MAS | Art from Pre-Columbian America (ENG)

EN

ART FROM PRECOLUMBIAN AMERICA COLLECTION PAUL & DOR A JA NSSEN-A RTS

“I saw the things which have been brought to the King from the new land of gold. ... All the days of my life I have seen nothing that rejoiced my heart so much as these things.

For I saw amongst them wonderful works of art and I marvelled at the subtle Ingenia of men in foreign lands.”

The German artist Albrecht Dürer on viewing the Pre-Columbian objects from Mexico which were presented to the Court of Charles V on 27 August 1520 in Brussels.

Quote from : Masters of Art – Albrecht Dürer. Delphi Classics, Hastings, 2016.

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ART FROM PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA - COLLECTION PAUL & DORA JANSSEN-ARTS -

Ever since Europeans reached America in 1492, art objects have been coming from the New to the Ancient World.

Destined to become showpieces or part of a collection. There remains much European fascination for indigenous cultures from the Americas.

After 1492, the exchange of gifts immediately launched a stream of artefacts from the New World. Also, when the Spanish plundered the Aztec and Inca Empires (1520-1530), masses of objects ended up in Europe.

Monarchs paraded their new wealth, artists were inspired by the exotic world and scientists started collections. People admired the objects' beauty and craftsmanship. But, as expressions of endemic religion and an illustration of non-Christian gods, much was also condemned. Indigenous Americans – called ‘Indians’ by mistake – were immediately 'exposed' after Europe conquered Mexico.

Belgium as it is today played a major role in the distribution of objects across Europe. The first exhibition of pre-Columbian art was held in Brussels, where Charles V admired gifts from the Aztec emperor Montezuma. There was a renaissance of interest in the 20th century. As from the 1960s, the market exploded and museums and private collectors gathered up pre-Columbian art. The attraction of the Mayas, Aztecs and Incas still remains.

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The Paul & Dora Janssen-Arts Collection

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Life and death in pre-Colombian America

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Gifts for the afterlife

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Exotic, Beautiful and Significant

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Promising research

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THE PAUL & DORA JANSSEN-ARTS COLLECTION

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The Janssen-Arts collection is one of Europe's most important collections of pre-Columbian art. Initially beauty was the reason behind the collection, later cultural and scientific interest gradually grew more important.

Dora Janssen was first attracted by the beauty of pre-Columbian gold. Her choices were therefore also made for aesthetic reasons. She therefore gathered few objects from the Aztecs, as this was not her style.

Later she attended some courses at the University of Austin, one of the most important centres for the study of the Classic Maya culture. Her collection also reflects her interest and fascination in the cultural development of pre-Columbian people.

The collection, which totals about 400 objects, provides a wonderful look at the many traditions on the American continent.

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Dora Janssen's evolution as a collector.

The two objects in this display cabinet bear witness to Dora Janssen's evolution as a collector. Where her fascination was initially aroused by the golden splendour of the Pre-columbian artefacts, she subsequently delved deeper into the context in which these artefacts were made.

Although she remained particularly interested in –Pre-columbian gold - the gold object shown here is one of her favourites - she later became fascinated by the Maya and their script, studying their culture.

1 Stele depicting Lady Alligator Foot

2 Pendant in the shape of a leader or a shaman

Maya culture, southeast Mexico 250 - 900 Limestone with traces of red pigment MAS.IB.2010.017.083

Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.169

The Maya were master ‘plastic surgeons’. The nose and teeth were altered to make them look more pointed; heads were elongated by clamping a baby’s skull, which was still malleable, between slats of wood.

The man wears ear ornaments, a headdress, nose ring, lip plug and face mask.

Because of its shape and the feather adornments that were worn, an adult’s head, which was often cleanly shaven, resembled an ear of maize.

This allowed Maya rulers to pattern themselves after the strong, young maize god.

Alle objecten met nummer MAS.IB behoren tot: Collectie Paul en Dora Janssen-Arts, bruikleen Vlaamse Gemeenschap.

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ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

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‘Indian tales’ Antwerp played an important role in the spread of European knowledge and images of the new continent. This created the foundations for many of today's images and stereotypes.

Publishers like Christophe Plantin published pioneering work. Many books were bestsellers, also because they described Spanish atrocities against Indians. At the time, Spain was considered the enemy by many people in the Low Countries... The imaginative engravings by Theodor de Bry often illustrated second or third-hand ‘Indian tales’. They created stereotypes that still exist today.

3 Collection: Americae sive Indiae Occidentalis descriptio 1-6 Theodor De Bry Frankfurt 1590 – 1617 Loan from Museum Plantin-Moretus, Antwerp, B423:1

Collection: Americae sive Indiae occidentalis descriptio 7-11 Theodor De Bry Frankfurt 1599-1620 Loan from Museum Plantin-Moretus, Antwerp, B423:2

Collection: Wunderbarliche, doch warhafftige Erklärung, von der Gelegenheit und Sitten der Wilden in Virginia [e.a.] [collection of 6 works on America]

Theodor De Bry Frankfurt 1590-1594 Loan from Museum Plantin-Moretus, Antwerp, B428:1

Collection: Das sechste Theil der neuwen Welt [e.a.] [collection of 8 works on America]

Theodor De Bry Frankfurt 1597-1602 Loan from Museum Plantin-Moretus, Antwerp, B428:2 These books and the reproductions alternate for reasons of conservation.

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Interest with a downside The art market was the main supplier of pre-Columbian objects to European museums, including the MAS. These items did not come from scientific excavations and were often purchased outside the country of origin.

This international market developed as from the early 20th century, along with the growing appreciation of pre-Columbian artefacts. Objects that were once seen as ‘scientifically interesting’ were now considered as art. The interest had a downside: archaeological sites were systematically plundered, causing the loss of much valuable cultural information.

4 Jar

Earthenware and paint MAS (AE.1990.0032.0018)

Nicoya culture, Costa Rica 800-1200 Earthenware and paint MAS (AE.1975.0037) This type of jug was put in a grave. In many parts of Central America the jaguar was associated with the elite and power.

The Coclé culture from Panama is known far and wide for its magnificent earthenware and gold work.

5 Dish Coclé culture, Panama, Azuero 500-1200

6 Fragment of a human face Maya culture, Guatemala or Mexico 100-900 Stucco and paint MAS (AE.1970.0036.0001) Stucco images of human faces were created in Mayan temples to honour gods and ancestors.

Gathering meaning An object's context is essential to a museum of world culture. Without this it is meaningless. The preference is therefore to gather ‘at the source’: buy locally.

In the past, those selling were often Europeans living in the area. They collected objects to sell to museums out of interest or as a way of earning extra income. The objects in this cluster were collected by Lothar Petersen, a German doctor and anthropologist who lived in Colombia. He sold pieces to at least five museums.

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ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

7 Anthropomorphic jar

9 Whistle

Muisca culture, Colombia 1000-1500 Earthenware MAS (AE.1959.0045.0005)

Tucano culture, Rio Negro, Colombia / Brasil ca. 1950 Reed and rope MAS (AE.1959.0045.0373)

8 Dish

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Possibly Muisca culture, Colombia 1000-1500 Earthenware MAS (AE.1959.0045.0006)

The port as a source The Port of Antwerp was an important source of museum objects.

Tradespeople and merchants from the port donated objects and collections.

In 1864 Eugène de Decker, a Member of Parliament and tradesman, donated this Maya stele to the former Museum of Antiquities in the Steen. His donation formed the basis of the collection of non-Western objects. The stele was found in Mexico or Guatemala and arrived in the Port of Antwerp on a ship belonging to De Decker’s trading company.

10 Carved stele Maya culture, Guatemala ca. 200-50 B.C. Limestone MAS (AE.3870) This stele is one of the oldest of its kind. It displays one of the earliest examples of Mayan writing.

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LIFE AND DEATH IN P R E - C OL OM BI A N AMERICA

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For the inhabitants of pre-Colombian America, or the America before Columbus, life and death formed a singular unbreakable whole. As in nature, new life could be created from death. Life and death were harmonious counterparts: one could not exist without the other.

There were significant differences in how life after death was interpreted among the various regions.

The way in which people in Mesoamerica died determined in which layer of which world he or she would arrive. The cosmos was made up of three parts: a tiered universe consisting of the upperworld and the underworld, with our world in the middle. Each of these worlds contained various levels.

The transition to the other worlds could only be made after a person had died. The deceased were given special burial gifts for this. Shamans and priests had a special status: they could enter the underworld and the upperworld while still alive.

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Pre-Colombian America: one concept, many cultures

Almost all of the objects from the Paul and Dora Janssen-Arts collection originate from Latin America. Here, the great diversity of climates and landscapes resulted in the creation of different cultural regions.

Mesoamerica stretched from northern Mexico to El Salvador and Honduras. The landscape varies between deserts, jungles and plateaus. Cultures such as the Olmec, Maya and Aztec exerted a great deal of influence throughout the region.

