address conditions from acute diarrhoea to chronic enteropathies? A: Royal Canin offers a comprehensive GI portfolio, including: U First response diets: High-energy diets for urgent gut health needs. U Low-fat diets: For fat-triggered conditions. U Fiber precision diets: High Fiber or Tailored fiber

of senior pets.

blends for responsive conditions.

Q: How is Royal Canin integrating

U Hepatic diets: For chronic liver insufficiency

behavioural insights, satiety

or copper storage disease.

research, and microbiome data into

U Hydrolysed protein diets: to reduce

weight-management diets?

food-related reactions causing chronic

A: Weight management is a major

GI inflammation.

focus. Royal Canin partners with

Q: In cats with chronic vomiting,

institutions like the Obesity Care

how does nutrition fit into early

Clinic at the University of Liverpool

diagnosis and management?

(United Kingdom) and other leading

A: Nutrition is part of a treatment

researchers to incorporate the

plan once the cause of vomiting is

latest insights.

determined. For GI-related causes,

Q: How do you approach

dietary trials with GI or hydrolysed

weight-loss resistance in pets

diets can help manage conditions

already on calorie-restricted

and assist diagnosis.

diets?

Q: What findings support

A: Weight-loss resistance is

phosphorus restriction,

approached individually, considering

alkalinisation strategies,

factors such as owner compliance,

and acid–base

pet behaviour, or underlying diseases.

management in

Q: With food allergies implicated

renal diets?

in chronic dermatological cases,

A: Feeding

what is your perspective on

phosphate-restrictive

hydrolysed versus novel

renal diets reduces

protein diets?

plasma parathyroid

A: True food allergies are less

hormones and

common than many think, and

phosphate concentrations

most skin disease cases are due to

in cats with chronic kidney

parasites or non-allergic causes.

disease (CKD), helping

Environmental allergies

manage secondary renal

are

more prevalent,

hyperparathyroidism and

though overlaps

increasing survival

exist. Hydrolysed

time. Dietary

protein diets reduce

phosphate

the antigen load by breaking proteins

restriction

Improve their health with the unique power of nutrition.

Precision nutrition to support your patients’ health.

The ROYAL CANIN® Veterinary Nutrition™ range offers targeted solutions developed through science and expertise. Recommend with confidence.

Reg. No. V16335, V18251, V16329, V20226, V16327, V24038. Act 36 (1947)

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should be tailored individually depending on the stage of CKD,

on activity type and chondroprotectants are important to support

and possibly combined with phosphate binders to achieve optimal

joint health.

plasma phosphate levels.

Q: What misconceptions exist about fat and

Q: How is microbiome research reshaping formulation

carbohydrate utilisation in canine endurance versus

strategies and is personalised nutrition feasible in

sprint activities?

practice?

A: High carbohydrates support short, intense (anaerobic) efforts,

A: The GI microbiome affects energy homeostasis, metabolism,

while high fat supports long, sustained (aerobic) efforts.

gut health, immunity, and neurobehavior. Personalised nutrition

Q: Which nutrients support cognitive function in ageing

exists but is largely cost-prohibitive, multifunction diets are

pets, and what gaps exist?

commonly used.

A: Protein quality and amount, adequate omega-3s, antioxidants,

Q: What evidence supports using pre-, pro-, or

and medium-chain triglycerides support cognitive health and

postbiotics in chronic GI and immune-mediated disease?

frailty management. Assessment tools like body weight, body

A: Prebiotics feed beneficial gut bacteria, reducing inflammation and

condition score, and muscle condition score are crucial. Many

supporting GI health. Dietary fiber composition affects microbiome

recommendations are extrapolated from human studies, more

balance, and probiotics improve immunomodulatory barrier function.

canine-specific research is needed.

The GI tract is key in immunity, complementing systemic health.

Q: Can nutrition reduce stress-related behaviours in cats?

Q: For working dogs, how do you balance energy,

A: Yes. Tryptophan, a serotonin precursor, and alpha-casozepine,

protein quality, and joint support?

a gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-promoting biopeptide, can

A: Macronutrients are tailored to the type and duration of

moderate anxiety and stress. Behavioural interventions should

exercise. Fat provides high energy density, carbohydrates fuel

combine medication, management, and modification.

digestion and short-term energy, and protein supports muscle

Q: What advancements in maternal nutrition and

but is not a primary energy source. Feeding amounts vary based

Practice pearls 1.

Life stage matters Puppies and kittens require nutrient- and energy-dense diets with balanced minerals (especially calcium and phosphorus) for healthy growth, while adult and senior pets have different needs, including support for metabolism, joints, and cognitive function.

Protein quality is crucial Highly digestible protein supports muscle maintenance, particularly in senior pets, and helps manage sarcopenia. In growth and therapeutic diets, protein must meet both quantity and quality requirements to support overall health.

Obesity prevention and management require a multifaceted approach Effective weight management combines calorie-controlled diets, satiety-promoting nutrients, behavioral strategies, and ongoing monitoring. Individual factors such as owner compliance and underlying conditions should always be considered.

GI and skin health benefit from targeted nutrition Dietary interventions like hydrolysed or novel protein diets, fiber-precision formulations, and pre-/probiotics can reduce inflammation, support gut microbiome balance, and manage dermatological or GI conditions. Elimination trials remain the gold standard for food-related issues.

Senior and working pets need specialized support For ageing pets, antioxidants, omega-3 fatty acids, and medium-chain triglycerides support cognitive and joint health. For working dogs, macronutrient ratios should match the type and intensity of exercise, ensuring energy supply without compromising long-term health.

neonatal dietary support should veterinarians apply? A: Detailed guidance is provided in Royal Canin’s Science in Dog Reproduction booklet and Paediatric handbook, available on Vet’s Hub website. These resources cover gestation, lactation, and weaning nutrition. To access these resources, go to [website address to be inserted here]. Q: How do you ensure correct DHA and micronutrient levels during pregnancy and early growth? A: Royal Canin’s Start of Life products contain adequate docosahexaenoic acid sourced from marine fish or sustainable algae oil. Supplementation is unnecessary with properly formulated diets. Q: How do you balance sustainability with nutrient bioavailability in therapeutic diets? A: Royal Canin constantly strives to source ingredients in a sustainable manner, but this will never come at the cost of the quality of our products, or regulatory compliance.

Conclusion Nutrition is a foundational component of preventive and therapeutic veterinary care, with tailored diets supporting pets at every life stage - from growth to ageing. Evidence-based formulations address common challenges such as obesity, GI disorders, dermatological issues, and cognitive decline. Advances in protein quality, fiber composition, pre- and probiotics, and macronutrient balance allow veterinarians to manage chronic conditions, support working and senior animals, and optimise maternal and neonatal health. Ongoing research into the microbiome, satiety, and behavioural nutrition continues to inform innovative strategies. By integrating these scientific insights into clinical practice, veterinarians can ensure pets receive the right nutrients for their unique needs, improving health outcomes and quality of life across the lifespan. U

Reg. No. V15464, V15468, V23641 (Act 36/1947)

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A tail of two dogs

One fight for survival, one gift that saves a life Vet’s Hub speaks to Dr Shona Elliott (left), a graduate of the University of Pretoria’s Faculty of Veterinary Science (Onderstepoort) with a special interest in ophthalmology and diagnostic ultrasound, about a case at Craighall Veterinary Hospital in Johannesburg, where swift veterinary intervention and the innovative use of canine blood donation changed the course of a recipient’s life.

In the bustling corridors of Craighall Veterinary Hospital, an extraordinary story unfolds – one of life, courage, and quiet heroism. Max, a spirited Husky/Malamute mix with striking eyes and a calm, trusting temperament, prepares to give the gift that could save a fellow dog battling for life against a devastating diagnosis.

The patient arrived at Craighall in critical condition, where

of the Kaplan family since five-months old, happens to carry this

Dr Elliott’s colleague quickly assessed him and diagnosed

preferred blood type.

severe anaemia resulting from internal bleeding caused by a

“When we learned that Max is a universal donor, it felt like

splenic mass – later diagnosed on histopathology as splenic

discovering he has a superpower. The idea that he can literally save

haemangiosarcoma (HAS), an aggressive cancer most common

other dogs’ lives is astonishing,” says his owner, Gabi.

in older, large-breed dogs, though occasionally seen in other breeds. “This is a cancer that often presents late, after significant blood loss has already occurred,” Dr Elliott explains. “The standard treatment is a splenectomy, but survival times are not long. Chemotherapy (ChT) is sometimes offered post-surgery, but it rarely extends life long enough to justify the stress and cost for most owners.” Immediate intervention in this case was crucial. When a dog’s haematocrit drops <20% due to blood loss – far below the normal 37%-55% range – a blood transfusion becomes necessary. We were working against time, stabilising him so that surgery was possible. His condition was severe, and without rapid action, he may not have survived long enough to receive life-saving treatment, Dr Elliott recounts.

Enter Max: A paw above the rest Dogs have eight recognised blood types – dog erythrocyte antigen (DEA) 1.1, 1.2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. Of these, DEA 1.1-negative is the most valuable for transfusion medicine, as it is compatible with virtually any recipient. Max, a playful and much-loved member

Max, a Husky/Malmute mix who came to the rescue of a patient diagnosed with HAS.

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When duty called: Max stepped up

overstated. “Knowing that Max’s donation saved another dog’s

The day Max was called to donate required careful planning.

life is incredible,” Gabi reflects. “It was one of the most meaningful

Canine donors must weigh >25kg, be between one- and nine-

experiences we have had as pet owners.”

years old (Max is 2.5-years), be in excellent health, free of parasites, vaccinated, and have a calm, trusting temperament suitable for the clinical environment. Max ticked every box.

The broader impact of canine blood donation

His health screenings were clear, and his temperament

While Max’s story tugs at the heart, it also underscores a vital

exemplary. While some donors require mild sedation to remain

aspect of modern veterinary care: The importance of canine

calm during the procedure, Max remained cooperative and relaxed

blood transfusions. Once considered highly specialised, these

throughout, says Dr Elliott.

procedures are now routine in trauma, poisoning, immunemediated diseases, and surgical emergencies.

“For me, watching him step into this role was profoundly moving,” Gabi reflects. “He laid there, this big, gentle soul, while his

“Blood transfusions are a cornerstone of veterinary medicine,”

blood was collected. He did not seem anxious or afraid. It felt like he

Dr Elliott notes. “They give dogs a fighting chance and allow us to

somehow understood he was helping, and I was filled with pride.”

perform life-saving procedures safely and effectively.”

The blood collection process is meticulous.

Owner, Gabi Kaplin and Max

After clipping and cleaning the jugular area, blood

sharing a special moment.

is drawn aseptically into a collection bag containing anticoagulant. One unit – roughly 350-450ml – is collected over five- to ten-minutes. Donors are then monitored to ensure full recovery. Meanwhile, the recipient undergoes full diagnostic testing, including blood work, X-rays, and abdominal ultrasound, to confirm the diagnosis and plan surgery. The transfusion is prepared and administered with precision.

