Pre-Martial Law Era

Although Cebu has long been a venue of bustling trade and commerce and home to thousand of people, it didn’t become a city until the 20th century. It was during Manuel L. Quezon’s first year in his presidency, that he signed Commonwealth Act 58 (in the year 1936, which turned the municipality of Cebu into Cebu City. [1] According to President Quezon during his speech of the inauguration of the Cebu Provincial Capitol in 1938, he mentioned that Vicepresident Osmeña conceived the project of improving and enlarging the city of Cebu.[2] • The main author of the law that converted the municipal government into a city government, however, was Don Vicente Rama, who Quezon appointed as the Mayor of Cebu City.[3]

1942

A ruined city block in Cebu City, March 1945

Cebu became one of the most important Japanese navy bases south from Manila, which meant that the Americans targeted the city. 50 percent and more of the city was destroyed by the war from railways, roads, to buildings. It was said that after the war when Cebuanos returned to their homes, they only found debris, a lot of bombed-out buildings, and even destroyed churches. [5] When the Americans started their liberation of Cebu province in 1945, only nine of fifty-one municipalities were spared from their bombings. The destruction was most severe in Cebu City however, as Liberation bombers dropped their bombs on the city.[4]

The Japanese forces started attacking the Philippines and landed on Cebu in April 1942, and established the Cebu ports as a station for their navy. Japan’s conquest of colonizing the Philippines was due to them wanting to take the country’s natural resources. Cebu’s newly developed roads and transport systems established by the Americans further made the Japanese military want to occupy Cebu more.[5] It was a rough time for Cebu and Cebuanos during the Japanese occupation. A lot of explosions and warcrimes were committed under the Japanese rule. An explosion ruined the Central Train Station in Cebu City, which is now the South Bus Terminal. was said that women were raped and tortured, and the mayor was hanged in one of the rooms. During a forum that reminisced of Cebuanos’ experiences during the Japanese occupation, a Cebuano named Luis Gabuya Jabonero, who was 12 during that time, shared that he remembered how the Japanese beat up his mother. Vowing vengeance, he learned Nihongo in a school in Lahug, which enabled him to interpret for the troops when they caught any intruders. He recalled punching one Japanese soldier so hard that the man fainted. Whenever they capture Japanese soldiers, Jabonero said they also hurt them, which to him was “a painful achievement.” [6]

1945 In Cordova Elementary School, it

US troops riding on an M7 Priest enter Cebu City

Cebu City was in ruins after World War II. The war did not only bring destruction to the city’s infrastructures, but it also caused outbreaks of numerous diseases, like cholera, and tuberculosis. After the war it was very difficult for Cebu City to recover from damages brought about by war and disease. It was President Sergio Osmeña, successor of the late President Manuel Quezon, who decided to appoint a Cebuano physician as the mayor of Cebu City after the war in order to address the growing health problems of the city. This was Doctor Leandro Tojong. He was later succeeded by another Cebuano physician, Doctor Nicolas G. Escario in January 1946. Cebu’s post-war physician mayors helped the city address the increasing health problems of the city, and further helped the city stand back on its feet.[7]

On 1964, President Diosdado Macapagal signed Proclamation No. 241 entitled “RESERVING FOR MARKET SITE PURPOSES A CERTAIN PARCEL OF LAND OF THE PUBLIC DOMAIN SITUATED IN THE CITY OF CEBU, ISLAND OF CEBU ”.[8] The 9th president was the first to introduce land reform laws in the country. Proclamation No. 241 Upon the recommendation of the Secretary of Agriculture and Natural Resources and pursuant to the authority vested in me by law, I, DIOSDADO MACAPAGAL, President of the Philippines, do hereby withdraw from sale or settlement and reserve for market site purposes, under the administration of the City of Cebu, subject to the private rights, if any there be, a certain parcel of land of the public domain situated in the City of Cebu, Island of Cebu, and more particularly described as follows, to wit:

1957

1946

the crash site of Ramon Magsaysay’s presidential plane at Mount Manunggal, Cebu. 1964

