The Art Elements

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PHYLLIS POTTISH-LEWIS

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Introduction to Art

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The first source of beauty to which a human is exposed is the earth and its inhabitants, whether organic or inorganic. One comes to love and appreciate her surroundings, which are often quite awesome. Frequently it is these natural images that motivate and inspire an individual to create for himself.

The world is filled with a special kind of aesthetic wonder achieved by the interaction of color, line, shape, and form: the colors of a sunset, the lines of the mountain tops, the shapes and forms created by canyons and buttes, the geometric patterns on the shells of snails, the variety of corolla designs. Beauty surrounds us. Not only can we find it in the natural landscape, but we can also see it in buildings, bridges, buttresses, and many things that are the creation of the human’s inventive mind. The sculptor Louise Nevelson said, Art is everywhere, except it has to pass through a creative mind.

The human mind translates experiences in many ways. Verbal and analytical thinking are readily apparent, and we place a great deal of emphasis in educational settings on these aspects. But we also benefit from a visual, perceptual language, such as the pictorial arts in comprehending our world. Both of these processes, verbal and visual, used in tandem can enhance the way we experience, interpret, and appreciate our world. Therefore, we must pay attention to both arenas, otherwise our experience is inhibited.

Atmosphere and Environment XII, Louise Nevelson,1970

Furthermore, the visual arts provide us with a means of expression that goes beyond the power of words. Drawing and creating images allow us to express our thoughts, sentiments, and ideas. Through drawing one can actually learn to see differently, and so this is a skill that is beneficial to everyone, not just to those with a natural proclivity for it. Dr. Montessori has said, We prepare him (the child) indirectly, leaving him free to the mysterious and divine labour of reproducing things according to his own feelings. Thus, drawing comes to satisfy a need for expression, as does language; and almost every idea may seek expression in drawing.

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Copyright © 2022 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis. All rights reserved.

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The Advanced Montessori Method, The Montessori Elementary Material, 308.

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Training enhances perceptual skills, which are requirements for the execution of art, just as verbal, analytical skills benefit by education. Learning to draw or to observe effectively trains the visual system, just as reading and writing efficiently trains the verbal system.

And, as there is a body of knowledge to be learned with reading and writing, so there is a body of knowledge in each domain of art that must be learned to prepare the child with the fundamental concepts, skills, and tools for expressing himself through some medium in art. Dr. Montessori has said, The ability to see reality in form, in colour, in proportion, to be master of the movements of one’s own hand-that is what is necessary. Inspiration is an individual thing, and when a child possesses these formative elements, he can give expression to all he happens to have.3 Preparation is essential. In fact, in the consideration of creativity and its progressive phases, preparation is the first step. In the case of visual art, artists must train their eyes by acquiring knowledge of the basic elements and principles that pertain to this subject, as these guide the observations. For the child this, too, is important, not just for the execution of art, but also to recognize, understand and appreciate it.

To appreciate an art form more greatly from any discipline, one needs to be knowledgeable and conversant with the particular fundamentals that govern the discipline. There is a world of difference between viewing a work of art and really seeing it—it is the difference between sight and insight. Before one can truly begin to express oneself artistically, he needs to know the language of art. The language of art is spoken in terms of the Elements and Principles of Design—a taxonomic system that has provided an analytic and creative touchstone for generations of artists.

With this knowledge one will be able, not only to understand artists and their work, but also will be able to recognize the fundamentals that have contributed to the creation of the piece, and thereby have a fuller appreciation for the intention of the piece. According to Wassily Kandinsky, There is only one road to follow, that of analysis of the basic elements in order to arrive ultimately at an adequate graphic expression.

Composition VIII, Wassily Kandinsky, 1923

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Ibid, 287.

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These Elements and Principles have been a part of art since Lascaux and the Venus of Willendorf, 25,000-30,000 BCE. There is a universality to them.

This knowledge of these concepts of art, too, will be useful when considering one’s own expression of art and how to effect it. However, even if one never picks up a paint brush or a sculpting tool, knowing the fundamental Elements and Principles of Art will still allow a person to enter a world that might otherwise have been unavailable to him.

Also, children must be skillful and familiar with the tools and techniques of different media. To become an artist in any sphere, a person must prepare himself with the basic knowledge of his chosen artistic expression so that he can successfully manipulate these concepts to express himself and convey his ideas to others.

As Montessori teachers, artists though we may not be, still we can provide the children with the foundation they need for development in another essential facet of life. Compelling reasons for doing so are: •

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Art is a universal language that is an essential part of the common core of knowledge.

All peoples express themselves through art of some kind and have been doing so for tens of thousands of years. Through art the child comes into contact with his own heritage and culture.

Engaging in art helps the child to develop an aesthetic perception and an appreciation through multi-sensory experiences. Practice with art materials sharpens sensory awareness in a manner that simply looking at things cannot. For example, you may have a color in your mind’s eye, but it is not until you try to mix it yourself that you understand its precise properties. Think of the color of a cherry. Think of the palette of limited colors available in the paint box and how to make cherry-red. A cherry is not pure red, it has other hues in it. Through visual analysis and physical color mixing the child can discover that there are blues in the red of a cherry.

Through the process of art, one learns to observe carefully. In his book the Zen of Seeing, Frederick Franck says, “I have learned that what I have not drawn I have not really seen.” One of the best ways to learn is to observe. One of the best ways to observe is to draw.

Just like in other areas of Montessori, in visual art one learns to make a choice, to be patient, to discriminate visually, to find solutions, and to integrate thoughts into visual form. Thus, we have in art, yet another opportunity to aid in the development of the human potentials.

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And another reason for giving art: according to Pablo Picasso, Art washes away from the soul the dust of everyday life.

All good reasons for doing art.

We have to remember that our goal is not to produce artists. We have not been unsuccessful if the children fail to become professional artists. With the giving of art and all that it promises, our hope is that the children will find an avenue for self-expression. At the very least we want to make the children aware of another dimension of exploration in our remarkable world, while at the same time giving them the means for understanding and appreciating what they discover. We must keep in mind that not all artistic talent is born; not all visual sensitivity is innate; they are created by a mixture of exposure and encouragement, and this we can provide in our Montessori classes.

Again, from Picasso, Every child is an artist. The problem is how to remain an artist once he grows up.

Who Teaches the Art? Now that we clearly realize the importance of providing art experiences to our children, two questions loom before us; the first is who presents the art in a Montessori school, and the second is how do we proceed?

Let me address the former first. Without equivocation, it is the Montessori teacher herself who presents art lessons to the children, and she does this within the confines of her own classroom.

Reasons for doing this are: • •

She is the person who is charged with inspiring the child by exposing him to areas of art that he is, as yet, unaware of in ways that pique his interest and arouse his curiosity.

Art lessons can be given in a flexible, fluid manner, just as are the lessons in biology, geography, music, and mathematics. In this way the children are not pulled out of class to accommodate the schedule of an outside teacher thereby interrupting their work.

Instead, they can have art lessons whenever the desire and interest spontaneously arise. Creative motivation is not inspired by a schedule. By having art lessons given in

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the way I have described, the basic Montessori tenet of protecting the child’s work period is also satisfied.

When the teacher gives the art lesson the children are left with the impression that everyone can make art. It doesn’t require a specialist to present it. That means that even they will be able to do art. A teacher need not be an artist to present lessons, she only needs to know: o the basic Elements and Principles of Art, how to recognize them in the work of various artists, and be able to present them to the children o the tools and media that are best used to express each element o some techniques with the different media, o to practice at using some of the media But first and foremost, she, herself, should appreciate and be excited about art.

Another reason for the teacher to give the art is because when art is happening within the classroom, the class becomes a dynamic, exciting place to be. Children like to be there. Furthermore, they become inspired by seeing the work of other children, as well as hearing stories from the teacher, and this exposure to the work of others motivates their own native and artistic interests. When art happens outside of the classroom, an opportunity for inspiration is denied the other children.

How Do We Proceed?

To answer the second question regarding how we proceed, the answer is: •

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We must expose the children to the lives of the artists and their styles throughout time by telling them interesting stories that appeal to their psychology. Art history provides the setting and context for a work of art. As such stories will reveal, artworks reflect the times and cultures of the people who produced the art and gives a kind of a timeline that shows how art has developed from early human history to the present. The history of art also shows how artists have been influenced by previous artistic styles, by technology and social change, and how those influences show up in their artwork.

We must give the basic art Elements and the organizing Principles. A design is an arrangement, a way of organizing something. In art the visual appearance of what we see and what our brain decodes can be reduced to seven Elements of Design. They are line, shape, form, color, value, texture, and space. These seven elements are the tools with which an artist organizes his designs.

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The Principles of Design are how we organize or use the Elements of Design. The seven principles are emphasis, balance and proportion, contrast, movement, rhythm, pattern, and variety and harmony. They are used to bring about unity in a wellcomposed piece of art.

We must give the children the skills and techniques with different tools and media.

Most important of all, we must leave the children free to experiment and to express their ideas and feelings when they are moved to create using the basic knowledge we have supplied.

The basic art Elements and Principles, along with skills and techniques are the building block lessons of art. By giving them these building blocks lessons, the children will fully understand consciously the essential components involved in creating a piece of art in some medium, and then will be able to manipulate ideas in their imaginations and devise original and unique expressions of who they are.

Art production requires tools, media, and technical ability. It involves learning to look carefully, a trained hand to use the chosen materials, making decisions, solving problems, learning about design, interpreting what one sees and feels, and to evaluating one’s own efforts. Through production and studio experiences, the child will learn to appreciate the ability, knowledge and skill of fine artists and craftspeople. By handling clay, mixing colors, working with composition, using brushes, carving wood, or building a model, he will enter the working world of artists and begin to understand some of the visual and technical problems they encounter daily.

It is just as Dr. Montessori said in The Discovery of the Child, We do not teach drawing by drawing, however, but by providing the opportunity to prepare the instruments of expression. This I consider to be a real aid to free drawing.4 To confer the gift of drawing we must create an eye that sees, a hand that obeys and a soul that feels.5 The “instruments of expression” of which she speaks, are all of the above. This is a different approach to art than offering the children individual, finite projects, such as paper making or jewelry making, which by their very nature are limited in scope. When children know, understand, and appreciate the elemental aspects of a given artist, art form or medium, they can consciously use these “instruments” when involved in making paper or fashioning jewelry.

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The Discovery of the Child, 306 The Advanced Montessori Method, Volume II, 289.

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They can extrapolate from their knowledge and be set free to create truly.

The Art Elements6 It was Wayne Thiebaud who said, It is a joy to try to be a part of the long and enduring tradition of the language of vision. I’m a dedicated museumgoer.

Display Cakes, Wayne Thiebaud, 1963.

In order to introduce the “language of vision” to our children, we ourselves must speak this language. We must train our eyes even as we endeavor to guide the children in their visual explorations of the fundamental aspects involved in creating art. Only through looking repeatedly at art with a specific focus in mind will we be able to identify the essential points important to introduce to our children. We must understand the function of the Elements of Art--the fundamental aspects of design the artist uses to organize and realize the vision he has conceived in his mind. When the viewer recognizes these features, he can better understand the piece and the concept the artist intended to convey. With this in mind, the Elements of Art function as: • Individual aspects that the artist uses to produce imagery • The building blocks artists use to create their imaginative expressions • The tools artists use to manipulate the basic organizing Principles of Art If we are to help guide the children’s eyes to these features, we must fully understand and realize how they work—sometimes in tandem and sometimes singly—in different aesthetic expressions.

Also, given that we are “story tellers,” sharing a bit of a story about the artist or his work may spark more interest in the topic. One never knows what portrayal will resonate with the children to trigger more investigations and discoveries.

As already mentioned, the Elements of Art are line, shape, form, space, value, color, and texture.

We always present the elements before we give the children the Principles of Art since the elements organize how the principles are arranged in the art piece. The children must have a command of the elements to determine how the artist has manipulated them to convey meaning in his piece,

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Copyright © 2022 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis. All rights reserved.

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whether it be to express his ideas or merely for the purpose of crafting a piece that appeals to him or to his audience.

The Element of Lines We can begin with any of the elements, but the easiest one to discern is line. We must first understand how lines can function and what they can do. By knowing the line’s function, we can apply it in our analysis of various art pieces we examine and observe. Lines can do many things: • Lines define objects • Lines derive contour, shading, shape, form, and perspective • Lines suggest movement in an art piece • Lines can communicate an idea or express a feeling • Lines can appear active or static • Lines can create pattern and texture • Some lines are subtle, or implied, while others are obvious • Two adjacent contrasting colors can create a line • Lines vary and can be: • Vertical: strong and forceful • Horizontal: sedentary and grounding • Diagonal: dynamic and exciting • Curved: smooth and inviting • Zigzag or jagged: agitated or unpleasant • Thick: heavy and sturdy Yangon, • Thin: sensitive and careful Joan Thorne, 2013 • Scribbled: confused or excited If a particular aspect of lines can be elaborated, we expand our discussion, as these elaborations will give more meaning for the children as they begin to process the function and the effects of lines.

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A Museum Tour: Looking for Lines Pablo Picasso also had wise words for us when he said, “What is art but a way of seeing.” What better place to exercise this ability than to follow Wayne Thiebaud’s example by embarking on a Museum Tour to study different artists to see how they used lines to capture and hold the viewer’s attention.

As we examine Ben Shahn’s Supermarket, 1957, we discover a piece that is composed primarily of lines. He has used lines that go in all directions—horizontal, vertical, oblique. Together, the repetitive use of lines creates a pattern that suggests rhythm and movement— two Principles of Art—as the viewer moves his eye from basket to basket. Later on, Shahn created another Supermarket No. 1, but this time he colored in some of the shapes created by the lines. Upon seeing a piece like this, the children may also alight on this expanded idea and endeavor to duplicate it.

