MAS | Life and Death (ENG)

LIFE AND DEATH On Gods and Men

EN

The Testimony Forest Scattered around, like trees whispering in a forest, are testimonies to listen to.

People from Antwerp give their personal views of what happens after death.

Neither one of them is tied to a single, particular culture or religion.

Dutch testimonies from: Stijn Punt, Jamuna Mampaey, Evans Eguavoen, Teutë Kllokoqi, Nadine Iarchy, Patricia Lopez, Ramona Verma, Bobette Ngiedi Lelo, George Nuku (English), Sona Shah Concept: Isabelle van den Broeke and Chris De Lauwer Realisation and production: BAI – MAS – Tempora, 2010

LIFE AND DEATH - ON GODS AND MEN -

Where do we come from? Where will we go to? For centuries myths and religions, philosophers and scholars have been looking for answers to these questions.

Each culture tries to understand, to explain, to give a meaning. The answers differ widely, but there are similarities too. For instance, most of the time they associate death with new life.

Works of art and ritual objects, stories and music, reflect the diversity of interpretations and the intense need for ritual. In Antwerp too, that melting pot of cultures, the great questions and answers echo in every language.

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OCEANIA - p. 44 AFRICA - p. 22 -

EGYPT - p. 4 -

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ASIA - p. 76 -

ASIA - p. 58 -

IA NI IST CH R

AM

ISL

RELIGIONS OF THE BOOK - p. 94 -

TY

JUDAISM

LIBERAL HUMANISM - p. 128 -

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EGYPT

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ANCIENT EGYPT - LIFE AFTER DEATH To the ancient Egyptians, death was not the end. They believed in the afterlife and hoped that eventually they might dwell with the gods, such as the sun god, Amun-Ra, and Osiris, ruler of the kingdom of the dead.

But first, the dead had to make a long and perilous journey through the underworld (Duat). In order to accomplish it safely they were buried with the Book of the Dead, which contained instructions for their passage into the afterlife.

And to ensure that life after death was pleasant and lavish, they were also provided with food and equipment. Long after a person had died, the family would continue to visit the front chamber of the tomb to make offerings of food and drink and to pray.

The tomb was therefore very important, and those of the elite received much attention. Pharaohs were initially buried in and beneath large pyramids; later they were entombed in extensive networks of corridors carved into rock facades. These grew into veritable necropolises, such as the complex of tombs in the Valley of the Kings.

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World View, Harmony in Nature

Behind the lavishness of Egyptian mythology and its many gods there was a strong belief in the harmony of nature.

Just as the Nile had given birth to islands, the Nun, or primordial waters, were at the origin of the primeval mound where animals, plants, people and gods had come into being. However, there was always the possibility that the new order could again degenerate into chaos.

First there was the sun god, whose children and grandchildren gave rise to the gods Osiris, Isis, Seth and Nephthys. These gods and humans lived together on earth until humans began to revolt. Among the gods, Seth murdered Osiris, but the latter was then reborn with the help of Isis, his sister and wife. As he had conquered death, he became lord of the world of the dead, where deceased humans were given a second life.

Restoring harmony on earth was the main task of the Pharaoh and the priests, and this had to be done generation after generation.

Osiris, Lord of the World of the Dead The god Osiris was the lord of the Egyptian world of the dead, which is why he was often associated with new life for people, plants and animals. He was the brother and husband of Isis and the father of Horus, and was frequently depicted as a mummy.

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– EGYPT –

1 Wooden sarcophagus of Nesi-Khonsu

Mummy Thebes, west bank Before the 21st Dynasty (before 1070 B.C.) Linen, woman’s bones and skull Donated by L. Meeùs, 1888 MAS (AV.1888.001b)

Thebes, west bank 21st Dynasty (ca. 1000 B.C.) Sycamore fig wood, paint, varnish and gold leaf Donated by L. Meeùs, 1888 MAS (AV.1888.001a)

The Mummy and the Coffin The sarcophagus believed to be that of Nesi-Khonsu was donated to the Antwerp “Musée d'Antiquités” in 1888 by Louis Meeùs, a distiller. It may originate from the hidden priests’ mortuary or “cachette” of the 21st Dynasty (1070-945 B.C.) at Deir el-Bahari.

X-ray analyses have shown that the mummy’s bones and skull have been jumbled, and they are older than the coffin, so it is possible that the mummy is in a coffin intended for someone else.

Egyptomania in Antwerp Interviews with J. Buermans (Schoonselhof Cemetry) and R. Lorentsen (Antwerp Zoo) Production: T8 and MAS, 2011

Chantress of the Sun God Nesi-Khonsu was a chantress associated with the cult around the sun god, Amun-Ra. Her wooden sarcophagus is probably a mass-produced item, and on these coffins a name was only added at the time of the funeral, or sometimes not at all.

An important feature of this sarcophagus are the many texts and images from the Book of the Dead, which were supposed to help the dead find the Kingdom of Osiris. When it finally reached this realm, the mummy came back to life thanks to the offers of food and drink made in its favour.

– LIFE AFTER DEATH –

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Bronze Sculptures

2 Cat representing Bastet

6 Fish otter

Abydos (?)

Late Pharaonic to Ptolemaic (712 to 30 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.114)

Memphis Late Pharaonic to Ptolemaic (712 to 30 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.068)

3 Falcon with the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt

7 Thoth depicted as a baboon

Memphis Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.022)

4 Falcon Memphis Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Bronze and gold MAS (AV.1879.001.004)

5 Galloping Apis bull Memphis 26th Dynasty(?)

(664 - 395 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.076)

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Saqqara Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.063)

8 Scorpion Memphis Ptolemaic (332 - 30 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.071)

9 Shrew Memphis Late Pharaonic to Ptolemaic (712 - 30 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.080)

– EGYPT –

Amulets As can be seen by the countless amulets recovered from their graves, Egyptians wanted to protect themselves from evil forces. Many amulets are depictions of gods while others represent animals with godlike characteristics, implements, fertility symbols, etc. Often, amulets were inserted between the mummy’s fabric wrappings.

The heart scarab, which was in fact a dung beetle, represented rebirth. Placing it on the deceased’s heart was believed to provide new energy for life in the underworld. Also very popular was the Wedjat, or Eye of Horus, which warded off evil and brought good health.

10 Amulets depicting gods

13 Sitting Isis nursing her child

Saqqara, Athribis, Zagazig, Memphis, Bubastis Third Intermediate Periode to Ptolemaic (1070 – 30 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.212-157-182-241-239242-238-185-181-229-228)

Athribis Ptolemaic (332 - 30 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.246)

11 Thoth Saqqara Saitic or later (664 - 525 or later) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.237)

12 Standing Thoth Memphis Ptolemaic or Roman Period (332 B.C. - 395 A.D.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.243)

14 Amulets Memphis, Saqqara, Arthribis Ramesside to Ptolemaic Period (1307 - 30 B.C) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.164-187-373-183)

15 Erotic figures Saqqara Ptolemaic (332 - 30 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.261 and 193)

– LIFE AFTER DEATH –

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Dung Beetles as Amulets and Stamps Scarab beetle amulets were made in the shape of a dung beetle. For the Egyptians, these animals seemed to inexplicably come to life from a ball of dung, and for this reason they adopted the beetle as a symbol of new life.

Moreover, they pushed a ball of dung along just like the sun god pushed the sun through the sky. Scarab shapes were also used for stamps, with a text in hieroglyphics on the underside.

16 Scarab beetles

19 Amulets depicting animals

Egypt (exact origin unknown) Second Intermediate Period until Ptolemaic (1640 – 30 B.C.) Soapstone, faience MAS (AV.6421, AV.4765.01-29, AV.4765.15-29; AV.1923.010.043.1822;06-22;13-22)

Saqqara Third Intermediate Periode to Ptolemaic (1070 - 30 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.234-179-799-449197-387-209 and AV.4764.56-3/6)

17 Amulets Memphis, Egypt (origin unknown) Amarna Period to Ptolemaic (1400 - 30 B.C.) Carnelian, faience, hematite MAS (AV.1879.001.404-471, AV.4752.01-25, AV.4749.1-3; 2-3; 3-3, AV.471)

18 Large funerary heart scarab Memphis Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Soapstone or green glazed stone MAS (AV.1879.001.369)

∂ 10

– EGYPT –

Stelae: Commemorative Slabs

A stela is a stone or wooden slab often bearing a depiction of the deceased among the members of his family. These objects were placed in the person’s grave or in a temple as a memorial to the deceased’s life.