On March 16, 1957, President Ramon del Fierro Magsaysay Sr. arrived in Cebu City in order to make speeches across the city. He spoke at the airport, promising Cebuanos government aid to the city’s problems. After, he spoke different Cebu universities commencement exercises. The day after, the president’s Douglas C-47 plane crashed against Mount Manunggal in Balamban Cebu. [9] Cebu Daily News reporter, Cris Evert Lato-Ruffolo, interviewed a Cebuano named Francisco, whose father discovered the remains of the plane wreckage. Francisco, who was 20 years old during the crash, said that that he and his family saw the president’s airplane flying too low, and heard a loud sound afterwards. Afterwards, locals checked the crash site and only found one lone survivor, a journalist of the Philippine Herald named Nestor Mata. Francisco’s father and their dog were given medals at the Malacañang Palace in 1957 for bravely leading the other rescuers to the crash site.[10]

The Martial Law era began when then-President Ferdinand E. Marcos signed Proclamation No. 1081 s. 1972, entitled “PROCLAIMING A STATE OF MARTIAL LAW IN THE PHILIPPINES” on the Sept 21, 1972. Thousands of Marcos-dissidents such as student leaders, union organizers, journalists, activists, and political opposition leaders, were arrested and detained. One of the first to be detained in Cebu City was Attorney Democrito C. Barcenas, a human rights lawyer who defended arrested students leaders and activists in Cebu in rallies.[11] On Sept 23, 1972, Philippine Constabulary soldiers arrived at his home and arrested him. He was taken to Camp Sergio Osmeña, Jones Avenue, where he stayed with eight other detainees (he was the ninth person to be arrested in Cebu after the proclamation of Martial Law). Fortunately, he and the other detainees weren’t physically tortured, however they were subjected to psychological tauntings by the soldiers. After three months, he was released by the military, which not many other detainees in hundreds of different military camps around the PH were able to experience.

1978

Cebu and Cebuanos have long protested against Marcos and his regime before and during the implementation of Martial Law all around the country. Many marches coming from north and south Cebu alike converged in Fuente Osmeña Rotunda or Plaza Independencia. Cebu City councilor Antonio Cuenco was one of the people who led a rally that attracted more than 20,000 participants.[16] In an interview for Cebu Daily News, University of the Philippines - Cebu professor, Dr. Madrileña de la Cerna, recalled that “Cebu was always with the opposition during the Marcos years,” and “students made anti-dictatorship protests very much alive”. Student theatre groups from different Cebuano universities such as USJR, STC, USC, and UP staged plays that showcased life under the Marcos dictatorship. But protests weren’t only participated by students and teachers. The Catholic Church, the Redemptorists in particular, also joined in and staged protests through their own theater group, Dulaang 8 8 Katilingban.[14]

Cebu was one of the cities in the Philippines that had a strong opposition force against the Marcos dictatorship. So much so that Pusyon Bisaya, a Cebuano group consisting of Natalio Bacalso, Bartolome Cabangbang, Valentino Legaspi, & Hilario David Jr., defeated the entire Marcos administration party in the 1978 Interim Batasang Pangbansa.[12] Cebuanos were also not afraid to show the Marcos’ regime their sentiments. After one of Marcos’ rigged elections, a violent demonstration occurred. Dubbed by the long-gone The Republic News as the “Battle at the Capitol”, thousands of Cebuanos protested over the election results, carrying with them bricks and firebombs. It ended with 27 injured and 1 dead, identified to be 17-yearold Raul Pintoy, who was shot in the neck when one of the policemen and soldiers fired guns at protestors. [13]

1972 to 1986 1972 to 1986 1972 to 1986 • Cebuanos never backed Legaspi, and Nenita down and always fought “Inday Nita” Cortes for their freedom during Daluz.[16] Fr. Romano, Marcos’ dictatorship. who went out of his way A ceremonial marker to organize students was put up in order to and workers, was commemorate and abducted by soldiers recognize the heroism of while celebrating Mass those Cebuanos leaders at Fuente Osmeña in of the anti-Marcos 1987.[14] fights. Seven martyrs • The eight Martial Law and eight survivors were survivors were lawyer honored. Democrito Barcenas, • The seven Martial Law Auxilium Toling-Olayer, martyrs were Fr. Rosalio Francisco “Bimbo” “Rudy” Romano, lawyer Fernandez, retired Judge 12 12 Vicente Balbuena, professor Evelyn Neri, Meinrado Paredes, professor Zenaida Uy, 12 12 12 12 Ribomapil “Dodong” Holganza Sr., Fr. Luis former Sen. Sergio Osmeña III, Fr. Emi “Louie” Hechanova, Maningo and Ruben human rights lawyer Democrito Barcenas (second lawyer Valentino Diaz. [16] vfrom left) joined the late Sen. Lorenzo M. Tañada (center) and former Congressman Antonio Cuenco during a protest rally in Fuente Osmeña, Cebu City in September 1984. CEBUANO MARTIAL LAW CEBUANO MARTIAL LAW CEBUANO MARTIAL LAW CEBUANO MARTIAL LAW CEBUANO MARTIAL LAW CEBUANO MARTIAL LAW