A delicate balance: The art and science of transfusion The transfusion process itself is delicate. Over four- to six-hours, the recipient’s vital signs are continuously monitored for immune and non-immune

Inspiring others

reactions. Non-immunologic complications are rare with careful

Both Dr Elliott and Gabi hope Max’s story inspires other dog

donor selection, but immune reactions – ranging from mild

owners to consider participation in donor programmes. “If your dog

hypersensitivity to acute haemolytic shock – can occur.

meets the health and temperament criteria, it is a truly remarkable

“We monitor heart rate, respiration, temperature, mucous

way to help,” Gabi encourages. Dr Elliott adds that dogs like Max –

membrane colour, capillary refill, and urine output,” Dr Elliott explains.

calm, healthy, and willing – literally make the difference between life

“Early detection is key. Fortunately, Max’s blood was perfectly

and death. It is an extraordinary opportunity to impact multiple lives.

compatible, and the recipient tolerated the transfusion beautifully.” With the patient stabilised, the veterinary team proceeded with

Beyond the clinic

the splenectomy – surgery that would not have been possible

As Max resumes his daily routine, his contribution represents

without Max’s life-saving contribution.

more than a single procedure. It embodies the bond between humans and animals, the generosity of pet owners, and the

Recovery and reflection For Max, the donation was a brief interruption in a day otherwise

dedication of veterinary professionals committed to saving lives. “Max does not know he is a hero,” Gabi says. “But he is. And I

filled with play and affection. “He was a little subdued for about

am proud we are part of something so meaningful.” For Dr Elliott,

24-hours,” Gabi says, “but by the next afternoon, he was back

moments like these are a daily reminder of why she pursues

to his bouncy, playful self. No long-term effects – just a few extra

veterinary medicine.

treats for being such a good boy.” Dr Elliott is candid about the long-term outlook of patients with HAS: “HAS is aggressive and often metastasises early. Even with surgery and transfusion, the prognosis is guarded – perhaps

“Every day, we have the opportunity to make a difference – sometimes through surgery, sometimes medication, and sometimes through the simple act of one dog helping another.” In a world often focused on divisions, Max’s story reminds us

four- to six- months. But those months are precious, and they

of something fundamental: The power of giving, the importance

would not have been possible without Max’s gift.”

of community, and the extraordinary outcomes that occur when

The emotional reward of witnessing such an act cannot be

we choose to help one another.

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Treatment Top tip: A well-managed network of healthy canine donors safeguards timely and compatible transfusions, reduces the risk of adverse reactions, enhances patient recovery, and supports successful emergency treatments and complex surgical outcomes in modern veterinary practice.

U Surgery and ChT: The preferred approach is surgical removal of the tumour (eg splenectomy for splenic HAS) followed by ChT, which can delay metastatic progression. ChT usually involves intravenous (IV) drugs such as doxorubicin every three weeks for a series of treatments, along with ongoing monitoring.1,2,3 U Radiation therapy: May be considered for non-resectable tumours often combined with systemic ChT.1,2,3 U Supportive care: Dogs may require blood or plasma transfusions and IV fluids if significant bleeding occurs.1,2,3

Prognosis HSA carries a guarded prognosis. Without ChT, surgery alone is often largely palliative. Less than 10% of dogs survive beyond one

Understanding HAS: The most common malignant spleen tumour

year, as microscopic metastases are often present at diagnosis. 2

malignant disease of the spleen. HAS often progresses silently,

Practice pearls for vets 1 Rapid recognition saves lives: HAS often presents

with little to no early signs, but can present suddenly as a life-

assessment and stabilisation are critical for survival.

HAS, an aggressive cancer originating from the cells that form blood vessels (vascular endothelium), is the most common

suddenly after significant internal bleeding. Rapid

threatening emergency due to internal bleeding. The cancer tends

to metastasise rapidly, making prognosis generally poor. While

Critical role of blood transfusions: Dogs with haematocrit <20% require prompt transfusion. Universal

there is no cure, surgical removal and ChT can help slow disease

donors like Max (DEA 1.1-negative) can be life-saving in

progression and prolong quality life.1,2

emergencies.

Causes, risk factors, and clinical signs

Surgery plus ChT: Splenectomy followed by ChT (eg doxorubicin) is the mainstay for HAS, improving survival

The exact cause of HSA is unknown, but genetic predisposition

from ~2 months to four- to six-months while maintaining

is suspected, with higher incidence in breeds such as German

quality of life.

Shepherds, Golden Retrievers, and Labrador Retrievers.

Symptoms depend on the tumour location and may be subtle

Breed predisposition matters: German Shepherds, Golden Retrievers, and Labrador Retrievers are at higher

initially, including:

risk. Maintain a high index of suspicion in these breeds

U Lethargy or weakness

presenting with collapse or anaemia.

1,2,3

U Exercise intolerance

U Reduced appetite.

Subtle clinical signs require vigilance: Early HAS may be asymptomatic or show vague signs (lethargy, decreased

In cases involving the spleen, tumours can rupture, causing

appetite, exercise intolerance), so incidental findings on

severe, often life-threatening signs:2

imaging should not be ignored.

U Collapse or sudden weakness

U Difficulty breathing

Comprehensive donor programmes enhance outcomes: Maintaining a pool of healthy canine blood

U Pale gums

donors ensures rapid access to compatible blood, enabling

U Sudden death.

critical interventions and life-saving surgeries.

Diagnosis

References

Veterinarians may suspect HAS in dogs presenting with collapse,

internal bleeding (haemoabdomen), or pericardial effusion, or when a mass is incidentally found during routine exams. Diagnostic workup typically includes:2 U Blood tests to assess overall health U Imaging such as abdominal ultrasound, chest radiographs, computed tomography scans U Echocardiography for suspected heart tumours. Definitive diagnosis requires a biopsy of the tumour when surgically accessible. Without a biopsy, HAS should be suspected based on clinical signs and imaging. 2

Sivacolundhu RK. Splenic Hematoma (Splenomegaly) and Splenic Hemangiosarcoma. World Small Animal Veterinary Association Congress Proceedings, 2016. Available at: https://www.vin.com/ apputil/content/defaultadv1.aspx?id=8249901&pid=19840& 2. Cornell University Richard P Riney Canine Health Centre. Hemangiosarcoma in dogs. Available at: https://www.vet.cornell. edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/riney-canine-healthcenter/canine-health-information/hemangiosarcoma-dogs 3. Boatright K. Essential information for veterinarians about hemangiosarcoma. Vetted, 2020. Available at: https://www. dvm360.com/view/essential-information-for-veterinarians-abouthemangiosarcoma U

Vet’s Hub Volume 1 | No. 1 Article reviewed by Dr Paul Burger

A peep into the complex world

of animal ophthalmology with Dr Paul Burger

Veterinary ophthalmology is a highly specialised field that blends precision, technology, and compassion. Drs Antony Goodhead, Paul Burger, and Brent Sirrals and the team at Johannesburg Animal Eye Hospital manage an extraordinary range of cases – from cats and dogs to horses, rhinos, and even tigers. Each patient presents a unique challenge, but the goal remains constant: Preserving sight and relieving pain wherever possible.¹

Paws and Effect

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“Our caseload comprises roughly 85% dogs and

Understanding tear trouble

cats, 10% horses, and 5% exotic animals, which

DED arises from dysfunction of the lacrimal

include snakes, birds, fish, lions, tigers,

glands, ocular surface, eyelids, or their

leopards, rhinos, and elephants,” says

nerve supply, disrupting the production and

Dr Burger. 1

distribution of the preocular tear film. Causes orm

Such diversity demands both breadth and depth of expertise. The delicate eyes of

different diagnostic and surgical approaches, yet both demand precision and care. 1

do du

n Fu

metabolic disorders such as diabetes or hypothyroidism, neoplasia of the lacrimal gland,

of wildlife species often require completely

neurological impairment, infections like distemper or feline herpesvirus, trauma, iatrogenic effects from

This complexity is further exacerbated by the

surgery or anaesthesia, and certain toxic drugs.3

challenge of pinpointing the underlying cause,

This dysfunction results in ocular surface

as similar ocular signs may stem from very

inflammation, discomfort, and damage

different mechanisms, making it difficult to

ranging from mild irritation to severe vision

distinguish between primary (hereditary) and

loss. Common signs include thick, sticky

secondary (trauma- or inflammation-related)

discharge, red or inflamed eyes, general

disease. Eye disease can affect any species,

ocular discomfort, a dull or cloudy cornea,

but some breeds are genetically more

blepharitis, reduced vision, and occasionally a

susceptible, he explains.1

dry nostril on the affected side.3

“A detailed history, duration of the disease

Diagnosis is based on history, clinical signs,

and current co-morbidities may help to make a

and tests such as blink assessment, Schirmer

distinction, but this is frequently unresolved. For

tear testing, and ophthalmic examination.

this reason, pre-breeding eye examinations are

Further evaluation may include goblet cell

essential. It is good practice for dog breeders

and corneal sensitivity testing, meibomian

to have their animals examined prior to

gland assessment, and cytology or culture

k i te

breeding so that any presumed heritable

red

diseases are identified.” 1

lde

Everyday ocular offenders According to Dr Burger, the most common ophthalmic complaints in pets include tear film abnormalities (such as dry eye disease [DED]), ocular surface disease (such as corneal ulcers [CUs]), and eyelid conditions including tumours and entropion.1 Cataracts, localised or diffuse opacities of the crystalline lens or its capsule, are also frequently encountered in clinical practice. It is the most common lens disorder leading to blindness in animals, particularly dogs. 2 Glaucoma, a neurodegenerative disease, is another common ocular condition seen among pets. Glaucoma is associated with an increase in the pressure in the eye (intraocular pressure) above a certain pressure (roughly if the pressure >25mmHg).1 Dr Burger cautions that acute glaucoma, deep corneal ulcers or descemetoceles, lens luxations, and lens-induced uveitis related to diabetic cataracts are considered emergencies and require immediate referral to an ophthalmologist.1

include developmental gland abnormalities, autoimmune destruction of lacrimal tissue,

domestic animals and the robust structures

Bla

of secretions to identify systemic or local causes.3

Tackling corneal ulcers According to Dr Burger, CUs or defects in the

corneal epithelium, are potentially serious. Trauma, either from the animal itself or external factors (such as bite wounds or blunt trauma from balls), or abnormalities of the eyelids and hair growth (distichia or ectopic cilia), are leading causes.1 CUs present with redness, pain, and ocular discharge. They are classified as superficial (involving only the epithelium), stromal (extending into the corneal stroma, often with cellular infiltrates), descemetocele (reaching Descemet’s membrane), or perforated (full-thickness with aqueous leakage).4 Diagnosis involves corneal staining, and stromal or infected ulcers should be sampled for cytology and aerobic culture, with proparacaine applied beforehand, as it does not affect bacterial recovery.4 Descemetoceles and perforations are ophthalmic emergencies requiring surgical repair or referral. Initial management includes broad-spectrum prophylactic antibiotics, while therapy for infected ulcers should be guided by cytology and adjusted according to culture results.4

