Organic Farmer - August/September 2018

August/September 2018 Challenges in Managing Organic Free-Range and Pastured Poultry Cover Crops For Organically Farmed Vineyards Biochar and Organic Agriculture Organic Strawberry Nitrogen Management Organic Fresh Unprocessed Milk, An Alternative Dairy Business Model

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Volume 1 : Issue 2

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August/September 2018

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PUBLISHER: Jason Scott Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com EDITOR: Kathy Coatney ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Cecilia Parsons Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com PRODUCTION: design@jcsmarketinginc.com Phone: 559.352.4456 Fax: 559.472.3113 Web: www.organicfarmingmag.com

IN THIS ISSUE in Managing 4 Challenges Organic Free-Range and Pastured Poultry

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CONTRIBUTING WRITERS & INDUSTRY SUPPORT Gerry Spinelli & Sacha Lozano

Cover Crops for Organically Farmed Vineyards

Joseph Heckman

Professor of Soil Science, Rutgers Resource Conservation District University of Santa Cruz County

Glenn McGourty

Winegrower & Plant Science Advisor UCCE Mendocino & Lake Counties

and Organic 14 Biochar Agriculture

Maurice Pitesky

Veterinarian/ Assistant Specialist in Cooperative Extension

Jeff Schahczenski NCAT/ATTRA

Strawberry 18 Organic Nitrogen Management UC COOPERATIVE EXTENSION ADVISORY BOARD

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Organic Fresh Unprocessed Milk, An Alternative Dairy Business Model

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Kevin Day

Steven Koike

David Doll

Emily J. Symmes

Dr. Brent Holtz

Kris Tollerup

County Director and UCCE Pomology Farm Advisor, Tulare/Kings County UCCE Farm Advisor, Merced County

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UCCE IPM Advisor, Sacramento Valley

County Director and UCCE Integrated Pest UCCE Pomology Farm Management Advisor, Advisor, San Joaquin Parlier, CA County

The Challenges of Finding High Quality Organic Seed

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UCCE Plant Pathology Farm Advisor, Monterey & Santa Cruz Counties

August/September 2018

The articles, research, industry updates, company profiles, and advertisements in this publication are the professional opinions of writers and advertisers. Organic Farmer does not assume any responsibility for the opinions given in the publication.

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Laying hens at the UC Davis Pastured Poultry Farm . The birds are provided with over 20 square feet per bird on the outside of the coop and approximately 2 square feet per bird inside the coop (left). An additional 9 inches of perch space is also provided in the coop.

All photos courtesy of Anny Huang, UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine.

CHALLENGES IN MANAGING

Organic Free-Range & Pastured Poultry By: Maurice Pitesky, DVM, MPVM, DACVPM Veterinarian/Assistant Specialist in Cooperative Extension

T

he growing trend in commercial organic free-range and pastured poultry production systems reflect a growing interest by the public in this segment of food production. However, these systems do have unique challenges.

The following are some general observations and recommendations that can be applied for free-range and pastured poultry management with respect to three challenging areas based on our surveys and our interactions with this segment of commercial poultry production: • • •

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Predator/Wildlife control Disease control Procurement of organic feed

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Before we address these areas it is important to go over some basic definitions on the differences between commercial free-range and pastured poultry.

What is Free-Range?

In a general sense, free-range is a loose term for any system that does not use cages and provides access to an outdoor area that is fenced in and may also have some type of netting/fencing over it. Free-range chickens are housed in a stationary indoor space with nest boxes, perches and often unlimited access to the fenced and/or netted outdoor space.

August/September 2018

What is Pastured Poultry?

While free-range birds can be on pasture, having birds on pasture falls into the category of pastured poultry. Advantages to raising poultry on pasture include reductions in feed cost relative to free-range birds not on pasture and changes in the nutritional content and characteristics of eggs. Specifically, eggs from pasture-raised hens have been reported to have higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin A and

vitamin E (all thought to be beneficial to human health). In addition, pasture can act as an “enrichment” for birds which can have a beneficial effect on flock behavior.

Note: While there are very specific definitions of organic production that are outlined by the United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) National Organic Program (NOP), in the U.S. there are currently no federal definitions of either free-range or pastured poultry production although the USDA does stipulate that free-range birds have access to the outdoors. In addition, there is currently no consensus regarding stocking density inside and outside the coop.

Independent welfare auditing groups have different standards which typically range from between 1.5-2 square feet per bird indoors and 2 to 4 square feet per bird outdoors.

In addition, if you use the fertilized land as cropland, it is very important to keep food safety in mind. According to the USDA’s NOP, touch crops, crops that are harvested from the ground (ie. carrots, lettuce), should not have raw manure applied on to them less than 120 days before harvest. In the case of no-touch crops, (i.e. crops that have no direct contact to the ground like fruit tress), they should not have manure applied on to them less than 90 days before harvest. The purpose of these recommended lag times is to avoid bacterial cross-contamination between raw manure and crops that will be used for human consumption.

for extra protection. This makes it that predation is the number one cause harder for predators to dig under for mortalities in commercial freeyour fence. In addition, apply gravel range and pastured poultry systems. where the fence line meets the Therefore, if your farm is in an ground (6 inches deep and area where predators such across). as coyotes, skunks, opossums, racHardware cloth is preferable as a fencing Big picture with coons and hawks material in the coop to chicken wire due respect to fencing, are common to it's superior strength. The cloth pictured has a aperture of 1/4 inch which provides remember that you should additional protection against rodents. fences are only consider the as strong as following their weakest preventative link. So for measures example, if you have a • Using gate that has harda gap between ware the bottom of cloth the gate and the (less than ground, you should or equal to realize that wildlife ¼ inch wide) will find it and use it. instead of chickWhile netting and fencing en wire for fencing. can help keep wildlife out, a Hardware cloth is thicker combination of management practices and more difficult for wildlife to is really needed to optimize predator break through. and pest control. Unfortunately, there is no silver bullet for wildlife control.

• For permanent fencing, two to three feet of hardware cloth can Continued on Page 6 be dug underneath the ground

Predator/Wildlife Control Perhaps the biggest hurdle by commercial freerange and pastured poultry produc-

faced

ers is wildlife control.

This is most likely even more challenging for organic producers since organic producers have limited bait options as outlined by the NOP. Regardless, anecdotal and survey based observations indicate

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Continued from Page 5 In addition to fencing, provide multiple shade/coverage options including trees and man-made structures. In addition to providing shelter from aerial predators (i.e., hawks and owls) these types of cover encourage your birds to graze over more land.

While fencing and coverage are fundamental, other options to consider include.

•

•

Coyote/ fox decoys can scare wildlife such as waterfowl.