1986

• When President Marcos was • During her time in Cebu, Antonio declared the winner during Cuenco, a former Cebu City south the snap election of 1986, district congressman and Cebu

Corazon Aquino started a civil City counselor, believed that a disobedience campaign in “shoot-to-kill” order was issued • Cebu City and spoke at a rally at Fuente Osmeña where she planned garner support to boycott companies owned by Marcos cronies. The Commission on Elections • against Aquino.[12] He and his wife escorted Aquino and her daughter to a Carmelite monastery with the nuns headed by Mother Superior Aimee. in Mabolo, Cebu City. Cebu Archbishop Ricardo 10 10 10 10 10 10 Carmelite sisters who helped hide Cory Aquino during the early days of EDSA Revolt. (From left to right) Mother Aimee, Mother Ilaya, Mother Marietta. announced Marcos the winner Cardinal Vidal released a of the 1986 elections, while the statement against Comelec and

National Citizens’ Movement their declaration of Marcos the for Free Elections (NAMFREL), winner of the election, saying that an election watchdog in the “a government that assumes or

Philippines, conducted its own retains power through fraudulent count of the elections and named means has no moral basis,”. [15]

Aquino the winner, sowing even This was not the first time that the more public distrust in Marcos’ Church expressed her sentiments alleged win.[15] against Marcos during this era. 11 11 11 11 11 11 KABILIN | 21

• Imperialism, is defined as “state policy, practice, of extending power and dominion, by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas.” Imperialism usually manifests itself in the form of colonization of lands, and its main purpose is to exploit its victims of their valuable resources. • The Philippines has been colonized for hundreds of years by different nations, the most recent one being the United States. After World War II, the Philippines had broken free from colonialism and achieved its own independence back in 1946. However it seems that the nation is still suffering from a new kind of imperialism, a phenomenon called ‘neocolonialism’, defined as the use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence other countries, especially former dependencies. [17]

• Because of colonialism and neocolonialism, the Philippines is underdeveloped and is heavily dependent on the US. Filipino sociologist, Randolph David, explores how the Philippines came to be dependent on advanced capitalist countries such as the

United States in his work “The Dependency

Theory”.[18] He defined this dependency in six parts: 1. The Philippine economy is dependent on how the global capitalist order fairs 2. The Philippine integrating into the global capitalist system means that its

economy depends on a few agricultural export crops, metallic minerals, and labor-intensive sweatshops and electronic semiconductor factories to generate foreign exchange. 3. The Philippine elite become secondin-command to international capital, further making themselves extensions of neo-colonialism in the country. 4. A strong authoritarian and repressive regime is increasingly favored by international capital, and is believed to be necessary to solve the continuous underdevelopment of the nation. 5. The Philippine elite continue to gain from the country’s dependency while the poor continue to be exploited and marginalized. 6. Philippine culture is slowly being erased from its citizens, and is instead being replaced by consumerist culture originating from capitalist countries.

1995 2016

In David’s (1980) Dependency theory, he mentioned that with the Philippines integrating into the global capitalist system, it meant that the national economy had to depend on the exportation of agricultural products, metallic minerals, and cheap labor-intensive work in order to generate foreign exchange. This can be seen in Cebu from an article written by Charles Wallace for the LA Times in 1995. He wrote that Timex is one of the largest employers in this Southeast Asian country, with 6,000 employees working three shifts at a sprawling factory complex at the Mactan Island Export Zone, just offshore from the big island of Cebu. The Philippine economy, after a decade-long slump, recorded an economic boom that year due to its exports of not only products but also cheap labour force. This economic growth can be attributed to the thenPresident Fidel V. Ramos, who implemented major economic reforms and intended to use the private sector as the engine of the growth of the Philippines. [19]