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Volume 1 | No. 1

Lid matters: When hairs, folds, and tumours collide Eyelids play an essential role in protecting the eye, distributing the tear film, and preventing debris from reaching the cornea.5 Eyelid disorders are painful and can lead to permanent ocular damage if untreated. The most common clinical signs of ocular pain are redness of the eye or eyelids, blepharospasm (eyelid spasm), ocular discharge, and changes in corneal colour, says Dr Burger.1 Congenital abnormalities such as ankyloblepharon, eyelid aplasia, and dermoids often require surgical correction. Disorders of the eyelashes, including distichia and ectopic cilia, can irritate the cornea, causing tearing, squinting, and ulceration. Treatment include manual epilation, cryotherapy, or laser ablation.5 Entropion (inward rolling of the eyelid) and ectropion (outward eversion) are common in dogs and may require temporary tacking or surgical correction. Other eyelid problems include trichiasis (misdirected hairs), macroblepharon (oversized palpebral fissure), blepharitis (inflammation), chalazia (meibomian gland swellings), and tumours. In dogs, most eyelid tumours are benign and managed wedge resection, or occasionally, with cryotherapy whereas in cats, tumours are often malignant and require full excision.1,5

Cloudy vision: Cataracts in canines Cataracts result from protein clumping within the lens, causing progressive vision loss and, in chronic cases, painful secondary complications. They stem from genetic factors, metabolic disorders such as diabetes, trauma, nutritional deficiencies, or chronic uveitis. Cataracts are categorised by etiology as senile (75%), diabetic (10%), traumatic (10%), or hereditary (5%). 6 The condition most often affects dogs aged fiveto 10-years (55%), with males more commonly affected (60%). Breeds such as Cocker Spaniels (25%), Labradors, and Spitz (20% each) are particularly predisposed. 6 Diagnosis involves medical history, ophthalmic and systemic examination, and retroillumination through a dilated pupil. Blood and biochemical screening detect systemic or endocrine disorders contributing to lens changes. Diabetic cataracts progress rapidly to maturity. 6

Preoperative evaluation includes Schirmer’s tear testing, slit-lamp biomicroscopy, tonometry, fluorescein staining, indirect ophthalmoscopy, ultrasonography, and electroretinography. 6 The only effective means of treatment for cataract is surgical extraction of the diseased lens, notes Dr Burger.1 “Phacoemulsification of cataractous lenses is the gold standard of care in both humans and dogs and cats. We perform this surgery routinely. The overall success of the surgery is good, with most animals regaining functional vision.”1 He adds that great advances have been made over the last 20-years, with continual refinement of surgical techniques and equipment improving outcomes.1

When pressure mounts Glaucoma can cause rapid vision loss if untreated. Causes can be either primary or secondary. Early detection and prompt intervention are vital to preserving sight, while chronic cases require ongoing management to reduce discomfort from persistently high intraocular pressure.7 Primary glaucoma arises from a malformed iridocorneal angle obstructing aqueous outflow, whereas secondary glaucoma results from blockage by lens luxation, inflammatory debris, or neovascular membranes.7 Diagnosis combines clinical signs such as corneal edema, mydriasis, reduced vision, and episcleral congestion with elevated intraocular pressure confirmed by tonometry. Acute cases demand urgent medical therapy, often followed by surgery.7 In chronic, blind, and painful eyes, surgical removal or drainage is recommended. Prognosis depends on promptness of treatment, underlying cause, and therapeutic response. “Animals presenting in our practice with primary, full-blown, end-stage glaucoma usually have one eye already blind and the second fellow eye displaying pathology associated with glaucoma.” 1

When eye problems go viral: The herd perspective In livestock, ocular diseases often reflect herdlevel factors and management practices rather than individual susceptibility. Outbreaks are common, with M. bovis frequently implicated, Dr Burger explains.1 Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) is the most prevalent ocular disease in cattle. It occurs

Vet’s Hub

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Volume 1 | No. 1

seasonally and may cause high morbidity. Clinical signs include corneal ulceration, lacrimation, conjunctivitis, blepharospasm, and,

Practice Pearls

in severe cases, blindness. 8

Early detection is critical. Subtle signs like redness,

Know breed predispositions and encourage responsible

discharge, or blepharospasm can signal serious disease.

Culturing M. bovis remains the diagnostic gold standard but is time-consuming and requires specific laboratory conditions,

breeding practices.

highlighting the need for rapid, accurate testing. Prevention focuses on vaccination, fly control, and herd management. Several

descemetoceles, require immediate referral.

licensed M. bovis vaccines and autogenous formulations are 4.

available, though field results remain mixed.9

combine regular monitoring of mastitic cows and pneumonia-

Collaboration between general practitioners and specialists improves outcomes, especially for complex

Another key strategy is preventing disease introduction into

or chronic cases.

healthy herds by conducting serological screening and promptly isolating clinically affected animals. Effective control programmes

Ophthalmic emergencies, such as acute glaucoma or

Follow-up is essential. What happens six months after treatment can determine the long-term success of therapy.

affected calves with bulk tank milk testing and longitudinal screening of young stock.9

expertise across diverse species and ocular conditions. From

Farm sanitation using appropriate disinfectants helps limit

domestic pets to exotic wildlife, clinicians must combine

bacterial spread, and antibiotic mixtures in semen extenders

diagnostic precision, surgical skill, and compassionate care to

should be reassessed to ensure bactericidal efficacy. Above all,

preserve vision and relieve pain.

regular herd monitoring is vital to identify subclinically infected

Common challenges include tear film disorders, corneal ulcers,

animals, prevent uncontrolled M. bovis shedding, and reduce the

eyelid abnormalities, cataracts, and glaucoma, each necessitating

risk of widespread outbreaks.9

tailored management. Herd-level ocular diseases, such as

Follow-up, referral, collaboration and managing patient expectations

infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis, underscore the importance of biosecurity, vaccination, and vigilant monitoring. Successful outcomes depend on early detection, timely

Follow-up care is incredibly important in some instances and can

intervention, client education, and consistent follow-up. Looking

be the difference between losing vision and maintaining it. Typically,

forward, both anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory

visits are scheduled every six-months or sooner if required,

therapies, alongside regenerative medicine, promise to expand

depending on the case, recommends Dr Burger.

treatment options and improve patient quality of life, ensuring

When it comes to referral, he believes the timing often determines the prognosis. Early referral, in some cases, would improve the outcome and is generally recommended.1 Collaboration is critical, especially if the clients need management of the disease and they live far away from our facility. Managing client expectations is another crucial part of the process.1 “Key to managing client expectations would be to first make an accurate diagnosis, which would then allow fairly accurate prognosis for vision or disease progression. Client expectation management is a really important part of my consultations. We spend considerable time dealing with this.” 1

Future perspectives Looking to the future, Dr Burger is particularly excited about the expanding roles of both anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory therapies, which are the mainstays of many chronic eye diseases, and regenerative medicine, an area with enormous potential as new information continues to emerge.1 “Stem cell research, specifically for endothelial cell disease, has the potential to improve disease progression for corneal endothelial dystrophy. A breakthrough has been achieved in this field in Japan, and hopefully this will translate into a tangible treatment option soon.” 1

Conclusion Veterinary ophthalmology is a highly specialised field requiring

veterinary ophthalmology continues to advance in scope, effectiveness, and impact.

References 1. Personal correspondence. Dr Paul Berger. 2025 [Email]. 2. Singh YP, Jhirwal SK, Parashar MC, et al. A study on ophthalmological diagnosis of white cataract in dogs. Veterinary Practitioner, 2023. 3. Grundon R, Fischer CM, Fritsche J, et al. Managing Dry Eye Disease in Dogs And Cats.[Internet]. Available at: https:// domespharma.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/Domes-Pharma-Take-acloser-look-at-Dry-Eye-Managing-Dry-Eye-Disease-in-detail.pdf 4. Kirby B. Managing Canine Corneal Ulcers. 2021 [Internet]. Available at: https://todaysveterinarynurse.com/ophthalmology/ managing-canine-corneal-ulcers/ 5. Bobofchak M. Managing common eyelid diseases (Proceedings). [Internet]. Available at: https://www.dvm360.com/view/managingcommon-eyelid-diseases-proceedings 6. Cornell University. College of Veterinary Medicine. [Internet]. Available at: https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-andinstitutes/riney-canine-health-center/canine-health-information/ canine-cataracts 7. Van der Woerdt A. The Treatment of Acute Glaucoma in Dogs and Cats. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, 2007. 8. Olson HG, Loy JD, Clawson ML, et al. Genotype classification of Moraxella bovis using MALDI-TOF MS profiles. Front Microbiol, 2022. 9. Dudek K, Nicholas RAJ, Szacawa E, Bednarek D. Mycoplasma bovis Infections-Occurrence, Diagnosis and Control. Pathogens, 2020. U

Vet’s Hub

Flock and Feather

Volume 1 | No. 1

Feathers, food, and feelings A companion bird guide

Budgerigars, canaries, lovebirds, cockatiels, and African Grey parrots are among South Africa’s most popular pet birds. However, these companion species are prone to a range of health and behavioural problems, including infectious diseases such as mycobacteriosis, and psittacosis, as well as nutritional deficiencies linked to unbalanced seed diets. Stress-related behaviours, including feather plucking, are also common and often stem from inadequate stimulation or poor housing conditions.1,2

These issues underscore the importance of proactive

show that combining azithromycin with clofazimine enhances

husbandry, balanced nutrition, and regular veterinary care to

antibacterial activity against M. avium.3

ensure avian wellbeing.1,2

Tackling avian TB and psittacosis

The sneaky spread of psittacosis Psittacosis in birds, also known as parrot fever, avian chlamydiosis

Avian TB: What you can’t see matters

or ornithosis, is caused primarily by Chlamydia psittaci, though

Avian mycobacteriosis, or avian tuberculosis (TB), is a chronic,

other species such as C. avium, C. gallinacea, C. buteonis, C. ibidis,

progressive bacterial infection primarily caused by Mycobacterium

and C. abortus can also cause disease.4

avium (serotypes 1–3). The disease predominantly affects the

Clinical signs vary by species, age, and stressors. Many

gastrointestinal (GI) tract and liver, although lesions may also

infections remain latent, while others manifest as lethargy,

develop in the spleen, lungs, joints, and, less commonly, the heart,

ruffled feathers, anorexia, ocular and nasal discharge, respiratory

skin, and bone marrow. Unlike mammalian tuberculosis, avian

distress, diarrhoea, and decreased egg production. Stress,

mycobacteriosis is mainly enteric. Infection often begins with a

overcrowding, poor nutrition, or environmental changes can

latent phase, during which birds show no visible signs, followed by

trigger symptomatic disease.4

lesion development and eventual cachexia leading to death.3

Diagnosis is complicated by non-specific signs and

Clinical signs vary according to disease progression. Early

intermittent bacterial shedding. Laboratory confirmation

infection may be asymptomatic or present with non-specific

includes serological testing (ELISA, complement fixation,

signs. As disease advances, birds may exhibit depression, ruffled

immunofluorescence, immuno-peroxidase) and PCR for detection

feathers, fatigue, whitish mucoid diarrhoea, dyspnoea, ocular

of C. psittaci DNA. PCR and next-generation sequencing

swelling, anaemia, emaciation, loss of pectoral muscle, abnormal

are increasingly preferred due to higher sensitivity and faster

gait, paralysis, and ultimately death. Lesions may range from deep

turnaround times than culture or older serologic methods.

intestinal ulcers to tuberculous nodules across multiple organs

Different C. psittaci genotypes may produce variable clinical

and can occasionally cause internal haemorrhage or liver rupture.3

presentations in birds.4

Diagnosis is challenging due to the chronic, intracellular

Early detection and differentiation from other avian respiratory

nature of the infection and the non-specific clinical presentation.

diseases are critical, as birds serve as reservoirs for zoonotic

Gold-standard methods include culture on selective media, and

transmission. Maintaining strict hygiene, quarantine, and

molecular detection using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

surveillance in breeding and pet bird populations is essential.4

targeting genes IS6110, IS901, and IS1245.