Joan Miró, a Spanish artist, in The Black and Rose Series, Plate 2, 1938, revealed that a line starts with a dot And a dot grows into a line And the line forms shapes. This is a good piece to show the children when they begin to experiment with making their own study of lines. For a child who ‘thinks’ he can’t draw, this piece can be particularly inspirational, since the images are easy to render and child-like figures are as relevant as are more representational ones.

Many children are fascinated by magic. Paul Klee, the Swiss-based German painter has taken this idea and manifested it into a simple portrait called In the Magic Mirror, 1934. On close inspection, the children can perceive three faces—a frontal view, a left profile, and a right profile. Klee defined the figure using a method he called, “Taking a Line for a Walk.” While the idea of magic may seem capricious, this painting has political overtones related to World War II. The image appears to represent his disillusionment at the time (1934) with the knotted brow and the tear-shaped eyes. What might the tiny black heart suggest? Anxiety, distress, bitterness?

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Lines can create mood, emotion, and texture. Käthe Kollwitz’s Self Portrait, 1893, embodies these attributes marvelously. Kollwitz, a German Expressionist and one of Germany’s most renowned female artists, used the medium of printmaking to emphasize lines that depict the pain and suffering of the human condition of those less fortunate, especially during wartime. Of note, she lived through two World Wars and was threatened with deportation to a German concentration camp because she captured the Nazi atrocities and their impact on people in her artwork.

The Mexican artist, Martín Ramírez, has used undulating concentric lines to create landscapes, tunnels, a train, and a theatrical proscenium in this piece, Untitled (Super Chief), 1954. These lines have imbued the piece with a rhythm and movement, two Principles of Art. Ramírez’s work has been characterized as Schizophrenic or Outsider Art. He was incarcerated for many years in the De Witt State Hospital in northern California where he did much of his artwork. The nurses would give him crayons and scraps of paper glued together to make large drawings because he had no paints or canvases. Once he finished a piece, he would store it under his bed and begin another. When the drawings piled too high, the nurses would throw them away. Ramírez’s art might never have been discovered if it were not for Professor Tarmo Pasto who studied art made by psychiatric patients. Pasto organized a show of Ramírez’s drawings at the Crocker Art Gallery in Sacramento, California in 1952, advertised as the work of an anonymous schizophrenic patient, not an artist. Today, Ramírez is considered a preeminent member of Outsider Art. Through the use of strong, bold, straight, expressive lines, Elizabeth Catlett painted what she knew best—the difficulties of rural life. Lines of this nature suggest strength and dignity, qualities that are clearly portrayed in Sharecropper, 1957. The sense of grace and poise emanating from this piece are forged from the forceful lines in the face. Although she is clearly poor, a feeling of the woman’s self-esteem is revealed with the addition of one small sign—the safety pin that holds together her garment in place of a lost button. Catlett was a student of Grant Wood of American Gothic fame.

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How to Present the Elements of Art The Example of Lines Once our eyes are trained to distinguish the impact that lines have on the viewer, we are now prepared to offer children different opportunities and activities in which they can experience for themselves how this element affects a piece of art. This presentation must be done in a very considered, step-by-step way—whether it is Art, Edward Ruscha, 1970 for lines or any other Element of Art—so the concept is clear and useful to the children.

Initially we always describe the function of a chosen Element so the children can apply that information to the preliminary activities awaiting them in their explorations and experiences. Each element should be presented in isolation to allow their eyes to focus on just one concept. We begin to train the children’s eyes by providing them with artistic images that indicate how the artist made use of the particular element. Gather a selection of art pictures—collected into a named folder for each of the elements—to showcase the necessary details of the element to be studied and critiqued.

These guided observations will acquaint the children with the newly introduced element and equip them to recognize and experience the impact the element has upon the piece. Rather than revealing the element’s influence, help the children to analyze the image for the particular element by asking questions. Give them time to consider their answers. This questioning technique helps to illuminate and reinforce the aspects that define the element and allows the teacher to ascertain if the children really understand the objective of the element. Possible questions might be: • What kind of lines do you see?

• Are the lines subtle or implied?

• Do the lines outline shapes?

• Do the lines create movement or are they static?

• Do the lines express feelings or sentiment?

In this presentation the children can analyze, ponder, discuss, and eventually make discoveries regarding the effectiveness of a specific stylistic component. Also, when introducing images to be examined, put them into context with the time and place in which the paintings originated. To add another dimension to the pieces, tell stories about the artist that conceived them. These stories may also occasion more interest and investigations since stories usually appeal to the children’s imaginations.

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In addition to the examination of art prints, take the children outside to examine both architecture and nature for the chosen element. This broadens the field of observation beyond the classroom and also makes them aware that the elements of art can be found in all quarters of their lives.

Always ensure that the children use the name of the element being explored in their discussions, since it is through the repeated use of words that we assimilate the name and the meaning that is implicit in the word. This practice helps to crystalize the concept in their minds as well as allowing them to engage in intelligent precise discussion while they explore and probe together.

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey

Once the children have received the initial observational introduction, provide them with an activity that guides them in the use of that element. See below for examples of Line Activities.

Select a medium to use that best suits the element and its expression. The media will vary from element to element. Once the children have completed their activity, verbally analyze together their use of the specified element. This opportunity will allow them to both experience and understand how the use of that element functions in an art piece.

After completing this activity and the analysis of their work, once again show the children art images so that they can apply their new experience to the process and to compare their use of the element to that of certain artists. The selection of art images should be related—to some extent—to what the children are able to produce with the medium they used. Again, the questioning approach works best for this age of children so they can use their reason to find the answers. These questions should relate to the function given for the particular element.

Since these activities are not pieces of art themselves, gather them into a portfolio for each child so he can use them for future reference should he need a reminder of an individual element.

Children’s Line Activities First Activity: Investigating Lines On a large piece of inexpensive paper section off areas with masking tape or pencil--spaces in which the children can draw or paint their lines. In beginning activities use black paint on white paper or white paint on black paper, since these two combinations create the greatest contrast.

Show them how to hold a brush, pencil, or whichever writing instrument they have chosen.

Indicate that they can use their whole arm, forearm, wrists, fingers, depending on the medium and

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the effect they want to achieve. Elicit from the children what they remember about the kinds of lines mentioned in the introduction. Remind them lines can be straight, wavy, thick, thin, dotted, broken, curved, dark, light, vertical, horizontal, parallel, or oblique. Others are subtle or implied.

During this analysis you can point out the affect that the different lines produce—horizontal lines are usually calm; vertical s are strong; diagonal lines seem to be on the move; scribbled lines create confusion or excitement. Then leave the children free to fill each section with whichever kinds of lines they choose. Some children may like to expand to making lines on one large piece of paper and even to use color to produce their lines. If they like, they can label the kinds of lines.

When they have finished with this preliminary activity, have them describe what they have done.

Second Activity: Making a Line Sampler Have the children section off another piece of paper into different areas. Ask them to name different kinds of lines and then label each section with one of the kinds suggested. Then have the children fill the grid with lines to correspond with the name. They can use pen, pencil, or brush.

squiggly lines

dotted lines

broken & continuous

vertical lines

curved & zigzag lines

thick &thin lines

dashes

angular lines

horizontal & oblique lines

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Third Activity: Experimentation with Lines and Spaces Given the children’s interest, you can extend the exercises by inviting them to make a variety of their preferred lines on a large sheet of paper. With them, identify the spaces that have been created by the compilation of the different lines. Using inexpensive watercolors or tempera paint encourage them to fill in the shapes created. This activity works best if the children have already had some of the preliminary lessons on color as this knowledge can inform their choices of colors for the sections.

Consolidation of Kinds of Lines It is not unusual for some children to codify their understanding of lines by making charts of different kinds.

Fourth Activity: Lines in Weather To foster more interest in lines and to provide a variety of activities, ask the children to name different kinds of weather to represent with lines only—happy faces, rainbows or other symbols are off limits. Should they suggest something that is not exactly ‘weather,’ do not discourage them from including it. To see how they might represent this non-weather suggestion could prove interesting. Furthermore, we never want to stifle creative free choice in any way.

Once again, black on white or white on black is the best choice for paper and media. After the children have sectioned off areas on a large piece of paper with lines, they can illustrate a different weather selection in its own space. Ask them to label their choices. The kinds of weather suggested in this example are: • • • • • • • • • •

tornado sandstorm hurricane earthquake tsunami hailstorm volcanic eruption rain snow fog

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Or they can choose a large piece of white or black paper folded into quarters to depict the weather of their choice on a grander scale.

Black on White

White on Black

Another option for a weather-related activity with lines is to make a Weather Sampler as was done for the kinds of lines.

Fifth Activity: Lines to Music Music is an active and essential component of Cosmic Education. When the children sing songs each day and hear different compositions, their ears become attuned to the melody and rhythm of the different pieces. We can take advantage of this fact by inviting children to use their appreciation of music in their exploration of lines. After some solid exposure to the line activities, ask the children to fold or mark off a piece of white paper into different sections. An alternative choice could be to use smaller pieces of paper that serve as sections. Let them use the colors and writing instruments of their choice. Play for the children familiar pieces of music and ask them to let the rhythm and movement of the music move their arms and hands as they express in color and lines the strains of the music they hear. When the children are engaged in this activity, subconsciously they are experiencing the correspondence between music and art—both of these disciplines embody rhythm, movement, and harmony—all three Principles of Art. Encourage them always to label their sections with the name of the musical piece depicted.

Coney Island Baby

Circle Around The Moon

Enrico Caruso

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To provide a variety of experiences for the children vis-à-vis lines and music, you can interest them in making a Music Sampler of the songs that they know with the names inscribed on the paper in advance of the listening experience. The children can play the handpicked music and illustrate with lines the sentiments sparked by the music.

Sixth Activity: Jackson Pollock Action Painting

Rainbow Abstract, Jackson Pollock, ca. 1953

• • • • • •

The impact of learning a particular element is all the greater when you can relate the children’s experience with a known artist and then provide an activity that simulates his style. In his later works, Jackson Pollock used paint pouring as one of his main techniques that produced a profusion of different kinds of lines. Rather than spreading paint with a brush, he simply poured and dripped the liquid paint across the canvas. He developed the ‘drip’ technique, which provoked his friends to call him, ‘Jack the Dripper.’ After introducing the children to Pollock’s work and telling them a bit about his life—a troubled individual born in Cody, Wyoming—propose an activity that reproduces the affects that Pollock achieved with his drip technique.

Place a poster board cut to fit the inside of a cardboard box about 9” x 12” or place it on a tray with rims on the sides.

Put about six different colors of tempera paint in disposable cups or bowls or an ice cube tray.

Drop a couple of marbles into different colored paints.

With a plastic spoon remove the marble and place it on the surface of the poster board.

Carefully tip the tray from side to side to move the marble about.

Repeat with different colors.

Voilà, you have your own rendition of a Jackson Pollock drip painting!

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Seventh Activity: Op Art Activity Children are particularly fascinated with optical illusions, perhaps because they seem to trick the eye into perceiving something different than what actually exists. These illusions are caused when the brain interprets the object that the eyes see differently. Bridget Riley, a British artist, is recognized for her singular Op Art paintings that evoke that perception. By melding clean lines, color arrangements, and geometric precision, her work produces sensations in viewers from seasickness to the feeling of skydiving.

After exposing the children to other artists known for their Op Art--Victor Vasarely and Richard Anuszkiewicz—show them how to make their own Op Art. Have them select a piece of 9” x 12” paper and eight colored pencils—four different warm-colored ones and four different cool-colored ones. They can begin the activity with either warm or cool colors—it is their choice. Have them make a heavy, wavy line without angles across the top third of the page. Curved, diagonal lines of different depths are more interesting, so have the children make 4 to 7 humps in the line.

With the next color of the same temperature as the first, make a new line by following the wavy line above it.

Don’t get the lines too close to each other. On the other hand, don’t make them too far apart.

Continue in the same vein alternating all four colors of the same temperature.

Change to the opposite set of colors and continue to follow above the lines the same pattern of waviness. Continue to the top of the page using all four colors.

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Then go to the lower section of the paper and draw a second wavy line with the opposite set of colors to the first line. Don’t allow that line to touch the first or follow the outline of the first.

Continue with that set of colors moving upward toward the first colors. Don’t cross any lines. Just stop and carry the line on to the other side of the hump. Fill in the entire space above the second line until the space is filled.

Once the entire upper space is filled, begin with the first set of colors, and work the wavy lines down to the bottom of the page. Once the page is full of lines, select a line and change its measure (namely, make it thicker). Pick a few other lines and do the same thing. You can vary the swelling of the lines—they could be widened at just the tops of the humps, rather than the whole line, etc.

This activity can filter into the children’s daily work, as is seen in this child’s thank you letter envelope to a parent.

The Element of Shape Although we could continue with any of the six other elements, shape is a good choice since shapes are made of lines. Montessori children are familiar with different shapes because they have worked with them for years. In fact, their hand was trained for future writing and drawing experiences from tracing and filling in geometrical and botanical shapes.

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Shape is one of the building blocks of our visual world and has two dimensions—both height and width. They are a flat area enclosed by a boundary, such as an obvious line or an implied line and can be made with lines and colors. Design in painting is basically the planned arrangement of shapes in a piece of work. Artists assert that if you can draw the shapes, you can draw anything— one simply needs to look at the object and decompose it into its component shapes.