20 Stela of Seneb

23 Married couple: standing woman and sitting man

Abydos Middle Kingdom, 13th Dynasty (1783 - 1640 B.C.) Painted limestone MAS (AV.1879.001.262)

This is a depiction of a financial civil servant, Seneb, and his wife, Renseneb, squatting and sitting in front of a sacrificial table.

Abydos Middle Kingdom, 13th Dynasty (1783 - 1640 B.C.) Limestone with (partly modern) painted parts MAS (AV.1879.001.287)

24 Fragment of a sculpture of a female Saqqara 26th Dynasty (664 - 395 B.C.) Diorite MAS (AV.1879.001.284)

21 Stela with three persons Abydos 26th Dynasty (664 - 395 B.C.) Limestone MAS (AV.1879.001.263)

25 Stelophor

The text on this stela is a prayer to Ra, “the Great God, Lord of the Sky who lives at the Horizon”.

22 Stela of Saamon Abydos Middle Kingdom (2030 - 1640 B.C.) Painted limestone MAS (AV.1879.001.264)

Deceased Saamon sitting on a chair.

The lotus flower on the sacrificial table symbolised resurrection.

Thebes New Kingdom, mid-18th Dynasty (ca. 1500 - 1400 B.C.) Diorite MAS (AV.1879.001.283)

A stelophor is a depiction of a kneeling person holding a stele.

26 Handle for a bow sistrum Memphis Third Intermediate Period or Late Pharaonic Period (1070 - 712 or 712 - 332 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.054)

A sistrum is a U-shaped percussion instrument.

– LIFE AFTER DEATH –

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27 Sculpture of standing man with emblem (sistrum of Hathor) Abydos Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Serpentinite with traces of gilding Donated by A. Kuster, 1924 MAS (AV.1924.001.001)

29 Two-sided stela of Paser Tanis New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty (1307 - 1196 B.C.) Fine limestone or earthenware MAS (AV.1879.001.440)

This sculpture’s head and body were separated for a long time and were only reunited 35 years ago.

Paser was head of the administration under Seti I and Ramses II, and later became high priest for the sun god Amun-Ra.

28 Achom-valk

30 Apis stela

Giza Late Pharaonic or Ptolemaic (712 - 332 or 332-30 B.C.) Wood, pigment and stucco MAS (AV.1879.001.276)

Saqqara Third Intermediate Period or Late Pharaonic Period (1070 - 712 or 712 - 332 B.C.) Painted limestone MAS (AV.1879.001.457)

It was believed that “perfect” bulls were the embodiment of the bull god, Apis. These animals lived in a temple and were mummified after their death.

A Menacing Breaking Point Death was literally a breaking point in ancient Egypt, because what up to then had been one could fall apart at that moment. A person’s body and soul had to stay together, which is why bodies were preserved and turned into mummies. There was also a danger of the soul itself splitting as the ka and the ba, its two components, risked leaving the enveloping body.

The ba was a person’s consciousness and what determined his character, while the ka was his life force. Offers of food and drink sustained the ka, and to avoid it leaving the grave a statue was placed nearby to serve as its residence.

∂ 12

– EGYPT –

Chaos in the World of the Gods

There are many ancient Egyptian gods and this can sometimes be confusing.

During the pharaohs' time, there was hardly any mention of a national pantheon such as that of the Greeks or Romans. Instead, aside from a few exceptions, gods were only associated with specific areas or even places.

The need to give greater structure to the world of the gods only came relatively late and this brought about “national god triads” such as Amun-Mut-Khonsu or Osiris-Isis-Horus.

You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours These bronze figurines are the showpiece of the Antwerp Egyptian collection.

They represent gods, people, animals and half-animal, half-human creatures which people gave as offerings in the hope of receiving favours from the gods.

All social classes engaged in this type of activity.

In many cases, the figurines mention both the person making the offering and the god in question: Osiris was popular, as were Isis and Horus, the mother and child. There were also patrons, for example Imhotep, the architect who designed the first pyramid and who was considered a guide for those seeking the gods.

31 Triad: Neith and two manifestations of Harpocrates Athribis Late Pharaonic to Greco-Roman (712 B.C. - 395 A.D.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.056)

32 Standing Neith with the crown of Lower Egypt Area around Abydos Late Pharaonic to Ptolemaic (712 - 30 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.119)

33 Sitting Mut Memphis Third Intermediate Period or later (after 1070 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.060)

34 Sitting Horus Abydos Ptolemaic (332 - 30 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.100)

– LIFE AFTER DEATH –

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35 Sitting Osiris-Iah with moon crescent and disc on his head

40 Standing Neferhotep, son of Hathor

Thebes 26th Dynasty or later (664 - 525 B.C. or later) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.035)

Saqqara Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.124)

36 Standing Osiris

41 Thoth depicted as an ibis-headed human

Memphis Late Pharaonic to Greco-Roman (712 B.C. - 395 A.D.) Bronze MAS (AV.1897.001.091)

37 Sitting Isis with Horus on her lap Athribis Third Intermediate Period to Late Pharaonic Period (1070 - 332 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.002)

38 Standing Osiris Thebes 26th Dynasty (664 - 525 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.023)

39 Standing Neferhotep, son of Hathor

Saqqara 22nd - 23rd Dynasty (945 - 712 B.C.) Bronze and gold paint MAS (AV.1879.001.019)

42 Sitting Thoth-Iah Memphis Saitic or Ptolemaic Period (664 - 30 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.018)

43 Standing Bastet (?) depicted as a lion Bubastis 30th Dynasty to Ptolemaic (380 - 30 B.C.) Bronze with gold or electrum inlays MAS (AV.1879.001.126)

Memphis 22nd - 23rd Dynasty (945 - 715 B.C.) Bronze with gold or electrum inlays MAS (AV.1879.001.013)

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– EGYPT –

44 Standing Anubis depicted as a jackal-headed human Saqqara Third Intermediate Period (1070 - 712 B.C.) Bronze with gold or electrum inlays MAS (AV.1879.001.113)

45 Standing Ptah with was sceptre and ankh symbol in his hands Memphis Third Intermediate Period to Late Pharaonic Period (1070 - 332 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.117)

46 Sitting Ptah Athribis Third Intermediate Period (1070 - 712 B.C.) Bronze with gold or electrum inlays MAS (AV.1879.001.053)

47 Sitting Imhotep Memphis Late Saitic Period (664 - 525 B.C.) Bronze MAS (AV.1879.001.040)

The Allemant collection Eugène Allemant was a French interpreter, teacher and art dealer who worked in Egypt. While there he built up a collection of antiquities consisting primarily of bronze figurines. In 1878 he offered to sell this collection to the city of Antwerp for 75.000 Belgian francs.

Ultimately, only 22.000 Belgian francs were paid, half of which by the Belgian state. The 462 items initially became part of the collections of the Steen, and then later of the Museum Vleeshuis.

All the items on exhibition are from this collection unless indicated otherwise.

∂ – LIFE AFTER DEATH –

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A travel guide: the Book of the Dead

The contemporary term Book of the Dead refers to a collection of texts from which a selection was made to take along to the grave. These texts served as directions to the other world and provided advice on how to protect oneself from evil spirits and other calamities. They were generally incantations and were often illustrated with images.

A Book of the Dead was generally written on papyrus, but during the GrecoRoman period they were also found on the strips of fabric wrapped around mummies.

48 Mummified ibis Saqqara Greco-Roman period (332 B.C. - 395 A.D.) Papyrus plastered with glue and gesso (cardboard), linen, filler and ibis bones (Threskiornis Aethiopica L.) MAS (AV.1879.001.260)

The fabric trimmings portray the god Thoth with a hemhem crown and a baboon.

49 Four fragments of a Book of the Dead on mummy wrappings

50 Two fragments from the “Book of What is in the Underworld” 21st Dynasty (?) (1070-945 B.C.) Papyrus and ink Bequeathed by Baron Charles J. Stier d'Aertselaer, 1847 Replica. H. Conscience Heritage Library, Antwerp, K. 9376

The strong connection between the deceased and the sun is a notable element in these fragments. The imagery has a conspicuously linear style.

Memphis Ptolemaic (332 - 30 B.C.) Linen and flax MAS (AV.4943.1-2 and AV.4943.2-2 and AV.4946.1-2 and AV.4946.2-2)

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– EGYPT –

Heart scales After their journey through the underworld, or Duat, the jackal god, Anubis, led the dead to a pair of scales. Here their heart had to be weighed in the presence of the god Osiris, with the god Thoth taking note of the results.

If the sins in the heart did not make it too heavy, the deceased person was allowed to go through some fifteen gates to enter a paradisiacal empire of the dead.

Heart weighing and Sun Barque This papyrus shows how the deceased made sacrifices. Afterwards, they had to have their heart weighed in the presence of the gods Anubis and Osiris.