First and foremost the best way to mitigate infectious diseases in your flock is via proper management and biosecurity. The balancing act of free-range and pastured poultry production with respect to controlling disease is how do we follow the husbandry and management approaches consistent with organic freerange and pastured Coyote decoy. poultry production while also mitigating disease transmission.

Electronic bird repellents use bird sounds to scare off other problem birds. Usually they come with some sort of random order mode to prevent adaptation to sounds. They were originally used for vineyards but have been helpful in other animal operations.

While the above recommendations can be used in free-range or pastured poultry operations the use of portable electric fences are often used in pastured systems to outline the borders of a new pasture specific to where the mobile coop has been moved. The goal here is to fence off an area of approximately 5 square feet per bird and to mitigate wildlife intrusion. Keep in mind that this kind of fence is less than ideal in that it doesn’t keep all wildlife out but it can help keep larger predators out of the grazing area.

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One of the challenges of free-range and pastured poultry production from a disease perspective is interaction with wildlife which can be reservoirs for multiple infectious diseases. Different diseases may be more common in different parts of the country but diseases that are considered ubiquitous among poultry include the virus that causes Marek’s Disease, the bacteria Salmonella and the protozoal parasite coccidia.

Devices that use reflective material such as wildlife repellent tape, scary eyes and terror balloons can scare other birds and some predators as well.

Note: Adaptation to the reflective material and decoys has been reported. Therefore, it is important to move them around regularly and maybe even take a break from using them periodically.

•

Diseases

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Big picture focus on reducing the potential for contact between wildlife and your flock (see the wildlife and predator control section above).

Additional areas of focus should be on making sure there is minimal harborage for wildlife near your flock. This is especially important for the control of rodents which are notorious for disease transmission.

Vaccination is an option for organic poultry producers and are highly recommended for the control of Marek’s Disease. Talk to your veterinarian about vaccination options for Salmonella and coccidia.

Nutrition Poultry feed typically accounts for up to 70 percent of the operating costs.

This can even be more expensive if you purchase organic poultry feed.

Due to the expense of purchasing

August/September 2018

organic poultry feed and if you produce your own grain, producing your own feed via the purchase of a mill should be considered. However, it is highly recommended to work with a poultry nutritionist at least initially to produce a balanced ration and avoid any nutritional deficiencies since producing your own feed can be extremely challenging to do correctly especially when trying to measure nutritional quality and consistency of farm-grown feeds and to optimize micronutrients and specific amino acids like methionine which are important for egg production.

You can consult the most recent Nutritional Requirements for Poultry by the National Research Council at http://www.nap.edu/openbook .php?isbn=0309048923 in order identify recommendations for a balance ration.

So what should I feed my chicken?

The short answer like everything in biology is “that depends.” Here are some general guidelines for layer feed.

Chick Starter (0-6 weeks): Just hatched chicks need a high energy carbohydrate rich diet usually in the form of corn in commercially available diets. The available protein needs to be highly digestible protein (usually soybeans) and should have a protein content of approximately 20 percent.

Note: organic producers can’t use medicated feed with an approved Coccidiastat to mitigate the effects of the protozoal parasite coccidian. This makes management and vaccination the only options for organic poultry producers with respect to the control of coccidia.

Pullets (i.e. female hens who have not started laying eggs) (6-18 weeks): In general as the chicks get larger they need less protein but more energy. A grower or pullet ration has a lower protein level than a chick starter to ensure your chickens don’t grow too fast.

their reproductive tract is regenerating.

Therefore, since they are no longer laying eggs, their dietary needs are different with respect to energy, protein and calcium. Not all birds molt. Briefly molting depends on genetics and the amount of ambient light. Therefore, it is important to understand if your flock is molting or not to determine if you need to provide a molting ration.

Conclusion Commercial free-range and pastured

poultry farming are becoming more common for several reasons including consumer demand. For farmers it is important to realize that no husbandry system is perfect. Every system has weaknesses and challenges. The more we learn about every system the more we can mix and match to make an optimal environment for our flock.

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Laying hens (18 weeks plus): Switch to a laying feed which has increased calcium and vitamin D. The calcium to phosphorus ratio should be 2:1 and the calcium should increase from 2.5 percent to 5.0 percent. Interestingly, the requirement for calcium is not constant throughout the day. Shell formation typically occurs around 12am, so if your hens have thin egg shells which is somewhat common in older laying hens because egg shells get weaker as the chickens get older, supplement oyster shell which is high in calcium at night.

Molt: As laying birds age and sunlight decreases birds will often undergo a molting period where their reproductive tracts basically “take a break.” When they naturally molt in this fashion they stop egg production while

Shade structure made of PVC pipe at the UC Davis Pastured Poultry Farm. These structures are easily movable and provide not only shade but also protection from raptors.

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COVER For Organically “

Cover Crops are One of the Most Cost Effective Ways to Build Soil Organic Matter

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B

uilding organic matter is an objective for healthy soils and a requirement for organic and biodynamic growers. Cover crops are one of the most cost effective ways to build soil organic matter (SOM), and also provide many other benefits. These include improvement in soil physical conditions; increased nutrient availability, especially nitrogen if legumes are planted; improved soil biological activity; improved infiltration and water holding capacity; protection from erosion; and firm footing in the vineyard under wet conditions.

In California, we plant cover crops in the fall to coincide with our winter rainy season so that irrigation really isn’t needed for the cover crops to grow. More importantly, if erosion is an issue, cover crops germinate and help keep soil in place.

The foliage absorbs the impact of rain drops, preventing soil from sealing off due to the destruction of soil aggregates (puddling and slaking), and improving the ability of water to enter the soil. Cover crop roots improve infiltration and hold the soil in place. Most rainy seasons start with several gentle rains that get the cover crops to grow and form a stand before heavy rains arrive in the early winter. During erosion events, soil can leave a vineyard site taking organic matter and plant nutrients with it. More importantly, the runoff has the potential to pollute streams and rivers in

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CROPS Farmed Vineyards

By: Glenn McGourty | Winegrowing and Plant Science advisor UCCE Mendocino and Lake counties

Tansy phacelia in bloom, April 2018.

All photos courtesy of Glenn McGourty

adjacent waterways. (This can bring unwelcome attention from water quality regulators, especially if something catastrophic happens!) Cover crops can also improve water storage in the soil, which lessens the need to irrigate the following growing season.

Normally, postharvest irrigation if available coincides with planting cover crops, and the amount needed to start a good stand is very modest, especially in coastal vineyards. Two inches of precipitation is often enough. This widens the possibilities of cover crop choices, especially cover crops with small seeds, as they germinate better in warmer soils typical of the late summer.

If you are relying on rainfall and it is late, germination for some cover crops will be poor. Generally, large seeded cover crops do better under later, cooler germination conditions than small seeded cover crops.