In the case of artistic renderings, shapes can be classified into two categories. They are: • Geometric shapes: usually angular and found in man-made objects • Organic shapes: more rounded and appear most often in nature Additionally, shape includes five basic components from which anything can be made: • Dot or circle • Colored in dot • Straight Line • Curved Line • Angled Line When children realize these facts, often it can clarify the drawing process and make it less daunting. Once children know the definition of shape, they can apply both their imagining and reasoning minds to what shapes are and what they can do. Then the teacher can guide the children’s experiences so they can make their own discoveries through practice.

A Museum Tour: Looking for Shape As we resume our Museum Tour, this information also prepares the teacher as she explores different pieces of art focusing on this one element. Besides searching for obvious shapes in a piece, we want to also look for implied shapes as they tend to reveal the intended meaning of the piece.

Piet Mondrian’s Broadway Boogie Woogie, 1942-43, is alive with two kinds of quadrilaterals—the square and the rectangle.

Even the canvas upon which the work is painted is a square, accentuating the square patterns in the whole composition.

Mondrian, after moving to New York in 1940, was inspired by the bustling life of New York’s Broadway, which teemed with people, yellow cabs, and jazz music. He painted this piece to reflect the impressions he had of this active area. The choice of squares and rectangles was a considered one since Mondrian

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believed that the vocabulary of art should be confined to horizontal and vertical lines—the kinds of lines that construct squares and rectangles. In his vocabulary of art, he also advocated primary colors along with white, black, and gray. By reducing the elements in his paintings to the essential— eliminating mixed colors, diagonals, and curves--he believed he could arrive at a universal statement devoid of subjectivity. Theo van Doesberg held the same beliefs about simplifying art into its purest form as did Mondrian, and together in 1917 they founded the Dutch Modern Movement, De Stijl (The Style). However, when Van Doesburg wanted to introduce more variety, movement, and energy into his work by including such things as diagonal lines and other colors, Mondrian could not tolerate the change and split from the movement.

Franz Marc, a German painter, was a key figure in the German Expressionism movement. He used shapes to create form as you can see from his work on Piggies, ca. 1911-12. His use of segmented shapes may have been due to the influence of the Cubists whom he met in Paris, France. Besides creating the figures, his manner of composing the selected shapes creates a sense of depth in this artwork and by mixing geometric shapes with organic shapes. The mixture of the two kinds of shapes has provided interest and variety in his work. On the precipice of war, Marc’s world was suffused with alienation and disharmony, which is why he often chose to paint animals. He believed they were spiritual and a means of finding what was being lost in the face of an imminent tumultuous war. Along with Wassily Kandinsky, Marc co-founded the movement called Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in 19ll—a movement that believed in the symbolic and psychological function of color while depicting nature. For Marc, the color blue symbolized hope. Unfortunately, he enlisted in World War I and was killed in combat before he was identified as a National The Large Blue Horses, 1911 Treasure, eligible for release.

The Raft of the “Medusa,” painted in 1818 by Theodore Géricault is imbued with shapes created by obvious lines and implied lines. While the obvious shapes, those created by the figures in the composition are important, more important are the implied shapes that are imbedded in the depiction as they convey the real meaning of this piece. To set the stage, it is important to know Géricault’s motivation for painting this piece and the historical circumstances surrounding it. Under the leadership of a politically appointed, incompetent captain during the French Revolution, the Medusa ran aground on the coast of Senegal. Because of a shortage of lifeboats only the captain and his crew were saved abandoning the lower ranks to fend for themselves. On the raft the unfortunates constructed to keep themselves afloat, you can witness the dead and dying

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who were decimated by starvation until a handful of survivors were eventually rescued. It is no surprise that the depiction of this tragic event was greeted with hostility by the French government as it cast doubts on its ability to govern responsibly. The first implied shape is the triangle that is created by the two ropes (“lines” in nautical parlance) attached to the mast to construct the first two sides of the triangle. The base of the triangle is formed by the layers of dying and dead along the bottom of the canvas. But there is yet another triangle that has been described as the Pyramid of Hope. This triangle rises through the sick and dying to the topmost figure who finds fresh energy to wave his flag at the prospect of rescue from the Argus barely seen on the horizon. It is a progression from the depths of despair to an apex of hope. The fact that Géricault portrayed a black man at the pinnacle of the triangle acknowledges his abolitionist sympathies.

Jonathan Borofsky, in his kinetic sculpture Hammering Man, 1984-85, uses the simplification of shape to create a celebratory metaphor for the worker and the value of endless work—a commitment that enables all peoples to meet their basic needs. He has done this by creating a symbol of a work that moves continually and indefatigably from 7:00 a.m. in the morning to 10 p.m. in the evening. The motorized arm hammers four times per minute and gives tribute to all of the workers of the world. To exemplify the magnitude of the importance of work, Borofsky’s Hammering Man is a series of monumental pieces that can stand from 23 ft. high to72 ft. tall and can be found in various cities in the United States, Europe, and Asia. He has kept to essentially two-dimensional black shapes to simplify his image so that the viewer can ponder the meaning of work in his own life rather than focus on the sculpture’s physical form. For children who in the classroom are chattering more than working, in the spirit of good humor, introduce them to Borofsky’s Chattering Man, 1982-83, while extolling the virtues of more work over too much chattering.

Children’s Shape Activities As we orient the children to shape by introducing them to various art prints, we also give them the description of the different kinds of shapes at the same time. To reinforce their understanding, we ask them certain questions. These questions could include: • What kinds of shapes do you see? Geometric or organic?

• Is there a mixture of the two kinds of shapes?

• Which is the dominant shape?

• Do you see implied shapes?

• Do any of the shapes create a sense of dimension?

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We extend this conversation by examining architecture and nature for different shapes from photographs such as those at the right that we find in books or in the immediate environment.

First Activity: Copying Basic Shapes Begin by sectioning off a standard piece of white paper into a grid of 5 by 4 sections. Using a pencil or a felt pen (only used in preliminary activities) sit with the child and in the first section make a simple shape. Ask the child to observe the shape carefully and analyze its size and lines—curved or straight—in relation to the sides of the section. Have the child copy the same shape into the section below the simple image. Once the child has made his shape compare the two of them. If the comparison is dissimilar, the child can try again in the open sections below the others. This activity may seem simple, but for some children it can present a challenge. Once the child finishes this first shape, draw another simple one and have the child copy it as he did the first. Continue to do this until the page is filled. After the first exercise is completed, on another piece of sectioned paper draw simple, easily recognized images across the top that the children can copy and analyze. They can work together while engaging in this activity and even draw shapes for each other to copy.

Second Activity: Shapes and Collage From colored scrap paper have the children cut a few organic shapes with curved sides and a few geometric shapes with straight sides. They can classify these two kinds of shape by pasting them onto a sheet of construction paper that has been folded in half. The two areas created by the fold can be labeled with the two kinds of shapes. This activity gives the children a concrete experience making and classifying the two basic kinds of shapes.

Third Activity: Shape Commands This activity requires the children to think consciously about the construction of random shapes.

Supplied with a piece of paper, pencils, and straight edge, ask the children to construct a shape that meets the criteria listed in the command.

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An example could be: • Draw an organic shape large enough to accommodate four other shapes.

• Superimpose on the organic shape four geometric shapes that do not intersect with each other, only with the organic shape.

• Each geometric shape should have only four sides and should intersect at least once with the organic shape.

If the children have been introduced to the element of color, the command could include this element. For example: • Fill in the organic shape with one primary color.

• Color the geometric shapes with the complement of that primary color.

A few of these command cards could be included on the art shelf so the children can work independently, but best would be to encourage the children to write commands for each other. By writing them down, the instructions can be verified in the event that the children forget one of the steps.

Fourth Activity: Line, Shape and Color Fun When the children have had experience with preliminary activities for line, shape, and color, invite them to make a joint chart using these three elements. Provide each child with a 5” x 5” square piece of white paper and an assortment of colored pencils. Each child can make a beautiful, carefully rendered design of his choice on his square of paper. Since these will be mounted together on a larger piece of construction paper, the children may have the opportunity to make more than one design.

Once they have completed their designs, have the children place them on a large piece of black construction paper—black is always a good color to provide an aesthetic background. Do not have them paste their designs down immediately but encourage them to move them about until they find a composition that they all agree is the best. This activity easily fosters the group work so important for the child’s human construction.

The Element of Form Essentially, the world we live in is made up entirely of forms. With the introduction of the element of form we move from a two-dimensional to a three-dimensional world. Even when artists work on a two-dimensional surface, they often concern themselves with rendering images to appear three-

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dimensional—they create illusory images that trick the eye by analytically utilizing the element of value. It is the play of light that strikes the form changing the lightness or darkness of the illuminated colors and these must be tracked with some precision to succeed in rendering a flat surface into one with volume. We want our children to recognize the transition from twodimensions to three-dimensions because it is a grand leap in understanding the impact form has on choices that artists make to express their ideas. Accordingly, we must clearly describe the salient attributes of form: • Forms are three-dimensional figures that enclose volume; therefore, they describe volume and mass.

• Cubes, spheres, cylinders, and all geometrical solids are geometric forms.

• Organic forms are often associated with naturally occurring objects • You can hold forms, walk around them and in some cases walk under them.

• Forms occupy space or give the illusion that they occupy space.

The kinds of three-dimensional forms that we draw the children’s attention to are: • Architectural • Organic • Geometric • Realistic • Abstract

A Museum Tour: Looking for Forms Finding Architectural Forms in a museum can be a bit of a challenge, unless of course the museum building itself is sculpture-like. It is very common for renowned architects to design buildings to house art collections, such as Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, or Santiago Calatrava’s Milwaukee Art Museum in Wisconsin. In the absence of physical examples of Architectural Form, we can peruse books on architecture as we begin to explore and discern the characteristic of this new element.

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Architectural Form In Barcelona, Spain, Antoni Gaudí designed Casa Batlló—a fanciful example of an architectural form—to deliberately construct a structure avoiding straight lines. This objective has been achieved on both the inside and outside of the apartment building. The roof is often likened to the bowing back of a dragon. The rounded feature to the left of center terminates in a turret with a cross atop it. The lore surrounding this detail suggests that the cross is the lance that Saint George plunged into the back of the dragon. The façade is a mosaic, studded with golden orange and greenish blue tesserae to simulate the scales of a dragon. The curved chimneystacks on the roof testify to Gaudí’s plan to refrain from using straight lines in his masterpiece. Interestingly, St. George is the patron saint of Catalonia, which is why Gaudí used the dragon motif repeatedly in his Barcelona artworks.

Organic Form Maman (mummy), the French name Louise Bourgeois gave to her monumental sculpture of a spider is an example of organic form. The giant spider with its eight appendages is made from stainless steel, bronze, and marble. In particular, the thorax and abdomen are created from ribbed bronze and the egg sac is filled with 32 marble eggs. The choice to depict enormous spiders is a tribute to the artist’s mother. Bourgeois explains her objective in creating her series of spiders. She says, The Spider is an ode to my mother. She was my best friend. Like a spider, my mother was a weaver. My family was in the business of tapestry restoration, and my mother was in charge of the workshop. Like spiders, my mother was very clever. Spiders are friendly presences that eat mosquitoes. We know that mosquitoes spread diseases and are therefore unwanted. So, spiders are helpful and protective, just like my mother.

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Geometric Form Sol LeWitt’s Four Sided Pyramid is a geometric form that is indicative of the artist’s fascination with the cube. He eventually became interested in simplifying his compositions into open modular structures in black or white wood, or metal that repeated according to predetermined mathematical permutations. These cubes stacked together and stepped back in an orderly pattern, were the literal building blocks of this piece. In LeWitt’s work, it can easily be seen that lines become shapes that combine into forms to create volume or mass. The stepped-back design of the piece is reminiscent of the pyramids of Egypt or the ziggurats of ancient Mesopotamia, as well as to many New York skyscrapers, including the Empire State Building.

Realistic Form Charles-Henri-Joseph Cordier designed this beautiful example of a realistic form entitled Bust of an African Woman, in 1851. Cordier’s use of bronze and fine silver patina rather than the white marble that was the preferred medium of the Victorian age, creates warm skin tones that lend a sense of realism to his figure.

The details of the sculpture are so accurately rendered that the viewer can see strands of hair, defining embellishments in her heavy earrings and the complex strands of her coral necklace. But it is the precise detail on the woman’s garb that identifies her origin as east African. This woman, who appears relaxed and on the verge of speech, is so lovely that she has been given the moniker “The African Venus.” Cordier also designed a male counterpart to this striking and dignified woman. He is Said Abdullah of the Mayac Tribe, Kingdom of Darfour in Sudan.

Abstract Form Constantin Brâncuși sculpted a number of versions of the Kiss, 1907-08, each of them simplifying the concept of the image further until these simplifications made his sculptures lean more and more to abstraction. He managed this abstract form because his sculpture style emphasized geometrical lines that create a balance between representational art and symbolic allusions. He chose limestone from which to carve his pieces to express the subject of his sculpture in the purest form possible. His two figures are intertwined with each other so that their two eyes appear as one. The vivid feeling of love is enhanced by the two figures locked in a loving embrace with their arms wrapped tightly around each other. Auguste Rodin’s The Kiss of 1882, was

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undoubtedly the inspiration for Brâncuși’s, but Brâncuși departed from the emotive realism in Rodin’s style.

Children’s Form Activities After taking the initial steps introducing the Element of Form to the children, before giving them activities, again we ask them questions about what they understood regarding the description of form and the various kinds. These questions can be generated from observing the children’s responses or they can be directly related to the information the children have already garnered. As they examine the art prints, examples of a few questions that might be posed are: • What kinds of forms do you see?

• Are the forms realistic or abstract?

• Does the abstract form represent something or not?

• Do you see any shapes that make up the form?

• Does the form elicit feelings or sentiments?

• Is the form conveying a message?