The Intermediate Area stretched from Nicaragua to Colombia. Inhabitants of this land bridge between Mesoamerica and the central Andes profited from the flow of knowledge and ideas between the north and south. Cultures such as the Coclé produced beautiful gold jewellery.

The Andes mountain range connects present-day southern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. The over 4000-metre-high mountaintops separate the jungle in the east from the dry coastal region in the west. The Incas built a gigantic kingdom with the Andes as its central axis.

Columbus’s ‘discovery’ of America in 1492 represents a fracture line in the continent’s history. The European conquistadores wiped local cultures off the map at incredible speeds. However, certain traditions and beliefs still live on in the Christian faith.

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ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

The shaman: mediator and calendar expert

Shamans in the Americas, played a pivotal role in their communities - and often still do. As a result of their knowledge about the sun, moon and stars, they knew exactly when to sow and harvest crops. They were experts in creating and reading complicated agricultural calendars, similar to those made by the Maya.

What made them especially unique is the fact that they could enter other worlds, where they could ask the inhabitants of these worlds - gods and ancestors - why someone was ill or how the rain could be stopped.

In order to be able to do so, they first entered into a trance using music, dance and mind-expanding substances. Fasting and vomiting also facilitated this process. In their trance, they saw themselves transform into animals that could enter the upperworld and the underworld. These transformations from man into animal were frequently depicted in golden jewels.

1 Ornament(?) in the shape of a crab or lobster Malagana culture, southern Colombia 200 BC - 200 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.149

2 Pendant in the shape of a man wearing a jaguar mask Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500-1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.170

3 Pendants depicting the transformation of a human into a water creature

Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.204 en 206 Water creatures were very important to the Zenu, who lived between many man-made canals.

4 Pectoral ornament in the shape of a figure that is half-animal and half-human Tolima culture, central Colombia 100 -1000 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.150 en 151 The Tolima culture is known for these flat ornaments with an almost stylised human-animal form.

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5 Pendant depicting a bird; pectoral ornament with five masked shamans and three birds Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.174 en 175 The Tairona shamans transformed into birds in order to travel to the upperworld.

6 Small pendant in the shape of a row of animal-like creatures Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.216

7 Staff-shaped pendant with elements that are half-bird and half-mammal Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.215

8 Figurine of a shaman with a staff and birds

9 Figurine of a woman on a small bench Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.167 The small opening at the top of this figurine prevented it from cracking during the firing process.

10 Small flute (ocarina) depicting a shaman Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.165 This shaman sits between two feline creatures and forms an axis between the upperworld and the underworld.

11 Jar depicting two men Cupisnique culture, northern coast of Peru 900 - 400 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.266 The two men at the top of this jar are drinking and sniffing trance-inducing substances.

Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.207 Because of the mask the shaman is wearing, his face is barely visible.

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ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

12 Jar in the shape of a shaman

16 Jar in the form of a shaman

Transition to Nasca culture, southern coast of Peru 100 BC - 100 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.272 The headband under a prominent hair knot was also a sling and an effective weapon.

Nayarit culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.035 Due to his punctured cheeks, a shaman had to fast for a certain amount of time.

13 Jar with sieve in the shape of a shaman Tembladera culture, northern coast of Peru 900 - 400 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.267 Lost in a trance, this shaman offers himself as a sacrifice by cutting his intestines from his body.

14 Figurine of a shaman Paracas culture, southern coast of Peru 400 BC - 100 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.269 The facial decoration tells us that this figurine represents a shaman or a leader.

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17 Figurine of a shaman Nayarit culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.034

18 Portrait bust (incense burner) The Zapotec culture, Mexico 200-400 Terracotta Loan from the Flemish Community (308)

19 Figurine of a seated man Olmec culture, southern Mexico, Guatemala or El Salvador 1200 - 400 BC Brown stone MAS.IB.2010.017.016

15 20 Figurine of a man with a pestle Jar in the shape of a shaman and bowl Casas Grandes culture, southern Jalisco culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.036 The small bumps on this man’s shoulders are possibly self-inflicted scars.

United States 1200 -1450 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.007

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Mind-expanding plants and music

In pre-Colombian America, shamans could make use of various natural products to make them vomit, induce a trance and see visions. They saw colourful images or extraordinary beings. It gave them the illusion that they were flying above the earth or that they were transforming into animals.

One such hallucinogenic substance is the ground seeds of the Anadenanthera colubrina tree, better known as ‘vilca’. This powder was found on snuff trays that once belonged to the Tiwanaku culture in southern Peru and Bolivia. The present-day inhabitants of the Amazon region still use such plant-based substances.

Musical instruments were also vital for the trance a shaman had to induce.

The rhythm of instruments such as drums and rattles enchanted and inflamed them. Wind instruments such as ocarinas and shells provided a - sometimes faint - melody.

Coca with lime In the Andes, coca was and still is a common part of everyday life.

It can be compared to the drinking of coffee in developed countries.

Coca counteracts exhaustion, hunger and altitude sickness.

First the leaves are chewed, and then mixed in the mouth with the lime from shells. The lime is kept in hollow figurines called poporos.

Without the lime, the coca leaves have little effect.

Coca ban?

“Some people ignore all the benefits of coca. They talk and write negatively about this plant, just because the heathens in earlier days offered coca to their idols and because some sorcerers and prophets still do so. This is why these people think that the use of coca should be banned.”

The chronicler, “El Inca” Garcilaso de la Vega, wrote this in his Comentarios Reales de los Incas at the beginning of the 17th century.

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ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

Pre-Colombian musical instruments

Music played an important role in shamanistic rituals in pre-Colombian America, both at funerals and during religious ceremonies. Panpipes, trumpets and shells were popular instruments. Some figurines also served as small flutes. Percussion instruments, such as rattles and drums, produced a sweeping rhythm.

Luiz Marquez, a Mexican musician who lives in Antwerp, created replicas of a few of the instruments in this display case for the MAS. You will hear the authentic sounds originate from the ‘new’ instruments.

21 Ritual drinking cup (kero) for drinking or pouring maize beer Inca culture, Andes 1450 - 1533 Painted wood MAS.IB.2010.017.318

22 Pendant-rattle in the shape of a quail Costa Rica or Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.131

24 Bell in the shape of a conch shell Moche culture, northern coast of Peru 100 BC - 700 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.293 This small gold bell was sewn onto an item of clothing and produced a clear sound when the wearer moved.

Press the button underneath the display to listen to the musical instrument.

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23 Lip ornament with small rods

Zenu-cultuur, noordelijk Colombia 150 v.Chr.-1600 n.Chr Goud MAS.IB.2010.017.227

Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.228

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Kruik in de vorm van een sjamaan met een rammelaar

The small rods on the ornament jingled with every step.

Tembladera-cultuur, noordkust Peru 900-400 v.Chr. Aardewerk MAS.IB.2010.017.268

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27 Flute (ocarina) in the shape of a human

30 Flute in the shape of a human figure

Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Ceramics; gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.166

Veracruz culture, northern Gulf Coast of Mexico 400-900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.060

Press the button underneath the display to listen to the musical instrument.

The flute’s mouthpiece is located on the back just like two out of the three finger holes.

28 Figurine of a tumbling acrobat Press the button underneath the Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold (figurine: tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.223 This figurine was probably attached a top of a sceptre or to a headdress.

29 Two lip plugs Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Ceramics; gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.183-184 The lip plugs once had metal balls, which made them jingle when the wearer moved.

display to listen to the musical instrument.

31 Figurine in the shape of a zemi (supernatural being); spatula to induce vomiting Taino culture, Puerto Rico or Dominican Republic 1000 - 1524 Human bone MAS.IB.2010.017.141 en 142 To be able to address supernatural beings, a shaman had to cleanse himself by ritual fasting.

32 Spatula for removing lime from the lime bottle Calima culture, southern Colombia 100 - 1000 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.147 Taking out the lime from the bottle with a stick might symbolise the union of man and woman.

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33 Lime bottle in the shape of a naked man with jewellery Quimbaya culture, central Colombia 100 - 1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.152

34 Lime bottle in the shape of a feline man Wari culture, Peru 600 - 900 Wood MAS.IB.2010.017.300

35 Figurines of two men with coca quids NariĂąo culture, border region of Colombia and Ecuador 500 - 1600 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.195 en 196

36 A mortar in the shape of a feline creature

37 Pestle depicting a face Xochipala culture, province of Guerrero, western Mexico 1200 - 600 BC Greenstone MAS.IB.2010.017.029

38 Pendants in the shape of a man and women Quimbaya culture, central Colombia 100 - 1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.154 The flattened ends probably served as a tray for a snuff powder.