With the United States dominating the global market, the Philippine government believes that the future of the nation’s economy and growth lies on the Philippines’ ability to depend on American transnational corporations.[18] With the Dependency Theory, it is beneficial for the advanced capitalist country that the local government continue American neo-colonialism through the repression of its citizens. Whichis why the country continues to believe that an authoritarian government is needed in order to “progress” the country and solve the issues that come with the nation’s underdevelopment. The current-President Rodrigo R. Duterte’s first year of presidency in 2016 he launched a “War on Drugs”, which has resulted in over thousands of people – and possibly more than 25,000 - have killed in police and vigilante operations[20]. This is happening more so in urban areas than the provinces, especially in the case of Cebu City.[21]

1986 to PRESENT 1986 to PRESENT

• David (1980)’s Theory of Dependency • also mentioned how the Philippine cultural system is slowly being replaced with capitalist culture. The country’s increasing integration into the • In order to preserve Cebuano culture and heritage, and promote it to the masses, Ramon Aboitiz Foundation Inc. an event that aims to help preserve Cebu’s rich culture and heritage, encourages the public to visit local museums global capitalist market has changed the initiated culture and heritage that showcase Cebu’s traditions, modern Filipino. Transnational corporations programs. They intend for and strives to develop the have entered the Philippine market and local Cebuanos to awaken masses understanding that have started to put local businesses out of commission[18]. For example, the 16 16 their interest in the past, and museums can also be venues of live cultural and educational integration of fast-fashion brands like educate them activities.

Forever21, H&M, Zara have made local about their • The public’s growing interest • tailors lose businesses over the years. As the Philippine economy continues to depend on the United States, it has become logical for Filipinos to learn English as people would likely think that local history. • One of these culture and heritage programs in Gabii sa Kabilin has led to more people visiting local museums and historical sites. Around 3,000 people joined the event back in 2015. In 2018, the number of it is advantageous in the long run, with spearheaded attendees increased to 4,000 most even preferring it as a first language, by RAFI is participants, and continues which in turn has lit the spark of the start the “Gabii to spark interest not only for of the loss of regional dialects in the new sa Kabilin”, Cebu but the entire region as generation of Filipinos. 16 16 which is well.[23]

• Neocolonialism is also found in the Philippines’ education • Ethnic groups outside of Manila have started to realize sector. Since the colonial times, Manila universities that it is imperative that they study their cultures with that were dependent on knowledge being produced in their own language, and perspectives as a challenge to

Western countries, maintained a one-side relations with Western tradition of acquiring knowledge. other regional universities when it comes to knowledge • Most Universities do not offer degrees in ethnic studies, • production. The national language, Filipino, also limits indigenous people of understanding themselves and their own culture with their own language. In Fernandez’s (2011) he mentioned that “the richness of the archipelagic cultures in the hundred ethnicities and languages is never really appreciated and the culture-bearers are taken for granted, • which was supposed to be the aim for the communities they are serving in the long run. There are, however, regional centers that specialize on specific ethnic cultures. For example, the University of San Carlos in Cebu City, through its Cebuano Studies Center, pioneered study and research of Cebuano unable to study their own cultures culture, and history. The growing in their own languages in relation to numbers of regional centers were themselves and to others”. due to the imposition of Tagalog and • Recognizing that different cultures English as mediums of instruction exists that bear ancient knowledge in education and the suspension and traditions, buried alive under of teaching each region’s mother centuries of colonialism, and tongue in the first two grades in imperialism is one crucial way of decolonizing universities within the Philippines.[22] 1974, threatening the existence of the diverse ethno-linguistic culture in the country. [22] KABILIN | 23