Cover Crop Types There are four cover crop types used in vineyard systems and some overlap the different groups:

1

Grasses: These have fibrous roots and exude carbohydrates that fungi and bacteria use to form organic waxes and

Continued on Page 10

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2

“

Patianna Vineyards: Fall seeding, compost applied on top of the soil.

To Till or Not To Till– That is The Question!

Continued from Page 9 glues to hold soil particles together, forming aggregates and giving the soil structure. These are very helpful in poorly structured soils, as the roots penetrate the soil extensively, forming a net that holds soil in place. There are many choices that range from very low growing species only two inches tall such as hard fescue (Festuca brevipila) to winter grains that may grow four or five feet tall. The winter grains (barley, oats, and triticale) are most commonly used in California as they are inexpensive to plant; they are mowed in spring and disked into the soil where they decomposed to increase SOM.

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Carbonaceous cover crops: These are planted to protect the soil from erosion and fix carbon from the atmosphere to form SOM. Examples include mustards (Brassica species), radishes (Raphanus species); flax (Linum usitatissimum) and lacey phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia). Some of them are very good at scavenging nitrogen in the soil and preventing leeching into the groundwater during the winter (especially lacey phacelia).

The mustards work well in tilled vineyard floor management systems, reseed well, and are inexpensive to plant.

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BECOME

POWER

Legumes: When inoculated with Rhizobium bacteria, these species fix atmospheric nitrogen (N) into forms that plants and living organisms can utilize. The nitrogen fixing capacity varies by species ranging from 30 to 300 pounds of N per acre, and are a very energy efficient way to provide soil with nitrogen compared to chemical fertilizers. The most commonly planted legumes are various clovers (Trifolium species), vetches (Vicia species), peas (Pisum species) and trefoils (Lotus sp.) Grasses grow better when mixed with legumes.

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Beneficial habitat and beauty: this wide range of plants provides nectar and pollen, habitat and prey for both beneficial insects and the insects that they feed on. They can be very important in building up numbers of generalist predators and parasitoids that keep many pests under control. Many flower profusely and add beauty to the vineyard landscape including Alyssum (Alyssum maritimum), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) and wild carrot (Daucus carota), and California poppy (Eschscholtzia californica). Usually these species are planted on the margins of the vineyard since they need to flower and won’t be very effective if mowed. Some growers dedicate specific rows to these “insectary” cover crops and minimize mowing and traffic over them.

To Till or Not To Till—That is The Question!

SOM accumulates fastest under no-till or limited till systems. When the soil is exposed to sunlight, SOM

Continued on Page 12

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“

There is nothing like an abundant cover crop...

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Continued from Page 10 breaks down from the heat and energy.

Having plant cover or their dry residues prevents this from happening. Perennial cover crops grow for many years from one seeding, but they use soil moisture during the summer. In places like Oregon, where soils are fertile and the climate is humid and mild, this may be a good choice. In places with limited water, tillage reduces competition from any other plants except for vines and can save water for the wine grapes. Dry land vineyards in coastal California typically are tilled to reduce plant competition and conserve moisture.

There are annual reseeding cover crops such as subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) and ‘Zorro’ fescue (Vulpia myuros) that germinate with fall rains, grow during the winter, and dry up as weather warms up in the spring. These cover crops can be very compatible in drip irrigated vineyards with no-till vineyard floor management, especially on slopes and terraces. Other growers like planting cover crop mixes such as oats, peas and vetch annually, and till their soil every year. Some growers compromise by planting every other row to self-reseeding annual cover crops for three years alternated with annually planted cover crops and then alternate the farming system after three seasons.

The system that is right for you may take some time to figure out, so you may want to plant a few acres as a test before you bet the whole ranch on a particular cover crop and tillage system.

Getting Ready to Plant

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The smaller the seed, the more careful soil preparation you usually need if you are tilling before planting. Timing is an issue. If your ground is already tilled,

Enjoy!

There is nothing like an abundant cover crop to make you feel that you are practicing good stewardship and care for your vineyard. When it is growing and blooming in its full glory, take pictures and invite your family, friends and neighbors to enjoy the view. Hopefully it will be full of pollinators and beneficial insects as well, making the vineyard feel like a vibrant community.

Red fescue perennial grass: This is often planted in Oregon.

Very little mowing is needed.

some growers will actually plant their vineyard cover crops before harvest and wait until after to irrigate the seed up if they have overhead sprinklers, or let the rain do the work if not. Many legumes respond well to lime, phosphorus and sulfur in high rainfall areas, and this can be put on before seeding and incorporated into the soil. Others use compost, which often contains substantial amounts of plant nutrients in it depending on the source and feedstock used in the compost. If you have to wait for rain to work your soil, make sure that you can get the work done fairly quickly before it becomes too cold for the seed to germinate.

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Essential Minerals For Certified Organic Farms

Some custom farming companies have no-till seed drills and can seed for you if you are in a situation where tillage to prepare the ground isn’t advised or practical, such as on terraces or steep terrain. These can be highly effective especially with smaller seeds if properly adjusted and calibrated. It is an alternative for some situations to conventional tillage to prepare the soil for seeding.

Plan Ahead Spend some time researching and thinking about what your goals and objectives are for cover crops. Don’t wait until the day that you want to plant to go get your seed—especially if you are thinking of something that isn’t commonly planted such as birdsfoot trefoil, Persian clover, hard fescue or other unusual cover crops. Also search for seed dealers that are likely to have seed in stock or can quickly order it in for you. Many of the small legume seeds are grown overseas and seed retailers may only order once a year, so be sure to shop early for the best choices. Take the time to make sure that you have the greatest chance of success the first time that you try.

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BIOCHAR

&

Organic Agriculture By: Jeff Schahczenski, NCAT/ATTRA

T

hanks to Wikipedia we can now more easily understand the meaning of “movements”.

To paraphrase these definitions, a movement is a set of diverse scientific, social, economic, technological and political topics and activities surrounding a common theme or issue.

After lurking in the world of biochar for many years, I feel confident in saying that biochar is a movement.

But what is biochar?

Biochar Definition

Minimum C Content

The range of topics and issues surrounding biochar are immense and unwieldly. If you don’t believe me, just check out the 2015 second edition of the book, Biochar for Environmental Management: Science: science, technology and implementation, edited by Biochar leaders Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph.

Section 14513.5 of CA Department of Food and Agriculture’s code: “Biochar” means materials derived from thermochemical conversion of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment containing at least 60 percent carbon.

At least 60 percent carbon.

“Biochar: A solid material obtained from thermo-chemical conversion of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment.”

The organic carbon content of biochar must be higher than 10% of the dry mass (DM). Biochar materials are divided into 3 grades based on increasing organic carbon content.