Serologic tests, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent

Doxycycline (100mg twice daily for 10- to14-days) is the treatment of choice, with macrolides, chloramphenicol, or

assay (ELISA), haemagglutination, and agglutination assays,

fluoroquinolones as alternatives. Prognosis is generally favourable

provide supportive evidence but may be species-specific or

if treatment is initiated early, although recurrence is more common

produce false positives. Tuberculin tests are a rapid field method

in cockatiels, budgerigars, and lovebirds.3

but are unreliable in some bird species.3 Treatment of avian mycobacteriosis can be prolonged, often

Nutrition matters: Keeping

requiring 12- to 18-months. Currently, azithromycin is the most

feathered pets fit

effective antibiotic for this infection, and recent in vitro studies

Improper nutrition is a widespread issue in pet bird medicine.

Vet’s Hub

Flock and Feather

Volume 1 | No. 1

Deficiencies in proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and

Diagnosis relies on detailed dietary history, clinical

minerals compromise health, immunity, and recovery from

examination, and evaluation of feed composition. Radiography

systemic disease.5

can reveal skeletal and hepatic changes, while droppings or

Malnutrition often occurs alongside illness, as sick birds

choanal swabs help assess intestinal flora.5

reduce feed intake, creating simultaneous primary disease

Clinical pathology may show nonspecific abnormalities, such

and nutritional deficiency. Periods of high demand such as

as elevated liver enzymes (vitamin A) or SAP (calcium). Early

reproduction, molting, growth, or stress, exacerbate vulnerability,

recognition and dietary correction are essential to prevent chronic

making young and breeding birds the most at risk. Stressors such

morbidity and support recovery from concurrent illnesses.5

as handling, quarantine, temperature fluctuations, and treatment

The cornerstone of treating nutritional deficiencies in pet

can further increase nutrient requirements or impair absorption.

birds is providing a balanced, species-appropriate, and palatable

Clinical signs are typically chronic and subtle, often involving

diet. Nutrient requirements vary widely among species, so diets

multiple organ systems. Integumentary manifestations include

adequate for one bird, such as a budgerigar, may not suit exotic

poor feathering, ruffled or brittle feathers, incomplete molts, and

parakeets or larger psittacines. Seed type and quality are critical,

pigment changes. Protein and amino acid deficiencies, particularly

as monocultures or poor-quality seeds often lack protein, fats,

lysine and arginine, are common contributors.5

vitamins, and minerals. Sprouted seeds are especially beneficial

Vitamin and mineral deficiencies (A, biotin, zinc, selenium,

for breeding birds due to higher protein and vitamin content.5

calcium, manganese, magnesium, niacin, and pantothenic acid) cause brittle feathers, scaly skin, and keratinised beak and nails.

Psittacine diets typically include a mixture of millet, canary 5

seed, wheat, and oats, with larger seeds for bigger birds. Fat-

Vitamin A deficiency affects epithelial surfaces, producing

soluble vitamins are provided through natural feedstuffs: vitamin A

crusty mucous membranes, white plaques in the oral cavity, and

from green leafy vegetables or cod liver oil, vitamin E from cereals

ocular involvement. Growth retardation, skeletal deformities, and

and eggs, vitamin D3 from eggs or milk products for confined

osteomalacia or rickets result from deficiencies in protein, calcium,

birds, and vitamin K from leafy greens.5

phosphorus, vitamin D3, and other nutrients. Essential fatty

Vitamin and mineral supplementation, preferably via drinking

acids are necessary for growth, energy, and vitamin absorption.

water rather than feed, ensures consistent intake while avoiding

Deficiencies may cause fatty liver, poor skin condition, and

over-supplementation. Natural sources such as cuttlebone, oyster

susceptibility to infection.

shell, and mineral blocks complement commercial products.5

Vitamin K deficiency leads to haemorrhages and prolonged

Pelleted diets offer a complete nutritional alternative, though

clotting times, while deficiencies in water-soluble vitamins (eg

acceptance may require gradual introduction, mixing with familiar

B1, B2) and vitamin E can cause neurological signs, muscle

foods, or presenting as a mash. Birds usually adapt over four- to

weakness, and encephalomalacia in young birds.

12-weeks with repeated exposure and careful management.5

Practice pearls 1.

Avian mycobacteriosis is a chronic bacterial infection primarily affecting the GI tract and liver, often requiring 12- to 18-months of azithromycin-based treatment.

Psittacosis, caused by C. psittaci, can remain latent or cause respiratory and gastrointestinal signs. Early detection is key to prevent zoonotic spread.

Malnutrition in pet birds manifests subtly with feather changes, brittle beaks, skeletal deformities, and poor growth. Deficiencies often involve multiple nutrients simultaneously.

Treatment relies on a balanced, species-specific diet with appropriate protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals, supplemented via feed or water and gradually introduced pelleted diets.

Feather-damaging behaviour and feather pecking stem from medical, nutritional, and psychological factors. Management combines medical treatment with environmental enrichment.

Anxiety, aggression, excessive vocalisation, and obsessivecompulsive behaviours require a combination of routine, enrichment, social interaction, and pharmacologic support when indicated.

Feathers and follies: Understanding pet bird behavioural disorder

Behavioural disorders are among the most frequent challenges in avian veterinary practice, often intertwined with underlying medical conditions. Companion birds such as parrots, cockatiels, canaries, and lovebirds are prone to behaviours including feather plucking, aggression, excessive vocalisation, and stereotypies. Effective management requires attention to both physical health and psychological wellbeing, as most behavioural issues are multifactorial in origin. 2

Feather-damaging behaviour Feather plucking, or feather-damaging behaviour, is a common self-directed problem caused by medical, nutritional, or psychological factors. Medical contributors include malnutrition, metabolic disorders, allergies, infections (eg C. psittaci, polyomavirus, circovirus), parasites, heavy metal toxicity, and neoplasia. In certain species, a genetic predisposition has been noted. 2 Psychological causes include chronic stress, boredom, sexual frustration, sleep deprivation, and insufficient social interaction. Repetitive plucking may become obsessive and self-reinforcing. 2 Management involves treating both medical and behavioural

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Vet’s Hub

Flock and Feather

Volume 1 | No. 1

triggers. Comprehensive diagnostics should include physical

laying, regurgitation, or courtship displays. Proper socialisation

examination, blood work, and screening for infections

during rearing prevents overbonding. Hormonal modulation with

and metabolic disorders. Behavioural therapy focuses on

medroxyprogesterone may be indicated in refractory cases. 2

environmental enrichment, adequate sleep, diet improvement, and structured social interaction. Owners must avoid reinforcing

Anxiety, phobias, and depression

plucking. Ignoring the behaviour is often recommended. In severe

Anxiety arises without a clear threat, often manifesting as

or chronic cases, psychotropic medications may be necessary. 2

hypervigilance, trembling, or escape attempts. Phobias involve intense fear of specific stimuli, while depression and apathy

Feather pecking in aviary species

develop secondary to chronic stress, isolation, or environmental

Distinct from self-plucking, feather pecking occurs when birds

monotony. Management includes enrichment, social interaction,

remove feathers from conspecifics. Causes include nutrient

predictable routines, improved lighting, and, in severe cases,

deficiencies and frustration of natural behaviours like foraging or

pharmacologic support with tricyclic antidepressants. 2

dust-bathing. Management strategies involve ad libitum feeding, balanced diets, enrichment to encourage natural behaviours, and

Pharmacologic support

improved housing with lower stocking densities. 2

Medication should complement, not replace, environmental and behavioural interventions. Options include antihistamines

Aggression and biting

for mild sedation, benzodiazepines for acute anxiety, selective

Aggression is a natural but undesirable behaviour, particularly

serotonin reuptake inhibitors for compulsive or depressive

in hand-reared parrots. Triggers include territoriality, dominance,

behaviours, dopamine and opioid antagonists for self-mutilation,

fear, sexual frustration, and imprinting on humans. Wild-caught

and progestins or tricyclics for hormonal or anxiety-related issues.

birds may display fear-based aggression due to negative

Careful dose titration and monitoring are essential due to species-

prior experiences.

specific variability in drug metabolism and response. 2

Management begins with identifying the motivation behind the behaviour. Owners should learn avian body language, avoid

Conclusion

reinforcing aggression, and implement environmental adjustments

Companion birds, including budgerigars, cockatiels, and African

such as lowering perch height or relocating cages. Consistent

Greys, face intertwined challenges of infectious disease, nutritional

handling and training help reduce stress and restore trust. 2

deficiencies, and behavioural disorders. Early recognition and proactive management are essential for avian health. Infectious

Screaming and excessive vocalisation

diseases such as avian mycobacteriosis and psittacosis require

Excessive vocalisation is often linked to attention-seeking, fear,

timely diagnosis and species-appropriate treatment to prevent

boredom, or attempts to communicate. Environmental stressors

chronic illness and zoonotic transmission. Nutritional deficiencies,

such as isolation, poor lighting, or unstable routines exacerbate

often subtle and chronic, demand carefully balanced diets tailored

the problem. 2

to species, life stage, and activity level, with supplementation

Complete elimination is unrealistic. Management focuses on

and gradual introduction of pelleted feeds. Behavioural disorders,

reducing frequency by rewarding quiet periods, ignoring unwanted

including feather plucking, aggression, and obsessive-compulsive

noise, providing mental stimulation, predictable routines, and

behaviours, arise from medical, nutritional, and psychological

social interaction. 2

causes, requiring environmental enrichment, social interaction, and,

Stereotypies and obsessivecompulsive disorders

Stereotypies, such as pacing, wire-chewing, or route tracing,

in some cases, pharmacologic intervention. Integrated husbandry, veterinary care, and owner education are key to ensuring optimal health, wellbeing, and longevity in pet birds.