1. Encyclopædia Britannica. (n.d.). Quezon, Manuel [Image]. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Manuel-Quezon/images-videos#/ media/1/487202/107308 2. Department of Defense. Department of the Army. Office of the Chief Signal Officer. (9/18/1947 - 3/1/1964). (n.d.). 111-SCA-Album_2843_081 [Photograph]. National Archives Catalog. https://catalog.archives.gov/id/80660537 3. National Archives Catalog. (n.d.). A ruined city block in Cebu City, March 1945 [Photograph]. 182ndinfantry. http://www.182ndinfantry.org/wp-content/ uploads/2015/06/Cebu-Street-03-15-1945-1.jpg 4. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. (n.d.). J.M. Elizalde, Sergio Osmena, John W. Hausermann [Photograph]. United States Library of Congress. http://loc.gov/pictures/resource/hec.25421/ 5. National Library of the Philippines. (n.d.). Diosdado Macapagal [Photograph]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/govph/10151701306/in/album-72157631736336435/ 6. National Library of the Philippines. (n.d.). The crash site of Ramon Magsaysay’s presidential plane at Mount Manunggal, Cebu. [Photograph]. Flickr. https://www.flickr. com/photos/govph/14864386807/in/album-72157631736048250/ 7. National Library of the Philippines. (n.d.). Ramon Magsaysay [Photograph]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/govph/17265805844/in/album-72157631736048250/ 8. National Library of the Philippines. (n.d.). Pres. Marcos Second Inauguration, December 30, 1969. [Photograph]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/govph/16343745821/in/ album-72157631736574957/ 9. The Republic News. (1984). battle-at-the-capitol-cebu-protests-marcos-feature [Photograph]. Cebu Daily News. https://www.everythingcebu.com/wp-content/ uploads/2015/08/battle-at-the-capitol-cebu-protests-marcos-feature.png 10. Macasero, R. (2016, February 26). THEY HELPED CORY. [Photograph]. Rappler. https://assets.rappler.co/612F469A6EA84F6BAE882D2B94A4B421/img/ C4A4E33671D24690871F1166DB2C6D63/carmelite-nuns-cebu.jpg 11. Margallo, R. (n.d.). President Corazon Aquino [Photograph]. Flickr. https://www.flickr. com/photos/govph/16049044807/in/album-72157631736142299/ 12. Inquirer Visayas. (1984, September). HUMAN RIGHTS lawyer Democrito Barcenas has been a prominent figure in the anti-Marcos rallies in Cebu. [Photograph]. Inquirer.Net. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/files/2014/10/Democrito-Barcenas.jpg 13. Flagg, J. M. & Personality Posters, C. C. (ca. 1967) I want you for U.S. Army: nearest recruiting station. , ca. 1967. [Photograph] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https:// www.loc.gov/item/2017645753/. 14. Velasco, M. T. (n.d.). President Fidel Ramos with his trademark “thumbs up” sign. [Photograph]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/govph/14544886920/in/ album-72157645478185540/ 15. Frias, A. (2020, December 29). President Rodrigo Roa Duterte on December 26,2020. [Photograph]. Inquirer.Net. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/files/2020/12/FRIAS_1226202010-scaled.jpg 16. Ramon Aboitiz Foundation Inc. (2015). Gabii sa Kabilin [Illustration]. Aboitiz Eyes. http://aboitizeyesarchive.aboitiz.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/55bc3a9b6404330. jpeg

[1] - Oaminal, C. P. (2020a, January 26). President Manuel Quezon’s speech on the creation of the quadruplet cities of Cebu, Davao, Iloilo and Zamboanga. Philstar.Com. https://www.philstar.com/the-freeman/ opinion/2020/01/27/1988076/presidentmanuel-quezons-speech-creation-quadrupletcities-cebu-davao-iloilo-and-zamboanga

[2] - Oaminal, C. P. (2020d, November 24). President Quezon’s speech during the Cebu Provincial Capitol inauguration (Part 2). Philstar. Com. https://www.philstar.com/the-freeman/ opinion/2020/11/25/2059297/presidentquezons-speech-during-cebu-provincialcapitol-inauguration-part-2

[3] - Oaminal, C. P. (2020b, March 22). President Manuel Quezon’s appointment of Don Vicente Rama as Cebu City Mayor. Philstar.Com. https://www.philstar.com/thefreeman/opinion/2020/03/23/2002857/ president-manuel-quezons-appointment-donvicente-rama-cebu-city-mayor

[4] - Bersales, J. R. (2017, December 7). The remains of war. INQUIRER.Net. https:// cebudailynews.inquirer.net/156637/theremains-of-war

[5] - Kishiue, A., Amano, K., Cal, P. C., & Lidasan, H. S. (2003). The Transformation of Cebu City through the Development of its Transportation Infrastructure (1521–1990). Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 5. Retrieved from: https://www. researchgate.net/publication/228469642_ The_Transformation_of_Cebu_City_through_ the_Development_of_its_Transportation_ Infrastructure_1521-1990