39 Tray and pipe for sniffing a mind-expanding powder Tiwanaku culture, southern Peru and northern Bolivia and Chile 600 - 900 Wood and turquoise MAS.IB.2010.017.304

Transition from the Valdivia to the Chorrera culture, northern coast of Ecuador 1500 - 600 BC Greenstone MAS.IB.2010.017.252

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Duality

Inhabitants of Mesoamerica survived mainly on the production of maize. This meant that they were extremely concerned with the balance between rain and sun. If this was upset, then nature’s fertility was threatened as was man’s continued existence.

The principle of unity between two opposites occurs throughout all aspects of precolumbian culture. Life and death form the most important duality. Sun and rain are also direct opposites, yet both are essential to produce new life.

The presentation of male and female powers often symbolises the necessary balance between two opposites.

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ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

A game of life and death Life and death were inextricably linked in precolumbian America. Death was necessary for the creation of new life. This was also apparent from the Mesoamerican ballgame, which was more a ritual than game.

According to a Maya myth, the gods of the underworld challenged the Maya Hero Twins. They played the ballgame against each other everyday, but the game remained undecided. Eventually, the Twins beheaded the gods of the underworld. Thus new life could be created; the brothers are reincarnated as the sun and moon and help new crops to grow.

This battle was re-enacted in the ballgame. The ritual often ended with one player being decapitated, symbolising the gods of the dead. His execution made new life possible. The many ballgame courts discovered throughout Mesoamerica prove how important this ritual was, and how prevalent this vision about life and death was.

40 Stone hip protectors (yugo's) for the ballgame Veracruz culture, northern Gulf Coast of Mexico 400 - 900 Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.056 en 057 The stone yugo symbolised the fabric hip protectors worn during the ballgame.

The hachas are always discovered with yugos, but their exact purpose in the ballgame is unclear.

41 Attribuut voor het balspel Attribute of the ballgame (axe head or hacha) Maya culture, southern Guatemala 250 - 900 Stone with traces of red pigment MAS.IB.2010.017.090 The ballgame is still played today as a sport with different rules.

Ancient images show that a heavy rubber ball was used in the past. It was probably rebounded using the elbows and hips, so proper protection was extremely necessary.

The stone U-shapes are probably imitations of the softer hip protectors that the players wore in the earthly life. Stone ones were given as burial gifts so that they would last forever.

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42 Cone-shaped penis sheath; breastplate depicting two breasts Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.225 en 226 The breastplate represented the important social and political role that women played among the Zenu.

43 Penis sheaths Nariño culture, border region of Ecuador and Colombia 500 - 1600 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.199 up to and including 201 Penis sheaths were usually made from shell, but when used as burial gifts, they were made from gold.Men did not wear these gold Colombian penis sheaths while they were alive.

These were placed in the grave as a symbol of male fertility.

The striking small gold breastplate was an ornament worn by men. By wearing this female symbol, men united the two powers that were necessary to create new life.

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44 Figurines of women Chupicuaro style, central Mexico 300 - 100 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.049, 050, 027, 048, 051 These Ceramics female figurines, the so-called ‘pretty ladies’, are found in Mexico and can be 3,000 years old.

The women are usually naked.

Ancient cultures around the world made figurines of women with broad hips and pronounced breasts, and sometimes with a pregnant belly.

They not only symbolised human fertility, but the fertility of the earth as well, and therefore, the success of the vitally important harvest.

45 Figurine of a woman on a small bench Tlatilco culture, central Mexico 1200 - 500 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.031

46 Figurine of a woman Central Highlands, Mexico 600 - 100 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.032

ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

47 Figurines of a woman lying down and of a woman with a headdress with a red dot

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Olmec culture, central Mexico 900 - 600 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.020 en 021

48 Jar in the shape of a pregnant woman Parita culture, central Panama 1000 - 1300 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.124

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The maize god reborn

Maize is just as important to Latin America as grain is to Western countries. The maize god is often depicted, as is the myth in which he dies and is reborn. This reincarnation means that the maize plants will grow again.

The Maya elite sometimes dressed themselves in clothes or jade jewellery that represented the maize god. Wearing these outfits, they took part in rituals during which they danced a re-enactment of the maize god’s rebirth.

The importance of maize is also evident in the myth about the Maya people being created from maize. Maize was part of the burial process, in the form of maize dough that was put in the mouth of the deceased, so that they were sure to have something to eat in the afterlife.

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ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

The staff god An image that has regularly cropped up in the Andes for the past 2,000 years is that of the staff god. This figure, portrayed from the front, holds a ‘staff’ in each hand, probably an agricultural tool. He was most likely responsible for fertility and a successful harvest.

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His helpers also held a staff. They were portrayed in profile, to his left and right. The figures are highly stylised when displayed on textiles. This makes them rather difficult to recognise.

49 Fabric with depictions of a figure with a staff Wari culture, Peru 600 - 900 Wool and cotton MAS.IB.2010.017.295

50 Two figurines in the shape of the Andes staff god Chavín culture, Peru 900 - 400 BC Shell and turquoise MAS.IB.2010.017.263

The head of the thunder god K’awil identifiable from the torch-like shape above - is reproduced at least five times in profile.

One Maya myth tells how man discovered maize after a bolt of lightning split open a stone in which the maize seed was concealed.

52 Drinking cup depicting the dancing maize god Maya culture, northern Guatemala 250 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.084

51 ‘Eccentric silex’

The glyphs tell us that this cup contained the popular cocoa drink.

Maya culture, border region of Guatemala and Honduras 250 - 900 Flint MAS.IB.2010.017.082

53 Necklace and earplugs

These razor-sharp shapes, the socalled ‘eccentric silex’, are too fragile to be used as cutting tools and were most likely used as offerings. The shape represents a lighting bolt.

Maya region, Mexico 250 - 900 Jade MAS.IB.2010.017.078 en 80 The green colour of this jewellery represented fertility and the growth of plants, including maize.

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54 Pendant with man in tailor pose

57 Two statute fragments in the shape of an elongated head

Maya-culture, border Mexico and Guatemala 250-900 Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.076

Maya culture, border region of Mexico and Guatemala 250 - 900 Plaster MAS.IB.2010.017.093

55 ‘Axes’ in the shape of an ear of maize Olmec culture, southern Gulf Coast of Mexico 1200 - 400 BC Greenstone (and red cloth) MAS.IB.2010.017.011 and 012

“The ultimate sacrifice and most illustrious offering was human blood, but this was only offered to important gods and concerning impassioned issues, for essential purposes and on special occasions.“ Chronicler Bernabé Cobo, Historia General de las Indias, 1653

One of the ceremonial axes bears a stylised depiction of the head of the maize god.

56 Three figurines of people with elongated heads and open mouths Olmec culture, Mexico 1200 - 400 BC Greenstone MAS.IB.2010.017.013 up to and including 015 The Maya tradition of making one’s head resemble an ear of maize originated from the Olmec.

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ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

Dead heads bring life The head had a special significance in precolumbian America. Many images display ritual decapitations, individual skulls and shrunken heads.

People would sometimes carry these with them. The numerous individual skulls that were discovered in temples, graves and under ballgame courts prove that decapitations were performed.

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According to the ancient inhabitants of the Andes and people from Mesoamerica, the gods took care of mankind in exchange for offerings. After all, they had sacrificed themselves when the world was created to give life to man. By offering human lives or blood, the balance in the universe was maintained and new life was guaranteed for man, animals and plants.

Instead of sacrificing members of their own community, warriors were often sent to capture enemies for this purpose. Winning a ‘trophy head’ made the warrior both triumphant and powerful. But the stakes were high: whoever lost was ritually decapitated during an elaborate theatrical display.

58 Two pendants in the shape of two warriors with bird or crocodile heads

60 Statue of a kneeling warrior with a trophy head in his hands

Azuero Peninsula, Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.132 and 133

Atlantic watershed and Central Highlands, Costa Rica 1000 - 1550 Basaltic lava MAS.IB.2010.017.104

The warriors are holding a knotshaped weapon.

59 Nose ornament depicting the bird hunt Moche culture, northern coast of Peru 100 BC - 700 AD Gold, silver and turquoise MAS.IB.2010.017.290

This dynamic statue stands out among the more static images from this period.

Many impressive stone sculptures of men holding a head and an axe have been found in Panama and Costa Rica.

They started to appear at a time when conflict arose between different communities. Without doubt, a trophy head was a symbol for new life and fertility.

The two hunters are holding a shield and a blow pipe.

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61 Statue of a naked standing man Atlantic watershed and Central Highlands, Costa Rica or Gran Chiriqui, border region of Costa Rica and Panama 800 - 1550 Basaltic lava MAS.IB.2010.017.105 This is possibly a statue of a prisoner of war, given the lack of clothing and jewellery.