This 928 page tome is only the tip of the iceberg on the many, many topics related to biochar. To try and keep up with this monster of a subject, join the many listserves and website related to the International Biochar Initiative, IBI.

Biochar is here defined as a charcoal-like substance that is pyrolysed from sustainable obtained biomass under controlled conditions and which is used for any purpose which does not involve its rapid mineralization to CO2.

The biochar's carbon content must be higher than 50% of the dry mass (DM). Pyrolysed organic matter with a carbon content lower than 50% are classified as Bio-Carbon-Minerals (BCM).

Pyrolysis But what is this movement—inspiring miraculous substance called biochar? Why might it be important to sustainable and organic agriculture?

The type of feedstock, and the time and temperature of pyrolysis influence biochar characteristics.

Photo courtesy of International Biochar Initiative.

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The definition of sustainable biochar is more about its creation and intended application than it is about its composition. Biochar is created through an energy-conversion process called pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is the combustion of biomass in the complete or near absence of oxygen. Biochar can technically be made from any biomass product (wood, manure, grasses, and crop residues). The outputs of pyrolysis are, heat, biochar, oils, and gases—all possible sources of potentially renewable energy. The amount and quality of these outputs depend on the type (or combination) of biomass used and the processing conditions under which it is produced (time and temperature). Recently, the IBI, has created a voluntary international standard for biochar which again speaks mostly to issues of its creation.

This standard attempts to settle issues of biochar definition and product testing and assure safety in its use.

The use of biochar in certified organic agriculture production is allowed under the National Organic Program (NOP). However, the biomass sources must be from untreated plant or animal material. Biochar from manure is prohibited. This prohibition is a bit perplexing and unfortunate because there is some evidence that biochar made from manures may have additional crop production benefits. Indeed, the quality of biochar used as a soil amendment for agriculture is highly dependent on the type of biomass used and generally is of greater benefit if the pyrolysis process was done slowly and at a lower temperature (known as “slow pyrolysis”).

Biochar and Fertility

• Biochar enhances soil fertility primarily by providing cation exchange capacity (CEC); reducing leaching losses of nitrate, phosphate, and other anion nutrients, improving soil structure and moisture-holding capacity, and enhancing soil biology (Blanco-Canqui, 2017; PetersenRockney, 2015; Wilson, 2014).

Scientists still don't have a full understanding of how biochar provides fertility for crops, but the following provides a good summary of what research has suggested to date: •

Biochars have variable and often limited plant-nutrient content.

Pyrolysis removes at least half of the N (nitrogen) content of the original feedstock (North, 2015), yet may concentrate cations such as potassium (K) and calcium (Ca), depending on ash content of the biochar product. For example a Swiss Biochar product contained 0.8 percent potash (K2O) (Schmidt and Niggli, 2015), which would deliver 160 pounds of K2O per acre in a 10-ton-per-acre application.

Biochars made with manure generally have higher nutrient content than plant-based biochars.

There are many types of biochar being sold, so it’s important to research what rates and application techniques are appropriate for your operation.

Organic growers should check with their certifying agency if they’re not sure about a biochar product meets NOP guidelines. Photo courtesy of google images.

•

The availability of nutrients to crops made possible by biochar is likely enhanced if the biochar is blended with compost, manure, or synthetic fertilizer before application. Biochar combined with synthetic nitrogen increased wheat yields in Oregon (Machado et al., 2017). Blending biochar in this way is often referred to as “charging” the biochar and would not be allowable in organic production systems.

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yields were unaffected (Schmidt and Niggli, 2015). The first three plant families benefited from the alkalizing effect and K supplied by the biochar product used, whereas solanaceae prefer more acidic soils and were slightly harmed by the alkalinity of the product.

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Biochar does not work alone; it is most effective when used in conjunction with other organic practices and inputs such as cover cropping and compost. The high fertility and stable SOC content of Amazonian terra preta soils and prairie soils result from synergistic interactions among the black carbon inputs, living vegetation, other organic residues, and soil biota—not from the char alone (Wilson, 2014). Similarly, field applications of a mixture of biochar and dairy manure (total 4.5 tons per acre) improved soil waterholding capacity to a greater degree than either material alone, applied at the same rate (Sandhu and Kumar, 2017).

The high surface area and pore structure of biochar provide a habitat for soil microorganisms including N-fixing bacteria, as well as beneficial fungi, which in turn can make some nutrients more available to crops (PetersenRockney, 2015).

The efficacy of biochar in enhancing crop yields can depend on many factors: the quality of the biochar product itself (feedstock, pyrolysis temperature, procedure, time elapsed between manufacture and use), soil type and texture, existing soil condition (or soil health), and the crops grown.

Benefits to soil physical properties (e.g., tilth, water holding capacity) are greatest in sandy soils (BlancoCanqui, 2017). The largest positive yield responses to biochar tend to occur in acidic, low-fertility, or degraded soils (Kittredge, 2015), such as in the Amazon basin, where centuries of indigenous practices that included biochar built the terra preta, a unique biochar based soil.

Biochar is often alkaline, with a significant liming effect related to its ash content. In cooperative trials with 144 European vegetable gardeners, vegetables in the crucifer, cucurbit, and umbel (carrot) families showed a 25 to 30 percent yield response to biochar at ~4.5 tons per acre, while yields of solanaceous (tomato, potato, eggplant) vegetables decreased ~15 percent and pea, bean, and lettuce

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one of the biggest producers and users of biochar. The biochar industry appears to be growing, with an estimated 326 biochar companies worldwide.

But what makes biochar a sustainable agriculture production ingredient?

Aging of biochar after production may be critical for efficacy (Wilson, 2014).

Oxidative processes during biochar aging develop negative surface charges which promote organo-mineral stabilization of soil organic carbon (SOC), and may enhance crop-yield response to biochar amendments (Mia et al., 2017). SOC and soil organic N increased with time after a 10-tonper-acre application in several cropping systems (Aller et al., 2017).

Research on whether biochar can provide improved nitrogen and phosphorus availability to crops is not definitive but is suggestive of a positive effect.

Research California’s Fertilizer Research and Education Program (FREP) is funding two on-going research projects looking into biochar with an eye towards characterizing biochar quality with respect to feedstocks, as well as looking at water and nutrient efficiencies in biochar-amended soils. A recent (June 6, 2018) Biochar Field Day outside of Davis, CA had several posters, one of which noted (Gilardi, et al, 2018), “Recent meta-analyses show that biochar literature is dominated by laboratory studies rather than those at field scale.

Additionally, studies are short-term, have small experimental plots, and do not use biochar that is commercially available.”

Proper rates and methods of application of biochar in crop production are still not well understood.