First Activity: Deconstructing an Object into Shapes and Lines The first step in preparing for form activities is to examine different objects in the environment and verbally deconstruct them into lines and shapes. This deconstruction helps the children to see the components that go into the formation of the object. The language chosen to describe the object also gives the children a tool in this process. Take care to notice the curves, angles, indentations, extensions, and edges. All of these features can be seen in an everyday tennis shoe.

Have each child select an object and analyze it for the different characteristics. To extend the children’s observations take them outside to look at natural forms—rocks, plants, and animals.

Analyze them similarly as the objects in the classroom.

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Second Activity: Three-Dimensional Projects The natural medium for experimenting with form is clay or some kind of material that can be molded or carved into different three-dimensional figures. Examples of these might be wood, plaster, paraffin, soap, sugar cubes, paper mâché, or any of the ingenious recipes found in the book Mudworks by MaryAnn Kohl. With these materials the children can fashion portraits, cultural items, vessels, or creatures that appeal to them.

Third Activity: Three-Dimensional Research Projects It is not uncommon for children to research topics that culminate in an art project. Plaster gauze provides children with ways to fashion three-dimensional images of the people they study. An investigation on Frida Kahlo, an iconic art figure, inspired this wall-mounted relief in which the three-dimensional form was molded from one of the children’s faces.

Other iconic artistic figures that titillate the children’s imaginations are the works of Giuseppe Arcimboldo, a 16th century Italian painter. He is best known for creating portrait heads made entirely from such objects as fruits, vegetables, flowers, fish, and books. He arranged these items to depict a recognizable resemblance of the subject.

When children become interested in delightful, appealing topics, three-dimensional opportunities give them an avenue for expressing their interest.

Fourth Activity: Sculpting in Wire Alexander Calder is mostly known for his mobiles (kinetic sculptures powered by motors or air currents) or his stabiles (firmly planted static sculptures). But Calder had another interest as well—the circus.

Consequently, he created his Cirque Calder, a miniature circus fashioned from wire, cloth, string, and other found objects.

He is also credited with inventing wire sculpture which he called “drawing in

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space.” He is reputed to have always carried a spool of wire and a pair of pliers around in his pocket and when he encountered an image he wanted to ‘draw,’ he would take out his wire and sculpt the image. He often chose to replicate his friends’ portraits in this manner. One example is the wire portrait of Josephine Baker, an American-born French dancer, singer, and actress. Children, too, are fascinated by rendering objects with wire and often do this in connection with their class work.

They can use Calder’s technique to sculpt an object related to their subject with wire. The materials they will need are flexible wire, scissors, and miscellaneous items for adornment—if children are interested. Have them carefully observe the object to recognize the lines that create the form. Begin by molding and bending the wire into the part of the form that will serve as the armature for the piece. For other pieces of the sculpture, cut the wire to the right dimension and wind it around the armature securely. If colored wire is used, the children can figure that into their composition as well. Besides making wire sculptures that complement their work, after having seen Calder’s portraits, encourage them to make portraits of themselves and their friends, just as Calder did.

Fifth Activity: 2D Forms That Give the Illusion They Occupy Space When working on a two-dimensional surface to depict a three-dimensional form, the artist must use a shading technique to suggest the change of light to produce shadows. Before the children attempt this challenge, they must have some experience with shading. They learn how to do this by using different strokes to create stippling cross scumbling hatching hatching a gray scale that goes from lighter to darker or vice versa. The strokes they can employ are: • stippling: making a series of dots • hatching: drawing parallel lines • crosshatching: overlaying a series of parallel lines on a set of differently oriented parallel lines • scumbling: drawing swirling lines overlapping each other Creating a gray scale can be difficult for some children so they need a good deal of practice to perfect this ability. They can begin by using graphite pencils, then colored pencils and eventually paints. Once they feel reasonably confident with this task, invite them to organize a simple still life of suitable objects. Place these objects under a light so that the shadows

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are obvious. Verbally analyze the lighter and darker shadows on the objects so the children are consciously aware of the differences.

Encourage the children to use shading activities such as overlapping complementary colors. Bowls of fruit make excellent subjects for drawing or painting to create the illusion of three-dimensionality; and of course, the beautiful Montessori geometric solids.

The Element of Space When Frank Lloyd Wright said, “Space is the breath of art,” he meant that the Element of Space is found in nearly every piece of art created whether it be two-dimensional or three-dimensional.

While space is fundamental to architecture and sculpture, it is also important in two-dimensional renderings. This element gives the viewer a reference point for interpreting art. Because space is largely invisible, we comprehend it through the arrangement of surfaces, points, and colors to orient us—in life and in viewing art. Thus, we must look at art pieces to see how the artist used space and how he accomplished it. When we are aware of the aspects in creating space or the illusion of space in artwork, we can then guide our children’s eyes in a meaningful way.

Space is defined as: • The emptiness or area between, around, above, below, or within objects or forms.

• Space can be used to make a two-dimensional artwork appear three-dimensional by giving a feeling of depth by shading (value).

Artists can use different techniques to give the illusion of space on a picture plane. They are: • Overlapping figures: an object appears further away when another overlaps it.

• Placement on the surface: objects placed higher on the picture plane seem to appear further away; objects placed lower on the surface, appear closer.

• Different sizes of shapes: smaller objects appear further away from the viewer.

• Details: objects appearing in the distance will have fewer details than those seemingly closer to the viewer.

• Color: objects in the distance are cooler in color, while closer objects are warmer.

• Value: objects further away are lighter in value, while those closer are darker in value.

• Linear or atmospheric perspective: are used to create the illusion of space on a flat surface.

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When creating space in an artistic piece, the artist must decide which kind of space his expression will need to best convey his message. Therefore, attention must be given to the different kinds of space possible and their ultimate impact on the final product. The kinds of space are: • Positive space: the space created by an image or a sculpture • Negative space: the space around and between parts of an image or a sculpture • Symmetrical space: the space is balanced equally on both sides of an artwork • Asymmetrical space: no visual balance on both sides of the piece • Two-dimensional space: has width, height, but is flat and has no depth • Three-dimensional space: has height, width, and depth

A Museum Tour: Looking for Space With our understanding of the many attributes of space, let’s continue our Museum Tour focusing on how artists have used space and the affect that it has on the viewer.

Positive Space In Georgia O’Keeffe’s Evening Star, No. III, 1917, her image is substantial, solid and takes up most of the space on the canvas.

This is a good example of how the artist has used positive space.

The little space that is not covered with intense colors surrounds her image and leaks through bits of the halos around the star. This negative space serves to unify and complete O’Keeffe’s piece.

Negative Space Christina’s World, 1917, by Andrew Wyeth has used very little of the canvas to depict the images that comprise the positive space—Christina and the farmhouses on the horizon line. The field and the sky make up the negative space in the composition.

The large area of negative space around the girl and the houses draws the viewer’s attention to Christina and the farmhouse because of its size. A sense of loneliness and separation emanates from the scene caused by Wyeth’s effective use of negative space. Christina seems lonely and isolated as she struggles to reach her home. An interesting fact to note is that Christina was Wyeth’s neighbor who was afflicted with a muscular degenerative disease. Upon careful observation, the viewer can see that her left leg is withered, probably making it even harder for her to reach the farmhouse so seemingly far away.

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Symmetrical Space Symmetrical space gives equal balance to all parts of the canvas. Diego Rivera’s 1925 Flower Day is a good example of this use of space. Every quarter of the canvas provides the eyes with interesting features to enjoy as they eye moves through the different spaces. The use of space in this way creates a balance between the sections—top to bottom, side to side. Balance is an Art Principle that symmetrical space can help facilitate.

Asymmetrical Space Wayne Thiebaud divides his canvas for Banana Splits, 1920, into two distinct spaces by the use of a diagonal line below which he places four banana splits. Lined up almost like boats on the wharf, the icecream confections draw our attention to the bottom of the canvas, the very place Thiebaud wants us to look. This use of asymmetrical space is powerful as it keeps the viewer riveted on the essential image.

Should our eyes venture to the top of the canvas, nothing is there to hold our attention and we, once again, move our view lower toward the important objects of the painting.

Two-Dimensional Space This two-dimensional flat surface entitled Modern Painting of Sun Rays, 1967, by Roy Lichtenstein, appears to have width and height but has no depth. The area of this canvas is comprised of many positive shapes that are defined by color and line, and they tend to dominate the available space. The lighter color of purple could be considered the negative space, but its use does not lend a sense of depth or perspective to the piece. In contrast, Joan Mitchell’s abstract 2D piece, The Fire Within, 1960, tricks our eyes and gives a sense of depth by the way she has applied her paint. The dabs of white paint give the illusion of light shining in the background (depth), while the vibrant strokes of red over the darker shades of red suggest that they are closer to the viewer, thus giving this twodimensional surface a sense of distance.

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Three-Dimensional Space Giovanni Paolo Panini’s main objective as an artist was to document accurately and vibrantly in paint ancient Roman magestic monuments and buildings. One such painting is Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, ca. 1734, which depicts a three-dimensional interior of one of the most famous of all the ancient buildings. The Pantheon—meaning Temple of All the Gods— was comissioned by Hadrian in 113-125 CE and still stands today. Panini has manipulated the perspective to create a broader view of the interior than is possible from any one vantage point within the rotunda. Through the Oculus—the opening in the Cupola to the sky providing the only source of light into the dome— Panini has exposed a cloud-speckled sky with light that reflects off one of the walls. Panini’s viewpoint reveals the portals open through the colossal columns giving the viewer a glimpse of the Piazza de la Rotunda with the Macuteo obelisk from Egypt. The distortion of the perspective provides the viewer with a heightened experience of space.

Children’s Space Activities Aware of all of the components involved in the use of space in art, we are supplied with much fodder to provide the children interesting revelations about this expansive topic--one that is more abstract than that of line, shape or form. Because this concept is less concrete than some of the other elements the children will encounter, we must reinforce the definitions, the kinds and the techniques that are associated with the element of space. To enhance their understanding, equip the children with two L-shaped pieces of cardboard that can serve as a movable viewfinder—or simply use your fingers for this task. Outside they can select a view of a building or an object in nature they want to observe specifically and use these simple tools to make a composition incorporating the object and surrounding space. This activity is good training for those who have an interest in composing photographical scenes.

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Once this is done, and the children have examined different pieces of art, we can ask salient questions that will give us an indication of what the children understand. Examples of inquiries are: • Out of the six kinds of spaces, which kind do you see?

• Which objects in the piece makeup the positive space and which make up the negative space?

• Is there depth in the composition?

• How does the artist use the space to depict depth?

• What techniques has he used to create space?

• Does the artist use space to express a feeling or sentiment?

First Activity: Introductory Activity-Positive & Negative Space Have the children take a large piece of white paper and make random lines throughout the page. Analyze with them the spaces they have created with their lines. Ask them to determine which areas will be negative space and which will be positive space. Invite them to paint the negative space in one color and the positive space in another. Because of the great contrast between white and black, they are good colors to begin with. This same activity could be done by taking scraps of paper and arranging them on a larger sheet in a collage activity that creates the two different kinds of space. With the children verbally analyze their results.

Second Activity: Creating Negative Space Around Objects Should you have on your zoology shelf a sea star test, let the children trace it onto a piece of large white paper. Once, one image is traced ask them to find another place on the page to trace a second star and perhaps a third image. Have them consider carefully where they want to place the tests because they are going to create the positive space. Once traced, they can fill in the negative space with black paint. Discuss with them afterwards the affects they achieved with their choices.

Another option is to have the children trace their hands on one color of construction paper (yellow) and carefully cut out just the hands keeping the paper intact. Mount that remaining piece on another sheet of the same size but a different color (brown).

The spaces where the yellow hands were cut from the yellow paper create the brown hands as positive space on the yellow 34

surface. Turn the paper over exposing the brown side and glue the yellow ‘cut-out’ hands on it in any arrangement the child chooses. Point out in the analysis that the yellow hands have now become the positive space. This exercise gives the children additional experience identifying positive and negative space.

Third Activity: Andy Warhol Painting Pop Art is a favorite art movement of children and one of its most prominent artists is Andy Warhol. Children are naturally attracted to his work because it explores the relationship between artistic expression, celebrity culture and advertising. In the 1960s Warhol used a span of different media, one of which was the silkscreen process that allowed him to experiment with the same image and different color schemes again and again. His Flowers, 1970, were a surprising departure from his initial themes of pop culture and commercialism, but they have endured the test of time and still express his style. After a brief story about Warhol’s life and an examination of his body of art, the children can partake in a simulated art activity reminiscent of his style.

• Select a brightly colored sheet of paper 11” x 14”.

• Cut two different brightly colored rectangles 5 ½” x 7” that are also a different color than the larger sheet.

• Diagonally paste the two rectangles on the larger sheet • Cut four more multicolored rectangles 5 ½” x 7” and staple them together.

• On the top sheet of these rectangles, trace a hand.

• Cut out the hand from all four of the stapled sheets simultaneously.

• Remove the staples and carefully paste each hand onto the contrasting-colored rectangles.

• Dip the hand into a plate of black tempera paint to print on each of the four hands mounted on the rectangles.

When finished, analyze the positive and negative space by referencing the assorted colors.

Fourth Activity: Experiment with Hands and Positive & Negative Space Children can also explore positive and negative space by collectively drawing their hands on a sheet of paper, determining which is the negative (or positive) space and decorate it in some fashion. They also can make designs

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on cutouts of their hands to indicate the positive space and then glue them on a solid-colored sheet of construction paper in a composition that indicates both positive and negative space.

Fifth Activity: Printmaking Printmaking is an excellent art activity and medium to emphasize positive and negative space.

