DNA-MX Fall 2022

Dna-MX FALL 2022

Middlesex Science Magazine DNA-MX (Dynamics)

SUMMARY 4

More Than a Virus: The Monkeypox Outbreak

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The Dark Side of Dolphins

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Post-Actute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2: A Review

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Inside Living Libraries

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Wowbutter

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The DNA-Q&A with Ms. Irwin

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Google vs. TikTok

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An Introduction to 3D Printed Food

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Is Nuclear Energy the Future?

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Time Travel?

DNA-MX Magazine Editors in Chief Mae Rusconi Jasmine Li Layout Editor Lucas Mylon Section Editors Madeleine Godfrey Megan Shi Peter Favero Tem Taepaisitphongse

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EDITORIAL

Fall 2022

This Fall at Middlesex, curiosity arrived in full! Students dove into STEM subjects: they peered through telescopes on the red-lit roof of Clay, dissected white rats and sheep hearts in freshman Biology, and bushwacked through Estabrook Woods for Environmental Science labs.

Likewise, DNA-MX highlights student STEM interests, research, and knowledge. We want to inspire involvement in science extracurriculars. We encourage our peers to unbridle their wonder, investigate mysteries, and spiral down scientific wormholes.

We hope you enjoy this issue. Please seek out our contributors for further discussion and consider contributing to DNA-MX come Spring!

Best, Jasmine Li & Mae Rusconi

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BIOLOGY

MORE THAN A VIRUS:

THE MONKEYPOX OUTBREAK A summary of the history, pathophysiology, and significance of the Monkeypox Virus.

MARY CUMMINGS

D

espite its name, Monkeypox has been affecting more than just monkeys, and recently has been spreading rapidly around the world. As of August 4th 2022, Health and Human Services declared Monkeypox to be a national public health emergency, but what exactly is this disease?

Monkeypox was first identified in Copenhagen, Denmark in the late 1950s, when an outbreak of the virus affected a group of monkeys in an animal facility (Parker). However, since the disease is most commonly found in central African countries, Western countries unfairly ignored the disease (Bajaj).

Classified as a zoonotic disease, many associated Monkeypox with rodents and other animals without understanding the disease could spread to humans.

In a world recently rattled by the COVID pandemic, the breakout of Monkeypox in Europe and America resulted in mass hysteria. Many were and are still worried this unfamiliar virus will force parts of the world in another lockdown by Christmas, but here is why that probably will not happen.

Since its discovery, scientists have determined that Monkeypox is part of the Orthopoxvirus Genus, in the family Poxviridae, which essentially means the virus’ structure takes on a rectangular shape made of double-stranded DNA (World Health Organization). The virus causes chills, fever, body aches, and pus-filled lesions on the skin; symptoms can last 2-4 weeks. While the virus is rarely deadly, the lesions can have long-lasting effects and sometimes lead to skin and eye infections if not treated properly (World Health Organization). The virus is mainly spread through skin-to-skin contact, shared fabric, and respiratory droplets.

me widely known since the start of the pandemic, the reason COVID is so hard to control is because it only takes only a few infected respiratory droplets to infect someone else. On the other hand, in order to become infected with Monkeypox, one needs to have close and prolonged contact with a symptomatic host, making it harder to catch. Additionally, while COVID first broke out in 2019, Monkeypox has been around for about 70 years.

In total, there have been just over 26,000 cases of Monkeypox recorded in America. According to the CDC, the height of the outbreak in the U.S. was during the summer of 2022, with the highest daily total of 568 cases reported on August 1. As of October 19 2022, the average number of cases weekly on the CDC website was only 48 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3). The sharp decline in the number of Monkeypox cases suggests it is effectively slowing the spread of the virus. Vaccination for high-risk groups in the U.S. began May 2022; as of October 18, 2022, 975,047 people total in the 56 U.S. jurisdictions were reported to have been administered vaccines (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 5).

The outbreak has been disproportionately affec-

So what makes Monkeypox different from COVID? As stated above, Monkeypox is part of the Poxviridae family, whereas COVID is not. Instead of being made up of DNA like Monkeypox, the SARS-CoV-2 virions (which result in COVID infection) envelope single-stranded RNA that takes on a more spherical shape compared to the oblong Monkeypox virus. SARS-Cov-2 virions are also smaller in than Monkeypox virions. While Monkeypox virions must use 11-12 proteins in order to bond to host cells, SARS-CoV-2 virions only use single proteins. Another major difference is the way the viruses spread. As has beco-

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ting historically marginalized groups. Monkeypox is commonly found in Africa, largely due to the lack of access to proper vaccination, and people are incorrectly branding this disease as an “African disease”; “‘Remember, the first monkeypox was actually found in a laboratory in Denmark, not Africa,’ says Oyewale Tomori, a virologist at Redeemer’s University and the former president of the Nigerian Academy of Science” (Bajaj). Furthermore, gay men have been disproportionately affected by the Monkeypox spread and have been the victims of targeted homophobia. There has been a common misconception that this virus only spreads through sexual contact as a means to stigmatize the LGBTQ+ community, but this is simply not true—in fact, although it does spread via skin-skin contact, Monkeypox is not labeled as a sexually transmitted disease. As WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said in a tweet, “Stigma and discrimination can be as dangerous any virus.”