There is also a depiction of the Sun Barque, which ferried the sun through the world of the dead at night.

The deceased hoped that the weighing of the heart would be favourable to them and allow them to enter Osiris’s world of the dead, as well as possibly accompany the sun on its daily journey.

51 Mummy’s foot Upper Egypt New Kingdom/Late Pharaonic?

(1550 - 1070/712 - 332 B.C.?)

Paper, linen and ink Donated by E. Odeurs, 1921 MAS (AV.1921.009.001)

The fabric decorations depict the god Thot with a hemhem crown and a baboon.

∂ – LIFE AFTER DEATH –

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Mummification

Ancient Egyptians believed that if the soul was to survive then the body had to remain intact. For this reason, they preserved bodies and slowed their decomposition by removing certain organs. The heart, however, which was considered to house the essence of life, was left in the body.

This type of mummification process started being performed during the 4th Dynasty, approximately 2,500 B.C. Some 3,000 years later, as Christianity was spreading and the Arabs conquered Egypt in the 7th century, this practice fell out of use.

52 Complete set of canopic jars belonging to Harmakhis Saqqara (place of purchase), possibly Giza 26th Dynasty (664 - 395 B.C.) Limestone MAS (AV.1879.001.153 to 156)

Walled up in jars During the mummification process, the lungs, liver, stomach and intestines were removed, dried and pickled and placed for storage in canopic jars.

The jars always came in a series of four: one with an effigy of a human head as the lid and the others with that of a monkey, a jackal and a falcon. These effigies represented the protective force of the four sons of the god Horus.

A complete set of jars such as this one is rare outside of Egypt.

Horus, a multi-facetted god Horus played several mythological roles. He was the god of the Sky, the god of War and the god of Protection, and the so-called Wedjat mark seen on many amulets represents an eye. The child god Horus - called Harpokrates by the Greeks - symbolised the rising sun. He was the son of Isis and Osiris.

∂

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– EGYPT –

Ushabti

Burial gifts know as ushabti, literally “answerers”, started to appear during the Middle Kingdom period. They generally bore a mention of the name and sometimes the functions of the deceased.

Such figurines were expected to carry out the various tasks of the deceased in the afterlife. The graves of the richest individuals contained over 400, so one man per day and sometimes with overseer ushabtis leading the rest.

Middle Kingdom: ca. 2030 - 1640 B.C.

53 Ushabti

56 Ushabti for Penamon

Origin unknown Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.4713)

Origin unknown Ramesside period (1307 - 1070 B.C.) Grey stone Donated by P. Michaux(?)

MAS (AV.2008.008)

54 Ushabti for Djed-Khonsu-Ef-Ankh Thebes (?)

21st Dynasty (1070 - 945 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.4745)

55 Ushabti for Neferkasokar Saqqara Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.253)

57 Ushabti for Pediese Egypt (exact origin unknown) Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Sandstone (?)

Donated by P. Michaux, 1935 MAS (AV.1935.013.003)

58 Supervisor ushabti Thebes 21st Dynasty (1070 - 945 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1926.001.016)

– LIFE AFTER DEATH –

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59 Ushabti for Weren

64 Ushabti

Benha New Kingdom (1550 - 1070 B.C.) Limestone MAS (AV.1879.001.275)

Lower Egypt Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.256)

60 Ushabti

65 Ushabti

Origin unknown Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Faience Donated by P. Michaux, 1926 MAS (AV.1926.001.017)

Lower Egypt Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.254)

61 Ushabti for Psamtike Saqqara 27th Dynasty (525 - 404 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.258)

62 Ushabti for Kem-Khonsu Lower Egypt 26th Dynasty (664 - 525 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.257)

66 Ushabti Giza (?)

Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.249)

67 Ushabti Lower Egypt 30th Dynasty or later (380 - 30 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.1879.001.255)

63 Ushabti Origin unknown Late Pharaonic (712 - 332 B.C.) Faience MAS (AV.4715)

∂ 20

– EGYPT –

68 X rays Made in 1974, of the bones and skull of the female mummy.

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AFRICA

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LIVING WITH THE ANCESTORS - ART WITH A MEANING These African art objects express the cyclical view of life held by many peoples who live in close contact with nature: everything always returns, just like the sun and moon. Their art has a ritual meaning. It brings to life creation myths, ensures fertility and keeps the memory of the ancestors intact.

There is a visible and an invisible world, and the two are connected by an inspiriting force. This anima – soul or ­spirit – resides in living beings, forces of nature and inanimate things such as rocks and words.

Fertility and birth, life and death, all depend on actions ­taken in the spirit world. Communication between humans and spirits, the living and the dead, is effected by sacrifices, ­divination, rituals dances and initiation ceremonies.

The spread of Islam and Christianity in Africa has sometimes led to conflicts or to a fusion with the traditional belief in the world of ancestors and spirits. Today, some peoples have no difficulty in combining several different religious practices.

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Fertility, Birth and Marriage

To have a lot of children is the greatest wish of many African married couples. A person with no children can’t move on to become an ancestor spirit, and is low down on the social ladder. A childless family is a dead branch on the family tree.

Fertility, the desire for children and a successful marriage were, and still are, an essential aspect of ritual objects. The woman, as the giver of life and mother, plays the central role. In the fertility cult, images of mother figures commemorate the life-giving force of the clan’s foundress: the ancestral mother.

Numerous statues represent former ideals of beauty, such as filed teeth and complex hairstyles. Some real scarification marks were one centimetre thick. They not only made the woman beautiful but also evidenced her courage in bearing the pain of the scarification process.

A beautiful woman was predestined to be an exemplary wife or mother.

Body decorations also indicated her community or social rank.

1 Fertility doll (mwana hiti)

couple’s bed on their wedding night.

Childless women also called on the child of wood to help them become pregnant. Today, these dolls are also carved for sale to tourists.

Zaramo, Tanzania 20th century Wood Donated by M.L. Felix, 1987 MAS (AE.1987.0004)

2 Fertility doll (akua-ba)

Child of Wood The Zaramo doll, shaped like a phallus and with breasts, is a mwana hiti or “child of wood”, which was traditionally used for the sexual education of girls and placed in a

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Ashanti, Akan, Ghana Wood Mid-20th century Purchased from Galerie à la Reine Margot, 1962 MAS (AE.1962.0052)

– AFRICA –

Child of Akua Until recently, the young women of the Akan people wore a wooden doll if they were or wanted to become pregnant. These fertility dolls referred to the legend of a childless woman named Akua. By wearing a ritual wooden doll on her back, she had been or would be able to conceive a child and give birth to a beautiful daughter.

An akua-ba, literally “child of Akua”, was taken care of and dressed like a real child, but depicted as an adult.

3 Ritual doll Bamana, Mali Early 20th century Wax, clay and bone (?)

Purchased from N.V. Vandevelde, 1977 MAS (AE.1977.0003)

4 Female bust Luluwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th - early 20th century Wood and oil patina Purchased from P.J. Vandenhoute, 1960 MAS (AE.1960.0014)

Fertility and Protection In order to protect burgeoning life, the Luluwa people used female sculptures cresting a pin. These statues were part of a fertility cult and protected the mother and child during the pregnancy as well as the newborn child itself. Ancestors could be reincarnated as the child.

5 Statue of a mother and child (wenyi or gihalu giwenyi) Mbala, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood and red pigment Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0520)

This statue was used for a chief’s transfer of power.

6 Seated mother with child (pfemba) Kongo peoples (Yombe), Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood, beads, mirrored glass, metal and pyrography Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0555)

This statue may have been used by a fertility cult

Mother with child During the 19th century, statues of a mother with a child fulfilled a ritual role among the Yombe and Mbala peoples, but unfortunately, the exact use and meaning of these statues has been partially lost over time. The mother, as the giver of life, alluded to the life-giving role of the chief, who was seen as the protector of the fertility of humans, animals and crops.

Such sculptures were either affixed to clothing or kept next to the bed and were regularly rubbed down with palm oil.

– LIVING WITH THE ANCESTORS –

25

7 Bust of a mother with a child (headdress ornament)

The vertical ribbed line on the torso dividing the body into two symmetrical halves is a reference to the division of the universe and the distinction between men (right) and women (left), and between the strong and the weak.

Kuyu, Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood and pigment Purchased from P. Vérité, 1956 MAS (AE.1956.0014.0003)

8 Power statue (nkisi) of a standing women Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo / Republic of the Congo / Angola Late 19th - early 20th century Wood and metal Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0609)

9 Fragment of a male statue Tabwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th - early 20th century Wood Purchased from the White Fathers of Africa, Antwerp, 1961 MAS (AE.1961.0062.0003)

10 Standing female ancestor statue Songye, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century Wood, oil patina and cowry Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0744)

11 Statue of a standing woman Alangwa, Côte d’Ivoire 20th century Wood Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1994 MAS (AE.1994.0003.0001)

12 Spirit husband (blôlô bian)

The imitated duiker antelope horns on the chest refer to magical substances that amplified the supernatural power of the statue.