62 Statue of a warrior with an animalistic mask Atlantic watershed and Central Highlands, Costa Rica 400 - 700 Basaltic lava MAS.IB.2010.017.102

63 Fighting men Colima culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.038

64 Waiting warrior Veracruz culture, northern Gulf Coast of Mexico 400 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.055 This warrior seems to be patiently waiting for his death.

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65 Smiling face figures Veracruz culture, northern Gulf Coast of Mexico 400 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.058 en 059 These figurines are known as smiling face figures. Many have been found along Mexico’s eastern coast. They sometimes carry musical instruments with them. Pits, filled with heads that had been broken off these figurines, were also discovered in the area.

These figurines most likely represent people who were first drugged and then happily surrendered to the music and dancing before they were ritually decapitated.

66 Tool for bloodletting Olmec culture, southern Gulf Coast of Mexico 1200 - 400 BC Jade MAS.IB.2010.017.010 The Maya elite were expected to occasionally sacrifice their own blood to appease the gods.

67 Cup in the shape of a human skull Chancay culture, central coast of Peru 1000 – 1450 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.313

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68 Forehead ornament depicting a human head Moche culture, northern coast of Peru 100 BC - 700 AD Gold (tumbaga) and shell MAS.IB.2010.017.287

72 Statue of a warrior Atlantic watershed and Central Highlands, Costa Rica 700 - 1520 Volcanic rock MAS.IB.2010.017.103

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The warrior holds a trophy head in his left hand.

69 ‘False head’ Wari culture, Peru 600 - 900 Cotton, feathers, silver, gold, human hair and bone MAS.IB.2010.017.298 The Wari wrapped their dead in several layers of cloth. A ‘false head’ was then attached on top of this mummy bundle.

70 Bead in the shape of a human head Moche culture, northern coast of Peru 100 BC - 700 AD Gold and lapis lazuli MAS.IB.2010.017.288 Wall paintings and human remains discovered in temples prove that decapitations were important rituals to the Moche.

71 Picture of a bird and a human head Moche culture, northern coast of Peru 100 BC - 700 AD Gold and turquoise MAS.IB.2010.017.289

73 Group of statues of a warrior with two dogs Veracruz culture, northern Gulf Coast of Mexico 400 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.054 This prisoner, with his two dogs, wears the headdress of the prairie wolf order of warriors. The only other things he wears are a loincloth and strange ear ornaments: his gold jewellery has been replaced with examples made of rope. The rest of his clothes have been removed. He is calm and collected in the face of his impending decapitation.

74 Jar depicting a rattlesnake Michoacán culture, western Mexico 300 - 700 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.047 The lowest band on this jar displays a highly stylised image of a snake.

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Alluring animals

An unimaginable number of different animal species live in the area stretching from the Mexican deserts to the Brazilian rainforest. The people who lived here had a special bond with many of them. In some cultures, a man had a ‘second soul’ in the guise of an animal. Some animals also symbolised energy or new life.

Animals that could live on more than one plane were particularly special to shamans: in our world, as well as in the watery underworld or in the upperworld. By taking on certain abilities of these animals, they could travel to these other worlds themselves. This practice is still in existence today.

Amphibians were of particular interest, as were butterflies because they change forms. Bats and owls, flying silently through the darkness, represented the world of night and death. Birds, the inhabitants par excellence of the world above, were very popular in Colombia as designs for gold jewellery.

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The snake, an inhabitant of two worlds

The snake was a frequently used symbol of fertility. Its fast zigzagging movements were reminiscent of lightning, which announced the summer rain. The repeated renewal of its skin represented new life.

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The snake could also survive in the water, and was according to pre-Colombian ideas, linked to the underworld. As such, they played an important part in shamanistic rituals.

The royal jaguar The jaguar is exceptionally fast, and can both swim and climb trees. It displays its superior ability in our world as well as in the watery underworld and the world above. Its skin is the colour of the sun and its call is reminiscent of thunder.

Not surprisingly, this animal played a leading role in myths and stories and was the ultimate symbol for royalty and warriors.

A remarkable lizard In Costa Rica, the plumed, or green, basilisk is a very common lizard. Shamans modelled themselves after this animal, which was able to move effortlessly through both the earthly and watery worlds.

The lizard can easily remain under water for half an hour, but can also run over the surface of the water at a speed of 10 kilometres an hour! Its nickname was later derived from this last characteristic: the Jesus Christ lizard.

75 Jar in the shape of an owl Cupisnique culture, northern coast of Peru 900 - 400 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.264 Coastal communities linked night birds such as the owl to the moon, which controlled the tides.

76 Small figures in the shape of flying fish Quimbaya culture, central Colombia 100 - 1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.155 and 156 As ‘inhabitants’ of the water and the air, flying fish unite the upperworld and the underworld.

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77 Small pendants in the shape of a crab and a turtle

81 Small pendant in the shape of a frog

Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.220 and 221

Gran Chiriqui, border region of Costa Rica and Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.114

78 Pendant in the shape of a crocodile-like Gran Chiriqui, border region of Costa Rica and Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.120

79 Pendants in the shape of two lizard-like creatures and a basilisk lizard CoclĂŠ region, Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.138 and 140

80 Pendant in the shape of two crocodile-like figures CoclĂŠ region, Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.140

82 Small pendant in the shape of a frog Gran Chiriqui, border region of Costa Rica and Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.113 Amphibians lived in both the watery underworld and our middle world.

83 Jar in the shape of fish Olmec culture, central Mexico 1200 - 400 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.024 The underworld was often regarded as a watery world full of fish and amphibians.

84 Jar in the shape of a water bird Olmec culture, central Mexico 1200 - 400 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.023 This water bird (a pelican?) inhabits the three worlds: it can fly, dive into the water and walk on land.

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85 Small pendant in the shape of two figures with a bat’s head

89 A pendant in the shape of a feline creature

Azuero Peninsula, Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.134

Gran Chiriqui, border region of Costa Rica and Panama 700 - 1520 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.122

86 Small pendant in the shape of a bat CoclĂŠ region, Panama 700-1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.129 As night creatures, bats were inhabitants of the underworld.

87 Small pendant in the shape of a monkey Gran Chiriqui, border region of Costa Rica and Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.118

88 Small pendants in the shape of three mammals with feline features Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold and tumbaga MAS.IB.2010.017.217 up to and including 219

90 Jar depicting a jaguar hide Maya culture, Honduras 250 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.088 This jar combines the shape of a pekari (peccary or skunk pig) with the spotted hide of a jaguar.

91 Jar in the shape of a feline head Cupisnique culture, northern coast of Peru 900 - 400 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.265

92 Feline statuette Tiwanaku culture, southern Peru and northern Bolivia 600 - 900 Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.303 The cross-shaped pattern on the arms is a combination of the tiered upperworld and the underworld.

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93 Statuette of a jaguar Moche culture, northern coast of Peru 100 BC - 700 AD Bronze and shell MAS.IB.2010.017.285

94 Jar in the shape of a jaguar Olmec culture, central Mexico 1200 - 400 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.022 When liquid was poured into the jar, a whistling sound issued from the holes in the ears.

95 Jar depicting a snake’s head

97 Pendant depicting a bird’s head Coclé region, Panama 450 - 900 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.125 This pendant displays a bird with a large headdress in the shape of a crocodile and snakes.

98 Pendants in the shape of a vulture and a bird Costa Rica or Panama 700 - 1520 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.110 and 112

Maya culture, northern Guatemala 250 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.089 The stylised snake opens its jaws, showing its triple tongue.

96 Pectoral ornament depicting different animals Costa Rica or Panama 700 - 1520 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.108 The pectoral ornament combines two birds’ heads, two feline heads and crocodiles in the headdress.

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GIFTS FOR THE AFTERLIFE

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The precolumbian cultures covered a large area and flourished during several millennia. Even so, the various cultures held the same ideas about the connection between life and death, which proves that many burial gifts were meant for the world after death or the journey to it.

Images of loving couples were symbols of hope. Fruit in pottery served as food for the next plane of existence.

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Four-legged companion Graves in Mesoamerica often contain skeletons or lifelike statuettes of dogs. Hairless dogs (itzcuintli) were very important in this region. They accompanied warriors on the battlefield and showed them the way to the next world after death.

The dogs were also kept for their meat. Few large animals were found on the continent before the Spaniards imported cows and pigs.

1 Statuette in the shape of a dog Colima culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.041 The black manganese specks are the result of corrosion in the base.

2 Vaas met afbeelding van een Jar depicting a ruler being carried in a sedan chair, accompanied by a small dog Maya culture, northern Guatemala 250 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.087 A small dog, servants and musicians accompanied the ruler to the afterlife.

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3 Jar in the shape of a howling dog Transition from Olmec to Maya culture, southern Guatemala 200 BC - 250 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.072

4 Jar in the shape of a gourd with its legs in the shape of parrots Colima culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Ceramics The deceased was given real food as well as depictions of food for the journey to the world of the dead.

ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

5 Figurine of a couple kissing

6 Figurines of couples

Jalisco or Nayarit culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.033

Colima culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.039 en 040

The depiction of couples symbolised the desire to still experience love even after death.

7 Jar in the shape of a couple with a child

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Vicus culture, northern coast of Peru 200 BC - 200 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.280

Adorned for eternity The graves of rulers and nobles contained large quantities of jewellery such as headbands, masks, breastplates and sceptres. Nose ornaments were often so large that they concealed the lower part of the face.

Some jewellery depicted elements of an earthly or mythical animal.

The wearer of this jewellery would be endowed with the powers of this animal in the next life.

8 Statue in the shape of a woman with jewellery and a fragment of a similar statue

9 Collection of jewellery: small pendant, nose ring and ear ornaments

The Tolita-Tumaco culture, border region of Ecuador and Colombia 600 BC - 400 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.254 and 255

The Tolita-Tumaco culture, border region of Ecuador and Colombia 600 BC - 400 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.259 up to and including 261

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10 Nose ornament Muisca culture, central Colombia 600 - 1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.163

11 Pendant in the shape of a man with jewellery Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.171 The man is wearing a clearly visible lip plug, a face mask and a large headdress.

12 Nose ornament

Nariño culture, border region of Ecuador and Colombia 500 – 1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.198

13 Five nose rings Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.233 up to and including 237 The jewellery is similar to that worn by the gold part-human/part-frog next to it.

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14 Necklace composed of 48 small plates Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.180

15 Pendant in the shape of a part-human/part-amphibian creature Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.205 This half-animal figure is wearing a necklace and an S-shaped nose ring.

16 Nose sticks Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.229 up to and including 232

17 Human-shaped ‘sceptre-heads’(?)

Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.224 It is unclear whether these pictures of figures with moon-shaped ear ornaments served as sceptre-heads.

ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

18 21 Earrings with lattice decoration Earrings or lip plugs Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.238 up to and including 240 These earrings are similar to those worn by the figure on the sceptre.

19 Ear ornaments with snakeshaped tips and lip plugs in the shape of a snake with forked tongue Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold and tumbaga MAS.IB.2010.017.185 up to and including 188, and MAS. IB.2010.017.193 and 194 These lip plugs were worn in the lower lip. They are similar to the jewellery worn by the figurine next to them.

20 Face ornament that was attached to a headband Calima culture, central Colombia 100 BC - 1000 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.146 This large face ornament with its many moving parts guaranteed that the wearer looked spectacular.

Quimbaya culture, central Colombia 100 - 1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.158

22 Ring or nose ornament depicting two birds

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Vicus culture, northern coast of Peru 200 BC - 200 AD Gold, turquoise and shell MAS.IB.2010.017.282

23 Pendant with small beads in the shape of parrots Moche culture, northern coast of Peru 100 BC - 700 AD Gold (tumbaga), shell and stone MAS.IB.2010.017.294

24 Two pairs of ear discs and a crown Chimu culture, northern coast of Peru 1100 - 1470 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.306 and 307 The ear discs and the crown repeatedly depict a man with a large moon-shaped headdress.

25 Mask and moon-shaped face ornament Sican culture, northern coast of Peru 900 - 1100 Gold and tumbaga MAS.IB.2010.017.309 en 310

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Death and the afterlife: various traditions

Every inhabitant of precolumbian America was convinced in an afterlife after death, but the ways in which it was presented differed from region to region. The Aztec and Maya described how their dead first had to travel through various underworlds in order to reach their final destination.

Women who died in childbirth and warriors who succumbed to death on the battlefield went directly to the sun and accompanied it on its daily journey.

Burial traditions also varied considerably across the enormous continent. Urns were used in some regions; the dead were given stone ‘beds’ in others. Some dead were cremated, while others were buried.

Simple folk were often placed in a humble grave under or next to a house. Rulers, priests and nobles were buried with great care.

Mummy bundles The Paracas peoples placed their dead in a reed basket, in a squatting position, completely wrapping them in fabric. A cloth with the image of a head was placed on top of these mummy bundles. The bodies of prominent persons were wrapped in layers upon layers of long and beautiful fabrics.

Teams of weavers could spend 30,000 man-hours to produce a single one of these cloths. The fabrics were exceptionally well-preserved because the mummy bundles were buried in the extremely dry desert soil of southern Peru.

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Island of the dead

The Maya elite were buried on Jaina Island, to the west of the mainland, with a view on the setting sun. The thousands of graves on this island of the dead contain luxurious burial gifts.

The Ceramics figurines are particularly striking. They were made with exceptional skill and provide an excellent example of the clothing, the ornamentation and even the professions of the wealthy Maya.

26 Jar depicting a being that is part-human and part-animal

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29 Stone grave furniture

Macaracas culture, central Panama 800 - 1000 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.123

Atlantic watershed and Central Highlands, Costa Rica 400 - 700 Basaltic lava MAS.IB.2010.017.101

This is probably an urn in which human remains were buried a second time.

This worked stone shape resembles a large millstone, but was probably a bed for a corpse or a symbolic throne.

27 Two fragments of fabric and a ‘false head’ for a mummy bundle Paracas culture, southern coast of Peru 400 BC - 100 AD Wool and cotton MAS.IB.2010.017.270 and 271

28 Burial gifts Maya culture, Jaina Island, Mexico 250 - 900 MAS.IB.2010.017.096 up to and including 100

30 Burial urns in which the bones were buried for a second time Marajó culture, mouth of the Amazon in Brazil 400 - 1350 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.325 Only the edges of this urn protruded from the ground. It contained the bones in the lower part with the skull on top.

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EXOTIC, BEAUTIFUL AND SIGNIFICANT

46 46

The first encounter Europeans had with Precolumbian objects followed Christopher Columbus’s ‘discovery’ of America in 1492. Everything from the new continent was exotic, and was eagerly collected.

Today’s collectors especially value the aesthetic qualities of these works. Excavations are still uncovering objects that are striking in their beauty and craftsmanship and for the particular materials from which they are made.

To archaeologists, the idea of ‘art for art’s sake’ is problematic. They see these objects primarily as a source of information about the customs and ideas of the original population. The creations of painters, sculptors, goldsmiths and weavers do indeed tell us more about their use in daily life, in rituals or as grave gifts. But it is still extremely difficult to determine their exact significance.

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Gold and Copper

Most prehispanic objects from South America are made not from pure gold, but from tumbaga. This alloy of gold and copper becomes molten at a lower temperature. It is also harder and therefore less fragile.

The disadvantage of a copper alloy is that it turns green when exposed to oxygen. To eliminate this problem, the goldsmiths developed a special technique: they burned the copper away from the visible parts of their creations.

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Goldworking

The first golden figurines and jewellery were made in Peru circa 1500 BC. The technique gradually penetrated into Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica.

The Mixtec in Mexico also became acquainted with these techniques in around 800 AD. The Aztecs forced the Mixtec to relocate to the capital, Tenochtitlan, some 500 kilometres away, because of their exceptional skills.

1 Figurine of a woman Tolita-Tumaco culture, border region of Ecuador and Colombia 600 BC - 400 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.262

2 Ear ornaments Tolita-Tumaco culture, border region of Ecuador and Colombia 600 BC - 400 AD Gold and emerald MAS.IB.2010.017.256 and 258

3 Ceremonial headpiece(?)

Tolita-Tumaco culture, border region of Ecuador and Colombia 600 BC - 400 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.257 The depicted head shows a shaman transforming into a feline.

4 Pendants in the shape of a stylised figure and a stylised face

4

Quimbaya culture, central Colombia 100 -1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.157 and 153 The crescent-shaped headdress was widespread, but its significance is still unclear.

5 Small pendant in the shape of a bird and figurine of a two-headed animal Uraba culture, border region of Colombia and Panama 500-1600 Gold and tumbaga MAS.IB.2010.017.202 and 203 The small plates on the pendants moved when the wearer moved. This produced a subtle sound and created a feeling of energy.

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6 Pectoral ornament in the shape of a stylised bird

11 Spiral-shaped pectoral ornaments

NariĂąo culture, border region of Ecuador and Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.197

Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.189 up to and including 190 The spiral shape may represent the cyclical passage of time.

7 Nose ornament San AgustĂ­n culture, southwest Colombia 100 - 800 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.143

8 Small pendant in the shape of a man with a mask Calima culture, central Colombia 100 BC - 1000 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.148

9 A pair of ear ornaments and three pectoral ornaments Muisca culture, central Colombia 600 - 1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.162 and 164

10 Links from a necklace; two pairs of ear ornaments Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold and emerald; gold, tumbaga MAS.IB.2010.017.181, 191 and 192 50

12 Pectoral ornament in the shape of a man in transformation Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.172 and 173 The man has wings, a fishtail and is wearing a mushroom hat. His face is concealed by a staff.