When the children begin to carve the block that will print the image onto the paper, they first have to consider which part of the block will deliver the paint. If a part is carved out, it will not carry the paint to the surface and it will create negative space. The part not carved away, will deliver paint to the surface and will be the positive space in the composition, while the carved-out part will comprise the negative space.

Perspective: Aspect of Space Although perspective is not considered one of the seven elements, it plays an essential part in the artist’s choice when composing his piece. Perspective is the convention whereby a threedimensional space can be depicted on a flat surface. Artists achieve this affect in one of two ways— through linear or atmospheric perspective. Although, it is not unusual for artists to combine the two possibilities in order to provide a true sense of reality to the planar surface.

Linear Perspective Linear perspective is a mathematical technique that governs pictorial space. In 1421 the Italian architect and sculptor, Filippo Brunelleschi, rediscovered the Principles of Linear Perspective known to the Greeks and Romans that had long since been buried. He understood the concept of a single vanishing point on the horizon toward which all parallel lines drawn on a two-dimensional surface appear to converge. This technique allowed artists to produce works in which space was depicted in astonishing realism by creating the illusion of three-dimensional space. Francesco di Giorgio Martini’s Architectural Veduta (Architectural Viewpoint), ca. 1490, is an excellent use of this spatial technique. This discovery revolutionized painting and opened the door for the naturalistic styles of Renaissance art.

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Atmospheric Perspective On the other hand, Atmospheric Perspective refers to how the atmosphere affects the color of things we see rather than how distance affects the shapes and sizes of things.

Choosing this option of perspective allows the artist to infuse his images with mood and feeling. Artists have been using atmospheric perspective since the time of the Romans when they would make their fresco paintings in ancient Rome. Zeus and Hera on Mount Ida, found in Pompeii, Italy, is an example. The value transitions in color, which are apparent in atmospheric perspective, were also used in traditional Asian paintings—as can be seen in Shichen Xie’s tranquil rendering in the 15th century. Calligraphers and artists used their inks and pigments to impart the poetry of the landscape.

In our introduction to perspective, we must ensure that the children understand that it is the Element of space that creates perspective and is, in fact, an optical illusion created by the techniques the artist uses whether it is atmospheric or linear perspective. We must clearly define each kind of perspective and describe its precise characteristics.

For Linear Perspective the children need to know that: • •

Linear Perspective is a western technique achieved by a system of lines that converge at the ‘vanishing points’ on the horizon and seem to disappear This technique helps to establish the relative scale of objects

Antonelo da Messina uses all of these points in Saint Jerome in his Study, 1475-76. His use of linear perspective seems to beckon you to climb the steps and enter his study. The open doorway, the arches and the windows all draw you deeper into the painting. The diagonal lines converging on the implied horizon line are visible in the tiles on the floor. Notice how the arches begin to diminish in size, as we seem to recede into the depths of the piece. If the eye strolls along the right side of the centerpiece in which St. Jerome is reading, a lion—the iconic attribute identifying St. Jerome—can be seen waiting hungrily to greet the viewer.

Points for the children to be aware of with Atmospheric Perspective are: • •

Atmospheric perspective delivers a dreamy feeling to the piece in which mood is emphasized over detail The further away the object is, the lighter it is in colors and tones 37

• •

Objects in the distance are smaller and less in focus The objects in the foreground are detailed and hold importance for the viewer

After distinguishing between the two kinds of perspective take the children outside to see both kinds in the immediate environment. While observing the two kinds, bolster their understanding by asking questions related to points elucidated in the discussion. Back in the classroom we strengthen the children’s grasp on the ideas by viewing examples of perspective in pictures and books. With this experience, we are prepared to introduce the Seven Laws of Perspective that artists use to attain a three-dimensional image on a two-dimensional surface. Some of these techniques are used when artists work with the element of space. Although some of the techniques are the same, others are new. Showing an art piece that exhibits the varied techniques makes a greater impression on the children than just telling them about it.

Seven Laws of Perspective Used in Linear Perspective •

Surface: objects placed lower seem closer; objects placed higher seem further away Sakawa River, Ando Hiroshige

•

Size: smaller objects appear further away and larger objects appear closer

Hunters in the Snow, Pieter Bruegel

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•

Surface Lines: lines that wrap around a shape to give it depth

Still Life with Crystal Bowl, Roy Lichtenstein •

Overlapping: objects appear further away when placed behind another object Still Life with Parrot, Frida Kahlo

•

Shading: creates volume and the illusion of depth

Jeff Davies, Jerome Paul Witkin

•

Density: closer appearing objects have more details than those that appear in the background Morning Snow Effect, Claude Monet

•

Foreshortening: the part of an object that appears closer to the viewer is larger

Sleeping, Philip Guston

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Horizon Lines The position of the horizon lines features in the effects achieved in an art piece. They are the point where the earth and the sky seem to meet. This important factor controls the height of the observer’s point of view while also giving a sense of depth to the piece. The horizon line establishes reference points enabling the artist to draw the viewer’s eye to the focal point in the scene—the most important point in the composition. Also, it allows the artist to accurately represent proportions of their subject to create a more realistic scene. Because this aspect is essential, we must give the children information and experience with the horizon line’s different positions in art Low Horizon Line Beach at Trouville Eugene Boudin

Middle Horizon Line Lake George Georgia O’Keeffe

High Horizon Line Holy Family With a Lamb

Rafaello Sanzio

works and indicate the affect the artist has achieved when choosing one position rather than another—a low horizon line elicits a lofty, airy feeling; a middle horizon line gives balance and calm to the painting; a high horizon line, creates an earthy, more substantial quality. It is important to have examples of art where the artists have chosen different vantage points.

Once the children have visually experienced and discussed the two kinds of perspectives, conclude by asking them pertinent questions. Such questions could be: • Do you see a depth or a sense of space in the painting?

• What kind of perspective is employed in the art piece to create depth?

• What are some of the techniques the artist has employed to suggest three dimensions?

• Can we see the horizon line?

• Where is the vanishing point?

• Which objects delineate the diagonal lines in the painting?

• Are the objects in proportion to other objects?

The children’s responses will give an indication of how well they have grasped the factors used in either of the two kinds of perspective.

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A Museum Tour: Looking for Perspective Using the Seven Laws of Perspective as guides for our observation and the horizon lines, it is always interesting—for us and the children—when we encounter a piece in which the artist has abandoned perspective altogether or bent the rules.

Red Blue Green, Elsworth Kelly

The Dessert, Harmony in Red, Henri Matisse

The Basket of Apples, Paul Cézanne

Dora Maar, Pablo Picasso

Untitled (Green Silver), Jackson Pollock

The Listening Room, René Magritte

Children’s Perspective Activities Just as with the Elements of Art, we provide the children experiences working with perspective.

For the first two activities, to save time we can have the materials needed prepared in advance and kept in a folder on the art shelf. However, if the children want to make their own pieces—after an explanation of the task—that would be better as they will have to think about what to collect.

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First Activity: Experimenting with Overlapping Remind the children of the overlapping rule in perspective to prepare for this initial activity. Cut from construction paper—or have cut out—an assortment of about five different kinds of fruits. Also cut out a bowl that can be horizontally placed on a surface and a tall vase that will give a vertical aspect to the exercise. On green paper cut out some long stems with a few leaves attached to them. Do the same with flower petals and their botanical centers; these will be attached to the stems. For the background, glue a piece of black paper to a white piece that takes up ½ or 2/3 of the bottom part of the white paper—this black section will represent the table’s surface.

Once all of the paper elements are prepared, ask the children to arrange the flowers in the vase and the fruits in the bowl remembering the rule of overlapping to create perspective.

After they have finished, together verbalize the results to determine if the overlapping created a sense of depth in the composition. Once they have completed their work, they can disassemble the pieces and compose another one by arranging the items differently. For variety, encourage them to leave either fruit or flowers out of the vessels to place elsewhere in the composition.

Second Activity: Placing Figures on the Picture Plane For this activity, we need about six or seven human figures of different sizes and different colors and hues. Again, to save time the figures can be pre-cut and placed in a folder on the art shelf. The rules of perspective emphasized in this exercise is that larger and brightly colored figures seem to appear closer to the viewer and those that seem further away, appear lighter in color and higher on the picture plane. Encourage the child to place the figures accordingly (e.g., don’t have a larger figure overlap smaller ones).

Then in the spirit of fun and in the style of René Magritte’s ‘raining men’ in Golconde, 1953, place the figures in such a way that they break the rules of perspective. Artists chose to break these rules because they questioned why art should be seen solely as a precise representation of the world. Discuss the effects of this approach on perspective. This experience may provoke the children to investigate the Surrealist movement of which Magritte is considered one of the key figures in its genesis.

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Third Activity: One-Point Linear Perspective A simple one-point linear perspective activity can be introduced to even the youngest elementary children. They only need the preliminary information garnered from the discussions and their observations to be fully prepared for this uncomplicated exercise. The steps to follow are: 1. Using a pencil and straight edge, draw a horizontal line across the middle of the page. Place a little dot smack dab in the center of the line. This will serve as the vanishing point.

2. With a straight edge, draw two lines connecting the opposite corners, passing through the middle dot. These will be the perspective lines.

3. The children can decide whether to make a road, a canal or something else in the bottom triangle. Remind the children that the middle dot (vanishing point) is the furthest point you can see in the distance, and when things are in the distance, they appear smaller, closer together, and not in focus.

4. Draw the rest of the scene following the lines of perspective towards the background with whatever subjects have been chosen to depict. Some ideas: trees, rock formations, a row of people, streetlights, buildings, etc. If a figure is pictured in the foreground, make it large and draw it from the waist up so it appears to be in the foreground. Next, go over all of the lines with a thin black Sharpie marker, and erase the pencil lines that are showing.

5. When painting the composition, keep in mind again, that when approaching the vanishing point, the colors get lighter and less intense. On the buildings make the color on the fronts lighter where more sun is shining, than on the sides, which are cast in shadow.

Fourth Activity: Another One-Point Linear Perspective Linear perspective helps artists to draw geometric, box-like forms and environments—both indoors and outdoors. Consequently, it is more useful for drawing architecture and interior spaces than portraits and natural features.

One Approach for one-point perspective: 1. Draw a square or rectangle on the paper to the right or the left of the center. Make sure the shape runs parallel to the edge of the paper.

2. Next draw a horizontal line across the piece of paper that travels through the square. This is the horizon line.

3. Place a dot on the horizon line that sits on the other side of the line in relation to the quadrilateral. This will be the vanishing point.

4. From the nearest top and bottom side of the shape with a ruler draw two straight lines that converge to the vanishing point.

5. Do the same for the other two corners.

6. To describe the back of the box, drop a vertical line between the set of converging lines that are the furthest apart. Determine this visually.

7. With the children verbally analyze the results and the use for such a technique.

Le pont de l’Europe, 1876 Gustave Caillebotte

A Second Approach for one-point perspective: 1. Draw a horizon line.

2. Either below or above the horizon line draw a square or rectangle.

3. For a figure below the horizon line, draw lines from the two top and bottom corners to the vanishing point. For a shape above the horizon line, draw lines from the two bottom corners and the top right to the vanishing point. Four perspective lines will extend from the square face of the shape below the line and three will extend from the shape above the line.

4. At some point drop a vertical line from the lines that extend from the top and bottom corners—this line should be parallel to the side of the figure.

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5. Now draw horizontal lines from the intersections of the vertical lines to the lines extending from the top corner; these horizontal lines should be parallel to the top of the figure. Shade the figure created.

Fifth Activity: Two-Point Perspective The use of two-point perspective tends to give a more realistic look to a drawing 1. Draw the horizon line and place two vanishing points on it.

2. Between the two points, either above, below or on the horizon line, drop a vertical line.

3. From both the line’s end points draw straight oblique lines to the vanishing points on both sides.

4. Between these two sets of oblique lines drop two vertical lines to determine the size of the figure. These lines should be parallel with the first vertical line drawn.

5. Shade in the dimensions of the figure.

6. Explore this concept by placing the shapes above and below the horizon line.

Rue de Paris, Wet Weather, 1877, Gustave Caillebotte

Sixth Activity: Shape -Perspective To add variety to the children’s experiences, introduce this simple activity.

1. On a sheet of paper place a dot anywhere that will serve as a vanishing point.

2. Draw several shapes throughout the surface of the paper in different positions. Use shapes from the Geometry Cabinet or handmade stencils out of cardstock.

3. From the corners of the geometric shapes draw lines to the dot (vanishing point). From irregular shapes determine where lines can extend to the vanishing point.

4. Add lines or arcs to the lines, spacing them closer and closer as they approach the vanishing point.

5. Color all of the shapes with different dark shades.

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6. Color the space inside the drawn lines all the way to the vanishing point using lighter and lighter shades of the original color.

7. Carefully outline the shapes and lines with a black marker.

Seventh Activity: Atmospheric Perspective Once the children have discussed the particulars of atmospheric perspective and examined art prints for examples, have the children go outside to observe the natural and man-made features in the distance, such as trees, mountains, or buildings. With this experience, invite them to reproduce the effects they saw. Do this activity outside so the children can observe continually the effect they are trying to reproduce. Begin by having them make a series of horizontal lines across the paper. The curvier and more angled the lines are, the more interesting the composition will be. They could simulate the tops of trees, houses, mountains, etc. that will divide the canvas into sections. Have the children select tints of hues to fill in each of the different sections, using darker hues at the bottom of the surface (the foreground) and working gradually through lighter and lighter tones towards the top of the paper (the background).

Element of Value (Tone) The importance of the element of value cannot be underestimated when one realizes how this element facilitates the other elements—form, space, and perspective—thus, making it one of the most important variables in the success of a painting. Value is used to show three-dimensions in painting by shading, which gives depth as a result of shifting light—in other words, by indicating the light source or where the light reflects from or shines on an object. Also, it is instrumental in emphasizing the focal point of the painting.