emerge in restrictive environments and often reflect coping

References

mechanisms for mental under-stimulation. Avian obsessive-

compulsive disorders (OCDs) are anxiety-driven repetitive behaviours, including compulsive preening or self-mutilation. 2

Differentiating between stereotypies and OCD can be difficult, but management generally combines environmental enrichment

with pharmacologic intervention. Drugs such as fluoxetine, clomipramine, or amitriptyline may reduce compulsive behaviours under veterinary supervision. 2

Sexual and reproductive behaviours

Sexual frustration and inappropriate human bonding are common in imprinted, hand-reared birds, manifesting as chronic egg-

Peng S, Broom DM. The Sustainability of Keeping Birds as Pets: Should Any Be Kept? Animals, 2021. Samour J. Avian Medicine 3 rd Edition. 2016 [Internet]. Available at: https://birdictionary.ir/uploads/fef80fb189b544df91561e9cc811be9d. pdf Abd El-Ghany WA. A review of avian mycobacteriosis: An emerging bacterial disease of public health concern Wafaa A. Abd El-Ghany. International Journal of One Health, 2022. Dembek ZF, Mothershead JL, Owens AN, et al. Psittacosis: An Underappreciated and Often Undiagnosed Disease. Pathogens, 2023. Villm DL, O’Brien SE. An Overview of Pet Bird Nutrition. [Internet]. Available at: https://dr.lib.iastate.edu/server/api/core/ bitstreams/dc8ad198-7c67-44a9-b7f2-7a6764af2338/content U

Vet’s Hub

Working Partners

Volume 1 | No. 1

Looking at the beautiful, fit condition of Jill’s horse, you would never guess he suffered from kissing spine, an extremely painful condition.

Back in action Managing horses with ‘kissing spine’

Overriding dorsal spinous processes (ODSP), commonly known as ‘kissing spine’, is a condition that affects horses across all breeds and disciplines. Performance horses, particularly Thoroughbreds, are at higher risk due to the physical demands of their work. Many horses with radiographic changes show no overt signs of discomfort, masking the condition until changes in behaviour or performance become apparent.1

Jill Smith* is an experienced rider with extensive hands-

asked for canter, he bucked repeatedly on the spot. Knowing

on experience across multiple equestrian disciplines. After her

this was not his personality, we called the vet the next day,” Jill

own horse was diagnosed with ODSP, she developed a keen

recounts. X-rays confirmed the diagnosis: kissing spine. The

interest in equine biomechanics and transitioned into a career in

horse had likely carried the condition for years, but full muscular

saddle fitting. Her combined professional expertise and personal

tone had masked it until prolonged rest allowed pain to manifest. 2

experience managing her horse’s wellbeing give her a unique perspective on the challenges riders face when addressing back pain and performance issues.

Dr Gottschalk weighs in: Prevalence and risk

Initially, her horse was calm and sensible, helping her regain

Dr Roy Gottschalk, a specialist equine surgeon at Witbos

confidence and strength. “He was strong, happy, and loved his

Veterinary Clinic, an equine-focused facility established in

job, remaining in full work,” Jill recalls. However, a year later, an

1988, explains that ODSP are prevalent across all breeds

unrelated injury forced her to take six months off riding. During

and disciplines.1

that time, her horse enjoyed a five-month paddock holiday. When

“Thoroughbreds, Warmbloods, and Quarter horses show the

work resumed, his behaviour had changed noticeably – he began

highest prevalence. It is most often diagnosed in performance

rushing, bucking, and showing unusual spookiness. 2

horses because of the high physical demands placed on their

“It was immediately clear something was not right. When

backs,” he says.1

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While close-coupled, short-backed horses were once thought more prone to ODSP, Dr Gottschalk notes: “We commonly see it in horses of all shapes and sizes.”

years, his good muscle tone had prevented pain, masking clinical signs until he was rested for an extended period. 2

overt signs of back pain. “Incidental findings are common. We

Breaking the pain cycle: Conservative management

usually x-ray the backs of horses showing clinical signs, so we

Dr Gottschalk emphasises that the first line of treatment is often

may miss asymptomatic cases,” Dr Gottschalk explains. However,

conservative. “The essential intervention is breaking the pain cycle

as horses progress in their athletic careers, even incidental kissing

and implementing an exercise programme to strengthen muscles

spine can become clinical. 1

around the spine. This allows the horse to move pain-free.” 1

Reading the signs: Behavioural clues

saddle fitting and, in some cases, a lighter or more balanced rider.

Jill’s experience underscores a critical point: Sudden behavioural

Extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT) is extensively used

changes are often pain signals. 2

with good results. “Focused, high-energy shockwaves applied

Interestingly, many horses with radiographic ODSP show no

“Lesson learned: If a horse is difficult or changes behaviour drastically, it is not necessarily a sign of bad manners, but a way of

An exercise programme is usually combined with proper

based on imaging are non-invasive, analgesic, and help the horse recruit muscles around the spine,” he explains. 2

telling you they’re in pain,” she emphasises. 2

Where ESWT is not feasible, corticosteroids can be used

Clinical presentation varies but often includes resistance

to reduce inflammation. However, this carries risks, including

to girthing, difficulty engaging hind limbs, back pain, and subtle

fibrosis or infection, and may affect eligibility in competitive

behavioural changes such as spookiness or reluctance to move

events. Other interventions like mesotherapy are occasionally

forward. Adjacent back muscles may appear underdeveloped, and

used for nerve-related pain, though Dr Gottschalk notes limited

range of motion is reduced, says Dr Gottschalk.1

personal experience. 1

He stresses the importance of thorough evaluation. “A

Jill adds perspective from the rider’s side: “Working with a

detailed history, clinical examination, and appropriate imaging

knowledgeable veterinarian and understanding the horse’s needs

are essential. Ultrasound helps evaluate ligaments and bone

is crucial. Even after treatment, patience and consistent work are

positioning, while scintigraphy is rarely used due to cost and

key to rebuilding strength and confidence.” 2

interpretive variability,” he explains. 1

When surgery becomes necessary

Imaging and diagnosis: X-Rays lead the way

Surgical intervention is reserved for cases where conservative

X-rays remain the cornerstone for diagnosing ODSP. “We look

the main surgical options: Subtotal ostectomy and interspinous

for dorsal spinous processes that are too close together or

ligament desmotomy (ILD). Subtotal ostectomy removes a

overlapping. However, imaging alone is not enough – correlation

portion of the dorsal spinous process while preserving sufficient

with clinical findings is crucial,” Dr Gottschalk notes. Diagnostic

bone for muscle attachment. ILD involves cutting the ligament

local anaesthesia can sometimes help confirm if lesions are

and nerves between the dorsal spinous processes, indicated

causing pain, though false negatives are common.1

when there is enough space to safely insert instruments. 1

treatment fails, or the horse is unrideable. Dr Gottschalk outlines

Jill’s horse illustrates the interplay between imaging and clinical presentation. Though he had likely harboured the condition for

“Minimally invasive standing ILD can improve recovery times but isn’t suitable for advanced cases with overlapping or bony changes, which may require ostectomy,” Dr Gottschalk clarifies. Recovery outcomes across surgical techniques are similar, with 70%-80% of horses returning to work. 1 Crucially, he stresses: “Owner and rider compliance with the rehabilitation programme is integral. Surgery alone is not enough. The horse must regain strength and mobility for a successful return to performance.” 1

Rehabilitation: Strengthening for success Exercise, physiotherapy, and core strengthening are essential components of management. Dr Gottschalk notes: “Exercise aimed at back and core muscles helps get the back mobile and strong. Without addressing the X-ray revealing classic signs of kissing spine: The dorsal spinous processes are clearly touching and overlapping, a source of pain despite outward appearances.

pain cycle, other treatments are unlikely to succeed.” 1 Jill confirms this: Rebuilding his muscle tone and confidence took time. It was not just about riding. It

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When spinous processes lock lips: The tale behind ‘kissing spine’

not stubbornness U Muscle tone can mask the severity of ODSP until rest or reduced work reveals symptoms

The term ‘kissing spine’ originates from the work of Danish radiologist Christian Baastrup, who in 1933 described a pathological condition involving the close approximation of adjacent spinous processes (SPs) in the vertebral column. The condition is characterised by narrowing of the interspinous space, often less than 4mm, and, in some cases, touching or overlapping of the dorsal spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae.3,4

U Close communication with a knowledgeable veterinarian is critical U Patience and a structured rehabilitation program are essential for recovery. “Understanding your horse and their history, combined with proper diagnostics, can make all the difference. Even when the horse appears fine, subtle signs should not be ignored,” she adds. 2

Baastrup observed that the mechanical forces within the lumbar spine, including vertebral lordosis, the lever-like

The future of ODSP management

arrangement of vertebrae, and the height and spacing of the

Dr Gottschalk concludes with a forward-looking perspective:

processes, could lead to chronic contact and subsequent

“ODSP has always existed, but advances in imaging allow us to

inflammation of the interspinous soft tissues.

diagnose more accurately and earlier. As research provides better

evidence, treatment protocols can be refined, and outcomes for

In equine medicine, ODSPs primarily affect the mid- and

horses will continue to improve.” 1

caudal thoracic vertebrae, especially between Th13 and Th18, with Th15 most commonly involved. Radiographic and

He underscores the importance of horse welfare: “Every

postmortem studies suggest an anatomical prevalence as

decision – whether conservative, surgical, or rehabilitative –

high as 92%, and most evidence supports the lesions being

must prioritise the horse’s health and comfort. Evidence-based

acquired rather than congenital.

decisions are key, but individual circumstances guide the best

course of action.” 1

Factors implicated in their development include repetitive mechanical stress, athletic activity, conformational traits such as short-backed morphology, and improper saddle fit or rider-

Final thoughts

induced pressure. Interestingly, recent genetic studies indicate

Kissing spine is a condition that can affect horses silently until performance or behaviour changes signal discomfort. Jill’s

a potential hereditary component, highlighting that both biomechanical and intrinsic factors contribute to the syndrome.

journey highlights the rider’s perspective: Awareness, patience,

Thus, the descriptive term ‘kissing spine’ captures the

and collaboration with veterinary professionals are essential.

essential pathology identified by Baastrup: Spinous processes

Dr Gottschalk’s expert insights provide a clear roadmap for

‘kissing’ or contacting one another, leading to degeneration,

diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation, underscoring the

inflammation, and, in affected horses, clinical signs of back pain

importance of a multidisciplinary, evidence-based approach. 1,2

and performance issues.3,4,5

By recognising early signs, understanding breed and performance risks, and implementing structured rehabilitation and,

was about structured, consistent work and paying attention to

when necessary, surgical intervention, horses with ODSP can

his responses. 2

return to work successfully. This collaborative approach ensures

A multidisciplinary approach – including saddle fitting, physiotherapy, and targeted exercise – is often the most effective.

the welfare, comfort, and performance potential of the horse – allowing them to be, once again, back in action.1,2

Even lighter or balanced riders can help in the rehabilitation process. 1

Recognising risk factors and breed considerations Dr Gottschalk highlights breed-specific risks. “Thoroughbreds are at higher risk due to their athletic demands, but we see ODSP in Warmbloods, Quarter horses, and other breeds. Close-coupled horses may be predisposed, but it occurs in all shapes and sizes.” 1 Performance level also plays a role. Horses in high-demand disciplines are more likely to show clinical signs. However, even horses living in near-natural conditions can have ODSP with minimal clinical manifestation.1

Insights for riders: Lessons from Jill Jill’s experience illustrates key takeaways for horse owners and riders: 2 U Changes in behaviour are often pain signals,

*Not her real name.

