After the war - Commemoration and celebration in Europe

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AFTER THE WAR

COMMEMORATION AND CELEBRATION IN EUROPE

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Applied Research

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Applied Research

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Editorial Team © Nationaal Comite 4 en 5 mei Amsterdam, November 2014

Dutch texts on Western Europe: Renske Krimp ma Dutch texts on Eastern Europe: Remco Reiding Dutch texts, General Introduction and Introduction to Photo Essay: Esther Captain PhD Image selection: Mieke Sobering Photo Essay: Otto Snoek English translation & copyediting: Word’s Worth, – www.wordsworth.nl Design & layout: Martijn Luns – www.bureauLuns.nl Printing: Roto Smeets, Utrecht Copyright of the texts is maintained by the National Committee for 4 and 5 May and by the individual authors. Reproduction in whole or in part is not permitted. Photos and illustrations are copyright. The National Committee for 4 and 5 May has attempted to trace the copyright owners of the photographic material and to acquire their consent for this publication. Whosoever claims copyright, personality right, any other right, or privacy infringement, is advised to contact the National Committee for 4 and 5 May. This report was printed using plant-based ink on FSC certified paper.

ISBN 978-90-77294-12-3 www.4en5mei.nl

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After the War | Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

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Table of Content 4 6

Introduction Analysis: To every Nation its Own Commemoration

10 12 14 16 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 27 28 29 30 32 33 35 36 37

Western Europe and Israel The Netherlands Belgium Denmark Germany Finland Greece France Ireland Iceland Italy, San Marino and Vatican City Luxembourg Malta Norway Austria Portugal, Spain and Andorra Turkey United Kingdom Sweden Switzerland and Liechtenstein Israel

39 40

On the Edges of Protocol Photo Essay by Otto Snoek

55 57 61 63 64 66 68 70 71 73 74 75 77 78 79 81 82 84 86 88 90

Eastern Europe Soviet Union (1922-1991) Russia Ukraine Belarus Estonia Latvia Lithuania Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Yugoslavia (1917-1992) Croatia Macedonia Serbia Slovenia Bulgaria Hungary Poland Romania Slovakia Czech Republic

92 93

Bios and Sources Editorial Team

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H 4 A FTER TH E WAR

Introduction

ow does Europe commemorate World War II and celebrate liberation? Recently The Dutch National Committee for 4 and 5 May discussed what shape war commemorations should take in the future. This also prompted the question how other European countries are currently observing war anniversaries. The committee already had some data at its disposal, gathered in 1995 in a joint research project with the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Dutch embassies abroad. The project had revealed a general inaccessibility of relevant information since few countries had an organization dedicated to war remembrance.

As far as we know, no new studies have been conducted into national commemorative and celebratory practices in Europe after 1995. It seemed sensible, therefore, to do new research into current commemoration traditions in Europe. In keeping with the National Committee’s applied research remit, Renske Krimp and Remco Reiding carried out a short-term research project in 2013. This report reflects their findings.

Their study starts from the situation in The Netherlands. This country observes the anniversary of the war’s end on two consecutive days, 4 and 5 May. On the 4th , the nation remembers the victims of World War II. On the 5th , the Dutch celebrate the liberation from German and Japanese occupation and the blessings of liberty in a more general sense. The Dutch tradition of remembrance and celebration is a relatively new one. So, for this study, we asked ourselves what lessons our nation could learn from others. What do other countries commemorate and celebrate, and when? Who is involved? What issues are these countries debating, if any, with regard to post-war commemoration and celebration?

Scope | This publication describes 45 countries in all, including several city-states in Western Europe and one non-European country: Israel. We included Israel because many of its inhabitants are first, second or third-generation immigrants from Europe. As a result of this demographic, war experiences in Europe have informed Israel’s commemoration culture. In fact,

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the memory of the Holocaust was central to the rationale for establishing the state of Israel. This report also includes data from the former Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. We included them because recent Eastern European history and its influence on commemoration and celebration cannot be understood without acknowledging the commemorative legacy of these conglomerate states. Due to time restrictions, we could not include overseas territories of the nations in this study.

How to Read this Report | Before reading this report, it is helpful to know how it is structured. Each country is listed individually. Each country section begins with general observations and analysis. The countries have been divided into Eastern and Western Europe along the historical dividing line that emerged after World War II. Roughly speaking, that line is former Nazi Germany; everything to the west is treated as

The section on Western Europe starts with The Netherlands, the point of departure for this study. The remaining Western European nations are discussed in the order in which they appeared in the orginal, Dutch version of this study.

Eastern European countries are clustered as follows: first the former Soviet Socialist Republics, followed by the former Yugoslav Republics and finally other Eastern and Central European countries. For each country, we have included a list of commemorations and celebrations.

For readability’s sake, most of the references are not included in this text, but are retrievable online at: www.4en5mei.nl/onderzoek/toegepastonderzoek /her-denken_en_vieren_in_Europa Finally, we must stress that this report is no more than a snapshot. As if to illustrate this point, Ukraine saw daily anti-government protests while the researchers were rounding off this study. It is impossible to predict how this situation will develop and what impact it will have on commemoration practices. This publication is a first exploration of the way in which Europe commemorates the loss resulting from war and – where applicable – celebrates the freedom brought by war’s end. Hopefully, this study will provide new insights, spark off fresh debate about commemoration and celebration, and engender innovative research questions. | Amsterdam, March 2014

5 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Methodology | This report is based on questionnaires, literature studies, our own research and an exchange of knowledge with key people at embassies and in networks such as the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA). Our researchers started gathering information by sending questionnaires to foreign embassies in The Netherlands and to Dutch diplomatic missions in Europe. At least one questionnaire was sent to a total of 51 states, some of which do not host a consular post of The Netherlands. The researchers received at least one response from 41 countries, and from some countries two or more responses. For some non-respondent countries, we were able to describe commemoration and celebration practices based on other sources. Some countries, however, were left out entirely because researchers either were unable to obtain sufficient information or ran out of time for additional research (Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cyprus, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro). The questionnaires proved to be an excellent means of collecting information in a short period of time. The responses to the closed questions provided useful comparative data and also proved a rich source of contacts who dealt with our additional questions and requests for in-depth interviews.

Western Europe and all countries to the east as Eastern Europe. Because this division influenced the development of commemoration in European nations, it became a guiding principle for the structure of this report. The division also reflects the expertise of historians Renske Krimp and Remco Reiding, who are specialized in Western Europe and Eastern Europe respectively. Since the war, the face of Europe has undergone major changes. Some countries categorized as Eastern European in this publication are now members or aspiring members of the European Union.

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W 6 A FTER TH E WAR

Analysis To every nation its own commemoration

hen people speak of ‘the war’ in The Netherlands, they mean World War II, which consisted of the invasion by Nazi Germany, the German occupation and the Allied liberation. In many other countries, the war took a radically different course. Poland, for instance, was invaded from both sides, while Spain was mostly left untouched and some countries (like England, Switzerland and Azerbaijan) were never occupied. Likewise, the end of the war brought vastly different experiences in different places. The Netherlands welcomed Americans, Canadians, Brits and Poles as their liberators, while the Baltic states saw the Soviet Army as their new occupiers.

In The Netherlands, armed conflict lasted six days, while in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine it raged on for years. The Holocaust took the lives of 700 Jews from Norway, and over two million Jews from Poland. In other words, no two European nations experienced the same war, or the same aftermath of war. For some, World War II was a brief disruption of the status quo, while for others it marked a radical change because of territory lost (Hungary), borders redrawn (Poland) or the end of independence and (renewed) occupation (the Baltic states).

Just as the war was different for every nation, so are its commemorations. Our study shows that the historical and geopolitical context and the war’s impact on the population determine the shape and popularity of commemorations.

Whether and how a country commemorates war depends on: – the death toll; – the extent of persecution (e.g. Jews, Roma); – how much armed conflict took place; – which side the country was on (commemorating lives lost fighting for the Axis powers is controversial); – the extent of foreign occupation; – war-related geopolitical changes (loss of independence or territory); – losses suffered in World War I or recent armed conflicts.

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Some countries that did not actively participate in World War II do organize commemorations as a warning against repeating history, e.g. Spain’s Holocaust Memorial Day. Commemoration and/or Celebration | The Netherlands and Denmark are the only two European countries that have separate Remembrance and Liberation days, on 4 and 5 May. Most nations mark the anniversary of World War II on a single day, often on the date when Nazi Germany capitulated (former Soviet Union), the country was occupied (Greece) or liberated (Norway), or the population rose up in rebellion (former Yugoslav Republics).

Where a single day is devoted to World War II, it can be hard to determine whether it is a day of commemoration, celebration, or both. This ambiguity was also apparent in the responses to our questionnaire. In Russia, Ukraine and Georgia, the military parade, the focus on veterans and the fireworks on Victory Day suggest a celebration, but 9 May is also the day to commemorate the millions of war victims. The Russians call it ‘a celebration with tears in their eyes’.

7 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Who Do We Commemorate? | Commemorations are marked by the symbolism of mourning: wreaths, candles and low-key, reflective ceremonies.

Commemoration in Western Europe is deeply influenced by World War I. Commemoration dates often have their roots in the Great War. Belgium, Great Britain, Serbia and Malta remember only or mostly World War I victims. The French remember the victims of World War I and II on separate dates and Turkey mainly commemorates World War I battles led by Atatürk. But in these countries too, World War II is gaining more importance in commemoration.

Israeli and German flags flying at half staff in front of the German

Several Western European nations (The Netherlands, Norway, Finland, the UK and Ireland) have expanded their World War II commemoration to include victims of more recent peacekeeping missions and wars.

Poland has a national holiday to commemorate the Warsaw Uprising. It also has separate days to remember the Nazi and Soviet invasions, the mass murder of officers in Katyn, the victims of Nazi concentration camps and the persecution of Sinti and Roma.

Reichstag to mark Holocaust Memorial Day, Berlin, 27 January 2010. (© Reuters/Fabrizio Bensch)

Former Soviet Republics typically commemorate Soviet soldiers and honor World War II veterans on Victory Day. Former Yugoslavia tends to focus on the Partisans who fought the occupying forces.

The Baltic states remember all victims of war on both sides, except war criminals.

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Western Europe tends to commemorate its own citizens and soldiers, and in some cases its liberators (Austria). National victims of persecution are usually remembered during the national commemoration, while Holocaust victims are commemorated on Holocaust Memorial Day. Western European countries often have a separate day for commemorating the dead or honoring veterans.

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Holocaust Memorial Day – In 2005, the President of the UN General Assembly declared 27 January International Holocaust Remembrance Day (or Holocaust Memorial Day). The Holocaust is the systematic genocide of the Jews in World War II. The date marks the anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz in 1945. A growing number of countries are taking part in this initiative and organize events on this date.

One of the driving forces behind Holocaust Memorial Day is the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. The IHRA lobbies for remembrance, education and research with the aim of ensuring the Holocaust is never forgotten. As of 2014, it has 31 member countries, mostly in Europe.

In most former Soviet Republics, the Holocaust gets less attention, partly because of the staggering 26 million Soviet lives lost in World War II. In addition, the USSR structurally suppressed national and ethnic sentiments; the Holocaust as such was not acknowledged. Armenia’s limited recognition of the Holocaust is partly rooted in Israel’s refusal to acknowledge the Armenian genocide.

Various Central European countries do not recognize Holocaust Memorial Day, but do remember the genocide of the Jews on dates when key events in their own country took place, for example the first deportations (Romania, Macedonia), the establishment or destruction of a ghetto (Hungary, Lithuania), the adoption of repressive laws (Slovakia) or the burning down of a synagogue (Latvia).

Celebrating Freedom | Not all countries have a special day to celebrate their liberation or freedom, like The Netherlands on 5 May, but many do uphold the same values in other ways. Countries may celebrate winning the war (Victory Day in Russia), or winning a particular battle (Turkey, Finland), or gaining independence (Independence Day, Day of the Republic, Constitution Day). These days tend to emphasize national unity and are usually celebrated with great fanfare, military parades, concerts and/or fireworks. These are major, if not the most important, public holidays.

Birth and Evolution of Traditions | Traditions do not evolve solely from a society’s wants and needs, they can also be a vehicle for governments to create social cohesion. In the Soviet Union, for instance, World War II commemoration evolved into remembering a heroic struggle against a common enemy.

Victory Day became a way for the Communist regime to stress the need for a unanimously communist Eastern European bloc against the capitalist West. In times of political change, holidays gain even more importance because they are an opportunity for the authorities to lay a symbolic foundation for their ideology. Since the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, the commemorative calendar in the former Warsaw Pact countries has seen many changes. Independence gave governments a chance to start differentiating.

The Baltic states immediately distanced themselves from communism by abolishing old commemorations and establishing new traditions aimed at remembering the victims of the Communist reign of terror. The tone changed from celebratory to commemorative. In a similar move, war monuments from the Soviet era were defaced (Bulgaria), moved (Estonia) or torn down (Georgia). These incidents angered Moscow, local ethnic Russians and local Communists.

Some countries made more subtle changes by renaming Victory Day ‘Victory over Fascism’ Day and adding new national commemoration days to celebrate independence, the constitution or the national

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of the D-Day landings, at the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in Colleville-sur-Mer, 6 June 2014. (© Reuters/Kevin Lamarque)

flag. In the former Yugoslav republics, several governments moved Anti-Fascist Struggle Day to the date on which their republic established its own Partisan unit.

The Future of Commemoration | Commemorative and celebratory traditions are not etched in stone.

In The Netherlands too, they are the subject of ongoing debate. Traditions often propagate a symbolic ideal (like ‘Never Again’). However, a change of government can rekindle the debate on what these traditions symbolize.

With a dwindling number of survivors, the war is turning from personal memory into history. This shift also changes the meaning assigned to the war.

In 2011, Norway renamed its commemoration day Veterans Day and widened the focus to victims of more recent wars. This does not mean that the custom of commemoration is dying out, however. In 2012, Serbia introduced a public holiday devoted to the commemoration of World War I.

A Single European Commemoration? – A remembrance day for all of Europe seems a long way off. After all, every nation remembers its own war victims and celebrates its own liberation or freedom. Holocaust Memorial Day is one of the few international commemorations and its recognition is on the rise.

However, this day commemorates a specific group of victims and nowhere in Europe does it have a national character. Several EU member states recognize 9 May as Europe Day and some give civil servants the day off, but the holiday is not widely known. |

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Barack Obama (R) and his French counterpart Francois Hollande, after laying a wreath to mark the 70th Anniversary

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The Netherlands On 4 May, The Netherlands commemorates Dutch victims of World War II. On 5 May, the country celebrates its freedom.

10 A FTER TH E WAR

Western Europe and Israel

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he division of commemoration and celebration into two separate days was the result of pressure from resistance groups immediately after the war.

Former resistance members considered it inappropriate to celebrate freedom and mourn the dead on the same day. They felt the emotions evoked were incompatible.

Local Traditions | Since The Netherlands did not participate in World War I and had no war victims to remember, the country had a blank canvas for devising its own commemorations and celebrations after World War II. Dutch traditions developed locally. Every city or village had a council, committee, association or foundation that organized a remembrance ceremony on 4 May (or a date of greater local significance), and festivities on 5 May. Other commemorations, organized by national war victims’ associations, mark the liberation of camps where Dutch people died, such as Mauthausen, Auschwitz and Ravensbrück. Forced laborers and hostages also commemorate their war pasts on specific dates. And there are special ceremonies to Main Public Holidays 27 Apr. King’s Day 4 May (1945) Remembrance Day, in honor of the Dutch victims of World War II and all armed conflicts since (working day) 5 May (1945) Liberation Day, anniversary of the German capitulation and the beginning of freedom Commemoration Days (working days) 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz 15 Aug. (1945) End of the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia)

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National commemoration ceremony on the occasion of Remembrance Day on Dam Square, Amsterdam, 4 May 2012. (© Onno de Bever)

commemorate major events such as the Rotterdam Blitz. On 15 August, The Netherlands commemorates the Japanese capitulation and the war victims in the former Dutch East Indies colony, now Indonesia. Apart from 4 and 5 May, there are at least 40 other days on the yearly calendar when a war-related event is commemorated. World War II as a whole is commemorated on 4 May, national Remembrance Day. Remembrance Day | At 8 p.m. on 4 May, the Dutch nation observes two minutes of silence in memory of the victims of war. The Netherlands remembers the Dutch victims of all armed conflicts since the start of World War II. The ceremony in Amsterdam generally follows a ‘fixed’ protocol with recurring elements. The memorandum describing who is remembered has been updated several times over the past 70 years. In 1961, the group was expanded to include war victims from other armed conflicts since World War II, e.g. in the Dutch East Indies, New Guinea and Korea. Later, those who died during peacekeeping missions were added. Remembrance Day is the only collective ceremony in The Netherlands that commemorates all these victims.

The proceedings on Amsterdam’s Dam Square are attended by the monarch, MPs and cabinet members. At 6 p.m., the flag is raised and then lowered to half staff. The ceremony is preceded by a commemorative service in De Nieuwe Kerk, which is broadcast live on national radio and TV. Shortly before 8 p.m. the Dutch monarch lays a wreath at the National War Memorial on Dam Square. Immediately afterwards, a bugle call – the Taptoe, the Dutch equivalent of the Last Post – signals the start of the two-minute silence. Next, the first verse of the Dutch national anthem is sung. Then the winner of an annual young people’s poetry contest recites the winning poem. This is followed by a wreathlaying ceremony at the war memorial. Survivors are the first to lay a wreath, because their experiences are key. Next, a prominent Dutch citizen addresses the crowd and four more wreaths are laid by the speakers of both houses of parliament, the cabinet, the armed forces and the city of Amsterdam.

Celebrating Freedom | On 5 May, The Netherlands celebrates its enduring freedom. That day is the anniversary of the German surrender. It is when the country celebrates its liberation from German

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occupation and the end of the Japanese occupation in Asia in 1945, and the fact that since then, it has been free from war and oppression. However, because people elsewhere are still suffering from armed conflicts and human rights violations, 5 May is also a day for the Dutch nation to reflect on the lack of freedom in other countries.

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The National Celebration of Liberation Day is a pivotal moment between the 4 May commemorations and the 5 May festivities. Also known as the Fifth of May Address, it is held in a different Dutch province every year. This province highlights the blessings of freedom in the run-up to the event. Since 1997, the National Committee for 4 and 5 May has invited a prominent speaker to deliver the address reflecting on the fragility of freedom.

Liberation Festivals | In the afternoon of 5 May, 14 liberation festivals take place in the 12 Dutch provinces and 2 major cities. People celebrate their freedom at live concerts, but the festivals also feature more reflective content, such as debates and NGO information booths. The underlying idea is that 5 May is not just a party, but also an occasion to appreciate the privileges of living in freedom.

Liberation festivals are a chance for young people to realize that liberty should not be taken for granted. The festivals have become the largest oneday cultural event in The Netherlands, drawing as many as one million visitors. Every year, the National Committee for 4 and 5 May appoints Ambassadors of Freedom: well-known Dutch performing artists who generate media attention in the run-up to 5 May. On the day itself, the Ministry of Defense flies the Ambassadors in army helicopters from one festival stage to another.

The day’s festivities conclude with the 5 May Concert on the River Amstel, attended by the King, MPs and cabinet members. Every year, a different Dutch orchestra and famous Dutch artists perform on a stage in the middle of the river. This free concert is broadcast live on TV, drawing more than one million viewers. |

Belgium C

ommemoration in Belgium revolves mainly around World War I, or the Great War, which devastated the country. This goes for the Walloon region, but even more so for Flanders. Ypres, which is centrally located in the Flemish Westhoek region, is home to the popular In Flanders Fields museum.