Value is essentially how light or dark something is on a scale of white to black—with white being the highest value and black being the lowest value. Value is also a factor with color (hue), and when there are many different values of the same hue, tints and shades are generated. Adding white paint to colors produces Tints and adding black paint produces Shades.

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Value also helps to express mood in a piece—lighter values suggest happiness and contentment while darker values allude to sadness and depression. Extreme contrast is often deployed in exceptionally expressive works where drama and emotive response are required. We see this in Caravaggio’s 1598 depiction of the exact moment that Perseus beheaded Medusa by protecting himself with a shield given him by the goddess Athena, preventing Medusa from turning him into stone.

A Museum Tour: Looking for Value As we continue on our museum tour, we should consider the same questions that eventually we will pose for our children.

• Where does the light seem to be coming from?

• Where are the parts that indicate lack of light?

• Where are the lightest values?

• Where are the darkest values?

• Does the use of value draw your eye to a part of the painting?

• Is the contrast between light and dark intense or subtle?

• Does the use of value suggest depth?

• Does the artist use light to elicit an emotion or mood? What do you think that is?

In Francisco Zurbarán’s St. Francis Kneeling, 1635-39, the stark contrast between dark and light colors affects a mood of contemplation. His use of value draws the viewer’s eyes towards the elements that accentuate the message Zurbarán wanted to convey.

Attention is drawn to the stark contrast between St. Francis’s sleeve and the background to reveal the texture of the torn sleeve— symbolizing the vow of poverty taken by the Franciscan monks. His hands clasped in supplication and open mouth—as if to offer up a prayer to his God—are also amplified by the deft use of value. The presence of the highlighted skull is intended to illuminate the fragility of human existence and to remind the viewer of his own mortality—so live your best life each day.

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Vincent van Gogh’s goal with the painting of The Potato Eaters, 1885, was to depict the harsh reality of life for peasants and the working class. To do this he used subdued earth tones and value to emphasize the gloomy interior of the home and the family gathered at the table. Van Gogh, himself, reflected on the chosen colors of the people. He said, “Something like the color of a really dusty potato, unpeeled of course.” The lighter value differences depict the central topic—common workers under a dim light eating potatoes. In Dutch the painting is called De Aardappeleters, -the Dutch word for ‘potato’, aardappel, literally means ‘apple of the earth.’ For the Irish, during the Great Famine, this was truly so.

Franz Marc, one of the innovators of the art movement Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), favored expressive and symbolic harmonies of form and color that he effected by the use of different values. This can be seen easily in Blaues Pferd 1 (Blue Horse 1), 1911. To understand his work better it helps to know that Marc developed an emotional scale for use in his color combinations—blue represents masculinity and is symbolic of the most peaceful and spiritually resonant color; yellow stands for feminine joy, gentleness, warmth, and sensuality; and red portrays brutality and heaviness. The different shades or values of each color also give an indication of the intended message—the darker the shade the more intense the meaning, e.g., the darker the blue, the deeper the feeling of calm.

Tamara de Lempicka, in Art Deco brilliance, captured the look of an ideal woman in Young Girl in Green, 1929. Through the adroit use of value and shading she has captured the obvious femininity of her subject and the sense that the fabric in the dress was moving in the breeze. Were one asked to name the fabric, satin or silk comes to mind because of the different shades of green that suggest a soft, malleable material that is molded delicately around her form.

Children’s Value Activities To attune the children’s eyes to the lightness and darkness of objects, we could begin our observations by visiting the immediate environment or perusing books. With nature and architecture, we want to focus on the origin of the light and how it shines on our subject to illuminate one part, while casting shadows on another. The façades of buildings with their intricate designs often present different values to enhance their beauty.

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When observing aspects of value, it is important to note the contrast between light and dark and how the eye is drawn to certain areas because of the variations in radiance. Questions related to value while the children are browsing art images will offer more experience with the concept.

First Activity—Making Value Scales To give the children experience creating different values, begin with constructing a gray scale. Cut paper strips that can be divided into 7 or 9 equal sections. For children who have difficulty with the gradations, have them divide their strips into five parts until they are ready to tackle more sections since the eye perceives fewer parts easier. The best media to begin with is a soft graphite pencil. When children have conquered this task, they can try using paint. The pencil techniques that children can use to create different values are hatching, cross-hatching, stippling, or scumbling. In the top section of the strip, lightly apply the pencil to fill in the first section; with all of the following sections make them successively darker than the one before. If the children use paint, begin with white, and then continually add small bits of black to the white to darken the paint. Once they have finished with their gray scales, introduce them to colors, always beginning with the pure hue mixed with white and then little-by-little adding bits of the same hue. This color scale grading activity is a precursor for making tints and shades.

Second Activity—Tints and Shades The ability to create tints and shades will help the children as they attempt to produce depth and shadows in their compositions. Their experiences with color value scales are similar to and preparatory for making tints and shades. For making tints, add white to a pure hue and then continue adding more of the original color each time to make a darker tint.

To make shades do the same process but mix black paint with the hue rather than white.

Third Activity—Paul Klee Activity Paul Klee, a Swiss-born German artist, who was both a musician and artist, excelled at drawing but recognized he lacked any natural color sense. He realized that he probably would never learn to paint because of this deficit. Color was important to Klee, as he believed it represented the optimism and nobility in art and hoped it would be a relief from the pessimistic nature of life as he saw it—he lived during World War I (the Great War). To overcome this ‘flaw,’ he turned his mind

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to modern theories of color. He was a natural draftsman who experimented with and eventually deeply explored color theory. Soon he began working out his own color experiments in pale watercolors. He also did some primitive landscapes using blocks of color with limited overlap.

Ultimately, he discovered “the style which connects drawing and the realm of color.” After returning home from the war, Klee painted his first pure abstract, In the Style of Kairouan, 1914, that was composed of colored rectangles and a few circles. The colored rectangle became his basic building block, and he combined it with other colored blocks to create a color harmony analogous to a musical composition. His selection of a particular color palette emulates a musical key. Sometimes he uses complementary pairs of colors, and other times ‘dissonant’ colors, again reflecting his connection with musicality.

After a brief story about Klee’s sojourn into the world of color, we can give the children an activity that simulates his work with colored geometric shapes.

1. Take a piece of good-quality watercolor paper and very lightly draw a grid of equal-sized squares on it.

2. Using watercolors mix a single hue or color with water and fill in the far-right vertical column with this color. Let it dry.

3. Using the same color, paint over the rest of the entire column with the exception of the top square to darken each subsequent square.

4. While the paint is still wet, select another hue and paint over all of the squares except the first square.

5. Continue in this manner until the entire column is filled up.

Notice that when you mix the wet colors there is a darkening of each successive hue.

6. Then continue with the next column to the left of the first one using a different hue following the same procedure.

7. Analyze Paul Klee’s Messenger of Autumn, 1922, to see how he might have achieved his results.

A Child’s Work

To extend the work invite the children to select another piece of paper and instead of marking off equal squares, make some of them rectangles, and keep a few of them white for contrast and value. Leave the children free to experiment.

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Fourth Activity—Shadows When introducing shadows, a fascinating fact to share with the children was Georges Seurat’s technique when he painted A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, 1884-86. In this piece he used absolutely no black to make the shadows. They were created by millions of tiny, juxtaposed dots of multi-colored paints to allow the viewer’s eye to blend the colors optically. Seurat liked his dots so much he even covered the border around the painting with red, orange, and blue dots. Although Seurat has been given the appellation Father of Pointilism, he preferred to call his style chromoluminarism, a term he believed conveyed a focus on color and light.

Drawing simple still lifes will provide opportunities for the children to work with shadows. This gives them the chance to use their experience of grading colors and underscores the effectiveness of value. Setting up a simple still life with a light shining above it will cast both shadows and a point of no color—the place where the light shines directly on the object. After analyzing the different values the children can begin to darken the hues or add black as necessary. With careful visual analysis of shadows and techniques to affect them, soon the children will be able to add shadows to their drawings and paintings adding a more realistic touch to their chosen image.

Element of Color Many artists consider color the most expressive element of them all.

Hans Hoffmann, a German-born American artist said, “The whole world, as we experience it visually, comes to us through the mystic realm of color.” He structured the space in his compositions by the rich use of color—often primary colors—to achieve the most expressive means possible. His Untitled (Interior Composition), c.

1935, is a typical example of his emphasis on color.

Dr. Montessori was well aware of the impact that color has on children--she remarked, “Children are peculiarly sensitive in their appreciation of colour.7”

7

The Advanced Montessori Method—Volume Two, 289

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To truly comprehend color, one must understand that it is a discernible property derived from the visible spectrum of light, as it is perceived by the human eye and brain. Simply put, the sun’s light hits the earth in wavelengths of which the human eye can perceive only a narrow band of them. This narrow band of wavelengths is known as ‘the visible light spectrum’ and the human eye perceives them as colors. Some of these wavelengths are longer and some are shorter--each color has a different wavelength. Red at one end of the spectrum has the longest wave and violet at the other end has the shortest. When all of the wavelengths are perceived together, the human eye ‘sees’ white; when a wavelength is missing, this translates into a color. Light colors are pure wavelengths, and the primary colors are cyan, yellow, and magenta. Because the pigment colors in paints have impurities, they desaturate and change the wavelengths. Paint primary colors are red, yellow, and blue, which the eye perceives differently from the sun’s pure light rays.

Color is a perception, a response of the brain to data received by the visual systems. When the human eye perceives a particular color—for example red—light shines on the object, absorbing all of the colored light rays except those corresponding to red. The red waves are reflected off the object, the human eye receives the reflected light waves and sends a message to the brain. That message is translated into red.

History of Color Color theory is a human construct that has intrigued people since ancient times. To this end, many postulated their own theories and ideas about color. Some believed that color was a struggle between light and dark; some believed that colors were a gift from God. Aristotle in the 4th century BCE developed the first known theory of color. He viewed color as the product of a mixture of white and black and developed a linear-ordered color scheme accordingly. His color theory prevailed until 1666, when Sir Isaac Newton’s work and experiments provided the scientific basis for understanding color.

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By the 17th century the triad of colors-red, yellow, and blue—were established as fundamental and many artists based their work on this understanding.

Raphaello Sanzio, when painting Saint Catherine of Alexandria, c. 1508, chose the three primary colors to swathe Saint Catherine’s body in—the focal point in the composition. Believing that these very first colors came directly from heaven, they called them the primary colors from the Latin word ‘primus’ meaning first.

History of Color Wheels While working with prisms in the late 1600s Sir Isaac Newton discovered that sunlight fanned out into different colored wavelengths when transmitted through a prism. He gave these wavelengths together the name spectrum from the Latin word meaning “ghost or specter.” He assigned seven radiant colors to the spectrum in an analogy to the diatonic musical scale. Newton arranged these seven radiant colors into a ring, which became the first asymmetrical color wheel. At the center of the wheel, he placed white to symbolize the synthesis of all hues into white light. Johann von Goethe posited another color wheel based on his systematic study of the physiological effects of color. His observations on the effects of opposite colors led him to design a symmetric arrangement of his color wheel, similar to the one that artists use today—but limited to the three primary and the three secondary colors.

Aspects of Color Color combinations add complexity and variety to our visual world, which is why we want to make the children aware of the different possibilities as they make color choices for their own renderings and artwork. This awareness comes from introducing the color wheel to the children to see the alternatives and options at their disposal. Information about this wheel is prodigious, but we can reduce the points we present to just the ‘keys’ for the basic understanding. Children who become enraptured with color concepts and their history can later explore other discoveries surrounding color theory.

Color Wheel •

There are twelve colors on the color wheel: § three primaries § three secondaries § six tertiaries/intermediates

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Primary Colors • • • • •

The primary colors—red, yellow, blue—are the three basic building blocks of color.

They are called primary because they are unmixed pigments and cannot be created by mixing other colors.

Generally, all other colors-up to 16 million or more—are derived from these three spectrum hues plus white.

Mixing three primaries in equal quantities subtracts all color wavelengths resulting in black.

The primary colors are equidistant on the color wheel.

Secondary Colors • • •

Orange, violet, and green are called secondary colors because each is theoretically born of primary parents.

You can mix any two primary colors to derive the secondary colors.

The secondary colors are equidistant from one another on the color wheel.

Tertiary or Intermediate Colors • •

•

The six tertiary or intermediate colors are the third-generation hues formed by combining adjacent primary and secondary hues.

They all have hyphenated names to indicate the two-color sources always beginning with the primary color in the combination: § yellow orange § yellow green § red orange § red violet § blue violet § blue green From these twelve hues, all other colors are derived.

Complementary Colors • • •

Complementary colors are pairs of colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel.

The true meaning of the word complement is to make complete or to make perfect.

Any two complements contain the complete triad of primaries—red, yellow, blue: § yellow and its complement, violet (made up of red and blue), complete the red, yellow, and blue triad 54

red and its complement, green (made up of yellow and blue), complete the red, yellow, and blue triad § blue and its complement, orange (made up of red and yellow), complete the red, yellow, and blue triad Tertiary color complements complete two sets of the basic primary triad.

Complementary colors when placed edge to edge create a heightened contrast making the combination more dynamic.

Mixing complementary colors in equal amounts will produce neutral gray and lower the intensity of the original hue. §

• • •

Analogous Colors • •

Analogous colors are next to each other on the color wheel and when used together, create harmony in the painting.

Harmony is a musical term and suggests a satisfactory or pleasant arrangement of elements.

Attributes of Color •

•

•

Hue: every hue has as it source one of the twelve colors on the color wheel. A pure hue is a high-intensity color. A color can be lightened, darkened, or dulled, but it cannot be made brighter.