Overall, no one should expect to be wearing masks for Monkeypox anytime soon, but it is still important to stay healthy. If you are high-risk, make sure you are vaccinated, and be sure to stay educated on relevant developments for this virus and any others.

BIOLOGY

THE DARK SIDE OF

DOLPHINS The ocean’s beloved mammals may not be as adorable as we thought.

MORAN LIU

D

olphins always may seem to be nothing but adorable, welcoming, and intelligent mammals— but do not be fooled. Several case studies that observed dolphins’ behavior dug into the dark side of dolphins and uncovered their violent tendencies.

In these studies, bottlenose dolphins were closely observed.

During the mating season, males combat fiercely with other males for access to females. However, instead of simply competing individually against each other, they form “gangs.” Usually 5-6 male dolphins group together, rush to a female dolphin, and herd her away to be mated with. Only an estimated 25% of female dolphins are able to escape from their capture. The males have been observed to band together and even violently attack female dolphins into submission, and marks and bruises have been observed on female dolphins after such a mating experience. Apparently, under such a cute facade lies a more violent creature.

In addition to having violet mating behaviors, dolphins do have some killer tendencies. A behavior called infanticide, where an adult animal kills its young, has been observed among several wild animals species, including dolphins. Sadly, the carcasses of infant dolphins have been washed up on beaches with mysterious, fatal injuries, speculated to be bites from adult dolphins. It was observed that some groups of dolphins

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attacked and beat to death porpoises with no specific intention.

The most shocking part of such violent acts is the lack of obvious motivation behind them—dolphins that are not in danger or in need of food still commit such tragic acts.

And dolphins don’t only target other dolphins; humans are their pursuits as well. Many scuba divers have had traumatic encounters with dolphins. A man named Malcolm Brenner was once aggressively pursued by a female dolphin, and another man named Michael Maes was pursued by a male dolphin, which kept pushing him to the bottom of the ocean floor while working on an underwater video project. With adequate underwater experience, he was equipped to handle the situation— however, with the average dolphin weighing 400 pounds, and several dangers associated with scuba diving itself, many other, less-experienced divers might not have been so lucky. The pursuit of dolphins can easily put humans into danger and further panic which might lead to lethal consequences.

Thus, the innocent idea of dolphins playing with colorful balls in aquariums or galloping across the ocean blue are shattered into shards after a bit of research. That’s not to say that dolphins are crazed all the time—they can definitely be impressive and friendly at times. In fact, it is their contrasting behaviors that make people so surprised to learn of their darker side. More studies are necessary to further investigate what the ‘true’ nature of dolphins really is.

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Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2: A Review.

MADELEINE GODFREY Abstract:

Figure 1

Although studies surrounding SARS-CoV-2 infection are numerous, information regarding the long-term immune consequences of COVID-19 is lacking.

Multi-system Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) and Long COVID are two documented post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Patients with MIS-C and patients with Long COVID were both found to have elevated levels of SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins in their bloodstreams (1), and both can experience gastrointestinal symptoms (2,3). Further research is necessary to determine the pathophysiological similarities between the two conditions.

Introduction: As of August 19, 2022, there were 591,683,619 documented cases of COVID-19 worldwide (4). To date, two long-term sequelae after SARS-CoV-2 infection have been documented: an immune activation syndrome called multi-system inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), and chronic persistence of COVID-19-related symptoms, known as Long COVID. Recent research has shown that inflammation associated with MIS-C, especially in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, begins with the release of zonulin (a composition of proteins) from epithelial cells, induced by the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in the gut (5).

Zonulin release causes the loosening of tight junctions between gut cells, creating a “leaky gut” that allows antigens to flow into the bloodstream and trigger a variety of inflammatory conditions (6). In the case of MIS-C, increased gut permeability caused by zonulin release allows the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to enter the bloodstream—this effect is depicted in Figure 1 (5).

A novel case series reported the use of Larazotide (AT1001), a zonulin antagonist, in children with MIS-C (7). Although the completion of an ongoing, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial (8) and the conduction of other trials is warranted to correctly evaluate the efficacy of Larazotide as a treatment for MIS-C, the case series indicates this drug has the potential to decrease intestinal permeability, preventing the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein from entering the bloodstream and subsequently reducing inflammation-related symptoms.