Baule, Côte d’Ivoire 20th century Wood Donated by Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1994 MAS (AE.1994.0003.0002)

Powerful statues

Spirit Spouses

Statues representing male ancestors also embodied procreation and, being full of supernatural power, they protected the community. It is possible that this fragment of a statue once belonged to a Tabwa chief.

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Among the Baule people, marital ups and downs and sterility were caused by either jealous nature spirits or by a supernatural consort. Every man and woman had such an “otherworldly spouse”, and to make certain that the

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supernatural partner stayed benevolent, he or she received a beautiful statue such as this male specimen.

In their dreams, the Baule enjoyed conjugal relations with their spirit spouses.

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A Pivotal Moment: from Child to Adult

The initiation ritual is a pivotal moment in the life of many African peoples. It transforms boys and girls – who have separate initiations – into fully-fledged members of the community. Traditionally, initiation took place in special camps outside the villages.

During this period of isolation, the elders transmitted their secret knowledge to the youngsters, who learned skills, were taught about their mythology, and were told the facts of life. Sometimes the ­transition ritual involved circumcision.

This rite of passage was a symbolic second birth. The boys or girls died an apparent death and were reborn as men and women. The learning period often ended with masked ceremonies in which the initiates were accepted back into the community.

Both the duration of the initiation rituals and the age of the boys and girls differ from one people to another. Very long transition rituals performed in isolation are rare today. For hygienic reasons, parents now generally choose to have their children circumcised in a hospital or medical centre.

13 Plank mask (nwantantay)

rituals. Its symbolism was taught to men and women during an initiation.

Bwa, village of Boni, Burkina Faso 20th century Wood, pigment, kaolin and resin Purchased from L. Vandevelde, 2001 Formerly in the collection of E. Storrer, Zürich MAS (AE.2001.0029.0001)

The X alludes to the scarification done on the forehead of the initiates after the transfer of knowledge, while the crescent on the plank represents the moon. The circles refer to the wells which never run dry discovered by the ancestors, and the contrast between black and white to the distinction between knowledge and ignorance.

Plank mask This Bwa plank mask was used during initiation, harvest and funeral

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14 Helmet mask for the initiation of girls

16 Mask used for the initiation (n’khanda) of boys

Mende and Vai, Sierra Leone / Liberia Mid-20th century Wood Donated by L. Kegel, 1959 MAS (AE.1959.0056.0007)

Yaka, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood, raffia and pigments Purchased from Breckpot Auction House, 1930 MAS (AE.0516)

Members of the Bundu or Sande secret female association wore this mask during important funeral ceremonies.

Girl’s Initiation Mask This helmet mask was worn by a woman, which is extremely unusual in Africa. It was used during initiation rites for girls, more specifically circumcision rituals, and for the funeral ceremonies of members of the Bundu secret female association.

The pointed chin, high forehead and carefully-kept hairstyle were beauty ideals of the Mende and Vai peoples.

The thick neck rings, which were a sign of prosperity, refer to the metamorphosis from caterpillar to butterfly as well as to ripples on the water because the “original mask” came out of the water.

15 Mask used for the initiation (n’khanda) of boys Yaka, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood, raffia and pigments Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0518)

Boys’ Initiation Masks Masks for boys of the Yaka people appeared in the village at the end of the initiation rituals (n’khanda) for boys. These masks embodied the ancestors, but the masks lost their power after the dance and were either sold or destroyed.

A central tenet of the symbolism used here is the myth of origins and the fertility of humans, animals and the land. Red represents the sun and the male world, while white represents the moon and female aspects, and the upturned phallic nose alludes to the fertilisation of the earth by the sun.

17 N’khanda Initiation panel, armed soldier Nkanu, Democratic Republic of the Congo Mid 20th century Wood, pigment, bamboo, leather Donated by the brothers of Our Lady of Lourdes, Oostakker, 2016 MAS (MAS.0170.049)

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18 Initiation panel with parrot’s head (kakungu) Nkanu, Democratic Republic of the Congo 20th century Wood and pigment Exchange with New Africa Antwerp, 1961 MAS (AE.1961.0077)

19 Figure of a woman carrying a girl on her back Zombo or Yaka, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood and magical substances Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0521)

This statue was used during initiation rituals.

20 Divining slit gong Zombo or Yaka, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood, fibres and magical substances Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 2006 Former collection of P. Dartevelle MAS (AE.2006.0019.0001)

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Transition from Life to Death

In the traditional African worldview, life and death are inextricable linked.

All members of a family, both living and dead, continue to depend on one another.

Death is the final moment of transition, when, all being well, the status of respected ancestor spirit is attained. This is not a status granted to everyone, however. An individual must have had children, must have led an exemplary life, and must have died in unsuspicious circumstances.

Generally speaking, the only death to be regarded as normal is that of an older person with many descendants. In other cases, sorcery, magic or the wrath of spirits from the supernatural realm are suspected.

Only the physical body dies. The vital force or soul continues to live among the ancestors, and the death ritual ensures a smooth acceptance into their world. If the rituals are not carried out correctly the spirit will continue to roam the area, with nasty consequences for its surviving kin.

Masks are essential links between the earthly and spiritual worlds. They accompany souls to their final resting place during commemorations of the dead.

21 Figures of a hanged woman and man (ofika) Mbole, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th - early 20th century Wood, kaolin and pigment Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0673 and AE. 0672)

Sentenced to Death These Mbole statues represent persons condemned to death by hanging 32

for violating the laws of the Lilwa association.

The association fulfilled educational, political, judicial and ritual functions.

There was a clear hierarchy and it was strictly forbidden to disclose any information about initiations. This type of sculpture was intended to help keep members disciplined. The association was looked at suspiciously by the Belgian colonizers, and put under pressure as a result.

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22 Plank mask

the creation deity pointing to earth and the heavens with two pairs of arms.

Mbole, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th - early 20th century Wood Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE. 3528)

23 Muyombo mask

Film extracts: Dogon (Mali)

• Kanaga dancers and funerary ritual © C.Beckwith & A. Fisher, Photokunst

• Mask production and dance performances

Pende, Democratic Republic of the Congo Early 20th century Wood, raphia, pigment Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0554)

24 Kanaga dance mask Dogon, Mali 20th century Wood, pigment, resin and iron Purchased from W. Mestach, 1961 MAS (AE.1961.0067)

The Dogon people currently organise dance performances with masks such as these for tourists throughout the year.

Masks: Links between Life and Death This Kanaga dance mask from the Dogon people was used by the Awa association during commemorations of the dead. This mask helped souls achieve the status of ancestral spirit.

The superstructure in the form of a Cross of Lorraine, which was a double-barred cross with short vertical elements projecting from the tips of the horizontal bars, has more than one meaning. For those not fully initiated, it is an animal, but for an initiated Awa member, it represents

© Sancta Media, Belgium Production: T8 (Druez, Van den Broeke, De Bleser), 2011

25 Headdress mask Bamileke, Cameroon Early 20th century Wood Purchased from Morlet, 1955, Formerly in the collection of the artist André Derain MAS (AE.1955.0025)

26 Mask (kifwebe) Songye or Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th - early 20th century Wood and pigment Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0334)

27 Headdress mask Ejagham, Cross River region, Nigeria Cameroon border 19th - 20th century Wood, animal hide and human hair Donated by G. Vanhoestraeten, 1980 MAS (AE.1980.0040.0001)

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Commemorating ancestors The Ejagham people are known throughout the world for their masks covered with animal hides. These masks were used during initiation and funeral ceremonies involving prominent individuals. Real hair has been added to this example and scarifications are also visible, but the imitation teeth are missing.

Bamileke masks were positioned on the head, with the dancer’s face being hidden behind a veil. They were used during commemorative ceremonies for important ancestors and for fertility dances.

28 Reliquary guardian

Ibibio, Nigeria Mid-20th century Wood Purchased from L. Kegel, 1959 MAS (AE.1959.0055.0037)

Warning Masks The Ekpo association of the Ibibio people have two types of masks that are never used at the same time.

There are the “beautiful” face masks representing deceased persons who have found peace and the “ugly” masks, such as this one, which represent roaming ancestral spirits.

The mask with a mutilated face, the result of a disease which affects the nose and mouth, represents a person who did not live or die according to the required standards. It is a warning that anyone who does not follow the straight and narrow will become ill.