Value: the lightness or darkness of the color is created by adding either black or white; shades or tints create different values and value is considered the most important attribute of color.

Intensity (Saturation): the color’s brightness or dullness; a hue is dulled or made less bright by mixing it with its complement. This will make a high-intensity color into a low-intensity color.

Warm and Cool Colors •

Warm colors: § are yellows, oranges, and reds on one side of the color wheel § they are reminiscent of hot or warm things § when muted with black they create earth tones

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•

•

Cool colors: § are the blues, greens, and violets on the other side of the color wheel § they are reminiscent of things that are cool § colors can be made cool by adding white White, black, and gray are considered neutral colors.

A Museum Tour: Looking for Color Nuances In Stanton Macdonald-Wright’s Portrait of Riza Royce, 1932, all of the colors of the rainbow appear behind Royce’s head in a mountainous landscape dominated by peaks of blue-violet. Macdonald-Wright was deeply interested in the symbolic aspect of color and myths, which is why he included introspective and inspirational colors in this portrait of Royce, his lover. At the left of the painting are white lilies, symbols of purity and virtue. Irises can also be found there—named for Iris, the messenger of the Greek gods and the personification of the rainbow.

The philosophy Piet Mondrian followed believed art should be opposed to nature and that its vocabulary should be reduced to the fundamentals.

Therefore, Mondrian used only simple elemental shapes created by horizontal and vertical lines to convey his ideas. The squares and rectangles described in Composition A: Composition with Black, Red, Gray, Yellow, and Blue, 1920, are painted only red, yellow, blue (the primary colors), black, white, and gray (neutral colors). The high intensity hues are dynamic and exciting. Mondrian has selected the different colors for different shapes in the piece to keep the viewer’s eye moving throughout the canvas.

Divorced from representational association, another painting by Stanton Macdonald Wright, Synchromy in Green and Orange, 1916, places the emphasis on secondary colors—orange, green and purple. He sought to connect the qualities of color to those of music. Macdonald-Wright placed colors in this piece the way notes form chords in musical compositions.

He coined the term “synchromy” meaning with color believing it would evoke the word “symphony” suggesting a relationship with music. He contended that synchromism, the concept that gives the painting its name, is akin to visual listening and that each color changes depending on the colors surrounding it.

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In Le Bonheur de vivre, (The Joy of Life), 1904-06, Henri Matisse has depicted a pastoral landscape that is filled with a brilliantly colored forest and meadow rendered in all six of the intermediate colors. Matisse’s pallet was set free during the Fauve Movement (1904-1910), in which artists used strong color over representational or realistic values. This piece inspired other renowned artists who copied certain elements of the piece—Paul Cezanne and Pablo Picasso.

When painting La Danse, (The Dance) in 1910, a painting for which he is famous, Matisse borrowed the motif from the back of the brilliantly colored Le Bonheur de vivre, although he reduced the number of dancers from six to five. The color scheme in La Dance has been limited to two secondary colors and one primary color, making it less colorful than Le Bonheur de vivre.

However, it is equally powerful and dynamic, since using colors that sit far apart on the color wheel maximizes the contrast between images, thereby emphasizing each.

Vincent van Gogh, in his painting, Bedroom at Arles, 1888, was able to deploy the whole range of colors using both analogous and complementary colors. Van Gogh was intrigued with colors prompting him to read books on color theory—especially the findings about complementary colors. Through his own work he found that when using complementary pairs—yellow and purple, red, and green, orange, and blue—that each color in the pair would intensify the other. He said, “If complementary colors of equal value are used—that is, of the same degree of vividness and light—when juxtaposed they will be of such violent intensity that the human eye could scarcely bear the sight.” What van Gogh discovered is what is called today simultaneous contrast, when the eye concentrates on the edge between two complementary colors, it will see a slight vibration.

Claude Monet’s famous series of Water Lilies, 1914, depict Monet’s flower garden at his home in Giverny, France—a garden he personally designed. He organized his garden as though it were a large canvas.

With the help of many gardeners, he diverted a river, seeded water lilies, and planted different trees and exotic flowers. His goal was to create an image of peace and harmony. He once said, “My finest masterpiece is my garden.” To simulate this natural harmonious environment in this painting, Monet used two sets of analogous colors, colors that sit sideby-side on the color wheel and have a close affinity with each other. He chose a harmonious color scheme to create a harmonious masterpiece.

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Marc Chagall grew up in Belarus but moved to Paris to pursue his interest in painting. His Self-Portrait with Seven Fingers, 191213, uses a variety of tints and shades to create a puzzle-like figure reminiscent of the Cubist style. Cubism was a popular style of painting at the time that broke up reality and reassembled it in new ways. Chagall’s Jewish heritage is often captured in much of his work with references to traditional folktales, fables, and beliefs. This portrait in particular refers to the colorful Yiddish folk expression “with all seven fingers”, meaning work as fast and as hard as possible. That explains the seven fingers!

Although Chagall left home when he was a young adult, he still remembered the maxim fondly. Hovering in the background of his selfportrait are two landscapes—his new home of Paris on the left and his childhood home in Belarus on the right.

Jan van Eyck is known for using oil paint in a way that it had never been used before to create a luminous effect and a richness of color. The Arnolfini Wedding Portrait, 1434, is an example of how through the use of low intensity oils—the green and red complements—he created a timeless piece of art. In his work Van Eyck expresses principles of individual dignity through his incorporation of symbols. Appropriate for a wedding portrait, the small dog in the foreground symbolizes fidelity and loyalty—many dogs are named Fido for the Latin “faithful”— but most of the symbols indicate the Arnolfini family’s wealth. The groom is swathed in furs and silks, with a large hat, which most people of the time could not afford. The bride’s stiff lace headpiece and expansive green dress is a depiction of a woman wearing a garment of the time’s highest fashion with an abundance of expensive fabric—one that is so heavy she must hold it up with her hand. The color red was selected for the bed canopy and furniture coverings—a color that at the time was astronomically expensive—and commissioned by patrons who wanted to display their wealth.

Other signs of wealth include the oranges in the windowsill and on the table—a very costly fruit of the 15th century. The candelabrum and the rug indicate both an expression of wealth and expensive taste. The single candle on the candelabrum may symbolize the presence of God whose spirit presides over the union of the couple. The circular mirror not only reflects the backs of Arnolfini and his wife, but also two figures, one of whom is dressed in blue and is thought to be Van Eyck himself—the witness for the ceremony. The inscription above the mirror translates into “Johannes de Eyck was here” supporting this theory.

André Derain was a seminal French painter who alongside of Henri Matisse and Maurice Vlaminck pioneered the use of pure color relationships to produce vibrant, warm colored paintings. The use of vivid, unnatural colors sparked vituperative comments from the art critics, such as, “A pot of paint has been flung in the face of the public.” The art critic, Louis Vauxcelles, derisively dubbed their works as les fauves, or the “wild beasts,” thus initiating the Fauvist movement of 1905 to 1910. Derain said, “Fauvism was our ordeal by fire—colors became charges of dynamite.” He also

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remarked, “We were intoxicated with color, with the sun that makes color live.” With his piece, Turning Road, 1906, Derain did, indeed, make color live. The reds, oranges, and yellows he chose for the piece have created an exciting, emphatic, and affirmative painting that advances and expands on the canvas.

Claude Monet’s The Doge’s Palace at Venice, 1908, with its cool colors imbues the work with peace and calm. Cool colors are soothing and tranquil and are rarely overpowering. Warm and cool colors impact the viewer as both have the power to evoke emotions and feelings, but the feelings evoked are diametrically opposed. Optically cool colors appear to recede and contract on the canvas, while warm colors appear to advance and intensify. The artist wields his paints according to the sentiments he wishes to convey.

This is one of the beauties of a variety of pigments and their versatility.

Children’s Color Activities Attuning the children’s eyes to color in nature is simple because color abounds in the world of plants, animals, and minerals. One only need be apprised of the many varieties and nuances of color waiting to be discovered to look for it. Well-chosen books on architecture illustrate different colored buildings and houses found throughout the world. The children may even realize on their own that the time zones of the world many times are reflected in the color choices of buildings, such as La Boca Barrio, Buenos Aires, Argentina—warm colored buildings in warm countries, cool colored ones in cool countries.

Because color covers a vast amount of intricacies, the questions we ask the children when they view paintings will vary with their experiences. Questions that might be pertinent with different color aspects could be: • What colors do you chiefly see in this picture—primary, secondary, or tertiary colors?

• What color scheme has the artist used—complementary or analogous?

• Does the artist use warm or cool colors?

• How many different hues has the artist used? What is the effect?

• Do you see any tints or shades?

• Do the colors look good together or do they create a visual dissonance?

• Do the colors appeal to you?

• Does the painting depict a mood? What mood, and how did the artist manage that?

• Does any color seem to predominate?

• Do you see different values in the colors?

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First Activity: Color Mixing8

Color mixing is one of the first activities to show the children. They need to see for themselves how the primary colors generate the secondary colors. Because of the impurities in different paints, the ones you choose for this task must be specific ones—lemon yellow, alizarin crimson red and cobalt blue. If not, the results will be muddied. It is always best to start with quality paints (like acrylics) to experiment with color mixing. But before using pricy paints make sure the children have had a lesson on just how to use and care for them. Points to clarify for using paints: • protect the table with some kind of covering • provide a palette for mixing paint • demonstrate how to squeeze just a bit of paint from the tube • have a container of water to clean the brush before changing colors • place a paper towel nearby to wipe the cleaned brush • acrylics dry quickly so work quickly When beginning this activity, cut three pieces of art paper (Bristol board works well) about 2” x 5” in size. Choose any primary color and paint a swatch on the paper. Clean the brush thoroughly and choose a second primary color. Paint that directly upon the first primary color’s swatch. As the two colors mix together, they create a secondary color. Do this for the remaining primary colors. If the children choose, they could make small booklets of their work. To summarize their findings, the children may want to make a chart of their work. Let them experiment with mixing all three primary colors together in equal amounts to see what emerges. They will discover a brownish color that artists call ‘no color.’

Second Activity: The Placement of Color Mixing in a Triangular Pattern

This activity prepares the children for the arrangement of colors on the color wheel in a triangular pattern. On a piece of paper have the children draw three different circles in a triangular layout— they can trace the circles from the Geometry Cabinet or construct them with a protractor. Do not prepare a sheet with the circles printed on it, as we want the children to think about this formation consciously. Select two primary colors and fill the bottom two circles—the base of the triangle-each with its own primary color. Then mix those two colors on a palette to create the secondary color that will then be colored into the apex circle of the triangle. Do the same for the other primary and secondary colors. Analyze the results and have the children collect the examples in art portfolios for later reference.

Children should always be allowed to make their own forms and formats. This requires their thinking about each required step.

Through this process they learn! If we provide premade forms of any kind, we have preempted the children’s work and thinking process.

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The children could do the same exercise with the Tertiary Colors by mixing neighboring primary colors to form the tertiary.

Third Activity: Making a Color Wheel

Every classroom should have a professional color wheel that the children can refer to when making color choices for their artwork. This color wheel can be introduced to orient them to the relationship of different colors to each other in anticipation of making their own. The steps involved in this activity are: • On the professional color wheel, point out the triangular positioning of the primary colors and the secondary colors on the wheel first.

• Next point out the tertiary colors that are nestled between a primary color and its neighboring secondary color. Make sure the children are familiar with the names of the tertiary colors.

• On a large sheet of white paper mark an equilateral triangle that will indicate where the primary colors will go (the Geometry Cabinet’s equilateral triangle works well). At each of the vertices construct or trace a circle that will be filled with primary-colored pigments. Between the circles for the primary colors, construct three more circles for the secondary colors. This construction shows the relationship of the primary colors to the secondary colors. These six circles can be filled in with paint or colored pencils—color mixing is not necessary at this point, unless of course the children would like to mix the paints.

• The colors can be labeled should the children choose to do so.

An additional extension to this activity is to encourage the children to make a color wheel illustrating all twelve colors—primary, secondary, and tertiary colors.

A Child-made Color Wheel

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Complementary Colors Complementary colors have a special and powerful relationship with each other, one that Mother Nature must have been well aware of. This combination is present in both natural worlds—plants and animals. When the children become aware of this fact, their interest is aroused, and they enthusiastically look to the out-of-doors to discover these combinations.

Inside of the classroom, indicate on the color wheel how the complementary colors are opposite each other and discuss their impact on each other. Even the tertiary colors have complements, and they can be seen on the color wheel too. Give the children the etymology of the word ‘complement’ and explain how the two colors together complete the triad of colors—red, yellow, and blue. In your examination of paintings with complementary colors, choose artists who used them often: Georgia O’Keeffe, Vincent van Gogh, Claude Monet, Henri Matisse, André Derain.

First Activity: Mixing Complementary Colors To dull a hue to lower its intensity the artist mixes a color’s complement with it. This desaturates the pure hue and results in what artists call ‘neutral gray.’ To see this for themselves, the children can paint a swath of one primary color on a strip of paper and then mix it with equal amounts of its complement. They can do this for all three primary colors. The neutral grays produced by the different complements vary slightly in color from each other.

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Second Activity: Dulling Pure Hues To give the children experience dulling a hue little by little to lower the intensity: • Have them trace a large circle on a piece of paper (a dinner plate size is a good).

• Around the circle draw 12 small circles that will hold the primary, secondary and tertiary colors.

• Select two complements and paint them in the circles that are 180° apart.

• Little by little add to the pure hue its complement.

• Paint a band of the dulled hue near the circle towards the center.

• Continue to do this until neutral gray is reached in the center.

• Do the same for the complement of the first color.