It is also home to the Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing, where the missing soldiers of Commonwealth nations are commemorated. Every evening at 8 p.m., there is a ceremony to commemorate the victims of World War I. This attracts many visitors; the battlefields at Ypres have become a popular tourist destination. World War I figures prominently in Belgium’s national collective memory. Remembrance Day is on 11 November, the date on which

Main Public Holidays 11 July (1973) Day of the Flemish Community, in honor of the victory against the French army in 1302 (observed by the Flemish community only) 21 July (1831) Belgian National Day, anniversary of the King’s oath of allegiance to the constitution (1831) (day off) 27 Sept. (1975) Holiday, in honor of the victory of the French patriots in 1831 (observed by the French community only) 15 Nov. (1831) King’s Day, an official holiday in Belgium’s German-speaking community Commemoration Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz 11 Nov. (1918) Remembrance Day, the national commemoration of both World Wars (on 11 Nov. or the Sunday closest to it)

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the armistice of World War I was signed in 1918.

Wallonia focuses its commemoration on the Battle of the Bulge (December 1944 and January 1945), which is seen as the last battle on Belgian soil. The Battle of the Bulge is remembered every year in many Wallonian villages and towns, e.g. Bastogne, La Roche-en-Ardenne and Vielsalm. Small ceremonies remind onlookers of the victims and of the heavy fighting that took place in the Ardennes.

Remembrance Day | Since 1970, Remembrance Day in Belgium has been devoted to commemorating all the men and women who have given their lives for freedom since World War I. This includes the victims of World War II. Civil society organizations, such as the Flemish 11.11.11 coalition, organize local ceremonies all over the country. The coalition’s name refers to the time and date when World War I ended, i.e. on 11 November at 11 o’clock in the morning. At the national level, the Ministry of the Interior is involved in organizing Remembrance Day. Every year, the king, who is commander-inchief of the armed forces, lays a wreath at the Monument for the Unknown Soldier in Brussels in the presence of the prime minister and representatives of war veterans’ organizations. Another important ceremony is the Poppy Parade at the Menin Gate in Ypres. Dignitaries, religious leaders, war veterans’ representatives and international guests carry images of poppies through the town center, after which buglers sound the Last Post. Every year, different foreign representatives are invited to attend the 11 November ceremonies. In 2011, for instance, several Olympic Medal winners were invited.

In addition to Remembrance Day, Belgium also observes Holocaust Memorial Day and Yom HaShoah to remember the victims of the Holocaust.|

Remembrance Day ceremony at the Menin Gate in Ypres, 11 November 2011. (© Menenpoort Huis)

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Denmark L

ike The Netherlands, Denmark remained neutral during World War I and therefore did not have a tradition of national remembrance until after World War II. These days, Denmark has no fewer than five freedom celebrations and remembrance days for war victims, and is debating establishing a sixth.

14 A FTER TH E WAR

Befrielse | Since 1945, 5 May marks the celebration of the liberation – Befrielse – from Nazi Germany.

The victims of World War II are remembered on the eve of this Liberation Day. When BBC radio officially announced the liberation at 8:30 p.m. on 4 May 1945, many Danes responded by lighting a candle in their window. This has become tradition ever since. A collective commemoration of the war dead is held ever year at Mindelunden, where many Danish victims lie buried. Wreaths are laid, there is a military parade and the national anthem is played.

Local ceremonies are held at several historical sites.

Main Public holidays 5 May (1945) Befrielse, or Liberation Day (working day ) 5 June (1849) Constitution Day (half a day off) 5 Sept. (2009) a flag-flying day honoring Danish military veterans and personnel who have served abroad Other Commemoration Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day) 9 Apr. (1943) Occupation Day, when Nazi Germany invaded Denmark 4 May (1945) Remembrance Day (working day)

The 4 and 5 May ceremonies in Denmark are organized by survivors’ organizations. The government is only actively involved in every fifth anniversary commemoration (in 2010, 2015, etc.). These are attended by the head of state. However, the prime minister, the education minister and several members of parliament are present every year, as are several British representatives. The commemoration focuses on remembering Danish civilian victims and their liberators. Although the 4 and 5 May ceremonies are officially dedicated to World War II, younger people’s speeches refer to current conflicts elsewhere in the world too. Public interest in 4 and 5 May is waning as World War II recedes further into the past. Just as in The Netherlands, Liberation Day is an official holiday, but employees do not get the day off work.

Wide Genocide Commemoration | A second Danish remembrance day for victims of World War II and the Holocaust is 9 April. On this day in 1943, the Nazi occupation of Denmark began. Germans and their former allies are explicitly invited to attend this commemoration. The Danish people believe that all victims should be remembered on this day, so there is no controversy about including Germans in the commemoration. However, this day is subject to another controversy in Danish society; the Resistance Museum considered striking this holiday from the calendar due to lack of public interest.

This provoked such vehement popular protests that the move has been postponed for the time being.

April 9 will continue to be commemorated until 2015 at least.

The third Danish commemoration day is dedicated to the Danes who have been killed on deployment in international post-World War II conflicts, for example on UN missions in Gaza in 1956 and in the Balkans, Iraq and Afghanistan over the past few decades. These people are remembered on 5 September, a flag-flying day officially recognized as a public holiday since 2009.

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den memorial park in Ryvangen, Hellerup, Copenhagen, 4 May 2008 (© Polfoto/Jens Panduro)

On 27 January, Denmark acknowledges Holocaust Memorial Day, using this day to remember not only the victims of the Holocaust but all victims of genocides since World War II. In 2013, extra ceremonies were held to commemorate the measures taken against the Jews 70 years prior, in October 1943.

Recently, a debate has erupted about whether 29 August should become another day of commemoration. On that day in 1943, the Danish authorities stopped cooperating with the Germans amid growing popular protest against their appeasement of the occupiers. Some Danes wish to mark this event on 29 August, but so far this proposal has not been approved. |

Queen Margrethe of Denmark attending the commemoration of the 60th anniversary of Denmark’s Liberation at Mindelunden memorial park in Ryvangen, Hellerup, Copenhagen, 5 May 2005. (© Polfoto/Christensen Klavs Bo)

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Commemoration of Denmark’s Liberation at Mindelun-

Its organization is in the hands of the Danish International Veterans’ Association, the same group that works with the Ministry of Defense to organize the celebrations on Constitution Day, on 5 June. This Grundlovsdag is seen as an opportunity to honor the heroes who fought for the Danish nation.

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Germany V

ast amounts have been published about German commemoration culture. Two good reasons for this are Germany’s extensive war past and its prominent role in those wars. Another reason is that the Germans in recent decades have developed an extraordinarily self-reflexive view of their nation’s past.

Volkstrauertag | Since 1919, Germany has marked Volkstrauertag, a national day of mourning held on 16 November, or the Sunday closest to it. This day was established to commemorate German soldiers who died in World War I. It was not officially recognized, however, because the Weimar constitution made no provisions for special holidays. As a result, the day has a different status from state to state within federal Germany. The National Socialists were the first to enshrine it, assigning it the official status of Heldengedenktag or Heroes Commemoration Day. Hero worship became its main ingredient, with the party (NSDAP) and the Wehrmacht at center stage. Joseph Goebbels issued guidelines for the celebrations; in 1939, he decreed that the nation’s flag be flown at full rather than half staff from then on. The Nazi regime changed the date of the festivities several times.

16 A FTER TH E WAR

International commemoration ceremony attended by foreign representatives on the eve of Volkstrauertag, Lilienthalstraße, Berlin, 16 November 2013. (© Uwe Zucchi)

Public Holiday (day off) 3 Oct. (1990) German Unity Day (day off) Commemoration Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day) 16 Nov. (1919) Volkstrauertag, national commemoration of the dead (on 16 Nov. or the Sunday closest to it)

It was not until 1952 that the ‘celebratory’ nature of this commemoration was re-evaluated. In order to break with hero worship and reinstate its character as a day of mourning, Parliament moved the new national remembrance day toward the end of the Christian year. This season is theologically linked to death and finiteness. Ever since, Volkstrauertag has been observed in November, primarily as a day of mourning.

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17 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Commemorating the dead at the Soviet Union war monument and war graves on the eve of Volkstrauertag, Schönholzer Heide, Berlin, 16 November 2013. (© Uwe Zucchi)

On this day, Germans remember all war victims since the end of World War I and other victims of terrorism and violence worldwide. It is devoted to German and Allied military victims, as well as victims of persecution and civilian casualties. Germany’s Volkstrauertag is organized by the Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge (the German war graves organization) in collaboration with the Federal Republic of Germany. The head of state, government officials and MPs are involved. The Bundestag observes a ‘remembrance hour,’ during which the federal president delivers an address before the chancellor and the government. Apart from speeches, there is also music. The meeting concludes with the German national anthem and another song: Der Gute Kamerad. Survivors and the relatives of victims also play a part. Every year, foreign ambassadors and military attachés are invited to attend. Other fixed ceremonies on Volkstrauertag include the lay-

ing of wreaths, a moment of silence, a silent march and a trumpet solo. Commemorations and an hour of remembrance are held nationwide.

Public interest in Volkstrauertag is waning as the numbers of those who lived through World War II decline. These were the generations who donated most to the war graves body that organizes the commemorative ceremonies. This is having an impact on the events organized and the number of people attending at the local level in particular.

Kristallnacht | In addition to Volkstrauertag, Germany has many local commemorations. These are held at different locations including former concentration camps and execution sites. Such local events are held on Holocaust Memorial Day and in memory of Kristallnacht. So far, the country has not introduced a specific time or event to celebrate its freedom. |

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Finland F

18 A FTER TH E WAR

inland commemorates all victims of the violence of war on the third Sunday in May, its national commemoration day. Initially, in 1940, the Fins commemorated all casualties of wars the nation had been involved in. Over time, new Finnish victims were included, such as soldiers who had been killed in peacekeeping missions. The third Sunday in May has strongly religious overtones.

Many commemorative ceremonies are held in churches after Sunday mass.

Veterans Day and Flag Day | Finland also has commemoration days specifically for its armed forces and war veterans.

National Defense Organizations marching along Tampere Hall, Tampere, Finland, on Independence Day, 6 December 2013. (© ANP/Lehtikuva)

A veterans’ lobby achieved their goal of a National Veterans Day in 1986. Since then, the day known as KansallinenVeteraanipaiva has been celebrated every year on 27 April. On this day in 1945, World War II and the war in Lapland ended. This public holiday is marked by flag flying, a national ceremony and local events in many churches. Honor guards pay respects at war grave sites and wreaths are laid.

Public Holidays 4 June (1952) Flag Day (working day) 6 Dec. (1917) Independence Day, anniversary of Finland’s independence from Russia (day off) Other Commemoration Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day) 27 Apr. (1945) Veterans Day (working day) 3rd Sun. in May National Remembrance Day for all wars

The sacrifices of the Finnish armed forces in World War II are commemorated on a separate day. The 4th of June is Flag Day and the birthday of Marshal Carl Gustaf Mannerheim, the country’s World War II commander-in-chief. The day his been marked by a parade since 1952, one year after his death. The first of these was held in Helsinki and it has moved to a new location every year since. Finland’s president always attends and awards decorations to military personnel.

Independence Day | The Fins celebrate their independence on 6 December. This public holiday is meant primarily to celebrate Finland’s independence from the Russian Empire in 1917. Independence Day begins with the raising of the flag on the Great Square in Helsinki. After attending this ceremony, the president and other prominent members of society worship together in Helsinki’s Lutheran Church. The delegation then visits World War II monuments. Many Finnish villages stage their own military parades. When evening falls, students in Helsinki take part in a traditional candlelight parade. Many civilians light a blue and a white candle in their window. The president hosts a traditional banquet to which some 2,000 guests are invited. |

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Greece Main Public Holidays 25 Mar.(1821) Independence Day (day off) 28 Oct. (1940) Ohi Day (day off) Other Commemoration Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day)

he Greeks commemorate OhiI Day (the Anniversary of the ‘No’) on 28 October. This ‘No’ refers to the Greek political resistance to the Italians that led to Greece’s involvement in World War II. On 28 October 1940, the Italian ambassador in Athens delivered the Greek government an ultimatum from Mussolini: guarantee Axis troops free passage and allow occupation of strategic loca-

Greek students celebrating Ohi Day with a parade.

Athens, Greece, 28 October 2012. (© HH/Demotix)

Anniversary of the ‘No’ | Although 28 October 1940 actually marked the beginning of Greece’s involvement in World War II, the Greeks see Ohi Day as a celebration of victory over fascism. Ohi Day is recognized in the constitution as an official public holiday. It is a combined commemoration, celebration and tribute to the armed forces. The Greeks fly the national flag and there is a military parade. They pay their respects to the victims of the war: military casualties, victims of persecution, civilians and victims in other countries. The head of state lays a wreath in their honor. The national commemoration in Athens is organized by various state institutions in cooperation with survivors’ organizations and relatives of victims. Schools have their pupils participate in the parade. |

19 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

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tions, or face war. When General Metaxas refused, Italian troops invaded Greece from Albania. From as early as 1942, Greeks all over the world started commemorating Ohi Day.

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France T

he French commemorate both World Wars and their respective victims every year. On Remembrance Day in November, they commemorate the end of World War I; on 8 May they commemorate the victims of World War II.

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Monuments | The French began commemorating those who fell in the First World War two years after the armistice. In 1920, the first commemorative meetings were held at war memorials that had been erected for the dead all over France. To this day, a commemorative event is staged on or around 11 November. Wreaths are laid, a moment of silence is observed and the national anthem is played. This date is dedicated exclusively to the victims of World War I. Marseillaise | The French commemoration of World War II, on 8 May, has a similarly singular focus.

Since the first commemoration took place in 1953, this day has been reserved to honor the victims of Main Public Holiday 14 July (1789) Quatorze Juillet, or Bastille Day, marking the storming of the Bastille (day off) Commemoration Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day) 8 May (1945) National commemoration of World War II (non-working day for civil servants, banks and schools) 11 Nov. (1918) Commemoration of the Armistice that ended World War I (on 11 Nov. or the Sunday closest to it).

Laying of wreaths at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Paris, France, on Armistice Day, 11 November 2012. (Š AP/Michel Spingler)

World War II only, with some emphasis on the soldiers who fought for France. In contrast to several other European countries, there has been no clamor in France to include the fallen from the former enemy armies (German, Austrian, Italian and Japanese soldiers). The French commemorations make hardly any references to present-day conflicts or future concerns. The national commemorative event is organized by the French defense ministry. There

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Ireland

Armistice Day, Champs Élysées, Paris, 11 November 2010. (© AP/Bob Edme)

is a laying of wreaths followed by a moment of silence and the sounding of the Marseillaise, with the president and state representatives in attendance along with war veterans, survivors, relatives of victims and representatives of war heritage institutions. Since 1953, a commemorative torch is lit to symbolize the ‘eternal flame’ of all who lost their lives during the war. Regional and local events are organized nationwide, often at war monuments that originally listed only the fallen from World War I and were later expanded to include the names of the dead from World War II. Municipal councils normally organize these commemorative events and they continue to enjoy strong attendance.

Quatorze Juillet | France does not celebrate its freedom in connection with either World War. Its public holiday on 14 July refers to the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789 and the celebration of the very brief constitutional monarchy that followed the year after. These days it is the French armed forces that are honored in particular on 14 July.

However, it is not a special veterans day as observed in some other European countries. |

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reland did not formally exist during World War I, as it was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland at that time. It was also one of the few countries in the world that remained truly neutral during World War II. Ireland does commemorate war and its victims, however.

Military Violence in a Wider Sense | Ireland commemorates the tens of thousands of Irishmen who served in the British Army and fought the Germans in World War I as well as those who fell in the Irish uprising against British rule. All Irish victims of military violence are commemorated annually on 11 July or the Sunday closest to it. It was on this date in 1921 that Irish independence was granted on paper. All victims of war are remembered on that day, including those who died during more recent conflicts and in UN peacekeeping operations.

The annual commemoration ceremony takes place at the Royal Hospital Kilmainham in Dublin with the president, prime minister, government officials and representatives from Northern Ireland in attendance.

Ireland also recognizes Holocaust Memorial Day on 27 January. Since 2003, the Holocaust Education Trust Ireland has been co-organizing a commemorative event with the Irish Department for Justice and Equality and Dublin City Council. It is attended by some 700 people every year. About 100 school-

21 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Main Public Holidays 17 Mar. Saint Patrick’s Day, in honor of Saint Patrick, patron saint of Ireland (day off) 11 July (1921) Independence Day (on 11 July or the Sunday closest to it) Other Commemoration Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day)

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National Day of Commemoration, Royal Hospital Kilmainham, Dublin, 12 July 2013. (© Irish Defence Force)

children are invited to attend as well. Twelve of them read from the Irish Scroll of names. Other children read excerpts from eyewitness accounts.

Remembrance Sunday | Although Ireland does not have an official remembrance day for World War I, some meetings are held midway through November around Remembrance Sunday, for example in Dublin’s Saint Patrick’s Cathedral and in Belfast.

Government representatives sometimes attend

these. These ceremonies are organized by the Royal British Legion and relatives of soldiers who died during the Great War. Irish soldiers who fought in World War I are also remembered on the Island of Ireland Peace Park in Mesen, Belgium. This memorial was opened on 11 November 1998 in a ceremony attended by then Irish president Mary McAleese, Queen Elizabeth II of England and King Albert II of Belgium. |

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Iceland I

Independence Day celebrations in Hafnarfjordur near Reykjavik, 17 June 2009. (© HH/Corbis)

National Holiday 17 June (1944) Independence Day (day off)

for extending the 1918 agreement were to take place in 1943, but were cancelled because of the war. Instead, Danish King Cristian X sent a letter to Iceland on 17 June 1944 congratulating the population: their island had become an independent republic. This fact is celebrated in Iceland on Independence Day. This national public holiday celebrates independence and Iceland’s natural beauty with parades, Icelandic equestrian shows and concerts. |

23 Commemoration and Celebration

n 1918, shortly after World War I, Iceland obtained the status of ‘Union with the Danish Crown’, meaning it became a separate state under the Danish crown. With this increase in sovereignty, the Danish minster of Icelandic affairs became Prime Minister of the Union and direct Danish influence on Icelandic state policy was limited to foreign affairs and territorial laws. All agreements to this effect were entered into for a 25-year period that was to end in 1943. Obviously, World War II disrupted these agreements. To Iceland this marked the next step towards its existence as an independent island state. At the start of World War II, the Germans occupied the island. However the occupation did not last long and in 1941 Allied forces took over control: initially the Brits and then the Americans. Danish-Icelandic talks on conditions

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Italy, San Marino & Vatican City I 24 A FTER TH E WAR

taly commemorates and celebrates the end of fascism and the liberation of the cities of Milan and Turin on 25 April. On that date in 1945, the Partisans celebrated in the streets. They had not waited for the Allied forces, but had liberated their country from the Germans and the national fascist regime on their own. Today, 25 April is Liberation Day, a public holiday devoted to remembrance and celebration, but with an emphasis on the former.

The whole country remembers the victims of the fascist regime and the German occupation of northern Italy. There are ceremonies everywhere to commemorate those who died in World War II. The central message of the speeches and readings on this day is ‘never again’. The media help convey this message. The National Monument to Victor Emmanuel II in Rome is where the Italian president, the speaker of the Chamber of Deputies and the president of the Senate, government officials and representatives of the armed forces gather to remember the victims. The president lays a wreath.