13 Pendant in the shape of a disc with animals; pectoral ornament in the shape of a bird with a large headdress; nose ornament in the shape of a butterfly Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.177, 176 and 182 Two jaguars with open mouth can be seen at the top of the disc, and underneath two bird heads.

ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

14 Two small pendants in the shape of two-headed animals Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.178 and 179 The heads have feline characteristics, the tail transforms into a crocodile’s with frog’s legs.

15 A set of earrings depicting a man with wings wearing a mushroom hat Zenu-cultuur, noordelijk Colombia Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.247

17 Three sets and three singular ear ornaments with a filigree pattern Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.241 up to and including 246 A small bird can be seen at the top of some of the ear ornaments.

18 Pectoral ornaments in the shape of stylised birds

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Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold and tumbaga MAS.IB.2010.017.210 up to and including 214

16 Small pendant in the shape of a head with a nose ring; pendant in the shape of a part-human/part-butterfly creature Zenu culture, northern Colombia 150 BC - 1600 AD Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.208 and 209

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Inspiring Many European artists and collectors were inspired by objects from non-Western areas. For example, Pablo Picasso incorporated African masks and so forth in his paintings.

Later, the almost abstract formal idiom of Precolumbian objects became more widely known, in the works of the sculptor Henry Moore, for example, and the architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Less abstract objects, such as Maya ceramics and Moche vases from Peru, were also a source of inspiration to artists such as Paul Gauguin.

In Mexico, the painters Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera especially admired the figurines from western Mexico: in their view they symbolised the Mexican peoples’ zest for life.

19 Statue of a warrior

21 Figurine of a woman

Jalisco culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD MAS.IB.2010.017.037

Maya culture, Jaina Island, Mexico 250 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.095

The round art form and realism of these figurines made them highly valuable to collectors.

20 Figurine of a man Maya culture, Jaina Island, Mexico 250 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.327 Many of the figurines found on Jaina Island have remarkably lifelike faces.

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Many of the figurines found on Jaina Island have remarkably lifelike faces.

22 Bowl on four legs, each in the shape of a human leg Xochipala culture, western Mexico 1200 - 600 BC Greenstone MAS.IB.2010.017.028 This bowl was hewn from a single piece of greenstone. A great deal of time was devoted to the extraordinary legs.

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23 Highly stylised figure Mezcala culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.045

24 Jar in the shape of a singing bird Tlatilco culture(?), Central Mexico 1200 - 500 BC Ceramics (porcelain) MAS.IB.2010.017.030 This perfectly proportioned bird is made from glazed porcelain that reflects the light.

25 Jar and bowl in the shape of a calabash tree (tecomate)

27 Hollow statue in the shape of a woman Chorrera culture, Ecuador 900 - 300 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.253 This statue was one of the first in the northern Andes made by using a mould.

28 Jar in the shape of a human head Moche culture, northern coast of Peru 100 BC - 700 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.286 Some of these world-famous portrait pots seem to depict the same person at different ages.

Tlatilco culture(?), Central Mexico 1200 - 500 BC Ceramics (porcelain) and stone MAS.IB.2010.017.025 and 026

29 Bowl with two human-shaped handles

The production of this kind of thin Ceramicss and striking coloured stone sculptures demanded considerable craftsmanship.

Inca culture, Andes 1450 -1533 Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.317

26 Jar made from exceptionally finely tooled jade

De maker van deze kom liet vakThe producer of this bowl skilfully incorporated the grey line running through the stone into the faces.

Maya culture, northern Guatemala 250 - 900 Jade MAS.IB.2010.017.081

‘When we discovered them, the first time we entered the province (de los armas) with Captain Jorge Robledo, I remember that Indians were seen fitted out from head to toe in gold’.’

Pedro Cieza de Léon in his Cronica del Perú, 1533

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Symbolic Wealth

To the inhabitants of early America, gold had nothing to do with material wealth. It had only a ritual significance: because of its colour and brilliance, it symbolised the sun.

Gold represented fertility and vital energy. It was worn only by the elite and shamans. As a symbol of new life after death, gold jewellery was a valuable burial gift.

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Gold Fever Spanish adventurers in Mexico soon heard rumours about fabulous golden riches and even about a golden city somewhere to the south. Expeditions feverishly scoured the Amazon forest, but their searches were in vain.

Meanwhile, throughout the Inca kingdom tombs and temples were looted.

Today, the same fever has led many foreign mining companies to exploit the Andes region. The consequences for man and the environment are drastic.

30 Ring or nose ornament with two birds at the top and a feline head on the side Vicus culture, northern coast of Peru 200 BC - 200 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.283 The Vicus goldsmiths were highly skilled at soldering small components.

31 Flat nose ornament depicting three birds; small pendant depicting four spiders Vicus culture, northern coast of Peru 200 BC - 200 AD Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.284 and 281

32 Nose ornament depicting birds in silver; nose ornament and ear ornaments with small discs of turquoise Moche culture, northern coast of Peru Silver, silver plate and turquoise; gold and turquoise 150 BC - 700 AD MAS.IB.2010.017.291 and 292 The movement of the small discs of turquoise and gold created a fascinating play of light and sound.

33 Nose ring depicting two sets of two birds; head ornament in the shape of a feather headdress Nasca culture, southern coast of Peru 100 BC - 600 AD Gold and copper plate MAS.IB.2010.017.278 and 279 Feathers derived from tropical birds were in coastal areas so rare that they were sometimes reproduced in gold.

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34 Bowl with circles Inca culture, Andes 1450 - 1533 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.319 The Spaniards melted down almost all the Inca gold, which is why this large bowl is such a rare find.

35 Pendant in the shape of a figure wearing a nose ornament and headdress; pectoral Panama 400 - 900 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.127 and 126 A figure on a bench usually represented someone with status, such as a ruler or shaman.

36 Plate depicting a crocodilelike animal; round plate Costa Rica or Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.137 and 136 These pieces look like mirrors, but were worn as pendants.

37 A pendant in the shape of a feline creature Gran Chiriquí, border region of Costa Rica and Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.121 The symbolism of these animals holding a human arm or leg between their jaws is unclear.

38 Pendant in the shape of fangs, decorated with discs; pendant in the shape of a bird; pendant in the shape of a composite creature; small pendants in the shape of figures and bordered by a ribbon Gran Chiriquí, border region of Costa Rica and Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.107, 109, 111, 116 and 117

39 Small pendant in the shape of a figure wearing a braid and headdress; small pendant in the shape of a part human/ part animal creature, bordered by a square frame Gran Chiriquí, border region of Costa Rica and Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.119 and 115 The headdress is in the shape of a deer’s antlers.

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40 Plate depicting composite creatures; pendants in the shape of a crocodile and a fish Coclé region, Panama 700 - 1520 Gold MAS.IB.2010.017.135, 128 and 130 Snake-like ribbons spout from the mouth of the fish. They become the head of a crocodile.

41 Necklace with turtle-shaped beads Pendant in the shape of a shield, previously filled with turquoise Earring in the shape of a bird’s head, with a decorative plate and bells Earring in the shape of the head of “Yacatecuhtli”, the god of travelling merchants Lip plug in the shape of a bird Ring depicting a detailed head, decorated with bells Ornaments in various shapes meant to be sewn onto items of clothing(?)

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Aztec-Mixtec-Zapotec, Mexico 1450 - 1521 Gold and turquoise MAS.IB.2010.017.063 - 069 Goldworking only appeared in Mexico circa 900 AD.

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Treasures from the Sea

In Peru, the commonest shell used for making jewellery was that of the thorny oyster. This shell has a spiny exterior and a glossy, reddish interior. It was therefore associated with blood, but of course also with water and rain.

The conch shell was used as a musical instrument. It was scarce and therefore exceptionally valuable. Sailors had to travel in reed boats to the warmer Ecuadorian waters and dive to a depth of 30 metres in order to find them.

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Green and blue gold Jade was rare, and therefore much loved by the nobility from Mexico to Panama. The Olmec and the Maya used jade to make a great many figurines and jewellery. To them, the green-blue colour was a symbol of water and fresh vegetation.

Because Maya rulers were the guardians of the fertility of nature and men, they wore a great deal of jade jewellery during their lives, as well as, and perhaps more importantly, after their death.

42 Statuette (amulet?) in the shape of a whale Old Bering Sea culture, Punuk phase, western Alaska 500 - 1200 Ivory derived from sea creatures MAS.IB.2010.017.004

43 Finger mask Yup’ik group, southwest Alaska Early 20th century Wood MAS.IB.2010.017.006

44 Statuette (amulet?) in the shape of an animal

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45 Shamanistic set(?)

Alaska or Canada Date unknown Ivory derived from sea creatures, graphite and bear fur MAS.IB.2010.017.003 The stone shape is filled with bear fur, a pebble and a figurine of a woman made from ivory.