Biochars tend to be very light and very fine, so biochar dust may be a problem for applicators. More research is needed on effective application techniques as well. Whether biochar is best used on lower fertility soils or first “charged” with liquid fertilizers, are also topics of debate. Use in agriculture production is generally low, though China has become

August/September 2018

Biochar Claims To understand the answer to this question one has to first understand that biochar suffers under the same sustainability issues that all renewable biomass energy production suffers from. The biochar movement has made claims of biochar being carbon negative, increasing soil carbon sequestration and generally, as a climate-friendly source of renewable energy. However, most of these claims remain exactly that, claims.

In understanding these claims, it is again important to separate biochar as a product and the process of its making.

For instance, IF, in making biochar the source of biomass is sustainably produced and all the heat, oil and gas “co-products” are fully utilized the resulting biochar product “may” be deemed sustainable. Use of agricultural by-products as biochar feedstock, such as almond shells, almond hulls and walnut shells, may represent sustainable approaches to increase soil organic carbon, and perhaps support soil quality, but more field-scale research is needed on both long-term effects of biochar, and developing better standards for biochar production.

Also, one cannot lose sight of the fuel versus food debate. In other words, if in producing biochar we destroy tropical forests for biomass production, use corn stover instead of returning it to the soil, or displace land used for current food production to produce biomass, how sustainable can biochar really be?

The use of the technique of lifecycle analysis (LCA) is important in this regard. LCA is a method to fully account for energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). LCA studies of biochar are very limited and while generally supportive of energy efficiency and lowered GHG emissions,

there are still controversies about these results and a great need for further research. Biochar must be evaluated for its ecological, economic and social costs and somehow those costs need to be taken into account when using biochar.

This will likely mean that truly sustainable biochar will be relatively expensive, and to date the market price for biochar appears to be highly variable, with some experts suggesting huge price ranges between $240 and $3,000 per ton depending on the type of biochar market. Biochar used for research, garden “fertilizers”, or in remediation of mine-polluted soils all fetch different prices. Finally, biochar has not yet been able to take advantage of carbon sequestration markets because of sustainability issues and lack of sufficient evidence that biochar will remain stable when applied to soils.

Biochar Movement

Biochar is a movement, and like all good movements, it is full of potential with much unknown.

component within a holistic sustainable system that integrates crop rotations, cover crops, careful tillage and judicious use of organic inputs including compost as well as biochar itself—to promote soil health and net carbon sequestration. The most sociologically sound use of biochar might only entail smallscale homestead or community-scale pyrolysis facilities utilized to process locally sourced organic feedstocks that are otherwise not needed to sustain soil and ecosystem health. Or biochar may be part of critical new efforts to address the everpresent need to have civil dialog and democratic action about just why and how appropriate technological change is in our personal and planet’s interest.

Jeff Schahczenski, is an Agricultural and Natural Resource Economist, with the National Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT). NCAT also implements ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service through a cooperative agreement with the USDA’s Rural BusinessCooperative Service. ATTRA’s website, www.attra.ncat.org, has information about sustainable and organic production of crops and livestock, as well as an updated version of Biochar and Sustainable Agriculture. ATTRA runs two toll-free lines which growers can call to ask any question related to organic or sustainable agriculture (800-346-9140, and Spanish tollfree, 800-411-3222).

Comments about this article?

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There are many controversial claims being made about biochar effects on the soil. It is important to understand that biochar in agriculture is a tool—one input

Some agricultural processors are sitting on stocks of biochar, waiting for better information on application techniques, rates, and effects on the soil, not to mention a higher price of carbon in California’s cap and trade program.

Photo courtesy of Rex Dufour, NCAT.

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Organic

Strawberry

Nitrogen Management

By: Gerry Spinelli and Sacha Lozano Resource Conservation District of Santa Cruz County

Introduction

O

rganic strawberry production value in the State of California was $93.6 million in 2012 (Tourte et al., 2016) and organic food production is expected to increase in coming years (Klonsky, 2012). In organic strawberry production, growers are rewarded by a premium price paid for their berries, but yields are always lower than in conventional production (for example, the cultivar Cabrillo is considered to have a yield potential of 10,000 boxes per acre in conventional production and 5,000 boxes per acre in organic production (Bolda et al., 2016 and Bolda et al., 2014). Together with pest management and irrigation, nutrient management is considered one of the main limiting factors of

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Fertilizer injection in an organic ranch.

All photos courtesy of Gerry Spinelli.

Table 1. Nitrogen balance and corresponding marketable yield obtained from seven organic strawberry ranches.

yield. Therefore, in organic strawberry systems, it is paramount for growers to maximize yields by optimizing nitrogen management. However, there are a wide variety of nitrogen management practices in organic systems, differences in the total quantity of nitrogen applied throughout the season and differences in the timing and method of applications.

In this article, we report and discuss the nitrogen balance for organic strawberry in seven commercial ranches in different years, from 2014 to 2017.

The nitrogen sources considered are: 1) residual nitrogen from the previous crop; 2) fertilizer applications; 3) nitrate applied through irrigation water and 4) mineralization of organic matter. Yields

and modeled nitrogen uptake are also reported. The nitrogen uptake was obtained from CropManage, a web-based decision support tool for irrigation and nitrogen management developed by the University of California Cooperative Extension (UCCE).

Regulations In recent years, a more restrictive regulatory environment for groundwater nitrate contamination has evolved, which requires some growers to report the ratio of applied nitrogen fertilizer to nitrogen crop uptake. It is likely that in the future, more growers will need to monitor more closely the nitrogen inputs to the crop in order to manage nitrogen applications to match crop uptake. However, it is challenging for growers to adjust the quantities of nitrogen available to the crop since some of the factors influencing nitrogen availability in the soil are not under growers’

Continued on Page 20

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Continued from Page 20 control.

Sources of Nitrogen For example, in the vegetable-strawberry rotation, common in the Watsonville-Salinas area, the crop residue left in the field by lettuce, broccoli or cover crop preceding strawberry can provide substantial quantities of nitrogen (ranging from 100 to 200 lbs of N per acre).

Strawberry nitrogen uptake is modest at Organic fertilizer being flushed at the tail end of the drip tapes.

the beginning of the season (Bottoms, 2013), and is not synchronized with the release of nitrogen (N) by crop residue.

Crop residue with N content of >2.5 percent mineralizes about half of the N in the first four to six weeks and then releases the remainder of the N in a slow and steady fashion, similar to organic matter (Hartz, in press). The rate of release depends on soil temperature, moisture and aeration (Muramoto et al., 2012). Nitrate mineralized from the previous crop is susceptible to leaching, by excessive irrigation and rain. Under these conditions, controlling this phenomenon poses a serious challenge to growers since residual nitrogen becomes available in the period around planting, when plants are small and crop uptake is slow. Another source of nitrogen for the crop is nitrate in the irrigation water. This source of nitrogen has been shown to be equivalent to fertilizer as a source of nitrogen to supply crop needs (Cahn et al. 2016). It is not uncommon for agricultural wells to have high levels of nitrate. More than 20 inches of water are applied seasonally to a strawberry crop so even when the well water nitrate concentration is relatively low, irrigation can provide a substantial source of nitrogen in organic production. To understand how much N is being provided by the irrigation water, multiply ppm (parts per million) nitrate-N by 0.23 to calculate pounds of N per acre inch of water. For example, with a well NO3-N concentration of 10 ppm, when applying 20 inches of irrigation water, 46 pounds of nitrogen would

Figure 1. Nitrogen balance of the organic ranches in the study.