Kota, Gabon Late 19th - early 20th century Wood and metal (brass, copper) Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1928 MAS (AE.0913)

Intimate Contact with the Dead In the past, the Kota placed the corpses of respected clan members in trees, where they were consumed by insects. The remaining skulls and bones were put in a basket. ‘Reliquary guardians’ symbolizing the deceased were then affixed to the basket.

To honour these ancestors and ensure their favour, initiates regularly made sacrifices to the skulls. But in the face of colonization and missionary activity, this cult, with its intimate contact between the living and the dead, disappeared.

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29 ‘Ugly’ mask (idiok ekpo)

30 Twin memorial statues (ere ibeji) Yoruba, Nigeria 20th century Wood, pigment and beads Purchased from L. Kegel, 1959 MAS (AE. 1959.55.15-16; AE. 1959.55.17-18)

Twin spirits An exceptional number of twins are born among the Yoruba people.

These children often die when they are young, too young in fact to be included among the ancestors.

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To ensure that these children’s roaming spirits cannot do any harm, a statue in the shape of a standing adult is carved for each deceased child. These statues are bathed, clothed and fed, which means that the twins can continue to live through them and not bring any misfortune.

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Objects as Intermediaries

This is a small selection of the countless cult objects with which many African peoples armed themselves against invisible forces. By way of these ritual objects messages were exchanged with the spiritual world and the ancestors.

Very often, the exact purpose or meaning of an object has been lost, either because the rituals are no longer remembered or because the object came onto the art market without any accompanying information.

Diviners use oracular devices to discover the causes of adversity and to solve problems. During their consultation with the invisible forces in the supernatural world, they find out why the spirits are displeased and how they can best be placated.

Certain sculptures are inhabited by spirits. They act as a bridge between humans and the invisible world. To appease the spirits, they are sprinkled with eggs, food and the blood of sacrificial animals. This results in a gritty crust on the surface.

31 Two statuettes with long arms and beckoning hands Kuba / Bushoong, Democratic Republic of the Congo 17th-18th century Iron and red wood powder Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0773 and 0774)

tradition, the statuettes were made

by Myeel, a 17th-century prince and skilled blacksmith. There was a link between forging and kingship elsewhere in Central Africa as well.

This came about because forging and melting made use of the four elements and was considered to be magic. Above all, blacksmiths made essential tools.

Rare wrought-iron statuettes There are just three wrought-iron Kuba art works that we know about, this pair included. According to Kuba

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32 Face mask with headdress Kongo people (Vili), Democratic Republic of the Congo / Republic of the Congo 20th century Wood, feathers, beads, plastic buttons, textile and horn Bequeathed by A. Van DeurenVanremoortere, 2003 MAS (AE.2003.0010.0017)

33 Mortar for tobacco or hemp (?)

Luluwa, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century Wood and leather Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.1177 1-22)

This may have been an object of prestige for a chief. At the end of the 19th century, hemp was being used in divining and the administration of justice.

34 Friction oracle (itombwa) Kuba / Bushoong, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th - early 20th century Wood Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0223)

A Far-Seeing Dog Animals were suitable mediators between humans and the invisible world.

A Kuba diviner used this friction oracle shaped like a hunting dog to communicate with the spirits. With its sharp sense of smell, this four-legged friend must have been his ideal assistant.

During the consultation, the diviner rubbed a small cone, which is missing

here, back and forth over the figurine’s flat back. When the small cone became stuck to the flat surface, this meant that the spirits had made their answer known.

35 Mouse oracle box (gbéklé sè) Baule, Côte d’Ivoire Early 20th century Wood, tin, leather and rope Côte d’Ivoire expedition. Acquired in situ

by P.J. Vandenhoute in 1939.

MAS (AE.1955.0030.0027)

Prophetic mice The Baule people received the answers to their questions from a mouse oracle box consisting of a pot on an open base with a hole underneath. The diviner would place a number of small sticks in the pot and then add a few grains of rice.

Hungry mice would crawl into the box through the hole and then inevitably change the position of the small sticks. The new arrangement created by the mice contained the answer.

Since mice live close to the ground, they have close ties to the Earth and ancestral spirits, which gives them the ability to prophesise.

36 Half-human, half-animal figure Baule, Côte d’Ivoire 20th century Wood and sacrificial deposits Purchased from Ch. Ratton, 1962 MAS (AE.1962.0048.0001)

This figure was used in the Bra diviners’ cult.

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37 Cup in the shape of a caryatid

40 Power statue (nkisi), sitting man

Mbuun, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th - 20th century Wood Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0281)

Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo / Republic of the Congo Late 19th - early 20th century Wood, textile, fibres, mirrored glass, horn, bone, resin, claw and pigment Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0612)

38 Horn in the shape of a stylised human figure Pere / Nande, Democratic Republic of the Congo 20th century (?)

Wood Purchased from W. Mestach, 1956 MAS (AE.1956.0024)

39 Power statue (nkisi nkozo), small dog Kongo people (Yombe), Republic of the Congo 19th century Wood, metal, mirror, blades of grass, cane, gunpowder, cowry, raffia, textile, resin, bone, antelope horn, monkey hand, animal skin, kaolin and red wood powder Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0621)

The cane between the paws and on the back was filled with gunpowder. These ‘night rifles’ were meant to kill witches.

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41 Power statue (nkisi nkondi), standing man Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo / Republic of the Congo / Angola Late 19th - early 20th century Wood, metal and textile Purchased from Jacobs, 1942 MAS (AE.1942.0002.0002)

A nkisi nkondi was owned by the village.

It offered protection, pursued wrongdoers and sanctioned oaths and treaties.

42 Power statue (nkishi) Songye, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century Wood, pelts, reptile skin, horn, raffia, fibres, iron, copper and glass beads Bequeathed by P. Osterrieth, 1940 MAS (AE.1940.0001.0047)

The headdress, the bead necklace and the wide raffia skirt refer to the 19th-century regional dress of a chief.

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The Luba kingdom (Central Africa, Congo)

The central Luba kingdom was founded in the 17th century. The legend tells how the handsome black hunter and Prince, Mbidi Kiluwe, defeated the drunken red-skinned ruler Nkongolo Mwamba, thus ending a brutal regime. The hero created a new social order based on the sacred kingship. All of the following Luba kings descended from this mythical hunter and ruler and founded their power on him.

The image of the central Luba court slowly spread throughout the many neighbouring groups. In those areas conquered by the Luba, the leaders copied their structure of authority and symbols of rank.

These symbols of leadership included headdresses, spears, lances, staffs, axes, chairs and bow and arrow rests. Some, such as ceremonial chiefs’ staffs and weapons, were displayed in public. Others such as stools and bow stands remained carefully stored and guarded in a secret place. This was not only a measure against theft, but also to protect people against the great powers these objects were bestowed with.

43 Kneeling female carrying a bowl (mboko) Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo 20th century Wood, iron and copper Gift from W. Jambers, 1958 MAS (AE.1958.0015.0001)

Bowl bearer The supernatural powers of the Luba ruler had to be protected in the interest of his subjects. This is why he surrounded himself with diviners and ritual specialists.

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Statues of a kneeling woman holding a gourd played an important role in the inauguration of kings and chiefs and in divination rituals. The bowl was filled with white clay and other objects of power.

44 Bow and arrow rest Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century Wood, patina and metal Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0722)

The branching in the form of a trident goes back to ordinary metal stands

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on which hunters laid their bows and arrows. For the Luba, beautifully decorated bow and arrow rests carved from wood were extremely sacred symbols of rank and power.

They referred to the founder of their kingship, the mythical hunter Mbidi Kiluwe. A female dignitary kept the bow stands in the royal residence with the greatest of secrecy. They were regularly coated in oil as an offering.

45 Ancestor statue (lusingiti, plural singiti) Hemba, Niembo clan, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century Wood and patina Purchased from Charles Leirens, 1931.

Ex-collections of Bela Hein and H. Pareyn MAS (AE.0864)

A Vigilant Ancestor This skilfully carved statue is the work of the Hemba, the eastern and culturally-related neighbours of the Luba. The Hemba are famous for their statues of leading figures. These sculptures (singiti) honour ancestors from particular Hemba clans.

This statue represents a Niembo clan leader. It was used in the ancestral cult confirming the common provenance and thus the unity of the clan. Above all, it endorsed the ruler’s power.

The leader inherited it from his predecessor along with other ritual objects.

The ancestral figure wears a ring beard and a cross-shaped braided hairstyle, distinguishing marks of the nobility. His closed eyes are

focused on another world, from where he watches over his progeny.

He holds his hands at the height of his lightly swollen belly with protruding navel. This gesture refers to the saying ‘humanity begins at the navel’, emphasising the link between ancestors and the living.