Work in Progress • Continue with the remaining complementary colors in this fashion.

Third Activity: Experimenting with Complementary Colors Joseph Albers developed an experimental way of looking at color that he preserved in his landmark book, Interaction of Color, a treatise that consisted of exercises based on his ideas but executed mainly by his students. Albers believed that in visual perception, a color is almost never seen as it really is. He averred that the interaction between different color combinations resulted in variable results making color the most relative medium in art. Our children can engage in similar exercises when working with colored paper. Have them cut 5” x 5” squares from primary and secondary-colored paper. Onto these squares superimpose smaller colored squares and observe the visual effects. The blue on the orange appears more vibrant than the blues on the yellow and green. The red on the green is more dynamic than the blue on the green.

To extend this work have the children cut various shapes and colors from construction paper and analyze the effects of the different combinations.

These exercises will spark lively discussions and a new awareness about color combinations. Thus, when children ask for advice on color choices for their art and decorated work, they can draw on their preliminary experiences with complementary colors.

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Fourth Activity: Warm and Cool Colors Begin a discussion with the children about what it means to be warm or cool. This conversation could include a mention of the seasons and the different zones of the earth that are created by the angle of the sun’s rays as they hit the earth. By doing this we are drawing upon the children’s firsthand experience to truly understand the concept of temperature. On the color wheel, mention that colors can be warm or cool as well, and that they create different affects in painting. Warm colors bring to mind hot or warm images, while cool colors suggest images that are cool, even cold. Explicitly indicate the warm colors—yellows, oranges, and reds. Do the same for the cool colors—blues, greens, and violet—and mention that they reside on the opposite side of the color wheel from the warm colors.

Begin the activity by providing the children with a piece of paper marked off in one-inch squares in which each square is divided in half diagonally (premade in the interest of time). In the center of the paper have them make a contour drawing of some preferred subject—a leaf, a cup, a hand, an animal, a fruit, a face. Have the children select two warm and two cool colored pencils. Fill the negative space behind the subject with either warm or cool colors. Always color the upper triangle in the square the same color each time. The lower triangle can be colored with the second warm or cool color. Do this for the entire negative space around the subject. Now fill the positive space—the image—with the opposite colors ensuring that the upper triangle is always colored with the same color and the lower triangle is colored with the second one. Discuss the affects created. Once this initial activity has been completed, encourage the children to use warm and cool colors in free expression.

The experience with warm and cool colors can be accomplished with other activities in which the children engage, such as with the Op Art activity or their class work. Filling in the sections created by their geometric constructions could occasion the use of warm and cool colors. Or this children-made seasons table that has been collaged with tesserae of warm and cool colors to reflect the earth’s temperature during different seasons.

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Element of Texture Texture is the art element that is most related to our sense of physical touch. It is the surface quality of an artwork that represents how an object appears or feels. Depending on how adeptly the artist wields his paint, he can convey the illusion of texture in a two-dimensional work to suggest how an object might feel if it were physically touched. Texture can affect mood, evoke psychological associations, and even challenge the viewer’s perception of what is real. Texture in art can be perceived in two ways: Physical Texture—in which it is real, tangible and can be touched—and Visual Texture—in which it is intangible and tricks the eye into perceiving a textural surface.

Physical texture is often seen on buildings, sculptures, collages, embroidered textiles, etc. The Thinker, 1888, by Auguste Rodin is a classic example of physical texture. The rock on which The Thinker sits is roughly carved while his body is smooth and highly polished. Rodin used the two kinds of surface—rough and smooth—to emphasize the man, who appears to be struggling with his thoughts. Psychological and physical tension is exhibited in his whole body, from his bent head to his tensely curled toes. Other burnished features reveal this contemplative mood—the man’s wrinkled, textural face, knitted eyebrows and compressed lips.

These all achieved through a masterly use of texture.

Prior to the late 19th century, the prevailing convention in Western art was to make paintings with smooth surfaces. However, painters eventually embraced texture as an opportunity to expand the picture plane through the use of different textural techniques. One of the earliest techniques that painters adopted to create visual texture was impasto, an Italian word for “dough”. This method requires the Ladies of Arles, 1888 painter to apply thick layers of paint to the surface of their work. The Vincent van Gogh heavy paint layers tend to draw the eye, creating a predominant emphasis in parts of the work. Impasto creates a dramatic surface due to the way that light interacts with the raised surfaces of paint to create shadows and highlights. This technique is associated with the Post-Impressionist, Vincent van Gogh, who used it in most of his paintings.

Another technique used to create visual texture is dry brush. With this technique the brush is relatively dry, but it still holds pigment. When applied to the surface of a painting, the brush strokes appear scratchy and Travelers Among Mountains and Streams, 11th century, Fan Kuan

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rough—rather than smooth—fooling the eye into perceiving dimensional layers. Also, repetitive lines in different orientations create texture.

By analyzing a selection of art prints, the children’s eyes can be trained to look for the different kinds of texture and the affects achieved. Precisely chosen questions can guide their explorations and assist in their discoveries, while also revealing their understanding of the element. Examples of possible questions could be: • Do you see any texture in the piece of art?

• What kind of texture is depicted? Visual or Physical?

• What do you think it would feel like if you touched it?

• What kind of feeling does the texture give to the piece?

• What techniques does the artist use to show visual texture? Impasto, dry brush, repetitive strokes?

• What do you think the artist was hoping to achieve with his use of texture?

A Museum Tour: Looking for Texture Rembrandt van Rijn was well known for the range of different genres he painted—history, portraits, and landscapes. No matter the subject, he managed to capture the expressive and emotional qualities that each possessed, making him a celebrated artist of his time. Rembrandt was constantly exploring different compounds to mix with pigments and oil to achieve luminous colors to depict a true sense of his subject through the use of impasto. Apparently, he understood chemistry, as well as being creative and fastidious about his work. In his efforts to achieve his impasto he experimented with lead white pigment and linseed oil to make paste-like paints that he piled on in thick layers. He even knew about and used some chemicals that were thought only used in the 20th century. Rembrandt had a turbulent existence even though he achieved an unprecedented level of success while alive.

Rembrandt, Self Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar, 1659, is one of the 40 self-portraits that encapsulate the timeline of his trying life. Financially strapped, apparently, he painted himself often because he lacked the money to pay for a model.

In Oskar Kokoschka’s painting entitled Self-Portrait of a Degenerate Artist, 1937, this Austrian painter has suffused his piece with emotion and agitation by the use of a thick application of paint to give it a heavily textured aspect. Using many colors to accent the paint strokes also enhances the texture created. When looking at the portrait, it seems that if we were to reach out and touch his face, his jaw would be rough and prickly. Kokoschka painted this piece in reaction to the 66

Exhibition of Degenerate Art that the Nazis organized in 1937 to scorn any art they considered “un-German.” Kokoschka lost eight of his pieces to this exhibition. His arms in this portrait are defiantly crossed in response to the inclusion of his works in the exhibition. This powerful painting was begun in the woods in which a deer can be seen on the right side of the canvas. On the left there is a running man. Both creatures refer to either flight or pursuit, indicating the artist thought of himself as a hunted man.

Alberto Giacometti is most famous for his sculptures of long, thin figures formed with roughly applied passages of bronze. He rarely sculpted animals but his Le Chat (The Cat), 1955, is one of the rare exceptions. He constructed his cat with hard, bumpy texture that creates a disparity between it and the typical soft flowing fur of a real cat.

Vincent van Gogh’s iconic painting, Starry Night, 1889, is a classic example of how he used impasto to enhance his image and infuse his work with energy and power. At times he would pour paints directly onto the canvas and simply mix them together with his own fingers. The repetitive linear, swirling strokes of thick paint stand out from the surface of the canvas to transmit the night sky of this particular night. When Van Gogh was a young man, he became a pastor to a poor mining village in Belgium and so was conversant with the varied stories in the Bible. Also, he was keenly interested in astronomy and was an exact observer of the night sky. These three qualities converge to engender theories about the meaning of Van Gogh’s work. More than likely, Starry Night, originated from the evening view through the iron-barred window of a mental institution in which Van Gogh was incarcerated. Because he positioned the 11 stars and planet as he did, astronomers posit that the scene could have been at 4:00 a.m. on June 19th, 1889. The brightest ‘star’ to the right of the Cypress tree and low on the horizon would have been Venus. The 11 stars in the scene may have represented Joseph’s brothers, from the Book of Genesis, who sold him into slavery. Joseph was a dreamer and imprisoned, just like Van Gogh, suggesting that Vincent identified with this biblical character.

Children’s Texture Activities To introduce children to the element of texture we must make sure that they know the difference between physical texture and visual texture. To emphasize the difference between the two we can take them outside to feel the world. Have them stroke the underside of leaves to experience the prominent textural pattern of the veins; they can rub their hands over the bark of different trees to determine if it is smooth or rough. If animals are available have the children pet their skins to feel 67

the different physical textures. Also, examine buildings for textural architectural features. Once they have had this exposure to physical texture in nature and architecture, introduce the children to the art images that have visual texture. The textural details raised in the preliminary discussion will give them guidelines on what to look for.

First Activity: Touching Physical Texture and Rendering It Visually

Have the children collect several (8 to 12) familiar items from around the classroom to feel and describe texturally. Tell • brain coral • wool them that the goal is to • coconut render these physical • basket textures visually. Have • mushroom the children take a large coral • Yucca leaf piece of paper and • wheat section it off so that each • polka dots item has its own space. The children can label the sections either before • meal worm or after they have painted the texture. They can choose any color they • shell • shark teeth want for this activity. Remind them of the three ways visual texture can • swirly be achieved—impasto, dry brush, or repetitive lines in any orientation.

This activity lends itself easily to collaborative work.

Children’s Selections

Second Activity: Collage

Tell the children the story about the invention of collage as a medium when Georges Braque purchased a piece of oilcloth with a fake wood grain for study as he was working on a Cubist drawing of a guitar.

Rather than render the grain in pencil, he pasted the scrap to the canvas. By doing this, he altered and expanded the direction of art completely—the initiation of collage as a valid media of artistic expression. Pablo Picasso followed Braque’s lead when he made Still Life with Chair Caning, 1912. Often Picasso gets credit for this new form of art, but in fact the credit goes to Braque.

Collage is a perfect medium for the children to experiment with physical texture. Like Picasso and Braque before them, they can collect assorted materials and paste them onto their surfaces to

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create physically textured productions. Items like thumbtacks, paper, buttons, beads, sequins, clay tesserae, tips of broken colored pencils, etc., all give an interesting look to the art piece.

You can also introduce the children to Crop Art in which the artist uses various grains to portray their subject. One Minnesota artist of note, Lillian Colton, depicted well-known people from the worlds of history, politics, theater, science, music, and the Bible. An example of her work is Abraham Lincoln, whom she rendered with grains like canola, timothy, wild rice, clover, and brome grass. Colton’s art always took “best in show” at the Minnesota State Fair so she stopped entering her pieces competitively so that others would have a chance to win. Another example of a famous crop art exhibit the children may be interested in is the Corn Palace in Mitchell, South Dakota. Providing the children with corn kernels, pumpkin seeds, rice, barley, and beans, who knows what kind of crop art they may come up with?

Third Activity: Simulated Texture with Frottage Frottage is a simple technique to simulate texture. You simply place paper on a textural object and rub pencil strokes—either graphite or colored—over the paper covering the object. An impression of that object will appear on the paper. Have the children explore the environment and find objects to experiment on, like coins, tiles, the sidewalk, bark, the linoleum, etc.—even perhaps the computer keyboard. This technique can be extended into the children’s other work, such as classifying leaves by their vein patterns or decorating a thank you letter.

Fourth Activity: Physical Texture Clay is a useful medium to give children experience with physical texture because children can mold it and press objects into it to give a textural surface. Challenge them to find objects to press into their clay work to create interesting textural patterns—toothpicks, tines of fork, serrated knife, pencil tips, sculpture tools, metal stamps, rocks, tree bark, flowers, leaves, etc.

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Summary Activity of Elements Once the children have been introduced to all seven Elements of Art, they can make a Summary Chart in which they can illustrate each of the elements they have experienced. They can design the format of the chart in any way, but it must include seven sections into which each element can be rendered. Colored pencils are a good medium for this work. The teacher will be able to tell if the children understood the concept behind each element by the way the children choose to depict it.

Review of Elements Once the children have been introduced to and explored all seven elements through activities and observations of art prints, sit with them and discuss how the elements worked together to create an appealing image or conveyed the artist’s purpose. Touch on aspects such as: • • • •

Elements used and elements not used How the elements work together cohesively Select an artist’s work and look for all seven elements Compare the work of artists who use few elements and those that use several

Leave the children free to continue the discussion as they analyze different images with the elements as the focus. This activity is preparation for their visit to an art museum to look at original pieces of artwork and apply what they know.

When at the museum, select a random room, have your group stand in the center and peer from afar at all of the artworks displayed. Ask each child to pick the piece that appeals most to him.

As a group, visit each child’s choice and have him give his reasons for preferring one piece to the other. Ensure that in the discourse the child speaks in terms of the elements as well as of other things that attracted him. Soon other museumgoers will be following the children to learn more about the works of art discussed. I know this from experience.

Conclusion Have fun with your children exploring the essential Elements of Art and Design. Your trained eye will be a gift to your children. I promise you great results and enduring pleasure.

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Bibliography The Advanced Montessori Method-The Montessori Elementary Material, Robert Bentley, Inc., 1965.

The Advanced Montessori Method, Volume II, Kalakshetra Press, Madras, India, 1965 The Advanced Montessori Method Vol.2. Kalakshetra, 1996, p287) Advanced Montessori Method II, Kalakshetra 1965, p289)

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