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be applied to the crop. Water with higher concentrations of nitrate can supply a significant proportion of the N needs of the crop.

Challenges of Organic Nitrogen Fertilizers Another complication of nitrogen management in organic systems, compared to conventional, is that the fertilizers available in organic production are somewhat limited in number and their concentration of nitrogen is relatively low (for example, a very popular fish emulsion liquid fertilizer used by organic strawberry growers contains 2.5 percent N). The nitrogen fertilizers used in strawberry production can be divided into two broad categories: pre-plant fertilizers, which are applied to the soil in the fall before listing the beds, and liquid fertilizers that are injected in the drip line during production season. Preplant fertilizers such as feather or blood meal contain up to 13 percent N. Liquid fertilizers (mostly made from fish or grain) are commonly injected in the irrigation system and contain 4 percent N maximum. They are rapidly available (Hartz et al., 2010) but are prone to causing plugging of drip systems because they are not fully soluble. Compost is applied to build up levels of soil organic matter. Depending on the type of compost, it generally provides a longterm source of N. Most composts have lower concentration of N (2 percent on average) and are applied pre-plant in organic strawberry production at a rate up

to 10 ton/acre to increase soil organic matter and tilth. Although, the quantity of nitrogen applied with compost can be substantial (e.g. 400 lbs N/acre in 10 tons compost/acre with 2 percent N), the availability of mineral N can be low.

For instance, overall recovery of N from composts was 11 percent, 6 percent and 2 percent of total amendment N from manure, composted manure and plant residue compost, respectively in 24 weeks (Hartz et al. 2000).

In strawberry systems, the recommended management practice is to apply nitrogen during periods of high crop uptake (i.e. April to September) by injecting liquid fertilizer into the irrigation drip line. The other application method common in organic vegetable production is band application with a shank, but in strawberry this method is not feasible due to the plastic mulching on the beds. Injecting fertilizer offers great flexibility and allows for a grower to apply nitrogen to the root-zone at virtually any time.

However, this method poses challenges for irrigation management because of the risk of plugging drip line emitters.

Additionally, the price of liquid organic fertilizers is high and growers pay over $15 per pound of nitrogen, compared to about $2 per pound of nitrogen in conventional production. For example, a popular liquid fertilizer used in the area costs $3.88 per gallon, has a density of 9.6 lb/gal and a nitrogen content of 2.5 percent, so an organic grower pays $16.20 per pound of N. On the other hand, CAN 17 costs $0.24 per pound and has a nitrogen content of 17 percent so the conventional grower pays $1.41 per pound of N. There are anecdotal reports from growers that it is challenging to meet crop demand during the harvest season with fertigation, and many

growers rely on in-season mineralization of organic matter and the nitrate in irrigation water to supplement nitrogen application to meet crop demand. When injecting liquid fertilizer, growers face the dilemma of whether injecting before or after the filter. The first solution results in loss of the suspended sources of N and rapid plugging of the filters.

The second solution results in emitter plugging, to the point that the tape becomes unusable by week 17. In a study conducted during three seasons using different injection combinations, rarely more than 25 percent of the injected N was observed to come out of the dripper (Gaskell, M. unpublished data). Nevertheless, virtually all growers inject liquid fertilizer after the filter. Recently, newer organic fertilizer materials have become available, that have higher solubility because they don’t contain suspended solids, but the prices are higher than the “traditional” fish emulsion-based liquid fertilizers ($18.00/lb of N). Although meeting crop nitrogen demand during the harvest season is challenging in organic production, growers can diagnose N sufficiency by whole leaf N testing, using nutrient ranges for diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS) analysis of petiole and leaf blade developed by Bottoms et al. (2013). The diagnostic levels for organic berries should be the same as for conventional.

230 lb/acre for conventional production (Bottoms et al. 2013) and about 100 lb/acre for organic production (Muramoto et al., 2012). There is evidence that only about 25 lb of nitrogen per acre are used by a strawberry crop for the period between planting and early spring (November to end of March), while the rest is absorbed at the rate of 1 lb per day for the following six to seven months of harvest season (April to September or October). Since in the winter N uptake is slow, only modest soil nitrate levels are needed (concentrations of 10 ppm NO3-N or about 20 lb of nitrogen per acre in the first foot of soil seem adequate). However, even in the period between April and October soil nitrate concentrations of

Continued on Page 22 The liquid fertilizer collected when flushing the tapes.

Current Recommendations for Nitrogen Management in Strawberries The total nitrogen required to meet crop demand for one season of strawberry production depends on many factors, including bed size, vigor, variety, yield potential, soil type, irrigation management and pest pressure, but it is generally considered between 200 and

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Continued from Page 21 5 to 10 ppm NO3-N (about 10 to 20 lb of nitrogen per acre) are adequate and many conventional high-yielding fields are often below 5 ppm during this period (Bottoms et al., 2013). Therefore, the recommendations for nitrogen management in conventional strawberry are to ensure that there are 25 lb of N available to the crop until March; this quantity may be supplied by residue from the previous crop or by pre-plant fertilizer applications. For the period April to October, it is recommended to provide to the crop 1 lb of nitrogen per day (7 pounds per week), applying nitrogen through fertigation weekly or bi-weekly.

If the concentration of nitrogen in the soil is lower or higher than 10 ppm, the weekly quantity of nitrogen supplied to the crop through fertigation can be adjusted. If the soil nitrate concentration is as low as zero, the application can be increased up to 14 lb per week and decreased to 2 lb per week if the soil nitrate concentration is 25 ppm or higher (data obtained from CropManage). Specific studies aimed at determining nitrogen input recommendations for organic strawberry production are limited (Muramoto and Gaskell, 2012), however many organic growers use the above conventional production recommendations.

Seasonal Nitrogen Balance of Seven Organic Strawberry Ranches In all organic strawberry ranches part of this study, the fertilization strategy included a pre-plant fertilization (compost and blood or feather meal contributing to about 50 to 100 lb of N per acre) and in-season fertigation (fish emulsion or other liquid fertilizer, contributing to an additional 50 to 100 lb of N per acre). Nitrogen application varied widely in the organic strawberry ranches examined, ranging from 72 to 174 pounds of N applied per acre.