An exceptional Hemba piece This ancestor statue (lusingiti) is the highlight of the MAS collections. It has a remarkable history. The Hemba masterpiece was purchased for a substantial sum of money by the City of Antwerp in 1931. In 1937-1938, it was the centrepiece in a pioneering exhibition, ‘Congolese Art’, in the City Festival Hall. The organiser, Belgian professor Frans Olbrechts, chose it as the eye-catcher for the poster.

Since then, it has been displayed and described time and again. In 1952, French writer André Malraux included it in his publication Le Musée imaginaire de la sculpture mondiale, an imaginary museum of the most important works of art from world history. It was also exhibited at the World’s Fair in Brussels in 1958.

46 Pair of amulets in ivory

Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo 19th century Ivory, beads and leather Purchased from H. Pareyn, 1920 MAS (AE.0793 and 0794)

Pendants for the ancestors These Luba pendants were mainly used in the 19th century. Together with beads and other protective objects, people wore these extremely

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intimate personal objects on the body or around the wrist, in memory of deceased relatives. In tribute to the ancestors, they were regularly caressed and coated in oil. This pair of rare pendants commemorates twin ancestors. The point circle decoration on the body symbolises life and continuity.

47 Ceremonial staff of office (kibango) Luba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Late 19th century Wood, patina and metal Purchased from New Africa, 1961 MAS (AE.1961.0062.0002)

Staff of office topped with a woman Luba rulers demonstrated their power with skilfully shaped staffs, inherited from their predecessors. Ritual specialists charged these status symbols with sacred power.

The female portrayed at the top represents the foundress of a specific chieftaincy or royal clan. Her pose with the hands on the breasts alludes to the belief that women preserve certain secrets concerning kingship in their breasts. The carefully styled woman’s hair and the realistically rendered scarification marks indicate a noble status or origin.

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OCEANIA

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THERE’S NO LIFE WITHOUT DEATH - FUNERARY RITUALS IN MELANESIA For centuries the inhabitants of the islands of Melanesia celebrated numerous local ancestor cults. They reflect their conviction that life and death are interconnected.

Communication with the ancestors took place in and around the men’s houses and in shrines, where sculptures and paintings embodied the spirits of the deceased. Contact with the powerful ancestral spirits, which was considered crucial for the survival and well-being of the entire community, formed the exclusive domain of the males.

Funerary rituals facilitated the departure of the spirits of the dead from the world of the living, and ultimately helped the deceased to acquire the status of ancestor. At the same time the potentially harmful life force that is released at the moment of death is properly channelled and ritually transferred to the crops in the community gardens and to the young men through their initiation into male societies.

19th century colonization, missionary activity and war, oppressed many aspects of the ancestor cult. Nevertheless, various rituals survived. Local endeavours helped to maintain and revive this religious heritage and preserve it for the generations to come.

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Asmat

According to the origin myth of the Asmat people (Southwestern New Guinea), Fumeripits created the first humans from wooden statues. He put them inside a men’s ceremonial house and brought them to life by playing a drum. Before missionaries came into contact with the Asmat, each village had at least one men’s house. These sacred places were used to store sacred objects, including ancestors’ statues and decorated ancestors’ skulls.

Ancestors’ statues were carved for celebrations of the dead, during which headhunting expeditions and initiation rites for boys took place.

When an important person died, the Asmat went headhunting in order to avenge the dead and recover new life force from the enemy.

Under pressure of the colonial authorities headhunting became legally forbidden. The Asmat’s wood-carving traditions were also under threat.

However, through support from missionaries and the UNESCO, they were revived in the 1970s. Subject and style were adapted for the art trade.

1 Bisj pole Asmat, West Papua, Indonesia Before 1970 Wood and pigment Purchased from J. Hoogerbrugge, 1970 MAS (AE.1970.0039.0031)

The protruding air root represents the topmost figure’s penis, which is a symbol of the renewal of life force.

Bisj poles Bisj poles were placed in front of the men’s house during celebrations of the dead. They were carved from the wood of mangrove trees and brought back to the village in dugout canoes, as if coming back from a headhunting expedition.

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Small poles such as this example were displayed in the men’s house.

Often the bottom part of the pole is carved into the shape of a dugout canoe. The Asmat believe that the spirits of the deceased travel by canoe out to the sea, where behind the horizon they join the world of the ancestors.

After use, the bisj poles were traditional abandoned in the forest where they would rot and ultimately disappear. Their life force is absorbed by the sago palm trees, the Asmat’s staple food. In that way new life is generated and the endless cycle of life and death continued.

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2 Ancestor statue in knee-elbow position

Asmat, West Papua, Indonesia Before 1970 Wood and pigment Purchased from J. Hoogerbrugge, 1970 MAS (AE.1970.0039.0002)

The Asmat origin myth tells us that Fumeripits crafted wooden statues.

Through the beating of the drum their knees and elbows were loosened and the figures came to life.

Headhunter Symbols Many of the Asmat sculptures depict ancestors and headhunter symbols.

The latter often being animals such as fruit bats or tree-kangaroos. Both species pluck fruit from the crowns of trees, an act reminiscent of headhunting.

The knee-to-elbow or foetal position of some ancestor figures refers to the praying mantis. The females of that species bites the male’s head off after mating. Figures in knee-elbow position therefore are a metaphor for the connection between procreation and headhunting, in other words the endless cycle of life and death.

3 Ancestor’s skull Asmat, West Papua, Indonesia First half of the 20th century Skull, fur, bone, coix seed and wax Purchased from F. Coppens, 2005 MAS (AE.2005.0032.0001)

Cherished skulls The Asmat respectfully took care of the skulls of their deceased.

Worn around the neck or used as a headrest, the ancestral spirit power, protected the wearer.

The skulls of those who held important positions in society were kept in the men’s ceremonial house. Just as in life, the skulls of honourable warriors were decorated with a headdress of tree-kangaroo fur and an impressive nose ornament. The skulls of decapitated enemies were also kept in the men’s houses.

After Dutch colonial forces made efforts to whip out headhunting, enemy skulls were often replaced by wooden examples. The latter were made for ceremonial purposes, or for the purpose of selling them to art collectors.

Initiation Upon their initiation, boys would participate for the first time in a headhunting expedition during which they were strengthened by the life force of the decapitated enemy and received his name.

Initiation entailed a ritualistic rebirth.

With his taken skull, the boy was navigated in a canoe on the sea towards the setting sun. There, immersed in the world of the ancestors, the boy and the skull were ritually cleansed.

After the boys return, the decapitated skull was hung among fruit-bearing trees. This would lead to a good harvest.

4 Wooden head

Asmat, West Papua, Indonesia Before 1970 Wood and rope Purchased from J. Hoogerbrugge, 1970 MAS (AE.1970.0039.0052)

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5 Wooden head in net bag Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea First half or mid-20th century Wood, fibre and pigment Purchased from J. Vanderstraeten, 1975 On loan from the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren EO.1975.68.16

6 Hourglass shaped drum Asmat, West Papua, Indonesia Before 1970 Wood and animal hide Purchased from J. Hoogerbrugge, 1970 MAS (AE.1970.0039.0013)

The round form at the top of this shield likely represents a stingray.

The mirrored V-shapes possibly represent flying foxes while the double heart shapes symbolise ancestors.

8 Dagger Asmat, West Papua, Indonesia Before 1970 Crocodile jawbone, rope, cassowary feathers and coix seed Purchased from J. Hoogerbrugge, 1970 MAS (AE.1970.0039.0044)

The sound of these drums represented the voices of mythical ancestors. The sound of the drum refers to the creation myth.

7 Dance shield Asmat, West Papua, Indonesia First half of the 20th century Wood and pigment By exchange, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 1957 MAS (AE.1957.0034.0006)

Shields Dance shields were made for the shield festival, which initiated a headhunting expedition. Lavishly decorated, these ritual objects had a powerful psychological effect and the designs warded off evil spirits, scared the enemy away, or even paralysed the enemy with fear. Placed at the entrance of the men’s house, the shields warded off bad spirits and intruders.

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Malanggan: Honouring Ancestors, Renewing the Life Force

Practiced in the northern part of New Ireland, the malanggan cult involved commemorating the dead and honouring the ancestors. The lavish festivities took place when one or more prominent members of the community had died. Their purpose was to ensure that the released life force of the deceased was properly channelled so that it would not harm the living.

During a first phase, the person’s body was laid in state within an enclosure at the cemetery. For one year, men would gather there to eat fruit and vegetables from the deceased’s garden. At the celebration marking the end of this first phase, the person’s house and garden were destroyed.