While patients diagnosed with Long COVID have different clinical presentations than those with MIS-C, preliminary evidence shows that the majority of patients with Long COVID also have elevated levels

of the SARS-CoV-2 full spike protein in their bloodstreams (1). Additionally, 8.29% of patients with Long COVID reported experiencing GI symptoms, such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and loss of appetite, that are experienced in some combination among 70.63% of patients with MIS-C (2,3,9). It is possible that, as seen in patients with MIS-C, Long COVID symptomatology and immune activation are triggered by SARS-CoV-2 infection and subsequent loosening of gut cell tight junctions due to zonulin release. Thus, further research is necessary to determine if zonulin release induced by SARS-CoV-2 is involved in the pathogenesis of Long COVID and if Larazotide would be a viable treatment option for Long COVID.

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Preliminary Larazotide Results: Currently, the standard course of treatment for patients with MIS-C includes the use of steroids to reduce inflammation and/or intravenous immunoglobulin therapy (IVIG). Although these drugs improve symptoms by blunting the immune system’s response to circulating antigens, they do not target the root cause of inflammation—the release of zonulin. Larazotide (AT1001), a zonulin antagonist, prevents the loosening of healthy gut cell junctions and is hypothesized to bar the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein from entering the bloodstream (7).

In a compassionate use, open-label case series (8), 4 pediatric patients with MIS-C were treated with Larazotide for 21 days in addition to receiving the standard treatment of steroids and/or IVIG, without adverse effects. These 4 patients were monitored alongside 22 patients with MIS-C who were treated with steroids and/or IVIG alone, and the two groups’ recovery rates were compared. Circulating SARS-CoV-2 spike protein was detected in all 26 patients before treatment.

The series found that, on average, Larazotide-treated patients had faster resolution of GI symptoms, shorter hospital stay, and more rapid clearance of circulating SARS-CoV-2 spike protein.

Numerical comparisons of clinical outcomes are detailed in Table 1. These findings indicate that further research is necessary to determine if Larazotide is a safe and effective adjuvant treatment of MIS-C. Given that MIS-C is a severe, life-threatening illness and that there are currently no curative treatment options, this research is imperative.

The ongoing clinical trial testing Larazotide as an adjuvant treatment of MIS-C in hospitalized patients (8) is a Phase 2a (Proof of Concept), randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study.

The completion and unblinding of this study is needed to further determine Larazotide’s efficacy.

MIS-C and Long COVID: Long COVID, also known as Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infections (PASC), encompasses any enduring or recurring symptoms that persist four weeks after an initial SARS-CoV-2 infection (10).

Unlike MIS-C, which is most prevalent in children, Long COVID is more common with increasing age (11). While MIS-C develops in less than 0.1% of previously COVID-19-positive children (12), Long COVID is significantly more common—36.55% of patients reported one or more symptoms of Long COVID 3-6 months after an initial SARS-CoV-2 infection (2). MIS-C also has a higher severity of illness than Long COVID, with 68% of cases requiring intensive care unit admission (3).

Despite differences in acuity and severity, patients with MIS-C and Long COVID may present with several of the same symptoms, including fever, shortness of breath, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and rash, and both illnesses can entail multi-system involvement (13). Notably, 8.29% of 273,618 COVID-19 survivors reported ongoing abdominal symptoms 90 to 180 days after their initial SARS-CoV-2 infection (2). A comparison of the prevalence of symptoms experienced by both patients with MIS-C and patients with Long COVID can be found in Table 2. Like patients with MIS-C, the majority of patients with Long COVID were also found to have elevated levels of circulating SARS-CoV-2 full spike protein, a condition called SARS-CoV-2 antigenemia (1). Thus, given that patients with Long COVID experience SARS-CoV-2 spike antigenemia and several of the same symptoms as patients with MIS-C, more research is necessary to determine if zonulin release is also a component behind Long COVID.

Discussion: Over two years after the first documented case of COVID-19, much remains unknown about the disease’s long-term pathogenesis. Two post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection are MIS-C and Long COVID. Thus far, these complications have been considered separate entities. New findings, however, suggest that the conditions may be related.

MIS-C is known to be triggered by the release of zonulin, a composition of proteins that increases intestinal permeability and subsequently allows the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to pass into the bloodstream, resulting in an inflammatory response. Larazotide, a zonulin antagonist, is currently being studied in a clinical trial to determine its efficacy at inhibiting zonulin release in patients with MIS-C. Like patients with MIS-C, patients with Long COVID have been found to have elevated levels of the SARS-CoV-2 full spike protein in their bloodstreams and can also experience a variety of symptoms that reflect multiorgan involvement. Thus, more research is necessary to determine if zonulin release is part of the pathophysiology behind Long COVID and if Larazotide would be a viable treatment option for the condition.

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BIOLOGY

Inside Living Libraries A global network of herbaria supports botanical and ecological research.