[6] - Samson, J. (2018, April 23). As boys, they were warriors: Survivors recall Japanese occupation in Cebu. Retrieved November 13, 2020, from https://www.sunstar.com.ph/ article/1569830/Cebu/Local-News/As-boysthey-were-warriors-Survivors-recall-Japaneseoccupation-in-Cebu

[7] - Oaminal, C. P. (2020c, August 2). The

physician post-war mayors of Cebu City. Philstar.Com. https://www.philstar.com/thefreeman/opinion/2020/08/03/2032567/ physician-post-war-mayors-cebu-city

[8] - Macapagal, D. P. (1964, May 13). Proclamation No. 241, s. 1964 | GOVPH. Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. https://www.officialgazette. gov.ph/1964/05/13/proclamation-no241-s-1964/

[9] - Lato-Ruffolo, C. E. (2019, March 24). 62 years of Magsaysay plane crash: History inscribed in Mount Manunggal. INQUIRER. Net. https://cebudailynews.inquirer. net/223889/62-years-of-magsaysay-planecrash-history-inscribed-in-mount-manunggal

[10] - Lato-Ruffolo, C. E. (2019, March 24). 62 years of Magsaysay plane crash: History inscribed in Mount Manunggal. INQUIRER. Net. https://cebudailynews.inquirer. net/223889/62-years-of-magsaysay-planecrash-history-inscribed-in-mount-manunggal

[11] - Barcenas, D. (2014, October 4). Cebu’s first martial law detainees. INQUIRER.Net. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/642478/cebusfirst-martial-law-detainees

[12] - The Manila Times. (2014, February 25). President Aquino traces roots of EDSA revolution to Cebu. https://www.manilatimes. net/2014/02/25/news/latest-stories/ president-aquino-traces-roots-of-edsarevolution-to-cebu/78240/

[13] - Tampos, N. (2015, August 20). Cebu’s Fight for Freedom During Marcos Reign. Everything Cebu. https://www.everythingcebu. com/lifestyle/cebus-fight-for-freedom-duringmarcos-reign/

[14] - Baguia, J. A. (2011, February 25). Cebu City was a protest center. Cebu Daily News. https://cebudailynews.wordpress. com/2011/02/25/%E2%80%98cebu-citywas-a-protest-center%E2%80%99/ [15] - Macasero, R. (2016, February 22). “Are we safe here?” The night Cory Aquino hid in Cebu. Rappler. https://www.rappler.com/nation/coryaquino-hid-cebu-edsa-revolution

[16] - Mayol, V. A. S. (2016, December 1). Cebuanos honor 7 martyrs, 8 survivors of martial law. INQUIRER.Net. https://newsinfo. inquirer.net/849558/cebuanos-honor-7martyrs-8-survivors-of-martial-law

[17] - Lichauco, A. (1973). The Lichauco Paper: Imperialism in the Philippines. Monthly Review, 25(3), 1. doi:10.14452/mr-025-03-1973-07_1

[18] - David, R. (1980). PHILIPPINE UNDERDEVELOPMENT AND DEPENDENCY THEORY. Philippine Sociological Review, 28(1/4), 81-87. Retrieved December 28, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23892107

[19] - Wallace, C. P. (1995, June 13). Market Focus : “Sick Man” of Asia Is Making a Healthy Economic Recovery : Led by a boom in exports, the Philippines is finally catching up with its neighbors. Los Angeles Times. https://www. latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-06-13-wr12525-story.html

[20] - United Nations. (2020, August 21). Bachelet renews call for accountability in Philippines war on illegal drugs. UN News. https://news.un.org/en/ story/2020/06/1067462

[21] - Israel, D. G. (2019, March 9). Harsher war on drugs shows its face in Cebu. INQUIRER. Net. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1093707/ harsher-war-on-drugs-shows-its-face-in-cebu

[22] - Fernandez, E. S. (2011). Intellectual Neocolonialism in the University: Restructuring the Education of Juan de la Cruz. Taiwan International Studies Quarterly, 7(3), 149–173. http://www.tisanet.org/quarterly/7-3-7.pdf

[23] - Ramon Aboitiz Foundation Inc. (n.d.). Culture and Heritage. Retrieved December 5, 2020, from https://www.rafi.org.ph/about-us/ focus-areas/culture-and-heritage/