46 Head broken off from a figurine; face in ivory Old Bering Sea culture, Okvik phase, western Alaska 250 BC - 100 AD Ivory derived from sea creatures MAS.IB.2010.017.001 and 002

Tlingit culture, northwest coast of Alaska or Canada 1700 - 1800 Ivory derived from sea creatures MAS.IB.2010.017.005

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47 Earplug depicting the rain god Tlaloc Maya culture, northern Guatemala 250 - 900 Shell and jade MAS.IB.2010.017.075 The god Tlaloc was associated with water, as were shells and the green colour of jade.

48 Pendant depicting a man’s profile (a ruler?)

Maya culture, northern Guatemala 250 - 900 Shell and cinnabar or hematite MAS.IB.2010.017.074 A headdress in the shape of a crocodile’s head is depicted above the face.

49 Ear ornaments and necklace units inlaid with a mosaic of shell and stone Wari culture, Peru 600 - 900 Shell and several types of stone MAS.IB.2010.017.301 and 302

50 Bowl in gossamer-thin alabaster with engraved images Maya culture, western Honduras 250 - 900 Alabaster and vermilion MAS.IB.2010.017.092 The underside of this bowl depicts a basket with feathers that was worn on the back during ritual dances.

51 Bowl made from marble with the stylised image of a face Maya culture, western Honduras 250 - 900 Marble MAS.IB.2010.017.091 Bowls were almost always produced from Ceramicss and rarely from stone.

52 Emerald statuettes of frogs, an owl and a masked person Tairona culture, northern Colombia 500 - 1600 Emerald MAS.IB.2010.017.168 The croaking of frogs announced rain. The emerald’s green colour also represented water.

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53 Miniature mask(?) in bluegreen stone

56 Statue of a seated water goddess

Olmec culture, southern Gulf Coast of Mexico 1200 - 400 BC Light greenstone or jadeite MAS.IB.2010.017.017

Aztec culture, Mexico 1450 - 1521 White onyx MAS.IB.2010.017.070

Both the shape, which resembles a kernel of maize, and the green colour represent fertility.

54 Various lip plugs Aztec-Mixtec-Zapotec, Mexico 1450 - 1521 Including metal, obsidian, turquoise, gold leaf and rock crystal (quartz) MAS.IB.2010.017.062 The plug was inserted through the lower lip and fixed in place between the lip and lower teeth by means of a wide rim.

The rare onyx was much sought after by the Aztecs because of its colour and translucent effect.

‘The cotton garments they made appeared so fine that we thought they were made from silk. They were decorated with figures in gold leaf.

Exquisitely made.’

From Cristóbal de Mena(?), La Conquista del Perú. llamada la Neuva Castilla. The author was one of the first Spanish soldiers in Peru. He wrote these words in 1534.

55 Earplugs in the shape of a parrot’s head Maya culture, central Guatemala 250 - 900 Jade MAS.IB.2010.017.079

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Fabric for future generations

Textiles and feathers that end up in the ground during a burial are not usually well preserved. Moisture in the soil is sure to break down such material, even after just a few decades.

However, fabrics from pre-Columbian times, made from cotton, wool or feathers, are an exception. After being buried in Peru's extremely arid desert ground, they are still in excellent condition after many centuries. The colours have not or have barely faded and the quality of the fabric is still quite exceptional.

Nonetheless, any material made of fabric is very fragile and artificial light can damage the colours. Also, displaying these canvases in a vertical manner does not help with their conservation.

This is why the MAS took a joint decision with the Flemish Community and Dora Janssen, to exhibit each of the preColumbian canvases from the Janssen-Arts collection in rotation.

Two textiles will be on display for a six-month period - both taken from the Janssen-Arts collection, or alternated with a canvas from the MAS collection - so that we can guarantee that the remaining canvases are stored for a time in a horizontal position and in complete darkness in the depot.

In this way we hope that these unique objects will be preserved for many centuries to come, and thus remain for future generations.

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Feathers from afar The feathers for these phenomenal creations originate from the many brightly coloured birds in the tropical rainforest to the east of the Andes.

Just like the wool from llamas, alpacas or vicuĂąas from the mountains, the feathers were transported over? a considerable distance to the coastal region.

An extensive trading network must have existed across the heights and through the different climactic zones of the Andes mountain range.

More Valuable than Gold These textiles made from cotton and wool, which were found in graves in the Andes, are renowned for their complexity and for their colours, which thanks to the dry desert soil are still exceptionally well-preserved after 2000 years.

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To the peoples of the Andes, textiles were much more valuable than gold.

The complicated weaving technique was very time-consuming, and transporting the cotton and wool was also a massive undertaking.

57 Gourd filled with wooden shapes of birds and fish and decorated with feathers Nasca culture, southern coast of Peru 100 BC - 600 AD Gourd, wood and feathers MAS.IB.2010.017.277 Perhaps the miniature birds represent hummingbirds, whose brightly coloured feathers were greatly desired.

58 String of feathers and two stuffed paradise tanagers Nasca culture, southern coast of Peru 100 BC - 600 AD Cotton and feathers MAS.IB.2010.017.274 This beautifully coloured bird from the Amazon Rainforest was also highly treasured in coastal areas.

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59 Wooden tubes decorated with feathers, two wrapped in maize leaves Nasca culture, southern coast of Peru 100 BC - 600 AD Wood, feathers, maize leaves and cotton MAS.IB.2010.017.276 Were these samples of feather types?

Perhaps they were sacrificial gifts?

Or were they a burial gift for a feather artist?

60 Miniature tunic (uncu) with the openings for the neck and arms sewn up

62 Pendant in the shape of a quetzal Guanacaste-Nicoya region, western Costa Rica 300 - 700 MAS.IB.2010.017.106 The brightly coloured quetzal, with its long tail, was revered from Mexico to Panama.

63 Cloth bag with pins or needles Wari culture, Peru 600-900 Reed, wool and cactus needles MAS.IB.2010.017.296

Wari culture, Peru 600 - 900 Cotton and feathers MAS.IB.2010.017.297

Graves of weavers sometimes contained all the implements of their trade: yarns of wool or cotton, pins and needles.

Many of these miniature feathered uncus were discovered in a grave in southern Peru. Their purpose is unknown.

64 Pin with pearl

61 Cloak depicting two warriors with an arbitrator between them Chancay culture, central coastal area, Peru 1000 - 1450 AD Wool and cotton MAS.IB.2010.017.312 Ritual fights (tinku) are still held in the Andes today.

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Chimu culture, northern coast of Peru 1100 - 1470 Gold and mother-of-pearl MAS.IB.2010.017.308 This pin holds the only known pearl from pre-Colombian America.

65 Earplugs in the shape of a face decorated with feathers Chimu culture, northern coast of Peru 1100 - 1470 Wood, feathers and silver MAS.IB.2010.017.305

ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

66 Cloak depicting the outlined images of birds and snakes

67c Tunic or piece of interior decorative fabric in feathers

Nasca culture, Peru 100 BC - 600 AD Wool and cotton MAS.IB.2010.017.273

Wari culture, Peru 600 - 900 Cotton and feathers MAS.IB.2010.017.299

The central square holds two red snakes. The borders display two birds with outstretched wings.

Although this fabric is more than 1000 years old, the colours are still vibrant.

67a Headdress decorated with an animal’s skull Camarones culture, northern Chile 1500 - 500 BC Animal skull, fur, feathers, wood, strands of wool and hair MAS.IB.2010.017.323

67d Tunic (uncu) depicting stylised pelicans(?)

Chancay or Chimu culture, central and northern coast of Peru 1000 - 1450 Wool and cotton MAS.IB.2010.017.311

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This exceptionally old headdress from the extremely dry Atacama Desert coastline is surprisingly well preserved.

67b Tunic in feathers depicting a sun or a star Nasca culture, Peru 100 BC - 600 AD Cotton and feathers MAS.IB.2010.017.275 The feathers were attached to long threads that were then sewn on to the cotton fabric.

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Maya Mysteries

‘Of the moral effect of the monuments themselves, standing as they do in the depths of a tropical forest, silent and solemn, strange in design […], their uses and purposes and whole history so entirely unknown with hieroglyphics explaining all, but being perfectly unintelligible, I shall not pretend to convey any idea. Often the imagination was pained in gazing at them.’

Diplomat and traveller John Lloyd Stephens in 1841 on Maya monuments

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Science never stands still The Maya culture is probably the most famous and most studied preColombian culture. Yet, new excavations and new research mean that we constantly have to adjust our ideas.

Sacrificial Children For a long time the purpose of these Inca figurines was unclear. Recent excavations at sites over 4,000 metres high in the Andes reveals that they were placed in children’s graves. Examination of the frozen bodies has shown that the children were violently killed.

Early colonial writings describe capac cocha rituals: following a natural disaster, children of the elite were brought to the mountains, drugged and put to death as sacrifices to the gods.