Laying of wreaths at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Piazza Venezia, Rome, 25 April 2013. (© AP/Enrico Oliverio – Martijn Luns, photo on right)

National Celebrations and Remembrance Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day) 25 Apr. (1945) Liberation Day (day off) 2 June (1946) Day of the Republic (day off)

Traditionally, the president was joined by the prime minister at this ceremony, but Berlusconi broke with this tradition. He apparently did so because he was leading a coalition with the National Alliance, whose ranks include many former fascists.

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April 25 is a particularly joyous occasion among supporters of left-wing political parties. Despite this, it is important to stress that Liberation Day is a national event paid for by the state.

Small Role for World War I | Italy also holds a few small ceremonies to commemorate World War I. Initially, Italy tried to stay neutral in that war, but domestic nationalists and British promises led the government to change course and in 1915 declare war on Austria and later Hungary as well. On 4 November 1918, Austro-Hungary surrendered to Italy, but the Italians had suffered major losses and were confronted with an economic crisis and a weak government, all of which helped Mussolini rise to power. Under his regime, World War I commemorations took on fascist overtones intended to honor Mussolini’s state. This is why the tradition has lost significance since World War II. Festa della Repubblica | Republic Day, Italy’s national day, is celebrated on 2 June. This is when the Italians commemorate the results of the 2 June 1946 referendum in which the nation voted, by a slim majority, to live in a republic rather than a kingdom.

Every 2nd of June, the Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome is the scene of a military parade in honor of the republic, attended by the head of state and high-ranking officials. Afterwards, the country celebrates with music and festivities in the streets.

The city-states of San Marino and Vatican City, which managed to steer clear of both World Wars, observe mainly Christian holidays. |

E

very year around 10 October, the Luxembourg population commemorates their country’s resistance to a census ordered by the German occupation army. On that date in 1941, German Gauleiter Gustav Simon ordered a Personenstandsaufnahme intended to gather personal records on all inhabitants. His survey contained questions on nationality, mother tongue and ethnicity. The occupiers probably hoped for a pro-German outcome; the questions were intended to evoke a ‘German’ response. Encouraged by a call to action from resistance groups, which was distributed by clandestine pamphlets, the majority of the Luxembourg population answered ‘Luxembourg’ rather than ‘German’, which prompted Simon to declare the outcome null and void. This was seen as a first victory over the occupiers.

Solidarity and Courage | Although Luxembourg’s national memorial day is officially intended to commemorate all World War II victims, the focus is on commemorating the solidarity of the Luxembourg population and the courage of the resistance and

Main Public Holidays 8 May (1945) Victory Day 23 June National Holiday in honor of the Grand Duke’s birthday.

Other Commemoration Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day) 31 Jan. (1945) Commemoration of 91 Luxembourg victims of the Polish Wehrmacht detention camp of Slonsk Early July Commemoration of the imprisonment of Jews in Cinqfontaines 10 Oct. (1941) National Remembrance Day (on 10 Oct. or the Sunday closest to it)

25 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

The day is organized by national and local government in collaboration with ANPI, the Partisan movement.

All public buildings, as well as shops, restaurants, cafes and public transport, are closed on 25 April.

Everyone has the day off. Many Italians make use of this day to enjoy the first good weather of the year and pack a picnic lunch to eat somewhere in the countryside.

Luxembourg

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26 A FTER TH E WAR

many which went into force on May 9 at one minute past midnight. Every year on 8 May, the Association of Veterans of the 1939-1945 War, UN Troops and Soldiers of the Luxembourg Peace (AACSPL) organizes a small ceremony at the foot of the GelleFra memorial on Constitution Square in Luxembourg City. At this commemoration, no links are drawn to more contemporary themes. The Director of the Centre de Documentation et de Recherche sur l’Enrolement Laying of a wreath at the Place de la Constitution in Luxembourg City, 8 May 2013.

Forcé (CDSEF; Research and (© US Embassy Luxembourg) Documentation Center on Forced Recruitment) characterforced laborers. The grand Notre Dame cathedral ized the national remembrance as ‘static’ and said in Luxembourg City hosts a solemn ceremony with there is little interest among the population in shiftreligious overtones. It is attended by ordinary citiing the focus to the wider theme of freedom. zens, invited teenagers, the Grand Duke, government officials, military authorities and representaResistance | January 27, 10 October and 8 May are tives of the resistance movement. German embassy not the only commemoration days in Luxembourg. staff are also invited annually.

Every year, the CDSEF and the Federation of Victims of Nazism (FVNEF) organize a commemoraIn addition to the church ceremony, there are other tion ceremony to honor the 91 young Luxembourg observances at the National Resistance Monument, men who were killed in a Wehrmacht detention the National Solidarity Monument and the memocamp in Slonsk, Poland in the night of 31 January rials in Luxembourg-Hollerich. The government is 1945. In early July, the Auschwitz Committee orresponsible for organizing the national commemganizes an annual remembrance ceremony at the oration events and is helped by the patriotic moveold abbey in Cinquefontaines, where old and infirm ment. Every year a government declaration is read Jews were imprisoned for deportation during the aloud during the ceremony. occupation. In the city of Wiltz, the city council, the steering group for Resistance Remembrance Victory Day | On 27 January, Holocaust Memorial (SRDC) and the Luxembourg organization for prisDay, the persecution of the Jews is commemorated oners and deportees (DPL) organize a commemoin schools with an educational program organized ration ceremony on August 31 in honor of those by the Ministry of Education and various NGOs. who refused to cooperate with the occupying forces.

The end of World War II is celebrated on 8 May, the This event refers to the great national strike of 31 day Luxembourg was liberated. In choosing to celeAugust 1942, when the Germans ordered the forced brate this day, Luxembourg joined the VE-Day (Vicconscription of both boys and girls into their army. tory in Europe Day) tradition, which refers to the From then on, the resistance in Luxembourg revelry enjoyed by Allied forces on 8 May 1945, steadily grew and many Luxembourg youths volahead of the unconditional surrender by Nazi Gerunteered to join the Allied forces. |

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Malta L

ike many other Commonwealth countries, Malta observes Remembrance Day to commemorate the victims of both World War I and II. Remembrance Day in Malta is marked on the second Sunday in November and it focuses mostly on mourning and grieving the victims. Local councils, churches and small NGOs all over Malta receive financial support from the government to organize commemorations.

In the capital of Valletta, the president lays a wreath at the national war memorial. Afterwards, the archbishop says mass in Malta’s great cathedral. All heads of diplomatic missions are invited to attend both parts of the program. The event also draws many civilians. After mass, a military parade is held in the city. These events are attended by many Maltese from all walks of life.

War veterans during the Remembrance Day ceremony, Malta, 10 November 2013. (© HH/Demotix)

Victory Day | On 8 September Malta celebrates another public holiday. This ‘Victory Day’ marks Malta’s independence and refers to various moments in history when the island state gained or regained independence. In chronological order, those moments are the end of the Turkish siege in 1565,

Main Public Holidays (days off ) 31 Mar. (1979) Freedom Day 8 Sept. (1945) Victory Day 13 Dec. (1974) Republic Day Commemoration Days 7 June (1919) Sette Giugno, in remembrance of the Maltese victims of British gunfire 2nd Sunday in Nov. (1918) Remembrance Day

the capitulation of the French occupation troops in 1798 and Italy’s capitulation on 3 September 1943 which was publicly proclaimed five days later, on 8 September. Victory Day begins in the morning with a state ceremony including a military parade. In the afternoon, people party in the streets and watch a popular regatta in the main harbor. The day ends with a fireworks display in the harbor and processions in many towns and villages. These processions mark the Roman Catholic day of Maria Bambina (Our Lady as a Child), which coincides with Victory Day. September 8 is festive in tone and not focused on its historic significance.

Independence from British rule is celebrated on 31 March. On this date in 1979, Malta’s defense treaty with Great Britain ended and the last British troops withdrew. Freedom Day is marked with music and boat races in the main harbor. |

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Norway 28 A FTER TH E WAR

Main Public Holidays 8 May (1945) Liberation Day, renamed Veterans Day in 2011 (working day) 17 May (1814) Constitution Day (day off) Commemoration Day 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day)

tion, was posthumously awarded to a soldier killed in Afghanistan. It was the first time the decoration was awarded in connection with an event other than World War II. The new Veterans Day is marked not only by the laying of wreaths, but also by speeches, special church services and a military parade in Oslo. Research has shown that the Norwegian population’s support for the armed forces is growing. This is due in particular to the contribution the Norwegian armed forces have made in Libya. The Norwegians are proud of this mission.

This may also explain their enthusiasm about the change in focus of 8 May.

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ike other Scandinavian countries, Norway remained neutral during World War I. In the Second World War, the Norwegians attempted to maintain their neutrality, but when the Allies in April 1940 announced they would start mining German shipping lanes along Norway’s coast, the Germans immediately invaded the country. Norway remained occupied by the Nazis until its liberation on 8 May 1945. Since then, 8 May has been celebrated as Liberation Day, a flag-flying day to commemorate the end of the war. The day includes a traditional wreath-laying ceremony attended by international guests at the Akershus fort in Oslo. In addition, medals are awarded.

Veterans Day | In 2011, the government decided to shift the day’s focus onto the military and to rename the occasion Veterans Day. Since then, what was once a remembrance of World War II has been transformed into a tribute to all soldiers that have served Norway since World War II. “We are gathered here to show our deepest respect to the Norwegian men and women who have worn Norwegian defense uniforms,” as NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen said at the May 2013 commemoration. That was also the year when the War Cross, Norway’s highest military decora-

Schoolchildren’s parade on Grunnlovsdag in Oslo, 17 May 2013. (© AP/Robert B. Fishman)

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Grunnlovsdag | Norway’s national holiday, or Grunnlovsdag, is celebrated on May 17. This day marks the day in 1814 when the country got its constitution. It is a folkloristic event; Norwegians dress up in traditional costumes and wave flags while parading from castles to other historic sites.

remembered in schools and at small commemorative events. During World War II, a third of Norway’s Jewish population was murdered in the death camps. Deportations were carried out by the Norwegian police. Prime minister Jens Stoltenberg apologized for this dark chapter in Norway’s history in January 2012. |

Dark Chapter | Since 2005, Norway has also been commemorating Holocaust Memorial Day on 27 January, when the victims of the Holocaust are

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he origins of Austria’s national remembrance ceremony lie in the former concentration camp Mauthausen, which was liberated on 5 May 1945.

This is where the victims of World War II are remembered on 5 May or the following Sunday.

The tradition has been observed since the end of the war.

In 1998, Austrian parliament began holding its own yearly commemoration of the victims, which is attended by the head of state, government officials, survivors and relatives of victims. The focus is on all victims of the Nazis. With this expansion, MPs and the survivors and war victims’ relatives they cooperated with have transformed the commemoration into a national event.

March of the Survivors | The Mauthausen commemoration begins with a wreath-laying ceremony followed by the sounding of the national anthem and a survivors’ march to the camp. At both locations there are speeches by survivors and government officials and cultural contributions by artists and teenage schoolchildren. Although the ceremony is about remembering the victims of World War II, most of the speeches address issues such as responsibility and the struggle against racism and antiSemitism. Every year, Austria invites foreign visitors including ambassadors from other European countries, the US and Israel.

National Commemorations and Holidays 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day ) 5 May (1945) National Commemoration of the Liberation of Mauthausen (5 May or the following Sunday) 26 Oct. (1955) Nationalfeiertag, celebration of Austria’s Declaration of Neutrality (day off)

Other local and regional commemorations include events held in the municipalities where the November 1938 pogroms occurred. These commemorations are organized by private organizations and local and regional government. As of yet, there is no debate in Austria about whether such commemorations should continue.

Apart from the national commemoration on 5 May, Austria also observes Holocaust Memorial Day on 27 January. Locally, various municipalities also commemorate Kristallnacht.

Celebrating Neutrality | Austria celebrates Nationalfeiertag on 26 October, the date in 1955 when parliament amended the constitution to declare Austria permanently neutral. This was also the day when

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Austria

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30 A FTER TH E WAR

Nationalfeiertag on Wiener Heldenplatz, Vienna, 26 October 2010. (© Bundesheer/Gerhard Simader)

the last Allied soldiers left the country. In 1965, this day was turned into a public holiday. Since 1995, every tenth anniversary also marks the army’s birthday with a parade on the Ringstrasse in Vienna, where the army shows off its weapons, helicopters

and tanks. Employees have a day off on 26 October and admission to Vienna’s museums and all other federal state museums is free. Many sports events are organized on this day as well. |

Portugal, Spain & Andorra Commemoration Days 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day (working day ) 12 Oct. (1987) Dia de la Hispanidad, in honor of Columbus’s discovery of America

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one of the three Iberian countries has a strong tradition of commemorating World War I or II. Portugal, Spain and Andorra were involved only in World War I. During World War II, Portugal under Salazar was mainly a popular destination for Allied and German spies. Franco’s Spain was officially neutral. Yet, neither dictator was hostile toward Nazi Germany.

During the war, Portugal supplied raw materials for the German war industry and flew its flag at half staff after Hitler’s suicide. Salazar justified this as standard protocol when a head of state died.

In 1937, Franco had let Hitler’s Luftwaffe bomb Guernica, killing over 1,600 people and completely destroying the Basque village. This is why the Spanish Civil War is sometimes called a dress rehearsal for World War II. After Franco seized power in Spanish Morocco in 1936, Hitler’s cargo planes helped him cross to Spain.

Much to Hitler’s chagrin, Franco officially stayed neutral during World War II; his priority was Spain’s recovery from the Civil War. However, Franco’s stance was aloof rather than neutral.

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Roughly the same is true of Spain. Only recently the country removed the last street and city signs referring to Franco’s fascist regime. Local and provincial governments still argue about who has to foot the

bill for opening recently discovered mass graves.

The first initiatives to open a dialogue about the past began just a few years ago.

The victims of the Holocaust are remembered, however. Portugal’s parliament remembers them on Holocaust Memorial Day, 27 January, with a subdued ceremony devoid of flag flying. In Spain, Jewish organizations hold small-scale commemorations on that day, and schools organize educational programs.

31 Principality | The third Iberian nation, the principality of Andorra, was left largely untouched by the wars of the last century. In World War I, this small, geographically isolated state joined the entente (France, Britain and Russia), but saw little military action. It stayed neutral in both the Spanish Civil War and World War II. This is why Andorra has no commemorative culture. It neither mourns nor celebrates these events. Andorra does celebrate an annual national holiday on 14 March, the date in 1993 when the country got its constitution. Flags are flown, cultural events are staged, and there is a fireworks show. |

Military parade for King Juan Carlos in Madrid, on Spain’s National Day, 12 October 2011. (© HH-Corbis)

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Silence | Portugal and Spain’s dictatorships continued until 1974 and 1975, respectively. Near his death, Franco appointed Juan Carlos as king and his successor as head of state. When the dictator died on 20 November 1975, Spain’s political structure remained standing thanks to this orchestrated transition. Politically, it was a smooth and uneventful process. Today, both Spain and Portugal tend to stay silent about their dictatorial pasts. Neither country has reached a consensus on how to interpret this painful period in history or who and what should be remembered. Neither has a national remembrance day to mark its own civil war or other conflicts such as the bloody independence struggles in Portugal’s former colonies of Angola and Mozambique. In Portugal, many recent publications take a critical view of this period and newspapers regularly devote space to the quest for truth, justice and reconciliation. So far, however, the wounds appear too fresh for the nation to commemorate the victims of military violence or the independence struggle.

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Turkey I

n World War I, the Ottoman Empire fought alongside the Central Powers led by Germany. Turkey’s aim was primarily to wrest control of the Caucasus and the Crimea from Russia. By the end of World War I, however, the Ottoman Empire was in ruins; this led to the formation of the Republic of Turkey.

32 A FTER TH E WAR

Martyrs | In Turkey, most commemorations are dedicated to the ‘martyrs’ who gave their lives in the struggle for the nation, in other words the soldiers and civilians who fought under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk during World War I. On 18 March, the Turks observe Çanakkale Martyrs Day, a reference to the day in 1915 when Atatürk led the battle of Gallipoli (Gelibolu peninsula) and the Dardanelles strait

Main Public Holidays 23 Apr. (1920) Children’s Day, proclaimed by Atatürk (day off) 19 May (1938) National Youth and Sports Day (day off) 30 Aug. (1922) Victory Day, anniversary of the victory over the Greeks (day off) 29 Oct. (1923) Day of the Constitution, anniversary of the foundation of the Turkish Republic (day off for civil servants) Commemoration Days (working days) 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day ) 18 Mar. (1915) Çanakkale Martyrs Day, commemoration of the World War I Battle of Gallipoli (at Çanakkale Bogazi and Gelibolu) 19 Mar. Commemoration of the martyrs who gave their lives for Turkey 25 Apr. (1915) Anzac Day, in memory of the Australians and New Zealanders who served and died in the Battle of Gallipoli 10 Nov. (1983) Anniversary of the death of Atatürk

(Çanakkale Bogazi in Turkish). On 19 March, the Turks commemorate the Çanakkale martyrs who gave their lives for their country.

Atatürk | April 25 is Anzac Day. This is the national holiday in remembrance of the Australians and New Zealanders who served and died at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915. This day is marked by a commemorative event organized by the Turkish foreign ministry in collaboration with military organizations and groups from the province of Çanakkale.

The ceremony is attended by the president of the republic, the prime minister, cabinet ministers and members of parliament, local council representatives and military personnel, teachers, students and other Turkish civilians. In addition, foreign representatives, particularly from Australia and New Zealand, are invited. The day features a wreathlaying ceremony, a military parade, the observance of a moment of silence and the sounding of Turkey’s national anthem. Over the years, official and public interest in this commemoration has remained steady. October 29 is Turkey’s Cumhuriyet Bayramı, or Constitution Day, marking the date on which the republic was established in 1923.

Turkey pays tribute to the armed forces on 30 August, the date in 1922 when Atatürk won the Battle of Dumlupınar and clinched victory in the Turkish War of Independence. In short, commemorations and celebrations in Turkey are focused to a great extent on the exploits of Atatürk during and after World War I. World War II made far less impact, so few parallels can be drawn between the Turkish and Dutch commemoration of loss and celebration of freedom.

The Armenian Issue | And then there is the ‘Armenian question’. Although 98 years have passed since the Armenian mass murder in World War I, it is still a very sensitive and controversial topic in Turkey. Even though many countries acknowledged years ago that it was a genocide, Turkish commemorative culture has remained silent on this score. However, this might

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be changing. In 2013, Turkish poet Faik Ali, who prevented the death of 11,000 Armenians in 1915, was remembered for the first time in a small ceremony. On the anniversary of his death, 24 April, a small gathering of Armenians and Turks paid trib-

ute to Ali at his tomb. Those who organized this event, most of whom are the descendants of Armenian victims, intend to turn this into an annual commemoration. |

United Kingdom Take up our quarrel with the foe: To you from failing hands we throw The torch; be yours to hold it high.

If ye break faith with us who die We shall not sleep, though poppies grow In Flanders Fields.

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his is the third stanza of “In Flanders Field”, the most quoted poem from World War I. It is an apt reflection of what is symbolized on Remembrance Day, the UK’s national commemoration day. Held on or around 11 November, this day is both a tribute to the victims and a call to keep this memory alive and to keep ‘fighting the enemy’.

Wearing a Poppy | ”In Flanders Field”, penned by Canadian army doctor John McCrae, is responsible for the emergence of the poppy as a key symbol of the war on Remembrance Day. Poppies grow well in recently disturbed soil and even better when every other plant in its surroundings has died,

Main Commemorations and Celebrations 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day) 3rd Sat. in June Queen’s Birthday 11 Nov. (1918) Remembrance Day, in memory of both World Wars (on 11 Nov. or the Sunday closest to it)

which was often the case in Flanders where soldiers had to be buried almost every day. At the same time, poppies are a source of opiates like morphine, which was used as a painkiller during the war. And finally, poppies’ bright red color refers to the bloodshed of the Great War.