MAE RUSCONI

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s Dr. Michaela Schmull, Director of Collections at the Harvard Herbaria, leads me through rows of archives, I’m met with the familiar, musty smell of a library.

mes acidic, storage envelopes and labels are made from archival (acid-free) paper. Herbarium staff oversee pest and climate control, continuously monitoring the collections.

Yet this building does not house books— instead, shelves, cabinets, and chests overflow with dried plants, from ryegrasses and juniper leaves to maidenhair ferns and more.

The nonvascular and cryptogamic plants, which reproduce via spores, include mosses, green algae and liverworts. Birch bark varieties are stored next to paleolithic corn. All are cataloged not by author and genre but by geography, age, and species. There are over 5 million specimens in total.

Environmental scientists are able to monitor ecosystem health by studying herbarium specimens. Biodiversity is a key environmental health indicator, and herbaria databases allow researchers to compare preserved specimens from different decades and analyze how plant diversity has changed. For example, if one was to assess urban lichens collected from the 1950s to 1970s, increases in species diversity would correlate with the enactment of the EPA Clean Air Act in 1963.

Lichen, along with plant diversity, can serve as bioindicators of pollution.

A herbarium is a collection of plant specimens preserved for scientific purposes. With approximately 3000 existing globally, herbaria like Harvard’s are central to botanical education and advancement. The oldest date back to Rome in 1532, when physicians first sought to store medicinal plants. In 1848, the U.S founded a National Herbarium. Today, the leading plant specimen collections reside at the Museum of Natural History in Paris, the Komarov Botanical Institute in St. Petersburg, and at the New York Botanical Garden. Collectively, these institutions store and circulate over 380 million plants and often loan specimens to researchers and taxonomists.

Other studies analyze the heavy metals and limiting nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus found on plant specimens. Gradual climate and ecosystem changes may also result in plant phenological changes, shifts in biological events such as flowering or seed dispersal.

Contrary to their old history, herbaria remain relevant and active today. Taxonomy is key in the field of biology; specimens classified and categorized in herbaria provide the framework for evolutionary studies. Botanists support nomenclature changes with herbaria data.

Herbaria aren’t exactly “living libraries.”

Here, specimens are preserved for the long term. Lichens at Harvard date to the 1830s, kept in private archives through centuries of war, climate change, and scientific progress.

Old preservation techniques involved mercury, but the modern standard is freezing the plants and fungi far below 0° C for two weeks in order to prevent decomposition. Since regular paper deteriorates over time and beco-

Herbaria also contribute to novel medicinal research; in 2020 a group of biologists published a paper titled “The Value of Herbarium Collections to the Discovery of Novel Treatments for Alzheimer’s Disease.” These researchers, using plant specimens from the San Diego National History Musuem’s Herbarium, were able to measure the level of neuroprotective compounds found in leaves. Their conclusion? Herbarium collections are underused resources for Alzheimer’s and other neurological treatment research.

In labs adjacent to the Harvard Herbaria, students examine microscope slides and modern technologies whir. Here, in the mycological (fungi-related) wing, researchers use genetic sequencing machines to re-identify old specimens; fungi and lichen originally classified as one species based on morphology are reclassified based on genomes. Applying cutting-edge phylogenetics (the study of the evolutionary branching of organisms) to historical herbarium collections gives new insight into taxonomy, evolutionary development, and plant biodiversity.

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Recently, concern for food scarcity has drawn attention to the increasing prevalence of plant diseases. As the human population increases and sustainable agriculture becomes vital, herbaria serve as resources for pathogen identification and prevention research.

Herbaria missions to support novel ecological research and keep a historical biodiversity record has become increasingly important.

Thus, a Herbarium’s calm atmosphere and centuries-old specimens are deceiving: herbaria-backed research is anything but stagnant. At the Harvard Herbaria, Dr. Schmull’s daily work includes assessing a vast array of fossilized wood samples, leading students through the fungal archives, and attending conferences on herbaria management. With digital specimen collections gradually being built, there is no doubt that herberia will be a prevalent global resource for scientific research in years to come.

SCIENCE

Wowbutter A NECESSARY ALTERNATIVE FOR MIDDLESEX

JASMINE LI body) after exposure to crude peanut extracts.

For the most precise measurement, a component-resolved diagnostics (CRD) might be performed during which the blood is exposed to targeted peanut proteins—which cause allergic reactions—and the IgE response is measured (“Standards tests”).

Walking into the dining hall on the first day of school to find a phony replacement instead of my beloved peanut butter certainly failed to Wow me. For fellow peanut-butter lovers like myself, the replacement of the savory and deliciously crunchy peanut butter with a bland-tasting soy-butter was unquestionably a huge disappointment. While the hallways echoed with complaints over the strange-tasting intruder, this swap is a necessary step towards making the dining hall experience a safe one for everyone.