During the subsequent phase, violent life forces were released from the body and captured in the statues that were made and displayed within the enclosure. Generally, the malanggan cult also involved the initiation of boys into the adult male society.

During the last phase, the sculptures were brought to the cemetery and symbolically killed. Once this had been done, they were placed in the forest, where while decaying they transfer their life force to the soil.

By the end of the 19th century, as the art market became interested in these intriguing sculptures, many were taken away and sold.

The oldest collections The Dutch explorer Abel Jansz. Tasman was the first to report on the malanggan cult in 1643. The oldest collections of masks and statues were brought to Europe by German merchants between 1900 and 1914. Some of the objects on display date back to that same period. Contacts with European traders led to a blossoming of malanggan art, as various trade goods such as textiles, nails and blue paint were introduced. Production was severely disrupted during World War II, but since then the art of malanggan sculptures has known a revival. Today many of the masks and sculptures are made in a Catholic context and are specially made for the art market.

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9 Ancestral couple, Totok

11 Matua mask

Northern New Ireland c. 1900 Wood, shell and pigment Purchased from Van Herck, 1953; ex-collection of Jan De Schuyter MAS (AE.1953.0006.0001; AE.1953.0006.0002)

Northern New Ireland c. 1900 Wood, fibre, shell and pigment Donated by C. Hemeleers, 1925 MAS (AE.0085)

This ancestral pair clearly shows European influences. A possible explanation is that they were specially created for selling them to tourists.

Ancestral Powers Malanggan sculptures depict humanand animal-like figures which embody mythical beings and ancestors.

The eyes are inlaid with operculum, the shell of a sea snail, which gives the figures their penetrating gaze.

All the statues are bearers of ancestral powers, which are manifest in the decorative patterns and animal symbols that refer to a particular ancestral line. The bird’s-head figure is likely such an ancestral symbol. The intricate decoration above the head symbolizes growth and fertility.

10 Bird’s head Northern New Ireland Late 19th century Wood, fibre, shell and pigment Purchased from L. Bretschneider, 1955 MAS (AE.1955.0039.0002)

This head was once attached to a body made of bark cloth, the finely beaten fibrous layer found between a tree’s bark and trunk.

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Wearing the matua mask, a performer walks around the village and the cemetery to remove the taboos maintained during the mourning process.

Masks During malanggan ceremonies masked dances were held. Women and children were allowed to attend the performances. Once the ceremony was finished, the masks were stored in mask houses.

Masked dancers embodied ancestors and played a specific role in the malanggan cult, such as raising money for the celebration and ceremonially concluding the various phases in the ceremony. The masks, including the materials they were made of, increased the prestige of the deceased’s family.

Today masked dances are still held during religious and secular celebrations.

Contemporary masks are made with new and bright coloured materials.

12 Owl mask

Northern New Ireland c. 1900 Wood, pigment, rattan, bark, shell and rush pith Donated by C. Hemeleers, 1925 MAS (AE.0086)

The dried rush imitates the small feathers on an owl’s head.

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Helmet mask and owl mask The tatanua helmet mask refers to the life force which leaves a person’s body when he dies. In form and style it embodies the male beauty ideal.

These masks represent ancestors and also bear their names.

The owl mask was performed at the boys’ initiation during the malanggan ceremonies. Masked dancers represented the village’s masculinity and fertility, with their dance movements imitating the wing beats of an owl.

13 Mask Northern New Ireland c. 1900 Wood, pigment, hair, cotton, tapa (bark cloth), fibres and shell Donated by C. Hemeleers, 1925 MAS (AE.0089)

14 Tatanua helmet mask

Northern New Ireland Late 19th century Wood, pigment, plaster, tapa (bark cloth), cotton, flax and shell Purchased from Toussaint, 1946 On loan from the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren EO.1979.1.1370

15 Tatanua or miteno mask Northern New Ireland Before 1905 Wood, pigment, tapa (bark cloth), cotton, flax and shell Purchased from A. Elias, 1950; transferred from the Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels On loan from the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren EO.1979.1.1371

The mask’s headdress represents the hair style worn by men in mourning.

16 Livika friction drum Northern New Ireland 19th century Wood Ex-collection of Müller-Vanisterbeek; purchased from A. Beer, 1936; transferred from the Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels On loan from the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren EO.1979.1.1374

The sound made by the drum resembles that of a bird. While playing the drum, the musician is hiding behind a fence so as to conceal the source of the music.

The mask’s headdress represents the hair style worn by men in mourning.

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Ancestors and Clan Spirits in the Gulf of Papua

The Gulf of Papua in southern New Guinea, is home to various ethnic groups. All have their own, though closely related, sculptural styles.

Most objects they produced were displayed in the men’s long houses and used in the context of the ancestor cults and initiation. These long houses are divided into multiple compartments. Each compartment functioned as sleeping quarters for a man and his sons. Sacred family objects were also kept in the men’s ceremonial house, as each family had its own spirits embodied by sculptures.

After World War II this sculpting tradition came under threat due to the influence of Christianity and so-called “cargo cults”. Cargo cults, with their messianic role, involve the pursuit of wealth in the form of ‘cargo’, or western goods that the ancestors would bring. The charismatic cargo leader, Tom Kabu, urged local populations to destroy their ritual objects and adapt to the western economy. However, since the 1970s, various communities have set up initiatives to re-establish a connection with ancestral traditions and the related art forms.

17 Bioma ancestral figure

played a role in the rituals required to ensure a successful hunt. The complete image is reminiscent of a skeleton.

Era river, Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea First half of the 20th century Wood (bark) and pigment Donated by J. Henau, 1990 MAS (AE.1990.0028)

18 Gope board

Flat figures Flat figures made of wood or tree bark represent the clan’s ancestors.

These items were the property of a few members of the men’s society and were placed inside men’s houses along the walls. As intermediaries between people and the spirits of creation, they 52

Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea First half of the 20th century Wood and pigment Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1994 MAS (AE.1994.0006)

Gope boards Gope boards are sacred objects that were given an individual name and passed down from father to son. Originally,

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these objects were kept in the men’s house in family shrines dedicated to health, fertility and the family’s success.

On loan from the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren EO.1967.63.2178 and EO.1979.1.1202

The protruding navel symbolises the connection with the ancestors. This motive is usually missing from more recent boards made for sale. This might be because those commercial objects are rather seen as commodities than as receptacles for ancestral spirits.

These masks chased young boys on the beach and protected gardens and fruit-bearing trees.

19 Ceremonial bullroarer Gulf of Papua, New Guinea First half of the 20th century Wood and pigment Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1994 MAS (AE.1994.0007)

When roared around, this instrument makes a humming sound that is considered as the voice of the ancestors.

20 Man’s belt Kerewa (?), Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea First half of the 20th century Tree bark and limestone Donated by Dauncey, 1937 MAS (AE.3512)

21 Kovave masks, the one on the right representing a crocodile Elema District, Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea First half of the 20th century Rattan and tree bark Purchased from A. Beer, 1947 and purchased from A. Elias, 1950; transferred from the Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels.

22 Kanipu mask Era River, Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea First half of the 20th century Rattan, feathers and raffia Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1990 MAS (AE.1990.0048.0006)

The kanipu mask prevented the consumption of coconuts, that were requisitioned for the initiation ceremonies.

Masks from the Gulf of Papua Masked dances took place at different stages of male initiation ceremonies.

At this occasion the young initiates wore both the smaller kovave masks and the larger kanipu masks. Women and children were allowed to be present during these dances.

Both types of masks were used to keep people away from fruit-bearing and coconut trees. Kovave masks represented forest spirits and scared away people when patrolling on the beach or in a garden. Once the initiation was completed, the spirits returned to the forest and the masks were burnt.

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23 Wooden heads

25 Over-modelled skull

Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea First half of the 20th century Wood, fibre and pigment Donated by L. Thilly, 1978 On loan from the Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren EO.1978.62.4, EO.1978.62.6, EO.1978.62.7

Iatmul, Middle Sepik river, Papua New Guinea First half of the 20th century Skull, clay, plant material, human hair and mother-of-pearl shell Exchange with J. Schwob, 1955 MAS (AE.1955.0018.0005)

These wooden heads from the Gulf of Papua are extremely rare.

24 Skull rack Iatmul, Middle Sepik River, Papua New Guinea First half of the 20th century Rattan, palm leaf sheath, bamboo and pigment Purchased by Raw Material Processing Company, 1963 MAS (AE.1963.0013)

Iatmul skull rack

Film Fragments: • Photo montage of the men’s houses, photographs by dr. F. Füllerborn, taken during the 1909-10 expedition © Museum für Völkerkunde, Hamburg.