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Anzac Day on Gallipoli peninsula, Turkey, 24 April 2006. (© HH/Gamma Presse Images)

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Remembrance Day | Remembrance Day is marked by commemorative ceremonies at war memorials all over the kingdom. The best known event is the national commemoration at London’s Cenotaph, which is attended by the British monarch, government officials and prominent citizens. Remembrance Day has a decidedly military emphasis. The ceremony starts at 11 minutes past 11, the time at which the hostilities of World War I ceased on 11 November 1918. Although the Treaty of Versailles was not signed until June 1919, 11 November has remained the remembrance date in all Commonwealth nations. The ceremony consists of a sounding of The Last Post, a two-minute silence and a laying of wreaths at the war memorial in remembrance of fallen soldiers. Then The Rouse is sounded, a trumpet or bugle call to signal soldiers that it is time to rise. At the Cenotaph in London, this ceremony is followed by a parade displaying every branch of the military. Afterwards, most units hold their annual reunion.

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Wreaths of poppies at the Cenotaph war memorial, Whitehall, London, on Remembrance Day, 13 November 2005. (© Reuters/Paul Hackett)

In the UK, Remembrance Day is also referred to as Poppy Day; many Brits wear a poppy in the weeks leading up to 11 November. Poppy pins are sold in stores and at public institutions. Proceeds go to the British Legion, the British veterans association.

Wearing a poppy is therefore a visible show of support for the British armed forces. Some pacifists are ambivalent about this symbol because of Britain’s contributions to more recent wars, but still want to show support to the relatives of war casualties and keep the memory alive. To express this feeling, they wear a white poppy.

Remembrance Day commemorations center on the armed forces: the soldiers in the British Army who died in World Wars I and II and all subsequent armed conflicts. Although Great Britain still held many overseas territories at the time of both World Wars, hardly any mention is made of victims from the former colonies. This is striking given the fact that many of their descendants now live in the UK and that many, as colonial subjects, fought for Great Britain in the World Wars. The same is true of victims on the Eastern Front in World War II, who fought for the same objectives as the British soldiers, but whose deaths go unrecognized.

Even victims of the Holocaust are not specifically honored in Britain’s commemorative culture, although this is slowly changing. On 27 January, Holocaust Memorial Day, small-scale commemorations and educational programs at schools are organized to remember these victims. |

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Sweden S

weden only commemorates the end of the Holocaust. In 2001, the Swedish government decided on 27 January as the date for an annual Holocaust Memorial Day. The Living History Forum, a body in the Swedish Ministry of Culture, has the duty of organizing this day and ensuring that the memory of the Holocaust is kept alive.

International Holocaust Remembrance Day at Raoul Wallenberg square in Stockholm, 27 January 2013. (© AP Photo/Scanpix Sweden, Leif R Jansson)

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Holocaust Memorial Day is Sweden’s only commemorative day. There is, however, some debate on whether 26 August ought to become a day for remembering the victims of communism all over the world. Since 1916, Flag Day, Sweden’s national celebration, has been observed on 6 June. The whole country flies flags and the national anthem is played and sung. Since 2005, Swedish employees have been given the day off on Flag Day. However, they did have to trade in their day off on Whit Monday for that. |

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

A commemoration is held annually on 27 January in Stockholm. It is always attended by a Swedish government representative and foreign ambassadors are also invited. Throughout the country, schools and NGOs organize commemorative events such as cultural meetings, film screenings, lectures, the lighting of candles and photo exhibitions, all of which focus on Holocaust victims. With the Jewish victims in mind, a link is drawn to the present; the recurring message is ‘never again’. Every year, the Forum also selects a topic related to current human rights violations. In 2014, for instance, there was a special focus on the dire living conditions of the Roma in Europe.

National Celebration 6 June (1523) Flag Day (since 1916; day off since 2005) Remembrance Day (working day) 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day

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Switzerland & Liechtenstein S

witzerland remained neutral during both World Wars and observes no specific remembrance days. The country has a single national holiday. All other celebrations are decided on and organized by individual cantons. On 1 August, all of Switzerland celebrates Feiertag. Everyone has the day off. The population celebrates the fact that on 1 August 1291 the Swiss Federation was founded.

Public Holidays (days off) 1 Aug. (1291) Feiertag (Switzerland) 15 Aug. (1719) Independence Day (Liechtenstein) Commemorations (working day) 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day

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The Principality of Liechtenstein observes neither war commemorations nor liberation celebrations.

Its only national celebration is on 15 August. On this date in 1719, the country was granted its status as an independent principality.

Both Switzerland and Liechtenstein recognize Holocaust Memorial Day, which is when they remember the victims of the Holocaust and Jewish victims in particular. |

Holocaust commemoration at the European headquarters of the United Nations in Geneva, 2009. (Š Reuters/Valentin Flauraud)

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Israel Our research into commemorative rituals in Europe includes Israel because many Israelis are first or second generation immigrants from Europe.

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Yom HaShoah | Israel’s commemorative culture focuses on all victims of the Shoah worldwide. Yom HaShoah is observed as the national remembrance day, commemorating both destruction and heroism.

In 1953, Israel decided to observe Yom HaShoah on 19 April, the date of the Warsaw ghetto uprising.

This date was later changed, when the country abandoned the Gregorian calendar in favor of the Jewish calendar. Ever since, Yom HaShoah has been observed on 27 Nisan.

Laying of wreaths during the annual Yom HaShoah ceremony at Yad Vashem memorial, Jerusalem, 8 April 2013. (Š AP/Gali Tibbon, Pool)

Yom HaShoah starts at sundown on 26 Nisan. The flag is flown at half staff and Jewish Israelis say prayers for the dead. The next day at 10 a.m., air raid sirens are sounded for two full minutes. The

37 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

he state of Israel did not exist yet during World Wars I and II. The Jewish state was founded three years after the end of World War II. Its population was largely European, however, and were almost without exception survivors or related to victims of the Shoah, or Holocaust.

National Holiday (working day) 5 Iyar (Apr./May) Yom HaAtzmaut (Independence Day) Commemorations 27 Jan (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (working day) 27 Nisan (Apr./May) Yom HaShoah, national remembrance of Holocaust victims (working day) 4 Iyar (Apr./May) Yom HaZikaron (Memorial Day), in memory of all victims of military operations, Israeli wars and acts of terror against the state of Israel

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Israeli soldiers placing black beribboned flags on the graves of dead soldiers at Kiryat Shaul military cemetery during the annual commemoration ceremony in Tel Aviv, 14 April 2013. (© AP/Ariel Schalit)

38 A FTER TH E WAR

entire country comes to a standstill. Traffic stops, people stand still in the street and nearly everyone observes two minutes of silence. The rest of the day, government institutions and public buildings are closed and commemorative events take place.

Throughout Israel, speeches are given, survivors speak, names of the victims are read out loud and candles are burned. Jewish children are present as a symbol of the memory continuing and being passed on. The head of state, members of the Knesset and Shoah survivors play an important part in the various ceremonies. One particularly important memorial site is Yad Vashem, the Shoah museum and memorial center in Jerusalem. Here, wreaths are laid every year and the national anthem is played.

Ultra-orthodox Jews in Israel remember the victims of the Shoah on another day: Tisha B’Av. Traditionally, this day commemorates the destruction of the first and second temples in Jerusalem, so this is actually a religious day of remembrance.

Yom HaZikaron | Since 1963, Israel has also observed Yom HaZikaron on 4 Iyar (April/May), the day preceding Yom HaAtzmaut. Yom HaZikaron is an occasion to remember all victims of military operations, wars involving Israel and acts of terror against the state of Israel. This commemoration also starts with the sound of an air raid siren. At 8 p.m., the sirens are sounded for a full minute and

public life comes to a standstill. The next morning at 11 a.m., the sirens sound for another minute.

Then the Israelis gather in synagogues and at cemeteries where victims lie buried to say prayers in their memory.

Yom HaAtzmaut | The next day is Yom HaAtzmaut, the day in 1948 when Ben Gurion declared Israel’s independence in Tel Aviv. This day is celebrated as both a national and Jewish holiday and its festive atmosphere is similar to the Dutch celebrations of freedom on 5 May. Both orthodox and reformed Jews use this joyous occasion to jointly express their hope for peace by singing psalms and saying prayers. These days, the entire country engages in outdoor festivities and children make noise to celebrate their country’s independence. Ultra-orthodox Jews do not take part; they refuse on principle to say prayers for the state of Israel, which they believe should only exist after the coming of the Messiah. |

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On the Edges of Protocol Otto Snoek’s Photo Essay

The Dutch National Committee for 4 and 5 May selected thirty photos from this series and composed a photo essay documenting events where people commemorated the war or celebrated their freedom, their country’s liberation, their independence or unity. In the regions that Snoek visited, sometimes thousands of miles from The Netherlands, the phrase ‘the war’ did not always mean World War II. In some countries, armed conflicts from before World War II, or conflicts that erupted after 1945 were much more prominent in national memory and commemorative culture. Nations that were hardly involved in war and conflict tended to emphasize celebrations such as Flag Day or the Day of the Constitution. This wide variety is visible in the street scenes Snoek’s camera captured.

“While many photographers would step back to take their picture, I get up close,” says Snoek when discussing the way he works. Snoek zooms in on individuals and crowds.

Instead of taking wide-angle panoramic shots, he captures impressions of the public space in a more personal way.

As Frits Gierstberg, Professor of Photography and Curator of the Nederlands Fotomuseum in Rotterdam, put it: “Snoek prefers to be in places where lots of people gather.

He takes candid shots, fast and full frontal. No one strikes a pose. The postures, gestures and facial expressions are

According to art critic Manon Braat of Kunstbeeld magazine, Snoek manages amid all the rituals, flag waving and memorials, to capture exactly those moments that make viewers uncomfortable. Snoek isolates the individual from the masses and simultaneously captures people’s interchangeability. And Braat also sees in his photos myriad signs of globalization: “Snoek takes pictures of immigrants in Athens selling Greek flags, or a bunch of African students in Reykjavik carrying the Icelandic flag. Ethnic background, religion, language and skin color bear little relation to national identity, to patriotic feeling or to the gatherings that Snoek recorded.”

Art historian Gierstberg says Snoek’s work can be compared to that of photographers like Weegee, Joel Meyerowitz, Garry Winogrand, Ed van der Elsken and Martin Parr. However, he adds that Snoek is distinctive thanks to his more radical ethics and his thematic focus on the relationship between democracy and the society of the spectacle. This relationship is visible in Snoek’s images of war commemorations, liberation festivities and other national celebrations in Europe. In this photo essay, the photographer turns away from the formal ceremony where dignitaries lay wreaths at memorials. Instead, Snoek points his camera at the spectator and those involved on the fringes of the official event. In this way, he documents what happens on the edges of protocol.

Photo: Koos Breukel

39 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

When independent photographer Otto Snoek received his European passport, he asked himself: “What is it that unites us Europeans?” He resolved to use his new document to travel to all member states of the European Union and to photograph expressions of nationalism in a unified Europe. He traveled to all corners of Europe from 2005 to 2013, taking pictures of national celebrations and commemorations, marches, and even crowds at soccer games. The result was a series of photographs he called ‘We Europe’.

recorded without any intervention by the photographer.

You won’t find any cheery compositions in his work. Often his photos even lack a main subject. The viewer’s attention is drawn by a wide variety of elements on the edge of the image or off-center.”

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Brussels, Belgium, 21 July; National holiday, anniversary of the King’s oath of allegiance to the constitution (1831).

Sofia, Bulgaria, 3 March; Commemoration of Bulgaria’s liberation from Ottoman rule (1878).

Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol

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Potsdam, Germany, 3 October; German Unity Day (1990).

Tallinn, Estonia, 24 February; Independence Day (1918).

On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek

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Paris, 14 July; Quatorze Juillet, Bastille day (1789).

Spectators are watching planes fly overhead.

Tbilisi, Georgia, 26 May; Independence Day (1918).

Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol

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Athens, Greece, 25 March; Independence Day (1821).

Athens, Greece, 25 March; Independence Day (1821).

The military and civil parade includes hospital staff.

On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek

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Budapest, Hungary, 15 March; Liberation Day, start of the war of independence against the Austrian Empire (1848).

Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol

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Cork, Ireland, 17 March; Saint Patrick’s Day, in honor of Saint Patrick.

Reykjavik, Iceland, 17 June; Students celebrating Independence Day (1944).

On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek

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Zagreb, Croatia, 25 June; Statehood Day, anniversary of the declaration of independence (1991).

Riga, Latvia, 18 November; Proclamation Day of the Republic of Latvia (1918).

Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol

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Vilnius, Lithuania, 11 March; Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania (1990).

Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, 23 June; National holiday to celebrate the Grand Duke’s birthday.

On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek

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Skopje, Macedonia, 8 September; Independence Day (1991).

Valetta, Malta, 8 September; Victory Day (1945).

Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol

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Kiev, Ukraine, 24 August; Independence Day (1991).

On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek

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Oslo, Norway, 17 May; Constitution Day (1814).

Vienna, Austria, 26 October; Nationalfeiertag, celebration of Austria’s Declaration of Neutrality (1955).

Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol

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Warsaw, Poland, 11 November; Independence Day, celebration of the restoration to Polish control of territories ruled by Prussia, Austria and the Soviet Union for more than a century (1918).

Moscow, Russia, 9 May; Victory Day (1945).

On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek

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Bucharest, Romania, 1 December; Great Union Day, celebration of Transylvania’s unification with Romania (1918)

Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol

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Istanbul, Turkey, 29 October; Constitution Day, anniversary of the foundation of the Turkish Republic (1923).

On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek

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Minsk, Belarus, 3 July; Independence Day, celebrated since 1996 on the day the Soviet Army liberated Minsk (1944).

Stockholm, Sweden, 6 June; Flag Day (1916).

The figure covered in yellow and blue is selling Swedish flags and rosettes.

On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek

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Soviet Union (1922-1991) fficially, Nazi Germany’s capitulation took place on 8 May 1945 at 11:01 p.m. Dutch time. In Moscow, it was already 9 May at that time, which is why the Soviet Union celebrates ‘б,ое ды ,нь’, or Victory Day on 9 May. This has been so self-evident for so many decades, it is hard to imagine that Victory Day was not always such a festive occasion.

And yet, the 9 May holiday was abolished in 1947 and it remained banned until 1965. Historians believe Stalin was afraid that the people would claim victory or would want to pay tribute to a heroic military leader such as Marshal Zhukov.

Stalin was not at all keen to share his status as the Great Victor or to compromise his authority.

During Khrushchev’s reign, celebrating Victory Day was considered too sensitive. The war victory was closely associated with Stalin who had since been discredited. Therefore, the 10th anniversary of the day, in 1955, passed unmarked.

Main Public Holidays 23 Feb. (1918) Soviet Army Day (since 1922; day off) 9 May (1945) Victory Day (1946-47: day off, 1948-1964: working day, 1965-1991: day off) 3 Sept. (1945) Day of the Soviet Union’s Victory over Japanese Militarism (1945-47: day off; since then: working day) 7/8 Nov. (1917) Anniversary of the Great Socialist October Revolution (days off) 5 Dec. (1936) Constitution Day (since 1977, on 7 Oct.; day off)

55 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Eastern Europe

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Until 1965, the Soviet Union’s main holiday was Great October Revolution Day on 7 November. It was intended to commemorate the establishment of the Communist utopia. During the annual military parade on Moscow’s Red Square, the victory of World War II was also celebrated more or less in passing as one of the Bolshevik regime’s prominent accomplishments.

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Most other celebrations on what was called the Revolutionary Calendar, introduced by the Soviet leadership, were likewise full of pomp and circumstance.

In military parades and at mass demonstrations, sloganed banners and portraits of the nation’s leaders glorified the Communist utopia and its ruling elite.

Great Patriotic War as Justification | In the Brezhnev era, World War II was increasingly used as a justification for the Soviet system. After all, Socialism had defeated National Socialism, had it not? The Soviet Union’s anti-fascist stance was presented as the counterweight to the liberal capitalism of the West. The atrocities of World War II – increasingly referred to as the Great Patriotic War – were used to justify the policies of maintaining the huge Soviet Army, supporting the Eastern Bloc, militarizing the national economy and engaging in the nuclear arms race.

On the twentieth anniversary of the victory, the Kremlin for the first time organized a parade on Red Square. Books were published about the war, films were produced and new Rubles were minted depicting an East Berlin war memorial. Cities like Stalingrad, Leningrad, Sevastopol and Kiev were assigned ‘City of Heroes’ status. This policy ensured that the whole country became involved in the festivities, because now millions of people could feel proud to live in a ‘City of Heroes’. The government introduced eternal flames all over the country. In 1965, the radio and television program A Minute of Silence was first broadcast. From its inception to the present day, this program has always been devoted to the heroes who lost their lives in the struggle against Nazi Germany. Along with the program, the traditional minute of silence was introduced.

And so, long after Stalin’s death, Victory Day became the most popular Soviet holiday after all. It was a day that was celebrated wholeheartedly, as it was based on real experiences and feelings rather than ideology or politics. Almost everyone had either lost a relative to the war or seen one return as a hero. Moreover, 9 May was the first festive occasion after the long Russian winter.

The Holocaust was barely mentioned; the millions of murdered Jews were an anonymous group among the dizzying numbers of Soviet victims. Fascism was portrayed as the ultimate enemy of Communism, not solely of the Jewish population.

Sovietification | Holidays were part of the Sovietification and were celebrated throughout Eastern Europe. Yet, Victory Day only became a non-working day in the Ukraine and Russia (in 1963 and 1965, respectively). The collapse of the Soviet Union went hand in hand with a ‘revolution of rituals and symbols’ and led to a reform of the public holiday calendar. |

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Russia T

he Russians celebrate Victory Day on 9 May. It is a festive occasion, celebrated with ‘tears in our eyes,’ as the often quoted lyrics of a famous song say. While Russia still regards the Soviet Union as the great victor of World War II, it is also undeniably the country that suffered the greatest losses: 26.6 million deaths, including 8.7 million soldiers. It is no coincidence that the Russians have dubbed World War II the Great Patriotic War.

Parade on Moscow’s Red Square, 9 May 2006. (© Remco Reiding)

emonies, which led to competing festivities organized by various parties. Nationalists and Communists held rivaling parades for veterans, while liberals organized festivities in the parks. But in 1995, Yeltsin realized that Victory Day could be used to encourage patriotism and shore up support for his regime. That year, he organized a military parade for the first time and gave it a new message: that the Russian people had won the war despite, rather than thanks to, Stalin. The Victory is one of the few milestones in Russian history that the entire population – regardless of religious, political or ethnic background – recognizes as an event of major importance. Of the Russian population,

57 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Patriotism | In the early 1990s, various controversies surrounding public holidays symbolized the divisions within Russia. One example was 12 June, a new holiday meant to celebrate the Declaration of Sovereignty. It became controversial straight away because it coincided with the day that Yeltsin was elected president. In 1997, Yeltsin tried to soften public contempt for the holiday by renaming it Russia Day. Initially, his regime had shown little enthusiasm for Victory Day on 9 May. The state organized neither military parades nor official cer-

Public Holidays 23 Feb. (1918) Defender of the Fatherland Day (1992-2001: working day; since 2002: day off) 9 May (1945) Victory Day (day off) 12 June (1990) Russia Day (1992-2001: Day of the Russian Federation’s Declaration of Sovereignty; day off) 4 Nov. (1612) Unity Day (day off) Selected National Commemoration Days 22 June (1941) Day of Remembrance and Mourning, anniversary of Operation Barbarossa, when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union (since 1996; working day) 29 June (1941) Day of Partisans and Members of the Resistance, anniversary of their first deployment in occupied territory (working day) 22 Aug. (1991) National Flag Day, anniversary of the victory over the putschists (since 1994; working day) 7 Nov. (1917) October Revolution Day (1991-2004: day off; since 2005: working day) 9 Dec. (1917) Day of Heroes of the Fatherland (since 2007; working day) 12 Dec. (1993) Constitution Day (1994-2004: day off; since 2005: working day)

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95% consider 9 May important and 96% believe it is the state’s duty to keep the memory of the Great Patriotic War and the victory over fascism alive.