References 1. Personal communication. Dr Roy Gottschalk. 16 October 2025. 2. Personal communication. Jill Smith. 9 October 2025. 3. Pilati N, Pressanto MC, Palumbo Piccionello A, et al. Impinging and Overriding Spinous Processes in Horses: A Narrative Review. Animals, 2025. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/20762615/15/18/2679 4. Baastrup I. On the Spinous Processes of the Lumbar Vertebrae and the Soft Tissues between Them, and on Pathological Changes in That Region. Acta Radiologica, 1933. Available at: https://journals. sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/028418513301400106 5. Filippiadis DK, Mazioti A, Argentos S, et al. Baastrup’s disease (kissing spines syndrome): A pictorial review. Insights Imaging, 2015. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/ PMC4330238/#CR6 U

Vet’s Hub

Working partners

Volume 1 | No. 1

Adapting for success

Understanding lamb performance in feedlots

Vet’s Hub speaks to Dr Jared Morris, veterinarian at S&E Feedlot Consulting, about the key factors affecting feedlot performance in lambs. Lambs entering feedlots face a range of challenges, from stress and disease susceptibility to nutritional and management factors, all of which influence growth, health, and overall performance.

The success of lamb production in feedlots depends heavily on how well animals adapt to their new environment. According

performing in feedlots. Stress can stem from sudden changes in diet, social hierarchy

to Dr Morris, the main reason for underperformance of lambs in

disruption, or handling procedures. Once stress sets in, lambs

feedlots is due to maladaptation.

often reduce feed intake, which has a cascading effect on health

He explains that 5%-20% of lambs fail to adapt to feedlot conditions because of neophobia, weaning stress, transport

and growth. Lambs not adapting to feedlot environments exhibit poor feed

stress and co-mingling. These factors, he notes, combine to

intake, reduced growth and significantly contribute to morbidity

make adaptation a significant challenge for many lambs entering

and mortality, Dr Morris explains. This, he adds, translates into

intensive feeding systems.

major economic losses for operators.

Behavioural sensitivity and stress response Behavioural issues are very important, Dr Morris stresses. Lambs are highly sensitive to stressors of any kind and feedlots being high stress environments does lead to a proportion of lambs not

“High mortality rates equals a significant economic loss for the feedlot operator. Poor feed intake, average daily gain and feed conversion ratio will also lead to substantial losses.”

Respiratory challenges in confined systems Dr Morris highlights respiratory disease as a major health concern. Lambs in feedlots are highly susceptible to the Ovine respiratory disease complex. This is due to the small lung volume they possess, the presence of the tracheal bronchus leading to the right cranial lung lobe as well as certain environmental factors such as high stocking density, dust and stress that further predispose them. He adds that this anatomical predisposition makes clinical detection particularly difficult: Being prey animals, they have an amazing ability to mask clinical signs. So subclinical infections can affect them without this being picked up by health teams. For this reason, close observation and proactive management are essential. Daily assessments should be performed on all newly arriving lambs with interventions being taken immediately if needed, says Dr Morris.

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Preventive care and vaccination strategies

Parasite management and resistance concerns

Vaccination remains a cornerstone of disease prevention in

Parasitic infections remain a persistent challenge in small

feedlots. Vaccination programmes for feedlot lambs are fairly

stock production. Parasites play an enormous role, particularly

comprehensive, he notes, but warns that vaccine failure as a

Haemonchus contortus, Dr Morris points out. Anthelmintic

result of human error (not keeping cold chain/missing animals)

resistance is an ever-growing issue.

is possible. He underlines the importance of immunisation before disease exposure occurs: “Comprehensive vaccination programme to ensure these animals do not get sick. One disease episode will affect growth for the remainder of the feeding period.” While pharmacological interventions have a role, Dr Morris emphasises that prevention is always preferable. “Pharmacotherapy antibiotic growth promoters (AGP)

Resistant worm populations can lead to chronic production losses and compromise animal welfare, making integrated parasite management a key component of feedlot health programmes.

Welfare and ethical considerations Dr Morris is clear on the ethical responsibilities of feedlot operators. “Animal welfare is of the utmost importance and abiding by the five freedoms is mandatory in the feedlots we

most certainly have their place. However, inoculation and

consult to,” he says. These freedoms – from hunger and thirst,

immunisation as a means of prevention is far more valuable.

discomfort, pain, fear, and the freedom to express normal

AGP/pharmacotherapy are add-ons to improve performance and

behaviour – underpin all welfare practices.

efficiency but will be ineffective if diseases or poor nutrition are contributing factors to poor performance.” His approach to management is clear: “Vaccination and good quality nutrition – keep things simple!”

Nutrition and pre-weaning management Feedlot lambs receive carefully balanced rations. “Feedlot lambs are fed formulated rations that are nutritionally balanced. Nutritional deficiencies would be more common in extensive farming operations,” Dr Morris explains. However, he notes that how lambs are managed before entering the feedlot strongly affects later performance. “Pure/composite breeds perform well in feedlots if the

He adds that humane decision-making is part of responsible management: “If a diseased animal is suffering with no potential for recovery, a decision is made by the veterinarian, where the animal may be humanely euthanised.”

Success in lamb feedlots hinges on simple principles: Solid husbandry, proactive health care, and quality nutrition, backed by daily attention that keeps lambs thriving in intensive systems

pre-weaning period (nutrition, parasite control and inoculations) was performed correctly,” he says. “Early weaning can influence long-term growth and performance with particular focus on

The importance of communication

rumen development. Ruminants are born as monogastrics, and

Collaboration across all stakeholders is critical for successful

the rumen is non-functional at this stage. Solid feed intake and

feedlot operations. Communication between the veterinarian,

microbial colonisation of the rumen is essential for development

feedlot operator and lamb producer is key,” Dr Morris emphasises.

and this needs to occur in the pre-weaning phase.”

“By upholding these channels of communication, potential

Inadequate pre-weaning management can thus set lambs back even before they reach the feedlot.

problems can be ironed out quickly and efficiently.”

Simplifying success

Stocking density and competition

Ultimately, Dr Morris believes that success in lamb feedlots

Space allocation also influences performance outcomes. High

depends on a combination of sound husbandry, preventive health

stocking densities and not sorting animals in weight classes

measures, and close daily oversight. As he succinctly concludes,

prior to placing them in pens will exacerbate underperformance

“Vaccination and good quality nutrition – keep things simple!”

due to increased levels of competition between animals, Dr Morris cautions.

Through his insights, it is clear that while feedlot systems offer the potential for efficient meat production, they also demand a

Competition for feed and space can create social stress,

high level of management attention. Adaptation, health, welfare,

increase aggression, and reduce feeding opportunities for smaller

and communication all play interconnected roles in determining

or more submissive lambs.

whether lambs thrive or fail in intensive environments.

These issues are compounded when lambs from different

For operators and veterinarians alike, Dr Morris’s message

origins are co-mingled without proper acclimatisation. This

is straightforward: Focus on the basics, reduce stress, and

highlights the importance of careful grouping and monitoring from

prioritise prevention – because a healthy, well-adapted lamb is the

the outset of the feeding period.

foundation of a profitable and ethical feedlot enterprise. U

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Groundbreaking research

on sustainable feed for indigenous chickens Melokuhle Magagula, an MSc graduate in agricultural sciences at the NorthWest University (NWU), is gaining national and international recognition for her groundbreaking research on sustainable alternative poultry feed. Her work explores locally available resources to support affordable poultry production, enhance meat quality, and promote environmental sustainability, addressing three major challenges in the industry while advancing food security and circular bioeconomy practices in Southern Africa. Magagula’s research focused on Vachellia erioloba, an indigenous mokala tree species common in the North-West Province and other inland regions of the Southern African Development Community. Its pods, though containing useful protein, are largely underutilised because of their high fibre content and antinutritional phytochemicals, which limit their suitability as feed ingredients. For many smallholder farmers, the high cost of commercial poultry feed remains a significant barrier, particularly when raising indigenous breeds such as Boschveld chickens. Developed in South Africa for free-range household production of meat and eggs, Boschveld chickens play an important role in supporting household nutrition and rural livelihoods. “The inspiration came from seeing two parallel realities in South Africa. First, the costly commercial diets are a huge limiting factor on smallholder farmers relying on indigenous chickens for food and livelihoods. A second is the vast number of Vachellia erioloba trees in the region. These trees produce large numbers of pods that typically go unused. These pods reported in some scientific literature had a reasonable protein content but were limited by high fibre and antinutritional factors. Which was a very evident challenge, but also, a chance to find a way to ‘unlock’ the nutritional potential of these pods for local farmer and communitydependent development,” she explains. Through mushroom solid-state fermentation with oyster mushrooms, Magagula transformed the pods into a more digestible, nutritionally enhanced substrate suitable for poultry diets. “Mushroom solid-state fermentation is effective because the mushroom enzymes break down the fibre and antinutritional compounds in the pods and enhance their nutraceutical value towards indigenous chicken nutrition.” Her work aligns with global efforts to find sustainable alternative feed ingredients to reduce dependence on conventional sources such as maize and soya. “It is on the global pursuit for sustainable, alternative ingredients to lessen dependence on expensive feed sources such as maize and soya, however, with a different emphasis and result. It supplements in a small measure to actively increase the nutritional quality of the meat,” she says.

Scientific approach: A rigorous feeding trial Under the supervision of Dr Doctor Mthiyane, an Animal Nutritional Biochemist with a PhD degree from the University of Cambridge (United Kingdom) based in the Department of Animal Science at NWU, Magagula investigated the effects of dietary incorporation of Vachellia erioloba oyster mushroom spent substrate (OMSS) on growth performance, carcass traits, visceral organ weight, haemato-biochemistry, and meat quality, including fatty acid composition, in Boschveld chickens. Using a randomised design, 250 four-week-old mixed-gender chickens were assigned to 25 pens. Over a 12-week feeding trial, birds received one of five diets containing 0%, 1.25%, 2.5%, 5%, or 10% OMSS. After the trial, the birds were slaughtered for detailed data collection. “The challenges of the trial included having a consistent and contaminant-free fermentation process that would allow for producing large batches of pods for the trial. With this project, temperature, humidity, and sterility also needed to be kept to a high level of precision. The other challenge was the labourintensive nature of data collection. This involved a lot of work done in the lab to evaluate growth, blood parameters, carcass features and meat quality,” explains Magagula.