However, when considering all sources of nitrogen, the total nitrogen available to the crops was always above 200 lb/ acre and in some cases above 400 lb/ acre. This suggests that even when modest quantities of fertilizer were applied, the total nitrogen available to the crop was always sufficient to meet crop demand. Additionally, for the ranches where modeled uptake was obtained from CropManage, the total nitrogen

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available to the crop was well above the modeled uptake, suggesting substantial potential for leaching.

For all seven ranches, the nitrogen left by the previous crop in the first foot of soil was measured by soil sampling with soil nitrogen quick tests (using colorimetric MQuant™ Nitrate Test Strips) and ranged from 46 to 193 lb of nitrogen per acre. The contribution of irrigation water to the nitrogen balance was calculated from laboratory analysis results or from nitrate test strip measurement of well water samples and from the seasonal quantity of applied water that was measured from flowmeters. The quantity of nitrogen provided by irrigation water was in some cases substantial, ranging from 3 to 110 lb of N per acre over the course of the crop cycle. The contribution from organic matter mineralization was estimated for each soil type over a period of 180 days during the harvest season (April to September), assuming 0.4 pounds of nitrogen mineralized per day in sandy loam, 0.45 in fine sandy loam and 0.5 in loam.

These estimates were based on mineralization levels in organically-amended soils. The total nitrogen available to the crop, obtained by summing the contribution of each source, ranged from 224 to 463 lb per acre. Although data on the amount of N applied in fertilizer was available for all ranches, some ranches were missing data from other sources of nitrogen (red numbers in Table 1).

Yield ranged from 24,000 to 46,400 lb/ac (2,667 to 5,156 boxes per acre) and there was no statistically significant relationship between yield and applied nitrogen or yield and total nitrogen available to the crop (Figure 1 and 2).

In conclusion, it appears from this study that the total quantity of nitrogen available to a strawberry crop from all sources of nitrogen can be over 400 lb per acre, which is twice the uptake recommended for conventional strawberry and four times the uptake recommended for organic strawberry. This fact suggests that crop nitrogen requirements can be met even with limited fertilizer applications, but poses a challenge to growers for environmental protection, since the additional nitrogen that is not absorbed by the crop is susceptible to leaching. No relationship was found between nitrogen applied and yield and between total nitrogen available and yield, suggesting that other factors such

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as pest management, variety, irrigation management, ranch slope etc. contribute substantially in determining yield potential.

References Bolda M, Tourte L, Klonsky K, et al. Sample costs to produce organic strawberries – Central Coast. 2006. UC ANR Cooperative Extension. 21p.

Bolda M, Tourte L, Klonsky K, et al. Sample costs to produce organic strawberries – Central Coast. 2014. UC ANR Cooperative Extension. 21p.

Bolda M, Tourte L, Murdok J, et al. Sample costs to produce and harvest strawberries – Central Coast. 2016. UC ANR Cooperative Extension.

Bottoms, T.G., Hartz, T.K., Cahn, M.D., Farrara, B.F., 2013. Crop and soil nitrogen dynamics in annual strawberry production in California. HortScience 48, 1034–1039.

Bottoms, T.G., Bolda M, Gaskell, M. and Hartz, T.K., Determination of Strawberry Nutrient Optimum Ranges through Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System Analysis Cahn, M.D., Smith, R., Hartz, T.K., 2016. Fertilizer Value of Nitrate in irrigation water for vegetable production cemonterey.ucanr.edu/ files/183675.pdf Hartz, T.K. In press. Efficient nutrient management in California vegetable production. UC Agriculture and Natural Resources.

Hartz, T.K., Smith, R., Gaskell, M. Nitrogen availability from liquid organic fertilizers, Cooperative Extension Monterey County Crop Notes, March/April 2010.

Hartz, T.K., J.P. Mitchell and C. Giannini. 2000.

Nitrogen and carbon mineralization dynamics of manures and composts. HortScience 35(2): 209-212.

Klonsky K. Growth of the organic strawberry industry in California, in Koike ST, Bull CT, Bolda M, et al. Organic Strawberry Production Manual. 2012. UC Agriculture and Natural Resources. 148p.

Muramoto J, Gaskell M., Nitrogen management for organic strawberries, in Koike ST, Bull CT, Bolda M, et al. Organic Strawberry Production Manual. 2012. UC Agriculture and Natural Resources. 148p.

Tourte L, Bolda M, Klonsky K. 2016. The evolving fresh market berry industry in Santa Cruz and Monterey counties. Calif Agr 70(3):107-115. https://doi.org/10.3733/ ca.2016a0001.

Acknowledgements The authors thankfully acknowledge Richard Smith, Dr. Tim Hartz and Dr. Mark Gaskell for their constructive criticism and helpful comments that greatly improved the manuscript.

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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23

ORGANIC

Fresh Unprocessed Milk,

An Alternative Dairy Business Model

By: Joseph Heckman | Professor of Soil Science, Rutgers University

Dairy cows on pasture. All photos courtesy of Joseph Heckman.

O

rganic milk producers searching for ways to remain profitable may consider getting into the market for fresh unprocessed milk—commonly called “raw milk”. Currently over three percent of the U.S. population drinks raw milk and the demand is increasing.

Regulation of sales and distribution vary widely among states. As of today, 43 of the 50 states allow access to raw milk by some means: shared ownership of the dairy animal, on-farm sales and in some states as retail sales in grocery stores. Where sales are allowed, prices per gallon have been known to

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range from $6 to $16 dollars. Roughly translated, that equates to about $66 to $176 per hundredweight.

Consumers Many times after converting to organic, people begin showing up at the farm gate looking to purchase milk fresh before it gets shipped off for processing. So the idea is probably not new to the typical organic dairy farmer since consumers of raw milk tend to especially seek it out from organic farms once they see cows outside on pasture.

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While it is useful to know that there is a demand, before becoming a producer of fresh unprocessed milk, organic dairy farmers need to do some homework.

Pasture Feeding Certainly organic practices, such as pasture feeding is a step in the right direction. But dairy farmers need to know that fresh unprocessed milk is a fundamentally different product than commodity raw milk that is being shipped off to a processor.

Continued on Page 26

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Raw milk.

Dairy farm that sells raw milk.

The market for fresh unprocessed raw milk typically depends on developing a direct farm to consumer relationship where milk taste and quality are paramount.

However, a rather modest size organic dairy, with perhaps only 25 cows on 50 acres of good land for grazing is potentially profitable. Having a smaller herd can make a family run dairy operation more manageable, decrease burn out, and improve personal life.