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Perhaps the Russians attach such great value to this war victory because there is little in their recent past to be proud of. The waves of repression under Stalin, the failed Communist experiment, the ‘defeat’ in the Cold War and the chaos that followed the collapse of the Soviet Union mainly evoke feelings of embarrassment and disappointment.

Russia’s current president Vladimir Putin uses the old war victory to bolster the Russian people’s pride and self-esteem and to stir feelings of national identity and unity. The Kremlin also sees the victory over fascism as an important pillar of the international status Russia enjoys (or ought to enjoy, rather).

Military Parade | Russia, like The Netherlands, observes separate days for commemoration and celebration. On 8 May, the Russian president lays a wreath at the eternal flame and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier just outside the Kremlin wall.

This ceremony is also attended by the prime minister, the chief of staff of the presidential executive office, the presidents of the Duma and the Federation Council, the president of the Constitutional Court, the heads of ministries and agencies, representatives of political parties and war veterans’ organizations.

All these attendees, as well as many war veterans themselves, also witness the awe-inspiring military parade on Red Square on 9 May, which is preceded by a presidential address. The veterans are given free transportation to Moscow or another destina-

Parade on Moscow’s Red Square commemorating the victory over Nazi Germany, 9 May 2013. (© AP/RIA-Novosti, Alexei Druzhinin, Presidential Press Service)

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tion in the weeks leading up to 9 May. Standing upright in a convertible, the defense minister inspects the troops who respond to his salute with a long and loud ‘hurray’. Ambassadors and military attachés are invited to watch the parade and on anniversaries, heads of state are invited as well. German chancellor Angela Merkel was a guest of honor in 2012. The authorities even see to it that the weather does not rain on their parade; if rainclouds threaten, planes are sent up to spray chemicals that disperse the precipitation. There are concerts all day long, and at night the festivities conclude with a great fireworks show. People in nearly every village in Russia lay flowers at their local eternal flame or war memorial. War veterans gather to retell stories and to toast to their comrades, peace and the victory.

In 2005, even the Russian Orthodox Church, which is normally uncompromising in matters of liturgy, instituted 9 May as an official day of remembrance.

The patriarch decreed that all 26,000 communities worldwide were from then on to conduct memorial services on that day.

Russian military planes fly over the Kremlin during the Victory parade on Moscow’s Red Square, 9 May 2013.

Focus on Veterans | Victory Day’s main focus is on war veterans. Civilians are rarely the focus of any remembrance, even though many more civilians than troops died during the war. The soldiers are divided into two broad categories: the dead and the heroes. There is no room in collective memory for prisoners of war who returned. They were seen as potential traitors because they had been held captive in the West, where they could not have failed to notice the higher standard of living compared to the Soviet Union. As a result, talk of imprisonment became taboo; there was shame, but also fear of Stalinist repression. Many still treat the millions of forced laborers (Ostarbeiter) with suspicion and disdain. Another consequence of the focus on war veterans is the lack of recognition for Jewish victims. It is significant that the Russian Federation has not officially recognized Holocaust Memorial Day as a public holiday despite repeated requests from special interest groups. There are, however, some regional commemorations.

(© AP/Misha Japaridze)

Commemoration or Celebration? | Victory Day is gradually losing its commemorative nature and becoming a festive occasion. More and more people prefer parades, marches, fireworks and festivities to helping veterans or attempting to achieve world peace (Source: Levada Center, 2013). “Apart from statements like ‘never again’ no links to the future are made,” says Deputy Defense Attaché LieutenantColonel Ben Rijnenberg. “The connection to the present is mostly one of gratitude and appreciation towards the war veterans and those who gave their lives, all those whose great sacrifices made the present in its present form possible.”

Gratitude and appreciation were also the focus in 2005 when the orange and black Saint George ribbons were introduced in a campaign similar to the torch campaign of the Dutch National Committee for 4 and 5 May and the poppy as a British symbol of the Great War.

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60 A FTER TH E WAR

This campaign, organized by RIA Novosti news agency under the heading of ‘Let’s create a tradition together’ initially only targeted Moscow, but soon became so successful that millions of ribbons were distributed nationwide. In 2005, 800,000 ribbons were distributed; in 2006, 1.2 million; in 2007, approx. 10 million; in 2013, 4 million in Moscow alone. People wear the ribbons in a buttonhole, tie them to their purse or fly them from a car antenna.

In 2010, President Putin’s children’s website was expanded to include web pages about Victory Day. Visitors to the site can listen to a special speech from the president to young citizens; they can read children’s wartime letters and diaries and download the most popular war songs from that era. This project shows some similarities to 13 in de oorlog [13 years old in the war], a Dutch children’s TV series accompanied by an interactive internet game.

Young People | The introduction of the Saint George ribbons was initially part of a commemoration project (www.9may.ru) that called on young people in particular to collect photographs, diaries and eyewitness accounts from their relatives from the war era, which is comparable to the Erfgoed van de oorlog [War Heritage] program organized by the Dutch Ministry of Welfare, Health and Culture.

These days, the Russian campaign carries the slogan ‘г пымоюЯ я жыр усе, or ‘I remember, I am proud’.

In 2008, a survey showed that a third of young adult Russians (ages 18-24) had in the preceding year either read books about World War II, met with veterans, or visited a war museum or war memorial, while 80% of them had watched films about the war.

Other Days | Russia recognizes many other public holidays besides Victory Day. But many are perceived as ‘artificial political constructs’. Even today, half the population does not know the actual name of the day that is celebrated on 12 June (Russia Day).

In 2005, the government proclaimed 4 November the Day of People’s Unity (Unity Day for short), to replace the annual commemoration of the October Revolution. November 4 refers to the day in 1612 when Polish troops were chased from the Kremlin, an event that was commemorated nationwide from 1649 until 1917. However, if the state’s aim is to foster patriotism, the Russian people seem to have little interest: only 17% of the population know what the day refers to, while only 8% know it by its correct name. To make matters worse, every year on 4 November a massive ultra-nationalist and neo-Nazi rally takes place; initially this was accompanied by swastikas and Hitler salutes, but currently it is mainly targeted at illegal immigration.

Army Day on 23 February, in honor of the establishment of the Soviet Army, was renamed Defender of the Fatherland Day in 1992. In 2002, it was also turned into a day off for employees. This holiday is also referred to as Men’s Day and is a counterpart to International Women’s Day on 8 March. |

Parade on Moscow’s Red Square, 9 May 2006. (© Remco Reiding)

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Ukraine A

t the end of 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union divided up Poland. East Galicia and Volhynia became part of the Soviet Republic of Ukraine. On 22 June 1941, Hitler’s troops invaded. About seven million Ukrainians died in World War II, including a million Jews. In the early 1930s, millions of people had already died during the Holodomor, the famine caused by the forced collectivization of agriculture.

In 1991, Ukraine gained independence, but the country is still deeply divided. The majority in the rural west and north of the country speak Ukrainian and are pro-European. In the industrialized east and south, most are strongly Russia-oriented and Russian-speaking. Following presidential polls in 2004, massive street protests, called the Orange Revolution, led to new elections with a different winner: the pro-Western Yushchenko instead of the proRussian Yanukovych.

Division | The lasting divisions in Ukraine manifest themselves in ongoing disagreement about various holidays. Yushchenko proclaimed the day when the Orange Revolution began, 22 November, as Free-

Public Holidays (days off) 1 Jan. New Year’s Day, also World Peace Day (since 1968) 9 May (1945) Victory Day (until 1948; since 1963: day off) 28 June (1996) Constitution Day 24 Aug. (1991) Independence Day Selected Other Commemoration Days (working days) 22 Jan. (1919) Day of Ukraine’s Unity and Freedom (1999-2011: Unity Day), anniversary of the unification of the Ukrainian and West Ukrainian People’s Republics 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day (since 2011) 15 Feb. (1989) Remembrance Day for Participants in Military Actions in Other Countries, anniversary of the last Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan 23 Feb. (1918) Day of the Defender of the Fatherland, anniversary of the Soviet Army’s formation (since 1999) 29 May (1948) International UN Peace Force Day (since 2003) 22 June (1941) Day of Remembrance and Mourning ,anniversary of Operation Barbarossa, when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union (since 2001) 15 July (1992) Ukrainian UN Blue Helmets Day, anniversary or the first deployment of UN forces in the war in Yugoslavia (since 2013) Last Sunday in July: Navy Day (since 2012) 2 Aug. (1944) Roma Genocide Memorial Day (since 2004) 23 Aug. National Flag Day (since 2004) 28 Oct. (1944) Day of Ukraine’s Liberation from its Fascist Occupiers, anniversary of the last Nazi troop withdrawal (since 2009), 4th Saturday in Nov.: Holomodor Remembrance Day (since 1998) 6 Dec. (1991) Day of Ukraine’s Armed Forces, anniversary of their formation (since 1993)

61 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

The greatest loss of life occurred in August and September 1941 in and around the Ukrainian capital of Kiev. In the First Battle of Kiev, at least 100,000 Soviet soldiers were killed and over 600,000 were captured by the enemy. On 29 and 30 September 1941, nearly 34,000 Jews were massacred in the Babi Yar ravine. In the end, at least 100,000 people

were executed: apart from the Jews, the victims included thousands of prisoners of war, Communists, Sinti and Roma, nationalists and hostages.

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On 9 May 2011, observance of this day in the western city of Lviv got out of hand when members of the Ukrainian nationalist Freedom Party stopped war veterans on their way to a cemetery. They knocked flowers out of the veterans’ hands, ripped ribbons off their chests and trampled the Russian consul’s wreath. Dozens of people were arrested.

62 A FTER TH E WAR

The Freedom Party’s leader wants 14 October to be officially recognized as a national Commemoration at Babi Yar, Kiev, Ukraine, 8 October 2000. (© Reuters) public holiday. On that day in 1942, the Ukrainian Insurgent dom Day. In 2010, his pro-Russian rival Army (UPA) was established. Because the UPA Yanukovych became president after all and revoked and other nationalist organizations sought support this holiday, integrating it with Unity Day. from the Nazis in their struggle against the RusYanukovych also decreed that Ukraine would celesians and Poles, they are seen as collaborators by brate Navy Day on the same day that Russia honMoscow and its allies in eastern Ukraine. ored its own navy, much to the chagrin of the country’s pro-Western camp.

Armed Forces Day | A battle from 1918 also stirred up strong feelings in the recent past. In 2006, a The same divisions could be seen on Victory Day. In the Heroes Memorial was erected on the spot of the southern port of Sevastopol, the Ukrainian and Battle of Kruty, a Ukrainian uprising by students Russian fleet jointly held a grand military parade. and soldiers against the Russian army. A year later, Regional governments in the west of the country refused to recognize Victory Day and proclaimed 9 May Remembrance Day for the victims of the Nazis and other totalitarian regimes. This, in turn, angered the leadership in Kiev, who made it clear that regional governments had no say over public holidays.

Guard of Honor at the Babi Yar commemoration, Kiev, 27 September 2006. (© AP/Presidential Press Service, Mykhaylo Markiv, Pool)

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president Yushchenko proclaimed 29 January a Remembrance Day in honor of this battle. That same year, the memorial was defaced with paint and anti-nationalist slogans. Armed Forces Day caused a similar tug-of-war.

63 Most commemorative events in Ukraine pale by comparison to Holomodor Memorial Day. On that day, the entire country lights candles for the millions of victims of the famine which parliament declared a ‘genocide’ in 2006. |

Belarus I

n his Drang nach Osten, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler wanted to exterminate three-quarters of the Belarus population. In the end, about twenty percent of Belarus’s nine million citizens lost their lives during World War II, including most of the intellectual elite. Some 400,000 young people were deported to Germany as forced laborers. The German army’s scorched earth tactics reduced thousands of villages to ashes, their inhabitants included.

To mark the defeat of the Nazis, Belarus celebrates Victory Day with an impressive military parade in the capital Minsk’s Victory Square. On 3 July, another parade marks Belarus’s Independence, oddly enough, since this is the day that the Soviet Army liberated Minsk in 1944. Defender of the Fatherland Day, on 23 February, is another occasion for laying wreaths and observing a moment of silence. Belarus recognizes Holocaust Memorial Day and also commemorates the pogroms in the Minsk ghetto on 2 March. About 90 percent of the Jews in Minsk were killed.

Public Holidays 15 Mar. (1994) Constitution Day (working day) 2 Apr. (1996) Day of the Unity of the Peoples of Belarus and Russia, anniversary of the Union State’s foundation (working day) 9 May (1945) Victory Day (day off) 2nd Sunday in May: National Emblem and National Flag Day (working day) 3 July (1944) Independence Day, anniversary of the Soviet liberation of Minsk (since 1996; day off) Other Commemoration Days (working days) 23 Feb. (1918) Defender of the Fatherland Day, anniversary of the Soviet Army’s formation 22 June (1941) Remembrance Day for all victims of the Great Patriotic War, in remembrance of Nazi Germany’s invasion 7 Nov. (1917) October Revolution Day

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

The Day of Ukraine’s Liberation from its Fascist Occupiers, first commemorated on 28 October 2009, has caused much less controversy. A ceremony is held annually in Kiev, featuring a laying of wreaths and a minute of silence. The 2013 delegation of dignitaries was at least as impressive as the one on Victory Day, including President Yanukovych, his predecessors Yushchenko and Kuchma, the prime minister and the speaker of parliament.

The president also lays a wreath on 29 September, the first day of the Babi Yar massacre, even though this day has not officially been recognized as a national day of mourning as far as we know. The flag on Kiev’s city hall is flown at half staff. In 2011, Ukraine officially recognized Holocaust Memorial Day. Following each year’s official commemoration, there are silent marches, exhibitions and other events which are mainly organized by Jewish organizations and other NGOs. Roma Genocide Memorial Day was officially recognized in 2004.

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All these commemorations and celebrations are organized by the state. They are attended by President Aleksandr Lukashenko, members of his staff, the defense minister, other dignitaries, veterans, victims, representatives of youth organizations and foreign diplomats.

Victory Day celebrations in Minsk, 9 May 2012. (© AP/ Sergey Grits)

Freedom Day | In the early 1990s, Belarus civilians started celebrating Freedom Day on 25 March. This changed, however, in 1994 with the rise to power of President Lukashenko, who is often referred to in the West as Europe’s last dictator. Since then, Freedom Day has been celebrated only by dissidents who try to rally mass demonstrations against the Lukashenko regime. This is usually met with harsh reprisals by security forces. The date of Freedom Day refers to the establishment of the Belarusian People’s Republic in 1918, a consequence of World War I. The republic was replaced by a Communist regime on 5 January 1919, which led to the establishment of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Byelorussia. |

Estonia N

owhere is the debate on who and what ought to be commemorated as heated as in Estonia. In 2007, one person was killed and 150 were wounded at a demonstration against the moving of a controversial war monument.

Liberators or Occupiers? | In June 1940, Soviet troops entered the independent republic of Estonia following the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. The Soviets deported tens of thousands of Estonians to camps. From 1941 to 1944, Estonia was occupied by Nazi Germany. In the autumn of 1944, the Soviet Army reinvaded. Only after the restoration of Estonia’s independence in 1991 did the country replace the Soviet 9 May World War II commemoration with other public holidays that emphasize its national struggle. History was restored to the nation, said then Prime Minister Mart Laar.

The legacy of the harsh Russification policies enforced

by Moscow and the encouragement of Russian immigration into Estonia can still be seen today. Estonia still houses a sizable Russian minority, which has quite a different view of the war. The Russians see themselves as the people who rid the country of fascism, while most Estonians look upon the Russians as new occupiers and themselves as victims.

When Estonia and Brussels were negotiating the country’s accession to the European Union, various member states criticized Estonia for casting itself solely as a victim and for its lack of self-reflection. Particularly the public reverence for Estonians who served in the German army and violations of the Russian minority rights were a thorn in the EU’s side.

Remembrance Day | On 22 November, 2004, UN Resolution 59/26 called on all nations to commemorate ‘all victims’ of World War II on 8 and/or 9 May. In response, Estonia established a day of

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remembrance. Included among the victims recognized are the estimated 60,000 who served in the German army, because, the government contends, they were forced to do so. As official policy states, “Estonia does not consider to be criminals those who were forcefully enlisted to fight for the occupation regimes nor see the need for them to be punished.” The government also notes that it condemns all crimes against humanity. Since introducing Remembrance Day, the government also lays wreaths

at the Holocaust memorial on the site of the former Klooga concentration camp; at the cemetery where Estonian soldiers are buried; and at the Soviet-era Maarjamäe Memorial. Foreign ambassadors and diplomats are invited to attend. The national anthem is played and politicians give speeches.

The 9th of May is not a national public holiday. It is a regular working day. In the government’s words “[t]his day did not bring freedom to Estonia.” The large Russian minority continues to celebrate Victory Day on 9 May, while the majority of Estonians celebrate Europe Day, the day of peace and unity in Europe. |

The German military cemetery, part of Maarjamäe Memorial complex in Tallinn, 8 May 2012.

Estonia commemorates all victims of World War II. (© HH/Xinhua/Nino Shlamov)

65 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

National Holiday 24 Feb. (1918) Independence Day (day off) Public Holidays (days off) 23 June (1919) Victory Day, in honor of the victory over Germany in the War of Independence 1918-1920 20 Aug. (1991) Restoration of Independence Day ‘Days of National Importance’ (working days) 2 Feb. (1920) Anniversary of the Tartu Peace Treaty 4 June (1884) Flag Day 14 June (1941) Day of Mourning and Commemoration, anniversary of the first Soviet deportation of Estonians 23 Aug. (1939) European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism, anniversary of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 22 Sept. (1944) Resistance Fighting Day, anniversary of the attempt to restore Estonian independence 16 Nov. (1988) Day of Declaration of Sovereignty

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Latvia L

66

atvia was occupied by the Soviet Union in June 1940. In the ensuing period, more than 22,000 Latvian men, women and children were either shot or deported to Siberia by the new regime. On 1 July 1941, the Nazis invaded Latvia. About 115,000 Latvians enlisted in the German army, mostly in the hope of regaining independence or out of resentment against the Soviets. It was not until 1991 that Latvia regained independence.

A FTER TH E WAR

One of the best-known tourist attractions in Riga is the Freedom Monument built in the 1930s to symbolize the country’s independence. It is remarkable that the Soviets left it standing. According to a common Soviet-era joke, however, the monument acted as a travel agency: whoever laid flowers there got a one-way ticket to Siberia.

Waffen-SS Veterans | After the Soviet Union collapsed and the three Baltic states regained independence, Latvia was the state most sharply criticized for allowing Waffen-SS veterans to hold reunions. Latvian Legion Day on 16 March was even turned into a public holiday in 1998, but strong international pressure led to its abolishment two years later. Just as in the other Baltic States, the Latvian government continues to defend soldiers who enlisted in the German or Soviet army.