Key findings: Meat quality, functional nutrition, and safety OMSS inclusion did not adversely affect feed intake, body weight gain, or carcass characteristics. Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) decreased during weeks five, six, and 11, likely due to residual fibre and antinutritional compounds. “This may be due to the residual fibre and the antinutritional factors present in OMSS. Younger birds who are still developing their digestive systems and gut microbiomes, are more sensitive to these components. As the birds matured, their digestive performance improved, and they were able to adapt and use OMSS more effectively, hence the normalising of FCE in later weeks,” she explains. While OMSS had limited effects on physico-chemical meat qualities, it produced notable improvements in fatty acid

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composition, including a reduction in the omega-6 (n-6) to omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) ratio. “The changes probably resulted from the distinct biochemical

“Small-scale application is possible for a process like this. The farmers can harvest, dry and grind Vachellia erioloba pods. Oyster mushroom spawn can be purchased locally from local suppliers and

properties of the OMSS composition. Oyster mushroom

fermentation can be carried out in perforated bags or containers in a

mycelium serves as a source of bioactive materials and may

sheltered protected place. They can then add the OMSS to existing

house precursors or regulators that impact lipid metabolism in

home-mixed feed at the recommended 2.5% level.”

the bird. The fermentation process most probably enriched the

Cost implications are favourable at community scale. Although

substrate with n-3 precursors and/or bioactive compounds that

mushroom spawn and initial labour are required, OMSS reduces

inhibit the n-6 PUFA pathway enzymes thereby redirecting the

reliance on expensive commercial feed, enabling greater self-

birds’ metabolism toward producing and depositing more n-3 fatty

reliance and resilience in rural communities.

acids in the meat to improve the optimal n-6/n-3 ratio.” This indicated that it is safe and well-tolerated, she adds.

“Turning an abundant underutilised plant resource into a practical poultry feed ingredient, this innovation lets communities

OMSS’s main influence, on the other hand, was to enhance

be more self-reliant by reducing dependency on commercial

the fatty acid level of the meat, namely the n-6/n-3 ratio,

feeds. It not only increases the resilience of local food production

demonstrating that OMSS is mainly an effective nutraceutical or

but also helps to lower production demand to meet market-driven

functional feed supplement, rather than a growth activator. That

growth,” stresses Magagula.

allows farmers to grow healthier and better value-added meat, all

Veterinarians should monitor liver function and gut health

without ruining the bird’s performance or spending on expensive

during the introduction phase. While serum albumin and

growth components.

bilirubin were improved based on our comprehensive haemato-

As a nutraceutical, OMSS improves mineral bioavailability,

biochemical analysis, it is always a good idea to monitor liver

reduces fibre and antinutritional factor levels, and increases protein

enzymes when using new feed ingredients. They can also

content in the substrate, making it safer and easier to digest.

observe bird droppings and general digestive well-being,

Advancing sustainability and the circular bioeconomy

especially during the introduction phase for younger birds, Magagula stresses. Enhanced meat quality may improve taste and shelf-life. There

The study demonstrates a practical circular bioeconomy

were no negative impacts on meat physicochemical quality in the

application: Turning an abundant, underutilised feed resource into

study. It even improved meat colour and fatty acid healthiness,

a nutritionally enhanced diet for indigenous chickens.

which consumers often associate with freshness and quality.

“Because of its practicality in the circular bioeconomy. By

Although taste quality was not directly assessed in this study,

acquiring and utilising an unused alternative feed resource as a

enhanced fatty acid profile often indicates better taste, and the

substrate for oyster mushroom fermentation to improve its use as

high antioxidant content within the OMSS may contribute to

a feed, as a quality diet for native chickens.”

improved oxidative stability and shelf-life, though further studies

Her research addresses three critical challenges: Cost-saving poultry nutrition, environmental sustainability, and improved

must be carried out.

meat quality. It also promotes local biodiversity and the use of

Broader applications and next steps

indigenous resources.

Asked if the concept is adaptable to other livestock species

“The study encourages the responsible application of an

and indigenous plant resources, Magagula says absolutely.

indigenous tree species. We promote its preservation and

The concept of using mushroom fermentation to degrade and

application in sustainable agricultural practice through the

enhance the value of fibrous, antinutrient-rich plant materials is

application of sustainable farming. This fosters local biodiversity

highly applicable.

and the utilisation of indigenous knowledge and resources compared to imported solutions,” says Magagula.

Her aim is to translate the research into practical outcomes, including field trials with smallholder farmers, validating economic

OMSS contributes to environmental sustainability by

benefits, and collaborating with agricultural agencies and

preventing pod waste and reducing pressure on conventional

mushroom producers to train communities in adopting the

feed crops. There is added value to a natural product that would

technology effectively, and to potentially collaborate with local

otherwise decay in the wild or be burned. It lowers waste, removes

agricultural agencies and local mushroom producers to train

pressure from conventional feed crops and promotes a local

communities to adopt this technology effectively.

circular food supply. All that reduces the environmental impact of feed supply chains and encourages sustainable land use.

Implications for rural farmers and food security

Her work addresses food security and rural development. With the high rise of population and the need for food security, this plays a transformative role. It enhances food security by increasing the availability and nutritional quality of animal protein at a lower cost and creating opportunities around mushroom

Smallholder farmers can integrate OMSS into production using

cultivation and feed processing. This approach can improve

accessible, low-cost methods.

incomes, nutrition and resilience for rural households. U

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When giraffes fall, ecosystems shift forever

The University of the Free State (UFS) has taken a historic step in African wildlife research. In October 2025, the university officially launched the world’s first dedicated giraffe research centre and infrastructure facility at the Amanzi Private Game Reserve near Brandfort in the Free State. This pioneering initiative, headed by Prof Francois Deacon from the Department of Animal Science at the UFS, represents a milestone for conservation science, combining advanced research infrastructure with an ethical, welfare-centred approach to studying one of Africa’s most iconic species. Vet’s Hub spoke to Prof Deacon about the significance of this facility, the urgent challenges facing giraffe conservation, and the scientific innovations that may shape the species’ future. The launch marks the next major phase of a research journey

Crucially, giraffe welfare is prioritised. Welfare is non-

already more than a decade in the making. During this time, Prof

negotiable, stresses Prof Deacon. The centre uses low-stress

Deacon and his collaborators have substantially advanced global

handling, ethical monitoring protocols, controlled environments,

understanding of giraffe behaviour, physiology, reproduction,

and veterinary oversight to ensure giraffes remain calm

movement ecology, and disease. Building on these insights,

and healthy.

it became clear that a dedicated research centre was needed,

“Research happens with the giraffes, not at their expense.

one that could integrate education, cutting-edge science, and

This approach allows scientists to conduct research that

conservation in a single purpose-built facility.

would otherwise be impossible, while maintaining the highest

What sets this new centre apart is its integrated, multidisciplinary design. It is Africa’s first integrated giraffe research

ethical standards.”

centre that combines education, cutting-edge reproductive

Why giraffes matter

science, conservation partnerships, and in vitro research access

Beyond their iconic beauty, giraffes are ecological architects.

in one space. Few places globally offer this level of controlled

They shape tree structure, distribute seeds, open up woodlands,

but naturalistic study on a long-necked species with such

and support countless smaller species. Remove giraffes, and

complex physiology.

Researchers collect vital biological samples before the giraffes are assisted to stand again.

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Research flagships for the next five-years The launch of the facility unlocks a suite of major scientific programmes. The team is launching flagship programmes on advanced reproduction, genetics, physiology, movement ecology, and conservation training. Within five years, they aim to establish a genetic biobank, refine embryo and semen technologies, and train a generation of African wildlife specialists. By linking research infrastructure with academic training, the UFS intends to strengthen the next generation of African conservation scientists.

Using low-stress handling, ethical monitoring protocols, controlled environments and continuous veterinary oversight, the centre ensures that giraffes remain calm, safe and healthy throughout every procedure. savannas slowly lose their balance, biodiversity declines, and

in nature, but a vulnerability when fences, farms, and conflict box

iconic African landscapes fundamentally change.

them in,” explains Prof Deacon.

Unlike other high-profile African mammals, giraffes are disappearing quietly, stresses Prof Deacon. “Giraffes are disappearing because their world is shrinking.

Some giraffe lineages fare better than others. Several populations are down to just a few hundred individuals. Small, isolated groups suffer most from inbreeding and habitat loss.

Habitat loss, bushmeat poaching, climate-driven vegetation

Some Southern giraffe lineages are stable, but others, especially

change, and genetic erosion in isolated populations together

in Central and East Africa, face severe, region-specific pressures,

create a ‘silent extinction’. They do not crash dramatically like

he adds.

elephants or rhinos, they fade away quietly, which makes the crisis even more dangerous.” This slow decline means populations are often in trouble

Alarmingly, the captive population, often thought of as a genetic safety net, may be less secure than assumed. “The supposed ‘genetic safety net’ in captivity has now been

long before the crisis becomes visible. Fragmentation, fencing,

exposed as deeply flawed. Recent reports show that many of

agricultural expansion, and human-wildlife conflict threaten

these captive giraffes are far more closely related than previously

their ability to move, browse, breed, and maintain healthy

believed, making them genetically inbred and therefore ineffective

genetic diversity.

as a backup population,” he says.

“Giraffes rely on tall trees, large home ranges, and

The implications are grave: It means the world cannot rely on

uninterrupted movement corridors. When people fragment

zoos to safeguard giraffe diversity, and losing wild populations

landscapes, giraffes lose food, mates, and safe passage long

would result in the irreversible loss of entire species.

before other grazers feel the impact. Their height is an advantage

“Protecting each species in the wild is now absolutely

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essential because our captive ‘insurance population’ is far weaker

giraffes gain jobs, education, tourism opportunities, and long-

and more compromised than anyone expected.”

term land value when giraffes thrive. Conservation succeeds only

Taken together, these threats create an urgent conservation imperative, underscoring why innovative interventions are now essential.

Innovations to safeguard giraffe survival Apart from scientific innovations, partnerships will play a huge

when local people see giraffes as assets, not competitors. South African institutions and private reserves also play essential roles. “Universities provide science, skills, and training; the private sector provides land, animals, infrastructure, and long-term continuity. Together, they form a powerful engine for sustainable wildlife research.”

role in safeguarding giraffe survival. Modern reproductive biology

Looking ahead: Urgency and hope

like artificial insemination, ovum pick-up, and embryo transfer

Despite the challenges, Prof Deacon remains optimistic but warns

are pivotal. These technologies will allow us to rescue genetics

that action must be swift.

from dwindling groups, boost small populations, and rebuild lost bloodlines without moving animals across borders. Prof Deacon stresses that technologies should be used

“Hope comes from science, collaboration, and a continent that still values its wildlife. But time is short. We must protect habitat, connect isolated populations, fund research and postgraduate

carefully, transparently, and only when they strengthen

students to pursue giraffe research initiatives, and embrace

conservation outcomes. Successful use of these technologies in

modern reproductive tools or risk losing giraffes within our lifetime

giraffes could open doors for other endangered megafauna.

and for our kids to enjoy.”