There is a likelihood, approximately one in five, that children grow out of their allergy (FDA). Some high-risk children could also prevent allergies through early introduction of peanuts (Filep, Chapman). The Learning Early About Peanut Allergy (LEAP) clinical trial showed that early introduction to peanuts could potentially reduce allergen coherence to IgE, giving the consumers some protection against the allergen.

However, most children do not grow out of their allergies, leading many researchers to perform extensive experiments in order to attempt to find a cure or prevention method for the allergy. On the market, there is one approved immunotherapy treatment of peanut allergy for children in the US. In 2020, Palforzia [Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) Allergen powder-dnfp], an oral medication, was used to treat children from the ages of 4 through 17 years old. The medication is manufactured from peanuts and split into capsules with peanut protein. Experiments showed that 67.2% of Palforzia recipients tolerated a 600mg dose of peanut, significantly higher than the 4% of placebo recipients. However, Palforzia is not without adverse side effects that resemble allergy symptoms, such as a cough, a runny rose, nausea, and abdominal pain. Most importantly, the medication can only be used to mitigate severe, or deadly, allergic reactions; it cannot cure peanut allergies and patients still cannot eat peanuts as a part of their diet afterwards (FDA).

Although less than 1.8% of the U.S. population suffers from peanut allergies, an astounding 40% of children with peanut allergies have experienced anaphylaxis (Warren et al.; He). Anaphylaxis is a severe, potentially deadly, allergic reaction, in which hives, swelling, tightened airways, and cardiovascular distresses are the most typical symptoms (Lee, et al.).

Therefore, the switch to Wowbutter is more than necessary to protect those in our community with life threatening allergies. Peanut Peanut allergies not only have physiological allergies can be detected early and treated, but if left untreated or if the treatment fails, they impacts, but also have psychological impacts can potentially cause psychological distress, on those affected as well. In a study by Tsoumani et al. — in regards to the impacts this allergy affirming the need of using Wowbutter. has on the emotions and life of children, teeThere are two standard tests to diagnose nagers, adults, and caregivers in the UK and peanut allergy: a skin test and a blood test that Ireland — interviewees in the survey reported measures Immunoglobulin E (a type of anti- being 87% moderately or severely restricted

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when choosing food while dining out. Participants also reported high levels of frustration, uncertainty, and stress, being 70%, 79%, and 71% respectively (Tsoumani et al.). It is hard enough to stay away from peanut products, much less the countless items that may contain traces of this potentially deadly substance.

Therefore, the decision of the dining hall to switch peanut butter to Wowbutter is more than justified. Wowbutter may not be as mouth-watering and delectable as regular peanut butter, but it is a necessary implement for the health and wellness of the greater school community.

The DNA Q&A with

Ms. Irwin ANTONIO OMETEOTL

“Colorado Rocky Mountain School (CRMS) changed my life completely,” said Mandy Irwin.

Now a biology and environmental science teacher at Middlesex School, Irwin finds that her experience as a day student at this small co-educational boarding school nestled in the mountains of Carbondale, Colorado changed the course of her life.

Irwin comments that CRMS “opened [her] eyes to experiences in the outside world” that had previously been overlooked, primarily because “they made [her] go outside” and submerged her into the marvels of nature. Irwin adds that CRMS deliberately exposes its students to the natural world, stating that “orientation is a ten-day backpacking trip” that immerses each participant in the natural processes that take place every day.

As a result of CRMS, Irwin began rock climbing seriously to further her appreciation for the outdoors and continued to practice rock climbing beyond the mountains of Colorado after graduation. She “climbed in Thailand,” the Western United States, and various other places.

She even “lived in Australia” for a time. However, Irwin says, “that was a lifetime ago.”

Despite this, the effects of CRMS on Irwin are perennial. When asked about her career in teaching environmental science, Irwin said that she loves environmental science because it “raises

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the curtain and lets you see what makes up your lifestyle.” But, in terms of teaching, Irwin finds that “having conversations about why our choices matter with people that have the potential to do something is the most important thing.”

It is no secret; the Earth is in a crisis. And Irwin is “curious if we are at a tipping point or beyond it in terms of climate change.”

“I’m worried about my kids’ future.” There was a period of time when her daughter would not eat anything except strawberries. And, of course, she would purchase organic strawberries each time for her daughter, but at a certain point, the cost of only buying organic strawberries became too great to sustain financially. At this point, Irwin began to consider purchasing non-organic strawberries. But she then had to consider that the non-organic strawberries were likely exposed to insecticides known as organophosphates—a chemical known to cause harm to humans.

However, Irwin was not just thinking in terms of her daughter. Irwin was more concerned with “the unfair exposure to pollutants for communities that are low income and people of color.”