“Both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union violated international law by forcibly mobilizing Latvian citizens into their armed forces. About 200,000 Latvian soldiers were compelled to serve in the military forces of both occupying states and about half of them (100,000) died while hoping to restore Latvia’s independence.” (Source: Latvian Institute, Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs) Every year on 16 March, veterans and hundreds of sympathizers gather. They see themselves as freedom fighters, not Nazis. Every year too, there is a counter demon-

Public Holidays (days off) 1 May (1920) Labor Day, also Constitution Day 4 May (1990) Independence Restoration Day 18 Nov. (1918) Proclamation of the Republic of Latvia Other Commemorations (working days) 20 Jan. (1991) Commemoration of the Defenders of the Barricades 26 Jan. (1921) International Recognition (de jure) of the Latvian Republic 25 Mar. (1949) Commemoration of the Victims of Communist Terror 8 May (1945) Commemoration of the Defeat of Nazism and of the Victims of World War II 9 May (1950) Europe Day 14 June (1941) Commemoration of the Victims of Communist Terror (anniversary of the first Soviet deportation of Latvians) 17 June (1940) Day of the Occupation of the Latvian Republic 22 June (1919) Remembrance of the Heroes (anniversary of the Battle of Cesis) 4 July (1941) Commemoration of the Jewish Genocide 11 Aug. (1920) Commemoration of the Latvian Freedom Fighters (anniversary of the peace treaty with Russia) 21 Aug. (1991) Day of Independence and Restoration of Sovereignty 11 Nov. (1919) Commemoration of the Latvian Freedom Fighters (anniversary of the decisive battle against Germany and Russia) 1st Sunday in Dec. Remembrance Day for Victims of the Genocide on the Latvian People by the Totalitarian Communist Regime

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Latvian Legion Day, 16 March 2008. (© Wikimedia Commons)

Genocide | Since 1990, Latvia has commemorated the victims of the Holocaust on 4 July. On this date in 1941, the Great Choral synagogue in Riga was torched; hundreds of Jews locked inside died in the blaze. Since 1995, this day has been legally recognized as a holiday.

In 1995, Latvia also began commemorating the Defeat of Nazism and the Victims of World War II on 8 May. The commemoration ceremony includes a laying of wreaths by the president, the prime minister, the foreign minister and other officials. Although it is an officially recognized public holiday, it is also a regular working day.

67 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

stration which includes a relatively large number of ethnic Russians in Riga. This division was reflected in a survey taken in April 2010, in which just as many respondents called Victory Day the most important holiday as those who called Independence Day the most important (both 21%).

The law further specifies a great number of commemoration days to remember the victims of communist terror as well as many celebration days emphasizing the country’s independence (just like in Estonia and Lithuania). |

Diplomats laying wreaths at the Martyr’s Tomb in Riga, 8 May 2013. (© HH/Xinhua/Guo Qun)

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Lithuania L

ithuania ranks in the top ten of countries with the most official public holidays, but none of these commemorates the victims of war, celebrates the end of war, or mourns an occupation. The country does observe three public holidays that stress its independence – celebrations that were banned during the Soviet era.

68 A FTER TH E WAR

Like Estonia, Lithuania observes the European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism on 23 August. Flags, sometimes adorned with special black pennants, are flown at half staff.

This is also the day for commemorating the unprecedented solidarity displayed by the Baltic peoples in August 1989 by forming a human chain between the Lithuanian capital of Vilnius and Tallinn, Estonia.

This was a non-violent protest against the MolotovRibbentrop Pact that was used to legitimize the Soviet Union’s annexation of the Baltic States on that date in 1939.

In 2006, Lithuania officially recognized the Day of the Genocide on the Population of East Prussia.

This day commemorates the Soviet genocide of ethnic Germans in East Prussia. Internationally, this chapter of history gained notoriety through the plight of the so-called Wolf Children, East Prussian orphans who roamed the woods in search of food and shelter.

Right and Wrong | Just like the other Baltic states, the Lithuanian authorities are struggling with the notion of who was ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ in the war.

On the one hand, collaboration with the Germans represents resistance to the Soviet occupation and the struggle for independence, which is justifiable.

On the other hand, the Nazis and their collaborators committed atrocities, which is clearly wrong. During the war, more than 95% of Lithuania’s 210,000 Jews were killed. The Lithuanian government continues to draw criticism from international Jewish

Public Holidays (days off) 1 Jan. (1919) New Year’s Day, also Flag Day 16 Feb. (1918) Day of Restoration of the State of Lithuania 11 Mar. (1990) Day of Restoration of Lithuanian Independence 6 July (1253) Statehood Day (also known as Coronation Day, anniversary of the first and only Lithuanian king’s coronation) Other Commemorations and Celebrations (working days) 13 Jan. (1991) Freedom Defenders Day, anniversary of the Soviet Army’s attack on the TV tower 14 June (1941) Day of Mourning and Hope, anniversary of the first Soviet deportation of Lithuanians 15 June (1940) Day of Occupation and Genocide, anniversary of the Soviet annexation of Lithuania 23 Aug. (1939) European Remembrance Day for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism, anniversary of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 23 Sept. (1943) Holocaust Remembrance Day, anniversary of the destruction of the Jewish ghetto in Vilnius (since 1994) 28 Sept. (1944) Remembrance Day for Victims of Tuskulenai, anniversary of the first death caused by Soviet repression 16 Oct. (1944) Day of Genocide on the Population of East Prussia, anniversary of the ‘ethnic cleansing’ among ethnic Germans (since 2006) 25 Oct. (1992) Constitution Day 23 Nov. (1918) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of their formation

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by two million people across the Baltic states, Vilnius, 23 August 1989. (Š Lithuanian Central State Archive )

organizations, among others, for failing to prosecute former collaborators and distance itself from pro-German combatants.

In 2010, parliament adopted a law that named 2011 Holocaust Memorial Year in Lithuania. Its purpose was to restore and preserve the historical and cultural heritage of Jewish Lithuanians and to pay tribute to Lithuanians who had saved Jewish lives and/or fought against fascism.

In this act, parliament did not equate fighting against fascism with fighting Nazi Germany, because by doing so it would have offended many nationalists and former partisans who had fought alongside the Germans against the Soviet Union. These veterans receive a war pension and are honored on the third

Sunday in May. About ten years ago a grass-roots movement started organizing street marches in which participants waved Lithuanian flags and sang patriotic songs on festive days and carried candles on commemoration days. These marches met with resistance from the Russian minority and anarchists, because neo-Nazis joined them. These days, a few hundred far-right activists hold an annual, unauthorized rally on 11 March (Day of the Restoration of Independence).

The media has made some less controversial attempts to create new national holiday traditions. For example, in 2009 Lithuanians all over the world were asked to sing the national anthem on 6 July, Statehood Day. |

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Part of the human chain formed

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Armenia A

rmenia primarily observes holidays that refer to its hard-won independence. This small, Christian nation was not just annexed by the Soviet Union from 1920 to 1990, it is also permanently surrounded by ‘hostile’ nations like Turkey and Azerbaijan, Muslim countries such as Iran, and Georgia, which unlike Armenia has had a troubled relationship with Moscow in recent times.

70 A FTER TH E WAR

In the 1960s, 70s and 80s, during the Soviet era, the Armenians erected numerous war memorials all over the country. In the capital Yerevan, a Victory Park with an eternal flame was constructed. A war museum located in the park opened its doors in the 1970s. It featured a research department dedicated to studying the Armenian contribution to the victory over fascism. The republic was not occupied by the Nazis in World War II, but roughly half of the 500,000 Armenian soldiers who were sent to the front did not return.

Month of Victories | In 1990, the precursor to the Armenian Parliament debated whether 9 May, Victory Day, should be celebrated at all. The holiday was reinstated, but it quickly took on a different

hue. On 9 May 1992, Armenian troops conquered the city of Shusha in Nagorno-Karabakh, a turning point in the war with Azerbaijan over this enclave.

Since then, Armenians have called May the Month of Victories, especially because another important victory, in the 1918 Battle of Sardarabad against the Ottoman Empire, had also taken place in May. The joyful month of May is preceded by the sad month of April when, on 24 April, the many hundreds of thousands of victims of the 1915 genocide are remembered. This day is gaining in popularity, in response to Turkey’s economic blockade and Ankara’s denial of the genocide. Because Israel does not recognize the Armenian genocide either, Armenia devotes only modest attention to the Holocaust.

On 9 May, the president visits Nagorno-Karabakh (which the Armenians also call Artsakh, after the province from Antiquity that roughly overlaps with the current territory). In a sense, this bridges the gap between the past, the present and the (desired) future: the 1945 victory inspires Artsakh’s struggle for independence, as the president recently stated.

He concluded diplomatically but menacingly that “9 May provides substantial evidence that, in case of emergency, we will not hesitate to exercise our

Public Holidays (days off) 28 Jan. (1992) Army Day, anniversary of their formation 24 Apr. (1915) Genocide Memorial Day (since 1965) 9 May (1945/1992) Day of Victory and Peace 28 May (1918) Day of the Republic 5 July (1995) Constitution Day 21 Sept. (1991) Independence Day Other Commemorations and Celebrations (working days) 28 Feb. (1988) Commemoration Day for the victims of massacres organized in Azerbaijani SSR and for the protection of refugee Armenian rights, anniversary of the anti-Armenian pogroms in Sumgait 8 May (1992) Defender of the Motherland Day 14 June (1949) Memorial Day for Victims of (Soviet) Repression (since 1999) 29 June (1992) Day of Those who Died for the Motherland and MIAs

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71

right to self-defense and to do so to the maximum of our capacity.” A military parade is held in the capital of the autonomous region.

On 9 May, the prime minister, the speaker of parliament, the defense minister, high-ranking civil servants and military staff visit Yerevan’s Victory Park, where they lay wreaths at the eternal flame and

remember the victims by observing a minute of silence. Next, a modest military parade is held and the officials meet with veterans and ‘freedom fighters.’ The prime minister sits down in an army tent to share an old-fashioned soldier’s lunch, comparable to C-rations. The diplomatic corps is invited.

The day concludes with a fireworks show. |

Azerbaijan O

ld film footage shows Hitler being presented with a birthday cake in the shape of the Caspian Sea and being served a piece containing Baku. The capital of the then Socialist Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan was coveted for its rich oil fields. But Azerbaijan never fell into German hands and its ‘black gold’ ensured the country would play a crucial part in supplying fuel to the Soviet Army. In the first year of World War II, Azerbaijan produced 25.4 million tons of oil – a record that has not been paralleled since. Although the republic was never occupied by the Nazis, Azerbaijan lost more than 500,000 people during

the war, a sixth of its 3 million-strong population.

Most of those killed were soldiers who died while serving in the Soviet Army.

Old and New War | By renaming the traditional commemoration on 9 May ‘Victory over Fascism Day’ rather than Victory Day as it was called in the Soviet era, the emphasis has shifted from the glory of military victory to the battle against evil. Modernday celebrations of the war victory are quite modest compared to the lavish affairs in the Soviet era, which may be partly because the date now coincides with a more recent military defeat. On 8 and 9 May

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

Military parade on Victory and Peace Day. Yerevan, 9 May 2012. (© HH/Corbis)

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72 A FTER TH E WAR

Public Holidays 9 May (1945) Victory over Fascism Day (day off) 28 May (1918) Republic Day (since 1990; day off) 15 June (1993) Day of National Salvation of the Azerbaijani People, anniversary of Heydar Aliyev’s return to power (day off) 26 June (1918) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of their formation (since 1998; day off) 18 Oct. (1991) Independence Day (workday) 9 Nov. (1918) State Flag Day (since 2009; day off) 12 Nov. (1995) Constitution Day (workday) 17 Nov. (1988) National Revival Day, anniversary of the first serious protests against the Soviet regime (since 1992) workday) Other Commemorations and Celebrations (workdays) 20 Jan. (1990) Martyrs’ Day, commemoration of an uprising crushed by Soviet troops 26 Feb. (1992) Remembrance Day for Victims of the Khojaly Massacre 28 Mar. (1919) National Security Day, anniversary of the formation of the first secret service (since 1997) 31 Mar. (1918) Day of Genocide of Azerbaijanis, anniversary of the ‘ethnic cleansing’

1992, Armenian troops captured the city of Shusha during the war for Nagorno-Karabakh. Therefore, it is not the most suitable day for the Azeris to celebrate a festive occasion. However, 9 May is still a public holiday, with a strong focus on veterans, who received an additional state benefit in 2013.

On this date, the president of Azerbaijan lays a

wreath at the war memorial in the park, close to Martyrs’ Lane. The rather formal ceremony focuses on the president and the veterans. Usually, the prime minister, the speaker of parliament and the head of the presidential administration are present as well. The military parade has been discontinued.

The country still does organize awe-inspiring military parades: on Republic Day (28 May) and especially on Armed Forces Day (26 June). This has to do with the fact that Azerbaijan is in a state of war with its neighbor Armenia. Most holidays stress the country’s independence and many of them commemorate tragic events that happened in the context of the struggle for sovereignty.

President Ilham Aliyev laying a wreath in Baku on the Day of Victory over Fascism, 9 May 2012. (© Bureau of the president of the Azerbaijan Republic)

There is some room in Azerbaijan to discuss its role in World War II (even about the Azeri who chose Germany’s side). In October 2012, a groundbreaking conference took place. One of the things that became clear there is how tempting it is for the Azeris to draw comparisons between World War II and the Holocaust and its armed conflict with Armenia and the ethnic cleansing which took so many Azeri lives. |

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26 May 2010. (© HH/Xinhua/Victor)

F

rom 1921 to 1991, Georgia was part of the Soviet Union. Although Georgia was never occupied by Nazi Germany, some 300,000 of its inhabitants, or more than 8 percent of the population, died – mainly while serving in the Soviet Army.

Immediately after the Soviet Union collapsed, Georgian politicians refused to continue to celebrate Victory Day on 9 May. In their view, Georgia had been occupied by the Russians and Georgians had fought side by side with their own occupiers to defeat Nazi

Germany. This point of view deeply offended veterans and other survivors who had made great sacrifices. In the late 1990s, 9 May was reinstated, although the attending celebrations were more modest and the name of the day was adjusted to Victory over Fascism Day. Squabbles over Victory Day | Georgia’s relations with Russia steadily worsened under President Mikheil Saakashvili, who came to power in 2003 after a velvet revolution. Saakashvili’s regime sought

Public Holidays (days off) 9 Apr. (1989/1991) Day of National Unity, anniversary of the Tbilisi Massacre, which occurred at an anti-Soviet demonstration in 1989 and anniversary of the restoration of independence in 1991 9 May (1945) Victory over Fascism Day 26 May (1918) Independence Day Other Commemorations and Celebrations (working days) 14 Jan. (2004) Flag Day, on the day parliament adopted this day 25 Feb. (1921) Day of the Soviet Occupation, anniversary of the Soviet invasion (since 2010) 30 Apr. (1991) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of their formation 14 May Tamaroba, in memory of Queen Tamara (ca. 1160- 1213), who ruled during Georgia’s Golden Age 8 Aug. (2008) Remembrance Day for the Victims of the Russo-Georgian War over South Ossetia, anniversary of the Russian invasion 23 Aug. (1939) European Remembrance Day for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism, anniversary of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

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Georgia

Military parade before parliament in Tbilisi, on Independence Day,

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to establish closer ties with the United States and tried to get rid of the remaining Soviet symbols in the country. The situation reached a low point with the Five-Day War over South Ossetia in 2008. After that war, Russia recognized South Ossetia’s and Abkhazia’s independence, both breakaway regions of Georgia.

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A year later, Saakashvili ordered the demolition of a World War II monument from the Soviet era in the city of Kutaisi. He was heavily criticized for blowing up the monument, all the more because concrete debris from the explosion killed a woman and her 8-year old daughter.

In 2010, Georgian military and political bigwigs were not invited to the 9 May Parade in Red Square. In the same year, Georgia instituted the Day of the Soviet Occupation as a new memorial day. In 2011, Victory Day was the cause of another incident. A few days ahead of 9 May, the Russian President congratulated the Georgian people on the World War II victory, bypassing the Georgian government.

In response, the Georgian foreign minister laid a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier on 8 May rather than 9 May, in the presence of several

Yugoslavia

foreign diplomats. His speech contained the provocative statement: “I support the idea to move the ceremony to 8 May when all of mankind celebrates the day of victory over fascism.” Just like every year, veterans – their uniforms covered in medals – gathered on 9 May in Vake Park (known during the Soviet era as Victory Park). Their gathering was marked by a guard of honor, flag flying, a brass band, and the presence of members of the political opposition.

In November 2013, Giorgi Margvelashvili was sworn in as Georgia’s new president after his party won parliamentary elections. It is expected that Georgia’s relations with Moscow will improve under his leadership and 9 May will no longer be a bone of contention. At the same time, celebrations have been decentralized and ceremonies made much less bombastic than in Russia; these changes probably will not be reversed.

The Independence Day (26 May) military parade was reintroduced in 2004. In 2009, the government put a stop to the parades again in response to sharp criticism from the opposition. In 2013, a scaledback parade was held with no marching troops. |

(1917-1992)

1918 - 1929: Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes 1929 - 1941: Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1941 - 1943: see below 1943 - 1945: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia 1945 - 1963: Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia 1963 - 1992: Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

Y

ugoslavia was occupied by the Axis powers in 1941. Slovenia was split up among Nazi Germany, Italy and Hungary. Macedonia was partitioned between Bulgaria and Albania, which also took control of the greater part of Kosovo and so became Greater Albania. Following the Axis occupation, puppet governments came to power in Ser-

bia, Croatia and Montenegro. A particularly infamous actor in the war was Croatia’s fascist Ustaša militia.

Resistance came from the Chetniks, who were in favor of reinstating the monarchy, and from Communist partisans led by Josip Broz Tito. Some of the Chetniks ended up collaborating with the Axis because they saw Communism as the greater evil. As a consequence, the Allies supported Tito, positioning him to become the post-war leader of the Communist Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia. From then on, any national commemorations referred exclusively to the Communist war efforts.

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It was not until 15 May 1945 that the Ustaša, and what was left of the Serbian State Guard and Serbian Volunteer Corps, surrendered to British troops.

This also became a national public commemoration day called Victory in Yugoslavia Day. Republic Day | For a long time, Republic Day on 29 November was Yugoslavia’s main national holiday.

It referred to the date in 1943 when the Anti-Fascist Council for National Liberation was formed, and in 1945, when the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia was proclaimed. Workers were even given two days off for this holiday (29-30 November).

On Republic Day, children could join the Pioneers, a prestigious communist youth movement, blue collar workers had a long weekend off and city dwellers visited relatives in the country. Because November was known as the slaughter month, in Serbia and Croatia it became a tradition to slaughter a pig on Republic Day. After President Tito’s death on 4 May 1980, the Communists gradually lost power, and Republic Day its luster. In 2002, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) was the last of Yugoslavia’s former constituent states to let go of 29 November as its national holiday. |

Croatia T

he Fascist Ustaša movement, which rose to power after the Germans invaded Yugoslavia, were responsible for the killing of approximately half a million Serbians and 37,000 Jews. Hundreds of thousands of Serbians were displaced or forced to convert to Catholicism.

After World War II, Croatia continued to commemorate the uprising against the Ustaše in the village of Srb on 27 July. The uprising was the work of Croatian Serbs, however, and was therefore controversial: many Croats see these events as a Serbian act of revenge against Croats. The monument to the Srb uprising was destroyed in the Croatian war of independence in the 1990s, as were approximately 3,000 other war memorials. In those years, the Ustaše were more or less rehabilitated.