Making the Switch

Diversification

Continued from Page 24

Switching over from producing commodity organic milk for shipment to a processor to producing organic farm fresh milk direct to the consumer requires changes in the way one approaches the dairy business. Instead of emphasizing quantity of production and cutting input costs, producers of organic farm fresh milk for family consumption need to focus on those qualities that attract new consumers such as nutritional quality of the milk beginning with healthy fertile soils, quality forages, and herd health.

To increase revenue it can be tempting to scale up a dairy operation.

Often times where people buy farm fresh milk they also want to buy other organic foods. So there may be possibilities for diversification into producing and marketing other kinds of organic foods When dairy farmers sell to a processor they typically have little contact with consumers. When the growing number of people looking for fresh organic milk becomes the basis for your dairy business, understanding and serving consumer interest is an essential part of becoming an economically viable producer of fresh milk.

More Information For the purpose of teaching farmers about this special milk I co-authored a book entitled Producing Fresh Milk (available from Farm-to-Consumer Foundation). I also published a review article entitled Securing Fresh Food from Fertile Soil, Challenges to the Organic and Raw Milk Movements (To find on web, search for that title).

I recommend that organic farmers considering this business entry become familiar with not only with the production practices but all aspects of the food chain from the grass to the glass of fresh organic milk.

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27

The Challenges of Finding

HIGH QUALITY

Organic Seed

By: Cecilia Parsons | Associate Editor

M

arket demand for organically grown food continues to surge, but one small—and key— resource for organic production remains a challenge.

When federal organic standards went into effect in 2002, the rules stated that organically grown food should be grown with organically produced seeds.

At the time, however, the organic seed industry was nearly non-existent and the rule was relaxed to allow conventional seeds to be used when organic was unavailable.

The good news, reports the Organic Seed Alliance (OSA) in its most recent report, is that progress is being made in the availability, quality and integrity of organic seed production.

Kristina Hubbard, OSA director of communications, said availability and diversity of seed choices are improved, but supply is not as robust as needed for many larger scale organic operations. Price for organically grown seed can also be an issue for growers. Exemptions to the National Organic Program rule are still being made if seeds that meet specific grower needs are not available.

The Organic Trade Association reports that grains account for 2.6 percent of the total certified organic cropland in the U.S. Because of low domestic availability of certified grains, organic processors are importing record amounts to meet demand. Increasing domestic supply would strengthen organic production in the U.S. and help stabilize the price of this input, the report adds.

“Progress is being made in the availability, quality and integrity of organic seed production.”

Organic wheat being harvested in the southern San Joaquin Valley. This is a dryland crop planted with certified seed, but not certified organic due to availability.

All photos courtesy of Cecilia Parsons.

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Progress noted by OSA is that for small operations, 75 percent of growers use 100 percent organic seed. For larger operations, over 400 acres, 20 percent of growers report using 100 percent organic seed. By crop type, organic production with organic seed increased in vegetables, field crops, and cover crops, but decreased in forage crops.

There could be a number of reasons for the unavailability of organic seed for feed grain and forage crops. Hubbard said that growers look to specific varieties that are suited for their environmental conditions. The variety may not be available Continued on Page 30

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Continued from Page 28 in larger quantities needed for largescale production. It is difficult for seed companies to determine the market for their seeds ahead of time and they may not have the capability to scale up and produce enough seed to meet demand, Hubbard said.

Contracts with buyers have also hindered adoption of organic seed use.

Buyers often dictate specific varieties of a commodity to obtain the desired characteristics. If organic seed for those varieties isn’t available, growers will turn to conventional seed and seek and exemption from their organic certifier.

To make progress in the use of organic seed, especially in grain and forage crops, Hubbard said handlers and buyers need to encourage organic seed use in advance of organic seed production schedules. Hubbard said OSA’s next report, due out in 2021, should include more organic seed availability.

The goal, Hubbard said, is for all organic farmers to be able to access the variety and volume of organic seed needed to produce organically grown crops.

Why Using Organic Seed is Important Benefits of using organic seed goes beyond helping growers comply with the National Organic Standards, Hubbard said.

Plants bred under organic conditions have the potential to be better adapted to the growing conditions. Where commercial fertilizers and chemical pest control are used in conventional production, seeds can have fewer environmental challenges while producing healthy plants.

sary to deal with production challenges.

Hubbard said seed could be developed to resist diseases and adapt to warmer and drier climate conditions. Seeds can also be bred for water use efficiency and nutritional content.

In the OSA report, Hubbard said growers had fewer problems with organic seed compared to the five years prior in terms of seed quality characteristics, germination rates, variety integrity and seedborne diseases. She noted that the reports were consistent across all crops and 75 percent of organic growers who responded to a survey said they have about the same seed quality issues with organic versus conventional seed.

Where Progress Lags Organic growers may want to use organically grown seeds for their crops, but face challenges in obtaining large quantities needed for large scale production or they may need a variety that has specific characteristics that buyers are seeking or that will help it adapt to environmental conditions. Those characteristics, Hubbard said include market traits such as protein content.

Until those varieties are available in large quantities, Hubbard said growers would choose non-organic seeds.

Forage crop production is one segment of organic that is lagging behind on availability of organic seed. Larger organic operations also use relatively little organic seed, compared to smaller operations, she said.

In the report on the state of organic seed, the survey showed that use of organic seed to produce field crops rose from 72 percent to 78 percent from 2009 to 2014. Forage crops grown with organic seed declined from 61 percent to 59 percent during the same time.

“Organic seeds need to have the genetic tools to overcome challenges and produce.”

Hubbard said adapting seed to changing climates, resource availability and environmental conditions is one way to mitigate risks for growers. Plant genetics contained in a seed can determine if chemical controls will be neces-

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Certification Hubbard said working with the

August/September 2018

certifying agencies to help them be more consistent in guiding growers to organic seed sources is one way to increase use of organic seed. The OSA report’s survey showed that just fewer than 40 percent of growers responding reported a certifier request to take greater steps in sourcing organic seed.

That percentage fell from a 2004 OSA report where 60 percent of growers were asked by their certifier to make more effort in sourcing organic seed.

There is no single solution to the lag in organic seed production for small grains said Elizabeth Reaves with Sustainable Food Lab. She said studies have shown that the biggest potential for scaling up organic seed production lies with mid to large size farms that are transitioning part of their acreage to organic production.

The catch, she said, is price sensitivity to high seed costs and need for a high return cash crop. In the Midwest, where seed production growth could occur, she said they need to rotate in another crop to reduce weed pressure and add fertility. Low returns from that crop is one of the challenges to increasing organic seed production, she said.

Breeding and availability of organic seeds for small grain producers is important to the success of organic grain production, Reaves said.

The U.S. Organic Grain Collaboration, an industry effort led by the Organic Trade Association and Sustainable Food Lab is seeking to address the challenges across the supply chain.

The project goals include increasing the number of acres and domestic supply of organic grain and to improve the resiliency of organic grain production.

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