Farmworkers forced to live near farms that use organophosphates suffer from long-term exposure to the chemical with various side effects, like anxiety and depression, that are ultimately still being studied.

Irwin argues “that part of environmental

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science is not always part of the conversation” and that “when I had my own kids, those tradeoffs became more real.”

The climate crisis and problems with the Earth are not disappearing anytime soon. And as stated previously, Irwin is unsure if the Earth has passed its tipping point. But in the face of this uncertainty, she continues to teach environmental science, citing that “education is the best insurance policy.”

(PHOTO)

While fulfilling her role in combating climate change through education, Irwin emphatically claimed, “we need as many people out there coming up with solutions [as possible].” When asked about the work in environmental science, Irwin says, “It is never done.” In a world where humans are changing the Earth around them at an unprecedented rate, it seems unlikely that environmental science will ever be taught the same way to each generation.

“I miss getting kids outdoors,” revealed Irwin.

Still, in the face of an Earth in danger, she continues to teach students about environmental science to ensure that there is an outdoors to bring students and her children into.

ARE YOU ENJOYING THIS MAGAZINE? CONSIDER WRITING FOR THE DNA-MX MAGAZINE!

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or TECHNOLOGY

PAETYN NAIDOO

W

ith over 1 billion active monthly users, TikTok is one of the largest social media platforms. TikTok’s gallery of short, attention-grabbing videos has the ability to keep people scrolling for hours. The average teenager has an attention span of only 40-80 minutes, but can spend 99 minutes a day scrolling through TikTok. With so much information available on the platform, using TikTok as a search engine is becoming quite popular, and understandably so.

Google returns results in a matter of seconds, but you still have to sift through a good number of websites to find exactly what you’re looking for. TikTok has instant answers to everything because there’s no room for long and detailed solutions. The information on TikTok is compressed and easy to understand since posts can’t exceed 3 minutes. The longer you scroll, the more precise TikTok’s personalized algorithm becomes, making the process of looking things up even more convenient.

There’s also a need to consider the level of human interaction on both platforms. While Google returns static web pages filled with text, TikTok allows you to interact with people in real time, its intimate and personalized experience making it a more appealing option for users. However, although Tiktok certainly seems to be taking everything Google is doing and doing it better, their efficiency as a search engine will ultimately never be able to actually take over Google.

Google has already been established as a universal search engine and will most likely remain the standard for the next few years. Fake news is common on both platforms, but more so TikTok than Google. Most information on Google has been repeatedly fact-checked and edited whereas information on TikTok consists of people’s personal opinions and experiences. As a social media platform, TikTok allows anyone to post almost anything, meaning it is easily susceptible to fake news. Based on the types of information floating around on each platform, Google is a more reliable option.

Another common use for Google is finding local services near you. TikTok is probably not the place you want to go when scheduling a doctor’s appointment or trying to find out if the restaurant nearby is open on Sundays. That being said, TikTok is full of videos of people describing their experiences at certain places, so a quick search of the theme park you’re about to go to wouldn’t hurt if you want a quick review.

So which service should you use? It honestly depends on what you’re looking for. If you want cold and hard answers, Google is probably what you’d want to use, but if you want a short and eye-catching answer, TikTok works best. The beauty of platforms like Google and TikTok is that they both exist to complement each other—you don’t have to choose between the two. The next time you’re looking for information, be sure to look on both platforms. Happy searching!

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Just TikTok It

Google vs. TikTok

TECHNOLOGY

AN INTRODUCTION TO

3D PRINTED FOOD 3D printed food is our new reality!

KATIE CHEN What is 3D printed food?

3D printed food is food prepared through an “additive process”, meaning that different layers of the food are added one by one. More specifically, ingredients in the form of dry powder are solidified by the 3D printer to create a dish.

What can be printed?

One common answer is meat. Although most 3D printed meats are plant-based, they are still able to “mimic the different components of a bite of steak”, which include fat, muscle, tissue, smell, and (most importantly!) flavor of the steak. Additionally, 3D printers can print fruit flavored droplets by combining fruit juice and sodium alginate powder. These droplets can be used to make luxury food and cocktails.

Pastas can also be 3D printed. A famous Italian company that specializes in pasta, Barilla, first made 3D printed pasta back in 2016. 3D printed pasta has both excellent quality and a large variety of shapes, making it the new “lover” of several famous chefs. Surprisingly, seafood also can be 3D printed. Using several different plants, the Australian company Startup printed a variety of seafood, including salmon slices.

A benefit of 3D printed food is it can attract

children to eat more nutritious food. In Chile, nutrition experts designed foods with a kind of algae full of plant protein. These foods were specially printed in attractive shapes to encourage children to ingest them and therefore obtain sufficient amounts of protein. Another popular 3D printed product is chocolate. With 3D printing, chocolate can be made into unique shapes with exclusive flavors. Similarly, cakes can also be 3D printed and taste just as good as the real thing. Even though it sounds impossible, beverages and cocktails can be 3D printed as well. 3D printed polycapsules activated with the addition of water to make smart energy drinks or 3D artwork created inside glasses filled with cocktails are only some of the amazing possibilities. There are countless 3D printed food options for us to discover!