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Main Public Holidays (days off) 4 July (1941) Fighter’s Day, commemoration of the Communist Party Central Committee’s uprising against the German occupiers 29 Nov. (1943/1945) Republic Day, anniversary of the establishment of the AntiFascist Council for National Liberation and the proclamation of the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia Selected Other Commemorations and Celebrations (working days) 1 Apr. Youth Work Action Day, originated during the war 9 May (1945) Victory Day (1946-47: day off; 1948-1964: working day; 1965-1991: day off) 15 May (1945) Victory in Yugoslavia Day, anniversary of the surrender of the last proGerman troops 7 Nov. (1917) Anniversary of the Great Socialist October Revolution 22 Dec. (1951) Day of the Yugoslav People’s Army, anniversary of its formation – Apart from the days listed above, each republic within the federation had at least one individual official public holiday, as well as its own day to commemorate their uprising against the Nazis: 7 July in Serbia (abolished in 2000), 13 July in Montenegro and 27 July in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia.

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Public Holidays (days off) 22 June (1941) Anti-Fascist Struggle Day, in memory of the day the first anti-fascist partisan unit was formed 25 June (1991) Statehood Day, anniversary of Croatia’s declaration of independence 5 Aug. (1995) Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders, anniversary of the Croatian army’s conquest of the city of Knin and the end of the Republic of Serbian Krajina 8 Oct. (1991) Independence Day Other Commemorations 28 May (1991) Day of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia, anniversary of the birth of the Republic 18 Sept. (887) Croation Navy Day, commemoration of the Navy’s defeat of the Venetian fleet 12 Dec. (1991) Croatian Air Force Day, anniversary of its formation

Anti-Fascist Struggle Day | When Croatia gained independence in 1991, the government decided to move Anti-Fascist Struggle Day to 22 June. On that day in 1941, Croats had established the first Partisan Division in the woods near the village of Sisak.

the ceremony is attended by officials such as the president, cabinet members, members of parliament and of the diplomatic corps. Commemorative speeches sometimes refer to the current situation and the need to respect human rights.

Sisak is where the central commemoration ceremony takes place. Every year, an organizing committee is appointed, made up of representatives of parliament and other government institutions. Usually,

There are smaller commemorations and festivities, organized by local councils, all over the country.

Veterans associations also do their part and help organize these events.

Holocaust Education | People still gather on the old commemoration day of 27 July, particularly Croatian Serbs and Communists. In 2010, President Ivo Josipovic unveiled a new, state-funded memorial in Srb. The year 2012 marked the first year without any presidential representation on the day. Every year, the Croatian Party of Rights (which collaborated with the Ustaše in the war) organizes a protest demonstration close to where the commemoration is held.

Dignitaries laying wreaths on Anti-Fascist Struggle Day in Sisak, 22 June 2012. (© HH/Xinhua/Miso Lisanin)

Croatia also observes Yom HaShoah. The Dutch Embassy in Zagreb currently supports NGOs working with the Anne Frank Foundation to increase Holocaust education in secondary schools. They organize workshops to bridge the gap between past, present and future by discussing minority rights and tolerance in present-day Croatia. |

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Macedonia

National Liberation War | Since Macedonian independence in 1990, the 2 August and 11 October commemorations have been expanded with celebrations. On these days, both of which have been observed since 1945, ceremonies take place in parliament and at war memorials nationwide. The ceremonies are organized by various ministries, local councils, veterans associations and representatives of the Jewish community.

Parade in Krushevo on Ilinden (Saint Elijah’s Day) and the Day of the Republic, 2 August 2003. (© Reuters/Ognen Teofilovski)

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Public Holidays (days off) 2 Aug. (1903/1944) Day of the Republic 8 Sept. (1991) Independence Day 11 Oct. (1941) Revolution Day 23 Oct (1893) Day of the Macedonian Revolutionary Struggle, anniversary of the foundation of the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (since 2007) Other Commemorations (working days) 11 Mar. (1943) Remembrance Day for the Deportation of Jews to Treblinka 9 May (1950/1945) Europe Day, Victory over Fascism Day 18 Aug. (1943) Anniversary of the People’s Liberation Army of Macedonia, commemoration of the establishment of the largest battalion of the (Communist) People’s Liberation Army

O

n 2 August and 11 October, Macedonia commemorates World War II, but more specifically the struggle for independence fought during that war.

The 2nd of August is ‘Ilinden’, or ‘Saint Elijah’s Day’.

This Orthodox Christian holiday has gained great significance because of the Ilinden Uprising against the Ottoman Empire in 1903 and the first meeting of the Anti-Fascist Assembly for the People’s Liberation of Macedonia in 1944, the latter of which laid the foundation for today’s Macedonian Republic.

Therefore, 2 August now marks the Day of the Republic. On 11 October 1941, partisan units revolted against the fascists, which is seen as the beginning of the National Liberation War.

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People lay wreaths, observe a moment of silence and listen to the national anthem to remember all 28,000 victims of World War II: soldiers, civilians, victims of persecution and Holocaust victims. The ceremony in parliament is normally attended by the head of state, prime minister, speaker of parliament, defense minister, foreign diplomats, survivors and veterans. In addition, schools and universities host speeches, exhibitions, presentations and film screenings on heroic war-time acts.

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Lately, 9 May celebrations have been quite modest and more focused on Europe Day than on the Victory over Fascism, in line with Macedonia’s ambitions to join the EU. However, the president always takes this opportunity to send his Russian counterpart a congratulatory telegram lauding Russia’s role in the struggle against fascism.

Holocaust Memorial Center | Since 1953, the deportation of Jews to Treblinka is commemorated on 11 March. In total, 7,200 Macedonian Jews were deported to the camp, 98% of whom died. The main ceremony is held at the Holocaust Memorial Center for the Jews of Macedonia, which opened in 2011. It is attended by government representatives and the mayor of Skopje. Holocaust Memorial Day has been on the calendar since 2010.

Flag Days | In order to boost national morale, the government has been conducting official ceremonies twice a month since 2009, raising a brand new flag on one the main government buildings.

Macedonia’s Albanian minority (25% of the 2.1 million inhabitants) has been petitioning the government for years to institute an Albanian Flag Day (and Independence Day) in Macedonia, but to no avail. This demand causes tensions that regularly lead to the burning of Macedonian flags on 28 November. |

Serbia Public Holidays (days off) 15 (+16) Feb. (1804/1835) Statehood Day, anniversary of the First Serbian Uprising in 1804 and of the adoption of the first Serbian constitution in 1835. Also Candlemas and, since 2001, Armed Forces Day 9 May (1945) Victory over Fascism Day and Europe Day 11 Nov. (1918) Armistice Day Other Commemorations (working days) 22 Apr. (1945) Holocaust Remembrance Day 23 Apr. (1815) Army Day, anniversary of the Second Serbian Uprising against the Turks 21 Oct. (1941) National World War II Victims Remembrance Day, in memory of Serbian World War II victims, anniversary of the Kragujevac Massacre

W

orld War I ended nearly a century ago, but that did not stop Serbia in 2011 from proclaiming 11 November (Armistice Day) an official holiday.

More than a million Serbs lost their lives in World War I: 60% of its male population. In the Communist era, this fact was never officially commemorated.

Now, its commemoration is larger than the one on 9 May for the victims of World War II, which is a regular working day. May 9, or Victory over Fascism Day, emphasizes the Serbian partisan resistance to the occupier (although civilian casualties and victims of persecution are remembered too) and Serbia’s anti-fascist inclination. The events of 9 May are entirely government-run. Usually, official commemorations are limited to the laying of wreaths at the Monument to the Unknown Hero (devoted to World War I) and at the Liberators of Belgrade cemetery while the national anthem is played. The ceremony is attended by the president, the prime minister, the defense minister, members of parliament, students

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Guard of honor holding up a Serbian flag during a World War I commemoration in Belgrade, on 10 November 2013. (© Reuters/Marko Djurica)

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Victory over Fascism Day coincides with Europe Day. In that sense, the country is attempting to bridge the gap between past and future: the defeat of fascism is characterized as the basis of modern Europe and its principles of peace, tolerance and collaboration. But the extent to which this link is emphasized depends greatly on the government coalition. The popularity of this day is waning now that 11 November has been made a national holiday and 9 May has a double and therefore less clear-cut meaning.

Great Classroom | On 21 October, Serbia commemorates the 2,778 men who were executed in the city of Kragujevac in retaliation for the killing of German soldiers. Among those executed were hundreds of high school students and their teachers. Today, many students attend a pacifist meeting known as the Great Classroom, in Shumarice Memorial Park.

The meeting is also attended by the president, several ministers and foreign ambassadors. Since 2011, this day has been officially recognized as National World War II Victims Remembrance Day.

Holocaust victims are remembered separately on Holocaust Memorial Day (27 January) and Holocaust Remembrance Day (National Remembrance Day for Victims of the Holocaust, Genocide and Fascism) on 22 April. On this date in 1945, Serbian prisoners attempted to escape from Yasenovac concentration camp in Croatia. |

Slovenia O

n 26 April 1941, the Slovenian Liberation Front was formed, a mainly Communist partisan group that resisted Slovenia’s partition by Nazi Germany, Italy and Hungary. Towards the end of the war, the Front clashed repeatedly with the antiCommunist Slovene Home Guard (Domobranci).

After the war, the Communists came to power.

Thousands of Domobranci were summarily executed.

Slovenia’s national holiday on 27 April to remember the establishment of the Front has always been controversial. In 1990, the name of the holiday was changed from Liberation Front Day to Day of the

Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

and spectators, as well as ambassadors of (mostly Eastern European) countries with which Serbia maintains warm ties.

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President Pahor of Slovenia passing the Guard of Honor in Ljubljana on Statehood Day, 25 June 2013. (© HH/Demotix/

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Rok Rakun)

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Public Holidays 27 Apr. (1941) Day of the Uprising against the Occupation, anniversary of the Liberation Front’s formation (day off) 25 June (1991) Statehood Day, anniversary of the declaration of sovereignty (day off) 17 Aug. (1919) Day of Prekmurje Slovenes Incorporated into the Mother Nation (since 2006; working day) 15 Sept. (1947) Day of the Slovene Littoral’s Return to the Motherland, anniversary of the region’s return to Slovenia (since 2005; working day) 23 Nov. (1918) Rudolf Maister Day, commemorates the general’s capture of Maribor and the surrounding region (since 2005; working day) 26 Dec. (1990) Independence and Unity Day (day off) Other Celebrations (working days) 15 May (1991) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of their formation 23 Dec. (1991) Constitution Day, since 1997

Uprising against the Occupation. In 2013 disputes prevented the organization of a national ceremony for the second year running. Earlier ceremonies tended to feature the national anthem, speeches and a musical program broadcast on national TV and radio. On those occasions, the president and the speaker of parliament spoke of the war as the first occasion when people started to strive for what later became established rights: Slovenian independence and freedom. They also stressed the need for solidarity and resistance in difficult times.

The ceremony is organized by the Department of State Ceremonies, which was established in 2009 and falls under the Ministry of Culture.

Celebration in the City | Victory Day is of no consequence in Slovenia, but the capital of Ljubljana does celebrate on 9 May. From 1995 on, this holiday was no longer known as Liberation Day (anniversary of the city’s liberation on 9 May 1945), but as Freedom and Peace Day. |

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Bulgaria B

Public Holidays (days off) 3 Mar. (1878) Day of Bulgaria’s Liberation from Ottoman Rule 6 May Day of Courage and Bulgarian Army Day, on Saint George’s Day, the Army’s patron saint 6 Sept. (1885) Unification Day, anniversary of Eastern Rumelia’s unification with Bulgaria 22 Sept. (1908) Independence Day 1 Nov. National Revival Leaders Day (1923-1945; reinstated in 1992) Other Commemoration Days (working days) 10 Mar. (1943) Holocaust Memorial Day 16 Apr. (1879) Constitution Day 9 May (1950/1945) Europe Day (and Victory Day) 2 June (1876) Hristo Botev Day and Day of the Struggle for Freedom and Independence, anniversary of this revolutionary’s death

On 9 September 1944 – four days after the Soviet invasion – the Communists seized power. They sided with the USSR and declared war on Germany. In light of Bulgaria’s switch of allegiance during the war, its celebration of Victory Day has always been uneasy. These days, Bulgaria organizes a modest celebration in honor of Europe Day on 9 May, but the Russian ambassador also lays a wreath in memory of Victory Day in a ceremony attended by war veterans.

In 2011, Moscow was furious to discover that the bronze figures of the Monument to the Soviet Army in Sofia had been painted over by unknown artists to resemble American comic strip heroes such as Superman as well as other figures including Santa Claus and Ronald McDonald. A caption underneath read ‘Abreast of the Times.’ Later, the monument was repeatedly used as a staging ground for protest; it was painted over to decry ACTA (a set of anti-piracy laws) and the arrest of Pussy Riot band members and to mark the anniversary of Prague Spring. |

The painted-over Monument to the Soviet Army in Sofia, 19 June 2011. (© Michal Jancek/michaljancek.com)

81 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

ulgaria joined the Axis Powers in early March 1941. A month later the Bulgarian army took part in the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece. In exchange for his support, the Nazis allowed Tsar Boris III to occupy most of Greek Thrace, Yugoslav Macedonia and the Pirot District of Serbia. The authorities deported a total of 11,343 Jews from these regions. In response to a swelling tide of protest by various parties including the Orthodox church, the Tsar did not hand over Bulgaria’s 50,000 Jews (0.8 percent of the population) to the Nazis. Instead, the Jews of Sofia were exiled to the countryside in May 1943. The men were forced to work. Jewish property was confiscated.

Uneasy Celebration | Although Bulgaria has observed Holocaust Memorial Day every 10th of March since 2003, the nation tends not to reflect too deeply on its own past. The focus of Holocaust Memorial Day is on the Bulgarian Jews whose lives were spared, not on the deportations from occupied territories. It was not until 2013 that parliament recognized the latter, and even then it did so only in veiled terms.

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Hungary D

efeat in World War I led to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary lost 72 percent of its territory. Admiral Miklós Horthy’s regime sought closer relations with Nazi Germany in the 1930s in order to regain the land it lost. With help from the Germans, Hungary managed to recover part of Transylvania and Slovakia in 1940.

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In the hope of preventing Soviet occupation, Horthy entered a dialogue with the Allies in 1944. Then, Germany invaded Hungary and ousted him. Less than a month later, on 16 April 1944, the UngarnAktion, or Hungarian Holocaust, began. In a few months’ time, 438,000 of Hungary’s 840,000 Jews were sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau and gassed.

Attempts to limit the Soviet Union’s influence failed, both during and after the war. The Soviets brutally put down the 1956 Hungarian Uprising. After the

fall of communism, Hungary first opted to join NATO (1999) and later to accede to the European Union (2004).

Shoes on the Danube Bank | The Hungarian Holocaust has been commemorated since 2001 on 16 April. The commemoration ceremony consists of an educational program at the Holocaust Memorial Center in Budapest, organized in part by the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice.

Young people can take part in a writing contest entitled ‘Losses to Hungarian Culture,’ aimed at keeping the memory of Holocaust victims alive. Excerpts from the winning essays are read aloud. The House of Terror Museum hosts a memorial concert. The cities of Hódmezövásárhely and Pécs also host events. In Budapest, Holocaust Memorial Day ends at 7 p.m. with the placing of candles and pebbles and the observance of a moment of silence at the Shoes on the Danube Bank memorial. This name is a reference to historical fact; during the war Jews were ordered by members of the fascist Arrow Cross militia to remove their shoes and line up at

Public Holidays (days off) 15 Mar. (1848) National Day, anniversary of the 1848 Revolution, the start of the War of Independence against the Austrian Empire 1 May (1884/2004) Labor Day and Anniversary of the Accession to the EU 20 Aug. (1083) Saint Stephen’s Day, founder of the Hungarian State, anniversary of his sanctification (1949-1989: Constitution Day) 23 Oct. (1956) Republic Day, anniversary of the Hungarian Revolution (since 1989) Other Commemoration Days (working days) 1 Feb. (1946) Memorial Day of the Republic, anniversary of the proclamation of the Republic of Hungary (since 2004) 25 Feb. (1947) Memorial Day for the Victims of the Communist Dictatorships, anniversary of the arrest and deportation of politician Béla Kovács (since 2000) 16 Apr. (1944) Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust, in memory of the day the ghetto was opened (since 2001) 21 May (1849) National Defense Day, anniversary of the Battle of Buda 4 June (1920) National Unity Day, anniversary of Hungary’s loss of 72% of its territory (since 2010) 19 June (1958) Day of Independent Hungary, commemoration of the execution of the martyrs of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution (since 2001) 6 Oct. (1849) Memorial Day for the Martyrs of Arad, anniversary of the execution of 13 generals

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Official Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust at the ‘Shoe Memorial’ on the banks of the Danube, Budapest, 16 April 2008. (© AP/Bela Szandelszky)

the edge of the water to be shot, so their bodies would fall into the river and be carried away.

In 2013, Deputy Prime Minister Tibor Navracsics bridged the gap between past and future by stressing that Hungary not only mourns its dead, but also those who were never born. “Several generations of talented, special people are missing from the Hungarian nation,” he said.

Don River Defeat | Prime Minister Orban’s government has taken sharp criticism for failing to take decisive action against the far-right Jobbik party.

Elie Wiesel, Nobel Peace Prize winner and Holocaust survivor of Hungarian descent, returned the country’s highest decoration and accused the state of whitewashing history and trivializing its collaboration with the Nazis. In response to such criti-

At the same time, the government has not distanced itself from the Hungarian troops that fought alongside Nazi Germany. On 14 January 2013, the defense minister took part in an annual laying of wreaths for the victims of the Don river defeat, 70 years after the Hungarian Second Army was crushed in the Battle of Stalingrad. More than 100,000 soldiers and Jewish forced laborers died, 35,000 were wounded, and 60,000 taken prisoners of war. The minister called them heroes, regardless of what side they fought on.

Representatives of the defense ministry took part in a laying of wreaths on 12 February 2013, in memory of the final day of the Siege of Budapest. When reproached for ‘remembering Nazis,’ the ministry responded that this occasion commemorates not only Germans and Hungarians, but also Romanian and Soviet soldiers and all civilians who perished. |

83 Commemoration and Celebration in Europe

cism, the government points to a series of measures it has taken. The court of justice has banned the Hungarian Guard, Jobbik’s paramilitary branch.

Parliament has enacted a law making denial of the Holocaust punishable by up to three years in prison. Survivors’ pensions have been increased and, for the first time in 80 years, a synagogue is being built in Budapest. In addition, 2014 has been declared Hungarian Holocaust Memorial Year.

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Poland T

he attack by the battleship Schleswig-Holstein on Gdansk’s Westerplatte peninsula, on 1 September 1939, marked the German invasion of Poland and the beginning of World War II. An annual commemoration of this event is held at the Westerplatte Monument to the Defenders of the Coast. Wreaths are laid and the president or prime minister addresses

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the crowd. In 1997, 1 September was proclaimed national Veterans Day as well. On 17 September, the Polish also organize a smaller ceremony to commemorate the Soviet invasion that began shortly after the German onslaught, on 17 September 1939.

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Katyn Massacre | Poland’s main commemorative event is 13 April, when the victims of the Soviet-led Katyn Massacre are commemorated. On 13 April 1943, the first mass graves were discovered in the Katyn Forest. Some 22,000 Poles – intellectuals, officers and priests – had been murdered in 1940 on orders from the NKVD, the Soviet secret service. Katyn was one of three villages where the executions took place.

Only in 1990, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, did Russia acknowledge its responsibility.

This tragedy and Russia’s failure to apologize and cooperate in the investigation have contributed to tense relations between Poland and Russia. Poland has created a special committee to deal with these issues. Nearly every city in Poland has a Katyn memorial and local commemorations are kept alive by the many relatives of victims. The 13th of April has been an officially recognized national memorial day since 2007, although it is a regular working day.