“The techniques we develop for giraffes such as

The UFS Giraffe Research Centre represents exactly the

cryopreservation, embryo work, in vitro fertilisation can support

kind of bold, science-driven approach needed to safeguard the

other large mammals battling low numbers, low birth rates, or

species. As the first facility of its kind anywhere in the world,

genetic bottlenecks.”

it positions South Africa as a global leader in giraffe biology,

Prof Deacon emphasises that giraffe conservation depends

conservation innovation, and wildlife research training.

on global and local partnerships. By pooling genetics, research

Through continued collaboration, ethical research, and

data, technologies, and training, we reduce duplication and reach

community engagement, Prof Deacon and his team hope to

solutions faster. Giraffe conservation demands a global network –

ensure that future generations will stand beneath the same

from African reserves to international labs.

towering silhouettes that have shaped Africa’s landscapes

Local communities are central. Communities living near

One of the biggest developments in giraffe science has global implications One of the biggest developments in giraffe science is the recognition of four distinct giraffe species. Prof Deacon explains the significance: “Recognising four distinct giraffe species exposes a serious and urgent conservation problem. For decades, the world treated all giraffes as a single, widespread species, creating the illusion of a large, stable population. In reality, each species has its own evolutionary history, unique genetics, specific threats, and different management needs.” This shift does not only change scientific classification. It reveals how dangerously fragmented and vulnerable giraffe conservation has become. Instead of one large, resilient population, we now have four separate lineages, some with alarmingly small and declining numbers, he adds.

for millennia. U

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Biting into the wild

Prof Gerhard Steenkamp on the evolution of veterinary dentistry Once a niche area within veterinary medicine, animal dentistry has evolved into a dynamic discipline that bridges anatomy, evolution, and conservation. Prof Gerhard Steenkamp, based at the Small Animal Surgery at Onderstepoort Veterinary Hospital, University of Pretoria, reflects on the field’s remarkable journey – from its experimental beginnings to its growing role in advancing both animal welfare and scientific understanding.

Veterinary dentistry is one of the newer fields of veterinary

Today, the field is as diverse as the animal kingdom itself –

science and only dates back to the middle/late 1980’s, Prof

from tiny rodents to elephants with tusks that weigh more than

Steenkamp explains. Dentists up to that point were often asked

most humans.

to help with animals on an ad hoc basis. As more veterinarians became involved in the field, it was only natural that we would

Tooth tales: Evolution’s blueprint

expand into all the creatures we work with. From those early days,

Understanding animal teeth is not just about fixing fractures – it is

the discipline quickly evolved.

about tracing millions of years of evolution.

“We realised that all animals, especially those in captivity, do

“Comparative odontology is the study of dental evolution,

suffer from dental and maxillofacial disease and from time to time

comparing tooth structures, their development, and functions

will require treatment,” he says.

across different species to understand their evolutionary adaptations and relationships,” Prof Steenkamp says. He insists that knowledge of form and function must precede treatment. “Before you can treat any tooth, you need to understand its origin and function. By doing this you can restore the function of the tooth. Aesthetics does not play any role in the work we do – it’s all about making the animal comfortable in order to continue with its normal function and doing so pain-free.”

Skulls, secrets, and the struggle for data Behind every dental textbook lies a museum’s worth of skulls – or at least, there should be. “Access to well-preserved skulls of which all the metadata is available,” he explains, “is crucial. Ageing of these skulls is often non-existent and this will cause problems in interpreting pathologies.” Accurate anatomical data is the cornerstone of Prof Steenkamp on one of his many global missions performing the first-

wildlife dentistry, yet it is often the hardest thing to find.

ever elephant general anaesthetic in Cambodia. Here, he extracts the tusk of

Without it, researchers cannot fully understand species-

Chi Chlorb in a groundbreaking procedure that lasted just 90 minutes from

specific dental disease – or design better treatments for

sedation to standing, a remarkable success story.

animals in captivity.

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When a toothache turns deadly A chipped molar may sound minor, but in the wild, it can mean the difference between life and death. “Fractured teeth with pulp exposure will initially cause pain which will cause the animal to eat less. Chronic pain will also make the animal socialise less than normal,” Prof Steenkamp says. For predators, pain can reduce hunting efficiency. For herbivores, it can lead to malnutrition. Interestingly, he adds, there are no dental conditions that are more prevalent in wildlife than in domestic animals – it is rather the other way around. Captivity, diet, and stress, it seems, make domesticated animals more prone to dental issues than their wild cousins.

Extract or preserve? Function rules When it comes to treatment decisions, Prof Steenkamp applies a simple philosophy. “It is all about function and being pain-free. Those are the two most important factors for me.” Whether it is a cheetah’s canine or a rhino’s molar, he evaluates one thing above all else – can the animal live and feed

In captivity they are often fed diets containing mince and eggs and they are renowned to develop dental abscesses. The same with black rhinos, who are browsers, being fed a grazer diet. The dental wear in these species in captivity has been shown to be abnormal.” Captive diets, while nutritionally balanced, can undermine the natural cleaning mechanisms wild diets provide – a reminder that even the best intentions can have unintended consequences.

Post-extraction: The healing touch Once a tooth is gone, the challenge becomes recovery. “In captivity these animals are seen daily, and adequate pain relief and diet adaptation can be done to make sure they are comfortable and maintain their daily dietary requirements,” Prof Steenkamp says. Pain management, observation, and diet modification are key to ensuring smooth recovery – luxuries not afforded to animals in the wild.

without pain? If not, the tooth must go.

Veterinary dentistry: The ultimate team sport

Tusk talk: Nature’s ingenious tools

“Veterinary dentistry has really exploded over the last 30-years,”

“The obvious ones are the warthog and the elephant,” he says, when asked about fascinating dental adaptations. “Both animals have teeth (tusks as they are outside the oral cavity), but they play no part during mastication of food. Their tusks are utensils developed for digging and debarking trees.” These examples show that teeth are far more than eating instruments – they are tools of survival, weapons of defence, and, in some cases, social status symbols.

Crocodile clues and regenerative dreams Few species capture the imagination of comparative odontologists quite like crocodiles. “This has been an avenue for research for many years,” Prof Steenkamp notes. “It stands to reason that if we can incorporate those genes that are responsible for continuous tooth production in crocodiles into humans, we can preserve the dentition in humans for a longer period of time.” But it is not that simple. “There will always need to be some switch on/switch off mechanism involved.” Still, the idea that a reptile could one day inspire permanent human teeth is a thrilling thought for both medical and dental researchers.

he reflects. “Initially there was tremendous input from dentists, but today veterinarians specialising in dentistry and especially zoo and wildlife dentistry have developed the necessary skills to treat our patients.” The field has become deeply collaborative. “There are also other branches in the veterinary field that we use commonly like anaesthetists and radiologists. I maintain veterinary science is a ‘team sport’. We need to work together to ultimately treat the animal as best as we can.” This teamwork extends beyond the hospital – to engineers, conservationists, and even geneticists.

Engineering bigger, better, kinder tools “Every year people are coming up with new ways of treating dental disease in wildlife. The main development is on equipment, especially equipment needed for large animals. Here collaboration with engineers is essential,” Prof Steenkamp explains. From designing tools capable of handling an elephant’s molar to creating lightweight devices for field dentistry, innovation is redefining what’s possible in animal care.

When diet and dentistry collide If there is one rule in nature, it is that you are what you eat. “Form follows function,” says Prof Steenkamp. “Animals have teeth that are adapted to the normal diet they should be eating. In captivity we often have to give different diets as the normal diet is not available. This can lead to an increase in dental wear and dental disease.” He offers a striking example: “Aardvark, which are myrmacophageous (eats ants) and especially of the Formicidae family – the formic acid helps to keep the oral cavity healthy.

Understanding a tooth’s origin and function is essential. Treatment restores comfort and normal function, with aesthetics secondary

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Training tooth tamers

contagious. “Future research is really going to be bound by

Not every veterinarian leaves university ready to perform dental

our imagination and money. We will keep on expanding our

surgery on a leopard. “I do not believe that dental treatment of

knowledge from the species we see commonly to those we see

wildlife is part of the day one competency of a veterinary student,”

less common. Together with the dentistry knowledge, we will

he says. “Of course, most faculties train them on the dental

also learn more about safe anaesthesia protocols for animals we

treatment of small carnivores (dogs and cats) as well as equids.

do not anaesthetise frequently or those that are simply difficult

These basic principles can be employed on many wildlife species.”

to anaesthetise.”

Real expertise takes years. “To become experienced in wildlife

As the tools, techniques, and technology continue to advance,

dentistry takes time and is dependent on what you get exposed to

veterinary dentistry is no longer just about saving teeth – it

and where you work. Some of us do give lectures and wet labs at

is about improving lives, preserving species, and unlocking

conferences to veterinarians to expose them to the finer nuances.”

the evolutionary secrets hidden behind every bite. Or as Prof Steenkamp puts it, simply and powerfully: “It’s all about function

Guardians of the guardians

and being pain-free.” U

Wildlife dentistry even plays an indirect role in conservation. “Firstly, we make sure the patrol dogs used for anti-poaching remain healthy and their dental health is part of this. With them healthy they can perform their duties well and in so doing help save our wildlife. Secondly, we play a role in conservation breeding programmes where you want to make sure all breeding animals are as healthy as possible (dental health included) to make sure they can breed at an optimal rate.” Healthy teeth, healthy ecosystems – it is a connection few outside the field would ever consider.

First, do no harm Ethics underpin everything. “Scientific accuracy is nonnegotiable. As veterinarians we live by the motto of ‘First do no harm’. If I cannot prove a treatment safe and beneficial for animals, I will refrain from performing it.” It is a principle that keeps veterinary dentistry grounded, even as it expands into uncharted scientific territory.

An elephant, a tooth, and a genetic secret Few stories illustrate the field’s scientific crossover quite like one of Prof Steenkamp’s most memorable cases. “A few years ago, scientists came to remove some of the periodontal ligament tissue from a tusk I had to extract on an elephant. This tissue was used in research to prove elephants have multiple p53 genes.” The finding was extraordinary. “These genes are very important to suppress abnormal division of cells which can form cancer. Humans only have one of these genes and elephants up to 10. This possibly helps us to understand why they develop very few tumours compared to humans which live nearly as long.” What began as a dental extraction became a contribution to global cancer research – a testament to the unexpected intersections of veterinary science.

The future Looking ahead, Prof Steenkamp’s optimism is

An elephant in distress from a fractured tusk is nothing new to Prof Steenkamp. In Cambodia’s Kulen Elephant Forest, he successfully treated Chi Chlorb, who made a smooth recovery following the tusk extraction.

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