3D printed food in space: 3D printed food can be extremely useful in space. This is because 3D printing can produce a wide variety of products even with limited amounts of raw material. Edibles can last up to 30 years when stored in specialized bags, making them very beneficial for space missions.

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3D printing as a marketing tool: By using a 3D printer, customers have the opportunity to create their unique versions of foods they enjoy. For example, customers can feel a sense of satisfaction if given the opportunity to print something that means a lot to them on cookies, leading to an increase in willingness to buy the cookies.

Benefits and drawbacks: Though it may appear as though the benefits of 3D printed foods are endless—personalized meals, unconventional food consumption, and easy reproducibility—there are several drawbacks. To begin with, printing food is very time consuming. A simple design takes 7 minutes to print, while more delicate ones can require over 45 minutes. Moreover, the cost of the equipment and consumables are all barriers as is the huge amount of money needed for training.

PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING

IS

NUCLEAR ENERGY THE FUTURE?

The Pros and Cons of this Controversial Energy Source

OWEN BARRY

Global energy consumption is projected to increase by almost 50% by 2050 (theTOMMY EIA, “International Energy Outlook 2021”), but in order to liLI mit further greenhouse gas emissions, much of the global energy production must shift towards renewable sources. However, many popular renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, provide only intermittent power: solar only works when the sun shines, and wind turbines when the wind blows. These periods of high output are often misaligned with peak power consumption, which occurs in the evening (the EIA, “Hourly Electric Grid Monitor”) when the sun is less intense and winds die down.

Storing energy for later use at peak hours in batteries or hydrogen can allay some of these issues, but batteries are extremely expensive and the conversion from electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity is extremely inefficient (DiChristopher, “Hydrogen technology faces efficiency disadvantage in power storage race”). Currently, even in places with higher renewable energy production, fossil fuels are still needed to fill these gaps, and in 2021, fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas, made up more than 60 percent of energy produced in the United States (the EIA, “Frequently Asked Questions”). But nuclear energy is a very attractive alternative to fossil fuels, as it can steadily produce energy regardless of external conditions at a fraction of the greenhouse gas emissions, but it isn’t so simple.

There are widespread fears of nuclear energy which stem from infamous nuclear disasters, such as Chernobyl and Fukushima, which have become embedded in the public’s memory. Although it is highly unlikely that anything like these disasters would ever happen again, as the specific concerns which led to their failures have been addressed in reactors with similar designs and modern reactors are tightly regulated and carefully thought out, people are still rightfully cautious to move forward with something that seems so dangerous. After Fukushima melted down, the German government decided to commit to a future without nuclear energy (Stevens, “Who’s Afraid of Elemental Power”), despite the non-existence of Tsunamis (the cause of the Fukushima meltdown) in Europe. Although nuclear energy’s failures are memorable, it is actually one of the safest forms of energy production per unit of energy produced (Ritchie, “What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?”) when taking into account factors such as air pollution and dangers of the supply chain (i.e. deaths of miners or construction workers).

plained”). Secondly, nuclear plants inevitably produce radioactive waste which can be deadly for thousands of years. Although generally safely stored and kept away from humans and wildlife, this radioactive waste has the potential to leak and devastate ecosystems. However, other renewable energy sources are not without their own ecological threats. Wind and solar farms both require far more land than nuclear energy. Hydroelectric energy through the use of dams, which interrupt the natural flow of rivers, can directly damage ecosystems. Additionally, hydroelectric, geothermal, wind, and solar all actually take far more material to produce the same amount of electricity as nuclear plants (Wolf, “Nuclear energy is better than solar and wind”); thus, most renewables actually emit more greenhouse gasses in their lifespan due to the sourcing of their materials and their construction despite the apparent high upfront impact of building a nuclear power plant.

Nuclear power plants are one of humanity’s best weapons for fighting climate change while providing the world’s energy demands. Although they seem threatening, given the few memorable disasters, they are actually one of the least dangerous forms of energy production. Despite their incredible potential, the fear surrounding nuclear power has affected entire countries’ energy policies, so the question is not if nuclear power is the world’s best option right now. It is. The problem is whether or not people and governments can overcome their rational, but often excessive fears of nuclear power.

An example of an image that is not clear enough.