Above: Russian and Polish presidents Medvedev and Komorowski attending the commemorative ceremony in Katyn, Russia, 11 April 2011. (© AP/RIA Novosti,Vladimir Rodionov, Presidential Press Service) On the right: Polish people commemorating victims of the Katyn Massacre at Powazky cemetery in Warsaw, 1 November 2004. (© AP Photo/Czarek Sokolowski)

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On 10 April 2010, the Polish government jet crashed while on its way to Katyn, killing all 96 people aboard – including President Kaczynski, ex-president Kaczorowksi, the Chief of General Staff and 15 MPs. The crash took place on Russian soil, in a Russian-made Tupolev on its way to commemorate a Soviet-perpetrated massacre, so conspiracy theories soon abounded.

The 3.5 million Polish Jews were even worse off; if they were not killed immediately by Einsatzgruppen, they were forced to live in overpopulated ghettos.

In 1942, the Nazis started deporting them to death camps, most of which were located in occupied Poland. Ultimately, some 5.5 million Polish civilians and soldiers (almost 20% of the population) died in the war. More than half were Jews.

The Nazis also murdered thousands of their enemies, for example in the Kampinos Forest, in and around Palmiry. The Nazis considered Poles Untermenschen and treated them as such.

Warsaw Uprising | Until 1951, Polish employees were given a day off work on 9 May to celebrate Victory Day. But 9 May lost importance in the country’s commemorative culture. The only time

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Public Holidays 1 Mar. (1951) Doomed Soldiers Memorial Day, anniversary of a Soviet Union show trial of 16 Polish resistance leaders (since 2011; working day) 1 May: Statehood Day (day off) 3 May (1791) Constitution Day (1919-1939; again since 1990; day off) 9 May (1945) Victory Day (1945-1950: day off; 1951-present: working day) 1 Aug. (1944) National Memorial Day for the Warsaw Uprising, commemoration of the armed uprising (since 2009; working day) 15 Aug. (1920) Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary; 1923-1947; also Polish Armed Forces Day, commemorating the Battle of Warsaw in 1920, aka the ‘Miracle of the Vistula’ (since 1992; day off) 31 Aug. (1980) Day of Solidarity and Freedom, anniversary of the Gdansk Agreement (August Agreements; ending the strikes leading to the creation of Solidarity (since 2005; working day) 11 Nov. (1918) National Independence Day, anniversary of the restoration to Polish control of territories ruled by Prussia, Austria and the Soviet Union (day off) Other Commemorations (working days) 13 Apr. (1943) Day of Remembrance for Victims of the Katyn Massacre, anniversary of the discovery of the mass graves (since 2007) 2 May (1945) Flag of the Republic of Poland Day, anniversary of the raising of the Polish flag in the aftermath of the Battle of Berlin (since 2004) 29 May (1948) Day of Veterans of Foreign Battles, anniversary of the International Day of UN Peacekeepers (since 2011) 14 June (1940) National Day of Remembrance for Victims of the Nazi Concentration Camps, anniversary of the first mass transport to Auschwitz (since 2006) 28 June (1956) Day of Remembrance of the 1956 Poznan protests (since 2005) 2 Aug. (1944) Roma Genocide Remembrance Day, anniversary of the extermination of the “Gypsy Camp” in Auschwitz II (since 2011) 28 Aug. (1932) Polish Air Force Day, anniversary of the Challenge 1932 victory 1 Sept. (1939) Anniversary of Nazi Germany’s invasion; since 1997 also National Veterans Day 17 Sept. (1939) Anniversary of the Soviet invasion 27 Sept. (1939) Anniversary of the formation of the Polish Underground State (since 1998)

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it stirs controversy is when the government considers sending representatives to the 9 May military parade in Moscow.

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A national holiday gaining importance is 1 August.

On that date in 1944, the Polish Home Army rose up against the Nazis in the Warsaw Uprising, which lasted 63 days. The Soviet Army was ordered not to intervene and only took over control after the Polish resistance had been crushed. After the war, the Stalinist regime discredited the resistance fighters and executed or deported them to the Gulag.

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It was not until after 1989 that Poland could start commemorating the Warsaw Uprising. This day is gradually becoming a more national event. Air raid sirens are sounded in the capital at 5 p.m., followed by a minute of silence in which the entire city, including public transport, comes to a standstill. The year 2013 marked the first time the sirens were also sounded on 19 April, the day of the Uprising in the Jewish Ghetto in Warsaw, an event much more widely publicized internationally than at home. It was also the first time that church bells were rung in acknowledgement. There is an annual commemorative ceremony at Auschwitz on Holocaust Memorial Day and on 14 June, the anniversary of the first mass transport to Auschwitz.

1, 2 and 3 May | Apart from commemorations, Poland also has several celebrations. However, these tend to accentuate Poland’s complex and controversial history. One of the main celebrations is Constitution Day on 3 May. The Communists treated Labor Day, 1 May, as a major event. The current government has retained the day, but renamed it Statehood Day. In 2004, parliament added 2 May as Flag Day, partly because the non-working days of 1 and 3 May meant nearly everyone took the day off anyway. But the date is also rife with symbolism.

It is the anniversary of the raising of the Polish flag after the Battle of Berlin in 1945. In the Soviet era 2 May had another significance; on that day all flags had to be taken down so they would not be flown on 3 May (Poland’s banned Constitution Day).

Another important festive occasion is Independence Day on 11 November, established in 1937. In 1945, it was replaced by the National Day of Poland’s Rebirth on 22 July, the day when a Moscow-backed government presented its manifesto. After the fall of communism, Independence Day was immediately reinstated. Festivities to mark it are organized all over the country. In recent years, the day has been marred by violent confrontations between nationalists, anti-fascists and the police.

One of the ceremonies the President attends on 11 November is the Changing of the Guard at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. On 15 August (Armed Forces Day), the same ceremony is conducted there, preceded by a military parade, a church mass and a promotion ceremony for military personnel in the Presidential Palace. |

Romania I

n World War II, Romania initially declared neutrality, then fought alongside Nazi Germany and finally joined the Allies. After the war, the Communists came to power. Nicolae Ceaus,escu seized control in 1965. His foreign policy was not always in line with Moscow’s. In 1989, the dictator was deposed. Romania acceded to the European Union in 2007.

Because Romania is continually maneuvering between East and West, it is difficult to give a clear description of how the nation commemorates war. Nationalists, Communists, proponents of European integration, war veterans and pacifists all have their own view of history.

Heroes’ Day | After World War I, in which close to a million Romanian soldiers and civilians died, Ascension Day was declared Heroes’ Day to commemorate these deaths. In 1923, the National Military Museum was opened and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier inaugurated. But after the war, the Communists who had risen to power with Moscow’s help changed

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Commemoration at the Holocaust Memorial in Bucharest, 11 October 2011. (© AP/Vadim Ghirda)

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Public Holidays (days off) 15 Aug.: Dormition of Theotokos/Assumption of Mary, since 2008 also Romanian Naval Forces Day; Mary is the Navy’s patron saint 1 Dec. (1918) National Day (Great Union Day), celebration of Transylvania’s union with Romania Other Commemorations (working days) 9 May (1877/1945/2007) Independence Day/Victory Day/Europe Day Ascension Day (May/June) also Heroes’ Day (1920-1947; since 1990) 26 June (1848) National Flag Day (since 1998) 29 July (1848) National Anthem Day (since 1998) 23 Aug. (1944/1939) Liberation from Fascist Occupation Day; since 2011 also Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Stalinism and Nazism (anniversary of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact ) 9 Oct. (1942) National Day of Commemorating the Holocaust in Romania, anniversary of the first deportation of the Jews (since 2004) 25 Oct. (1944) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of the liberation of Carei and the birthday of King Michael I 8 Dec. (1991) Constitution Day 21 Dec. (1989) Commemoration of the Victims of Communist Romania, anniversary of the peak of the Romanian Revolution (since 2011),

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Heroes’ Day to 9 May, the date on which the Romanians had celebrated Independence Day before World War II. Suddenly, 9 May was Victory Day, even though the country had initially fought alongside Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union and had lost its independence as well as territory in the war.

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In 1958, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier was dismantled in the dead of night and secretly moved to make room for a mausoleum for Communist Party leaders. It was not until 1975 that Romanians were allowed to celebrate their independence on 9 May, in line with Ceaus,escu’s foreign policy that did not toe the Moscow line.

was returned to its original location. Here, annual commemorations are held for all casualties of World War I and II on both dates. The laying of wreaths at the memorial is attended mostly by high-ranking military personnel.

On 1 January 2007, Romania acceded to the European Union. Since then, 9 May has not only marked Independence Day and Victory over Fascism Day, but also Europe Day. Commemorations on 23 August also have a double meaning. This date refers not only to the day that Romania joined the Allied Forces, but also to the day the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was signed. |

In 1990, after Ceaus,escu’s fall and the collapse of communism, Ascension Day was again declared Heroes’ Day. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier

Slovakia I

n 1938 Hitler took control of Czechoslovakia. Sudetenland, Bohemia and Moravia were occupied and a third of Slovakia was ceded to Hungary. In 1939, Slovakia officially became independent, but in practice remained Nazi Germany’s puppet state led by the authoritarian, arch-conservative Roman Catholic priest Jozef Tiso, an anti-Communist and antiSemite.

Gentle Revolution | Slovakia’s national holiday in memory of the Struggle for Freedom and Democracy on 17 November has its roots in World War II. During a demonstration against the occupation, the Nazis shot a student by the name of Jan Opletal.

When his funeral led to new protests, nine students were executed and more than 1,200 deported to camps on 17 November 1939. In 1989, a peaceful march organized by civilians commemorating these events was violently put down by police, marking the beginning of the Velvet or Gentle Revolution that toppled the Communist regime.

Jews, Partisans, Communists | On 9 September 1941, Tiso’s regime introduced the Jewish Codex: a body of 290 repressive anti-Semitic laws. More than 70,000 of the approximately 90,000 Jews in Slovakia were deported to Auschwitz. Rather than observing Holocaust Memorial Day, Slovakia officially recognizes 9 September as the day to remember Holocaust victims.

On 29 August 1944, tens of thousands of partisans rose up against the regime. After the war, the Communists tried to take credit for this resistance, while the ultranationalists saw the uprising as an attempt to put an end to Slovakian independence. Therefore, this day – which is a public holiday – is not observed by everyone. In the city of Banská Bystrica, where the uprising began, a wreath-laying ceremony is held in the presence of the president, the prime minister, the speaker of parliament, the minister of defense and foreign ambassadors. In 2012, the president’s speech emphasized the fact that partisans in twenty countries took part in this uprising and that this contains a message for the present (read: European integration). He also mentioned neo-fascistic and terrorist attempts to impose their

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Commemoration of the Gentle Border, Bratislava, 17 November 2011. (© Reuters/Radovan Stoklasa)

Public Holidays (days off) 1 Jan. (1993) Day of the Establishment of the Slovak Republic, also New Year’s Day 29 Aug. (1944) Anniversary of the Slovak National Uprising 1 Sept. (1992) Constitution Day 17 Nov.(1939/1989) Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day, anniversary of the student protest against the Nazi occupation in 1939 and the beginning of the Gentle Revolution in 1989 (since 2001) Other Commemoration Days (working days) 25 Mar. (1988) Day of Struggle for Human Rights, commemoration of the candle demonstration in Bratislava 13 Apr. (1950) Day of Unfairly Prosecuted Persons, anniversary of the crackdown on monasteries and monks 8 May (1945) Victory over Fascism Day 17 July (1992) Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence of the Slovak Republic 9 Sept. (1941) Day of the Victims of Holocaust and of Racial Violence, anniversary of the promulgation of the Jewish Codex (since 2000) 19 Sept. (1848) Day of the First Public Appearance of the Slovak National Council, the predecessor of present-day Slovak Parliament 22 Sept. (1848) Armed Forces Day 6 Oct. (1944) Day of Dukla Pass Victims, anniversary of the Dukla Pass Battle in the Carpathians 28 Oct. (1918) Day of the Establishment of an Independent Czecho-Slovak State, anniversary of Czechoslovakia’s formation 30 Oct. (1918) Anniversary of the Declaration of the Slovak Nation marking Slovakia’s union with the Czechs

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Revolution, at the Slovak

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ideologies on people. In Slovakia, the far right is very popular. For example, in November 2013 the Banská Bystrica region elected a neo-Nazi as its governor. And in 2000, the nationalist mayor of Žilina advocated erecting a monument to Jozef Tiso and received strong support from Roman Catholics for his idea. The nation also does not object to remembering German war victims, as long as they are not war criminals.

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After the fall of the Communist regime, Victory Day was abolished as a national holiday, but was later reinstated a day earlier (8 May). The Slovaks also commemorate the Battle of the Dukla Pass, an important landmark in the advance of the Soviet Army. |

Slovak and Russian war veterans saluting at a commemoration ceremony at the Slavín Monument during the Russian president’s visit to Bratislava, 7 April 2010. (© Reuters/Petr Josek)

Czech Republic A

fter the war, it took a long time for Czechoslovakia to reach a consensus on which holiday or commemoration day to observe. Should it be 8 May, 9 May, or 5 May, the day of the Prague Uprising, as preferred by President Edvard Beneš? It was only in 1951 that the Communists managed to declare 9 May the Day of Liberation of Czecho-Slovakia by the Soviet Army. Immediately after the collapse of communism, the day was renamed Victory over

Fascism Day and in 1991 it was moved to 8 May. But that did not end the debate. In 2000, the day was renamed Liberation Day, and in 2004, with no further explanation, it was renamed Victory Day. The commemoration features a parade and a wreathlaying ceremony at the National Memorial on Prague’s Vitkov Hill. These events are attended by the president, the prime minister, other political

Czech soldiers marching near the statue of Jan Žižka on Prague’s Vitkov Hill on Independence Day, 28 October 2011. (© Reuters/David W. Cerny)

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and military leaders, the Archbishop of Prague, and war veterans. On this occasion, military promotions are awarded and decorations bestowed on highranking military officials. Most Czech citizens simply enjoy the day off.

Prague Uprising | Today the Czech Republic observes various war-related commemoration days. First of all, the Czech Republic is one of the few countries from the former Eastern Bloc to make 11 November (Armistice Day in 1918) an official commemoration day devoted to War Veterans. In addition, the country recognizes Holocaust Memorial Day on 27 January. More than 77,000 Jews from the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, as the Nazis called the Czech part of Czechoslovakia, were murdered.

Another date that in 1994 was adopted by law as a commemoration day is the anniversary of the Prague Uprising on 5 May. The uprising is still the

subject of debate, though less about its timing than the fact that the Americans did not come to the Czechs’ rescue and that the Communists later belittled its importance.

At its commemoration in 2013, President Miloš Zeman said the uprising stemmed from years of humiliation and the loss of dignity. He warned that corruption and unemployment could now cause similar feelings. Zeman also recalled Lidice, the village that was razed to the ground in reprisal for the assassination of Nazi leader Reinhard Heydrich. He warned against the dangers of neo-Nazism and nationalism, emphasizing that society must be vigilant to prevent history from repeating itself. Since 1967, an annual international art competition for children and an exhibition of their work has been organized to commemorate the murdered children of Lidice and all other child war victims worldwide. |

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Public Holidays (days off) 1 Jan. (1993) Independence Day/Day of the Restoration of the Independent Czech Republic, also New Year’s Day 8 May (1945) Victory Day 28 Sept. (935) Czech Statehood Day, Day of Saint Wenceslas, patron saint of the Czech people and republic 28 Oct. (1918) Independent Czechoslovak State Day 17 Nov. (1939/1989) Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day, anniversary of the student protest against the Nazi occupation and the beginning of the Velvet Revolution in 1989 (since 1990; public holiday since 2000) Other Commemoration Days (working days) 27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day and Prevention of Crimes against Humanity Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (since 2004) 12 Mar. (1999) Day of the Czech Republic’s Accession to NATO 5 May (1945) Anniversary of the Prague Uprising 10 June (1942) Memorial Day for the Lidice Massacre, anniversary of the destruction of the village of Lidice and the murder, or deportation and subsequent murder, of its inhabitants in retribution for the assassination of Heydrich 27 June (1950) Remembrance of the Victims of the Communist Regime, on the day political activist Milada Horáková was executed, after being falsely accused of high treason and espionage 30 June (1918) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of the declaration of independence when soldiers swore their allegiance to the nation 11 Nov. (1918) Veterans Day

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Bios and sources Renske Krimp (Amsterdam, 1982) is a historian with the Dutch National Committee for 4 and 5 May. She is involved in research projects focusing on the persecution of the Roma and Sinti peoples and the theme of freedom, democracy and rule of law. She earned her Master’s degree at the NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies in Amsterdam in 2007. In 2011, an article based on her Master’s thesis, Geskiedenis vir Almal, dealing with the revision of history books in post-Apartheid South Africa, was published in the Dutch scholarly history journal Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis. | 92 A FTER TH E WAR

Remco Reiding (Amersfoort, 1976) is a researcher, writer and journalist. From 2004 to 2013, he was a Moscow-based correspondent reporting on all countries in the former Soviet Union for several Dutch media companies: the GPD news agency, the financial newspaper Het Financieele Dagblad and the national news and information radio station, BNR. His 2012 book Kind van het Ereveld, about his long quest for the next of kin of Soviet soldiers buried in The Netherlands, received wide acclaim. Reiding has been nominated for the Dutch journalism prize Het Gouden Pennetje and decorated by the Russian Ministry of Defense. He received the RusPrix Award for improving humanitarian relations between The Netherlands and Russia. Reiding currently works as a researcher, project manager and advisor on commemoration. | Otto Snoek (Rotterdam, 1966) is an independent documentary photographer. He exhibits his work in The Netherlands and abroad and works on commission for various media companies. From 1997 to 2009 he photographed the transformation of Rotterdam, his native city. This resulted in a retrospective exhibit at the Nederlands Fotomuseum and in the publications Rotterdam and Why Not. In 2002, he collaborated with Tracy Metz and Janine Schrijver on the book Pret!, about the experience of leisure in The Netherlands. Since 2007, he has been taking photographs on the theme of the national identity of European citizens. For the project, he has visited every European nation on the days that they offer citizens the opportunity to express their loyalty to the nation.

The photo essay in this publication is selected from that project. | Sources The sources used for this research report, as well as a digital copy of this publication, are available online at: www.4en5mei.nl/onderzoek/toegepastonderzoek/herdenken_en_ vieren_in_Europa

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Editorial Team © Nationaal Comite 4 en 5 mei Amsterdam, November 2014

Dutch texts on Western Europe: Renske Krimp ma Dutch texts on Eastern Europe: Remco Reiding Dutch texts, General Introduction and Introduction to Photo Essay: Esther Captain PhD Image selection: Mieke Sobering Photo Essay: Otto Snoek English translation & copyediting: Word’s Worth, – www.wordsworth.nl Design & layout: Martijn Luns – www.bureauLuns.nl Printing: Roto Smeets, Utrecht Copyright of the texts is maintained by the National Committee for 4 and 5 May and by the individual authors. Reproduction in whole or in part is not permitted. Photos and illustrations are copyright. The National Committee for 4 and 5 May has attempted to trace the copyright owners of the photographic material and to acquire their consent for this publication. Whosoever claims copyright, personality right, any other right, or privacy infringement, is advised to contact the National Committee for 4 and 5 May. This report was printed using plant-based ink on FSC certified paper.

ISBN 978-90-77294-12-3 www.4en5mei.nl

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AFTER THE WAR

COMMEMORATION AND CELEBRATION IN EUROPE

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