68 Figurine for mounting on a staff or a sacrificial figurine

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70 Capac cocha female figurines

Inca culture, Andes 1450 - 1533 Silver and bronze MAS.IB.2010.017.316

Inca culture, Andes 1450 - 1533 Silver, feathers, wool and cotton; shell Shell MAS.IB.2010.017.314 and 315

69 Three female figurines

71 Two statuettes of llamas

Inca culture, Andes 1450 - 1533 Gold and silver MAS.IB.2010.017.320

Inca culture, Andes 1450 - 1533 Gold and silver MAS.IB.2010.017.321

Similar female figurines were discovered at capac cocha sacrifice sites on mountaintops.

Similar llama statuettes were discovered at capac cocha sacrifice sites on mountaintops.

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72 Figurine in the shape of a man on a small bench

76 Cup in the so-called “codex style”

Transition from Olmec to Maya culture, Guatemala 700 - 500 BC Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.071

Maya culture, northern Guatemala 250 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.085

Figures on benches usually represented rulers or dignitaries.

The black drawing on a white background is reminiscent of the Maya pictographies, the “codices”.

73 Bowl depicting a banquet Maya culture, northern Guatemala 250 - 900 Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.086

74 Scale-model of a palace Maya culture, southern Guatemala 250 - 900 Ceramics with traces of red and black pigment MAS.IB.2010.017.073

75 Part of a headdress or hair band in the shape of a small head (hu’unal) Maya culture, border region of Guatemala and Honduras 250 - 900 Jade MAS.IB.2010.017.077 This small head was the royal symbol par excellence.

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Speaking Objects

Researchers want to find out what people did in early America and how they thought. Therefore, they find and study objects that predate the Spanish conquest. Whether these are beautiful or valuable in our own eyes is not important. What matters is the information and stories they contain: why or for what were they made? What do they depict? What do they say about a culture?

Allowing an object to ‘speak’ is not easy. There is virtually no first-hand information available. Most cultures had no writing system, for instance. Moreover, the majority of the population died from Western diseases as an immediate consequence of the Spanish conquest. Chroniclers who wrote down their stories after the conquest were undoubtedly interpreting things through their own eyes and in terms of their own traditions. Many objects thus provide more questions than answers.

Prehispanic traditions that still survive today are a source of information, as are old stories.

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Old and not so old puzzles These objects from very diverse regions and times share one common characteristic: they still puzzle us. The figurines from Ecuador are at least 3500 years old. Their purpose is unknown.

The stone staff also has a simple form, but was made around 1500 AD, possibly even after the Spanish conquest. However, we are still unsure of its use.

Mysterious masks and babies We know virtually nothing with any certainty about these masks and babies, especially since we usually do not know the original location where they were found. The masks were possibly used in rituals or processions.

Or were they attached to the faces of wooden statues or the heads of the deceased?

The clay babies were made by the Olmec, just like two of the masks. The Olmec were one of the earliest known cultures in Mexico. Perhaps they served as a resting place for the soul?

77 Architectural models Calima culture, southern Colombia 100 BC - 1000 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.144 It is possible that the largest model represents a temple with dwellings or storehouses around it.

78 Sceptre, staff, statue or pendant in the shape of a stylised parrot Mapuche culture, Chile 1200 - 1700 Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.324 Very little is known about the early history of the Mapuche. The purpose of this piece remains a mystery.

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79 Figurine of a man wearing a wide band around his waist and a large hat Teotihuacan culture, central Mexico 150 - 700 AD Greenstone MAS.IB.2010.017.052 These early Teotihuacan figurines are extremely rare. The purpose of the large hat is unknown.

80 Figurine of a woman with one leg broken off Valdivia culture, central Ecuador 3500 - 1500 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.248 When examining these very early figurines, researchers initially thought they were related to fertility; new information tells us these could be shamanistic tools as well.

81 Figurines of a stylised female figure and of an owl(?)

Valdivia culture, central Ecuador 3500 - 1500 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.249 up to and including 251 These are the oldest pieces in the Janssen-Arts collection. Their purpose is unclear.

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82 Architectural models Calima culture, southern Colombia 100 BC - 1000 AD Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.145 It is possible that the largest model represents a temple with dwellings or storehouses around it.

83 Architectural models Mezcala culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.043 and 044 Do these models represent temples in our world, or are they a portal to another world?

84 Mask Alamito culture, Argentina 200 - 450 Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.322

85 Mask Mezcala culture, western Mexico 300 BC - 300 AD Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.046

ART FROM PRE - COLUMBIAN AMERICA

86 Figurines in the shape of babies Olmec culture, central or western Mexico 1200 - 400 BC Ceramics MAS.IB.2010.017.018 and 019 Are these babies a symbol of the supernatural? The Olmec associated unusual body shapes with special powers.

87 Masks

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Olmec culture, southern Gulf Coast of central Mexico 1200 - 400 BC Blue jadeite with traces of red pigment and stone MAS.IB.2010.017.008 and 009

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Masks Teotihuacan culture, central Mexico 150 - 700 Stone MAS.IB.2010.017.053

89 Statue in the shape of a man Huastec culture, northern Gulf Coast of Mexico 700 - 1521 Limestone MAS.IB.2010.017.061 This fairly flat sculpture was probably part of an architectural element.

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PROMISING RESEARCH

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The pieces from the Janssen-Arts collection do not originate from documented excavations. Often we therefore know little or nothing of their original context. Where were they buried? How were they made and what are they made of ? How old are they really? Until recently we still lacked the answers to such questions. But there is hope.

With the development of so-called hard science research, we are able to find out more and more about these objects. For example, thanks to C14 research we can now put a date on many objects. In the case of human remains isotope analysis allows us to reconstruct somebody's diet and geographical origin. And electromagnetic radiation can be used to identify the components and manufacturing method of metal objects.

In collaboration with the KIK-IRPA laboratory in Brussels, we show how research has recently allowed more details to be unearthed with regard to individual items with no context.

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Down to the minutest detail

Research that physically affects an object is challenging for museums. That's why other methods have been developed.

Techniques such as digital microscopy and X-rays can reveal a lot about the composition of objects and the way they were made.

One method used in this research was digital microscopy. This involves magnifying an object up to two thousand times its normal size. This illustrates the artist's skill down to the minutest detail.

X-rays are used to examine objects, revealing separate parts along with any seams and fractured metal.

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A tiny sample for some new insights

We are forced to 'damage' objects a tiny bit in order to research their internal composition and structure. A sample was taken from the two objects shown using a jeweller's saw. Surface: 1 mm2.

Metallographic research and raster electron microscopy was combined with X-ray analysis, in order to answer a number of questions: was the metal cast? Was it handled when it was hot or cold? Does the internal composition match what's on the surface? This allows us to discover more about ancient techniques.

1 Votive offering (tunjo) in the shape of a warrior with a quiver and a man with a staff Muisca culture, central Colombia 600-1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.159 and 160 These typical Muisca tunjos were thrown into lakes in hopes of getting a wish fulfilled or as thanks for the fulfilment of a wish.

2 Votive gift (tunjo) in the shape of a snake Muisca culture, central Colombia 600 - 1600 Gold (tumbaga) MAS.IB.2010.017.161

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These typically flat votive figurines were thrown into lakes in hopes of getting a wish fulfilled or as thanks for the fulfilment of a wish.

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Colophon

Concept and Realisation

Martn Berger, curator 'The collection Paul and Dora Janssen-Arts' and 'Promising research' Annelies Valgaeren, curator 'Life and death in pre-colombian America', 'Gifts for the afterlife', 'Exotic, beautiful and significant'

Scenography and Execution

B-architecten, Meyvaert: 'Life and death in pre-colombian America', 'Gifts for the afterlife', 'Exotic, beautiful and significant' (2011) Kinkorn: ‘The collection Paul and Dora Janssen-Arts' and 'Promising research' (2018)

Translation (English) Oneliner

Layout and typesetting Ann Walkers, BAI (2018)

Publisher

BAI for MAS

D/2018/5751/15

Š Textes: MAS, BAI and the authors.

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Lenders

Museum Plantin Moretus, Antwerp Flemisch Community

Thanks to

Caroline Bastiaens, Alderman for Culture, and her staff, volunteers and interns at Antwerpen Kunstenstad and all colleagues involved from the City of Antwerp.

The MAS also thanks Dora Janssen, the Flemisch community and the Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage for their cooperation.

The publishers has sought to apply the statutory provisions pertaining to copyright.

Nevertheless, any parties believing that they are entitled to copyright are requested to contact the MAS (mas@stad.antwerpen.be)

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MAS Hanzestedenplaats 1 B - 2000 Antwerpen www.mas.be +32 (0) 3 338 44 00

Do you want to read the texts again?

The visitors guide is available in the MASshop for 5â‚Ź