Additionally, nuclear energy has a small carbon footprint, lower than many renewable sources (World Nuclear Association, “Carbon Dioxide Emissions From Electricity”), as it produces just a fourth of solar energy’s carbon emissions per kilowatt-hour of energy generated, but its ecological impact is not insignificant. First, constructing a nuclear power plant takes vast amounts of money and energy, which can come from dirtier sources, adding to its carbon footprint (the EIA, “Nuclear Ex-

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PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING

TIME TRAVEL? ERIC NIE

1. What is time?

Did you know that, just by getting into a car or running very fast, you can time travel into the future? Well, you’d only be doing so by a few femtoseconds (seconds * 10^-15), but it’s still a mind blowing fact that time passes slower for things that are moving than for a non-moving observer. Newton once thought that time and space were constant, or not affected by any motion, but Einstein’s theory of special relativity proved him wrong. Let’s examine how in this article.

2. Speed of light is Constant First, let’s imagine that you stand on the ground and shoot a pistol, while I stand next to you and observe the bullet flying out at a uniform speed of v m/s. Next, you sit in a car traveling at u m / s and poke out the window to fire another shot, what now is the velocity of the bullet that I observe? According to our existing knowledge of stacking velocity, we know that the bullet is now the speed of (v + u) m/s. In another situation, if you are given a flashlight instead of a pistol, the beam of light you “shoot out” has a speed known to be c m/s, or the speed of light, 2.989 * 10^8 m/s. If, again, you sit back in the car that travels at u m/s, what will I observe when you peek out the window and turn on the flashlight? Analogous to the speed of the bullet just now, you’d blurt out: (c + u) m/s! Nevertheless, after my careful measuring, the speed of light is still c m/s, there is no velocity stack in this situation, and the speed of light is unexpectedly constant.

3. Length contraction and Time dilation In the world of classical physics, an inch is an inch, and there’s no debate about that. In the world of relativity, however, this concept has changed. The same length measured in a stationary coordinate system is the longest, while in a relative motion coordinate system the object becomes shorter. (Lerner)

Imagine that a teacher holds a 10 cm long ruler that has no relative motion with the teacher, so the length of the ruler appears to a stationary observer to be 10 cm. But if a student runs past the teacher with velocity v, the ruler appears to the student to be shorter than 10 cm. Putting it into the formula, l is the length of the ruler as seen by the teacher, and l’ is the length of the ruler as seen by the student. v is the velocity of B’s motion. v is the velocity of B’s motion, and c represents the speed of light.

Similarly, time dilation means that time goes faster in a stationary coordinate system.

For example, if an astronaut tosses a pencil in the space station, with the entire toss taking time t. If my relative velocity to yours is v, then the time taken for the toss is t’ from my stationary perspective. . Then t’ must be greater than your observed t. That is, it seems to me that your pencil is flying very slowly. But note that here you and I are also relative to each other.

So when I toss a pencil, you will also think my coin flies very slowly. Nevertheless, this whole process will happen simultaneously only when you and I are at the same spatial point. As long as we have a distance and a relative speed in between, we will have a different view of the sequence of events.

Therefore, when an object moves close to the speed of light, time around the object will rapidly slow down and space will rapidly

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shrink. When the speed of motion of the object is equal to the speed of light, time will stop and space will shrink to a singular point. When the speed of motion goes over the speed of light, time, in theory, starts to go backward. However, only objects without mass, such as photons (light particles) can reach the speed of light, so you don’t have to worry about shrinking down to nothing anytime soon.

4. The Twin Paradox Now imagine that you wake up in a spacecraft traveling at a subvelocity of light. A few years ago, on the eve of your 32th birthday, your wealthy twin brother planned this gift for you. You were ecstatic and couldn’t wait to see the stunning scenery of space and enjoy the feeling of weightlessness. So on your 32th birthday, you started this amazing journey. And now, the ship you are on is approaching Earth at 0.99 times the speed of light. The atomic clock on the spacecraft is accurately recording the precise time. You look up through the window and see that the stars become more dazzling or clear. The visual impact is simply wonderful.

Looking at the azure planet coming closer to you, your heart pounded so fast. You can’t wait to meet your family after such a long trip.

The ship landed safely. When you opened the hatch, you had mixed feelings in your heart. After inspections and evaluations from Space Z, you return home. An elderly man embraces you with tears in his eyes, crying: “My dear brother, welcome back!”

After several years of near light-speed flight, you are still a young man. But your twin brother has turned into a gray-haired old man.

You found out that you traveled to the future.

(Sardesai)

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The Dark Side of Dolphins

Inside Living Libraries

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Table of Contents

Photo by Luca J on Unsplash https://unsplash.com/photos/KOzMQsjut6U Photo by Pavel Neznanov on Unsplash https://unsplash.com/photos/w95Fb7EEcjE

Photo by Mike Hindle on Unsplash https://unsplash.com/photos/urTBnMtWWYc

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Wowbutter

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An Introduction to 3D Printed Food

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Google vs. Tiktok

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Time Travel?

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Cover Photo by Lucas Mylon

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