• "Cannibal tours", Dennis o’Rourke, 1988 © Dennis o’Rourke, co-production Institute of Papua New Guinea.

Montage and Production: Tempora and MAS, 2011

The Iatmul, from the inland on the island of New Guinea, placed modelled skulls on shelves in the men’s house, or opposite the entrance of their dwelling. Skulls from high ranking dead were dug up, cleaned and then the deceased’s face was remodelled in clay. The painting symbolised the person’s social rank. Remodelled skulls of decapitated enemies were also placed on the rack.

On occasion the skulls were given food and drink as a sacrifice invoking protection or as a favour.

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OCEANIA Kopiraet / Copyright

The islands of Vanuatu, the former New Hebrides, are known for their monumental slit drums and fern tree sculptures. The drums were – and still are – used in initiation rituals within the male ‘graded society’ (Mange) and are a symbol for the traditional competitive leadership.

Leading village leaders, Big Men, had copyrights on certain motifs.

Traditionally, after use on the ritual site (nasara), the sculptures and drums are left behind deep in the forest. Gradually, they sink into the ground and die a 'silent death'. After their independence traditional art forms knew a revival.

In the 1960s and 70s chief Tain Mal and his son Tofor from Fanla village, started a lucrative business, making and selling slit drums to European and American collectors . Several of their split drums are to be found in Ethnographic Museums worldwide.

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26 Three slit drums (atingting)

29 Big Man Tofor of Fanla

North Ambrym (island), Vanuatu, Melanesia 1960-1970 Wood Donated by C. Spinelli, 2014 MAS (MAS.0128.001-003)

Vanuatu, Melanesia Late 1960s © Photo: Kal Muller

These three slit drums are probably the work of Tofor and his chosen carver Tin Meleun. The donor, Christian Spinelli, collected these slit or ‘slotted’ drums on location in the 1970s.

27 Sculpture (bwerang) North Ambrym (island), Vanuatu, Melanesia 20th century Fern tree, traces of painting Purchased from G. Ghesquière, 1972 MAS (AE.1972.0003.0001)

Tofor sold and donated slit drums to art dealers, collectors and museums worldwide. French president De Gaulle and the British queen Elisabeth II were also presented with an artwork of his. Vanuatu was a French-English condominium at the time. Here he finishes the painting of a drum.

30 Dancing festival ‘Back to my Roots’ Halhal Fantor North Ambrym 2009 © Photo: Hugo DeBlock

The bwerang reflected the status of their owner and his position within the competitive men's society. Each grade had its own specific insignia and motifs.

28 Slit drum (atingting) North Ambrym (eiland), Vanuatu, Melanesia 1960-1970 Wood Purchased from P. Schandevyl, 1977 MAS (AE.1977.0053)

Today's sculptors have largely forgotten the methods to carve the drum into a musical instrument. For them, developing the artistic effect of the heads is particularly important.

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KARMA AND REINCARNATION - IN THE INDIAN RELIGIONS India is the cradle of three ancient religions: Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. All three believe in reincarnation – the rebirth of the soul in a new body when the old one has died. Karma, the sum of actions in previous lives, determines the quality of the new life. This is a natural law – there is no god or judge who decides. Achieving liberation from the cycle of rebirth through one’s own efforts is the ultimate goal.

Hindus venerate numerous gods, but they all represent aspects of one absolute power: the universal soul (Brahman).

Liberation from rebirth (moksha) means that after death the self (atman) becomes one with the universal soul. This can be achieved through yoga and meditation, or by worshiping one personal deity who represents the highest being.

Jains and Buddhists do not believe in a creator god. They follow teachers who show them a path to liberation. Eventually, those who have fully comprehended their scientific explanations of karma and have followed the right moral path will be freed from the suffering of continual rebirth.

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The Mother Goddess

Mahadevi, the mother goddess who is the source of life and fertility, is highly venerated in India. Her cult is ancient and indigenous and her many representations show the Indian beauty ideal: full breasts, round belly, wide hips and a narrow waist.

Mahadevi is also worshipped as the partner of the gods, in which case she is called Shakti: feminine power and energy. Just as for Shiva, there are also terrifying representations of Mahadevi, such as Kali or Durga, and in these forms she has a protective function.

1 Forest nymph (yakshi) Northern India 200 - 100 BCE Earthenware Donated by Stichting Antiquairs Antwerp, 2001 MAS (AE.2001.0038)

The representation of the mother goddess, Mahadevi, stems from that of the yakshi, or female nature spirits.

2 Gaja Lakshmi Northern India Gupta Period, 500-600 Earthenware Purchased from Marcel Nies, 2007 MAS (AE.2007.0023.0001)

Two elephants sprinkle purifying water on the goddess of happiness.

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3 Mahisasuramardini, slayer of the buffalo demon India Early 19th century Bronze Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1990 MAS (AE.1990.0032.0010)

4 Chamunda Tamil Nadu, Southern India Ca. 1200 Granite Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1992 MAS (AE.1992.0022)

Chamunda, the terrifying Chamunda is Shiva’s wife in terrifying form who uses a trident to kill the demons Chanda and Munda. She is depicted as a young, full-breasted goddess with flaming hair, bulging

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eyes and long fangs. In her right earlobe she has the corpse of a child while snakes encircle her breasts and she wears a necklace made of small skulls.

However, although she is almighty and fierce, Chamunda is still much loved because she fights evil, and it is for that very reason that she looks so terrifying.

5 Ganesha Java, Indonesia 12th century Grey lava rock Purchased from Walter Tamm, 1963 MAS (AE.1963.0062.0001)

Ganesha, the Bringer of Good Luck Ganesha, the exceptionally popular deity with the elephant’s head, is chiefly venerated because he removes obstacles. He is also thought to bring wisdom and happiness, so people call on him whenever they embark on a new venture.

Ganesha always has a string of prayer beads (mala), an axe and a bowl with sweets. He also has a broken tusk, which he lost during a fight. A slightly overzealous owner has restored the tusk on this statue.

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Shiva, Destroyer and Renewer

The Hindu god Shiva is both the destroyer and re-creator of the world.

Within himself he unites every opposite into one whole: male and female, gentleness and fierceness, pleasure and abstinence, creation and destruction, life and death. His many names and forms reference this paradoxical multiplicity.

Shiva’s double nature is most apparent in the vigorous and potent dance he performs at the end of each world era. He dances the world into extinction in a circle of fire, but from that same cosmic energy a new world is created.

And in his locks of hair he imprisons the waters of the sacred River Ganges, a source of life.

Shiva is portrayed as a benign young man with his long matted locks piled high. His many arms allude to his many supernatural abilities. He may also have a very fierce appearance, or look like an ascetic. But the form in which he is most venerated is the lingam, or phallus, a symbol of power and fertility.

6 Naga lingam

The phallus-shaped stone was created from itself (swayambhu) through erosion in a river.

Maharashtra, India 19th century Bronze Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1990 MAS (AE.1990.0032.0008)

8 Mukha lingam

Snakes (naga) are a reference to fertility and eroticism.

7 Swayambhu lingam Northern India Mid-20th century Stone Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1990 MAS (AE.1990.0049.0001) 62

Northern India Post-Gupta style, Ca. 800 Sandstone Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1990 MAS (AE.1990.0032.0020)

Mukha-lingam, face and phallus The lingam, or phallus, is the oldest representation of Shiva, with the male genitals symbolising fertility and virility. Lingams are often placed on a shallow basin which represents a source of life in the form of the – ASIA –

female genitals, or yoni. Lingams are honoured with flowers and fruit, and milk and honey are poured over them.

This exhibit, which is from a temple and also shows the world’s axis, has a rounded top featuring Shiva’s face (mukha). Here, combining the face and the genitals is thought to bring together the spiritual and the physical.

9 Shiva Chandrashekar Southern India Chola Period, 12th century Bronze Purchased from Marcel Nies, 2004 MAS (AE.2004.0048.0001)

On this processional statue of Shiva, the moon (chandra) adorns the headdress (shekar).

10 Shiva Virabhadra India 19th century Bronze Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1990 MAS (AE.1990.0032.0006)

Sati and widow-burning In the past, Hindu women immolated themselves on their deceased husbands’ pyre when the latter were cremated. This bronze plaque explains this practice.

Shiva, in his terrifying form, Virabhadra, carries stabbing weapons, a shield and a necklace of severed heads. Below on the left is his wife, Sati, and on the right her father, Daksha, with a ram’s head.

The scene refers to the legend according to which Shiva cut off Daksha’s head, which upset Sati and led her to jump in the fire and die.

11 Shiva Bhikshatana Southern India 19th century Wood Purchased from Gallery Dorekens, 1960 MAS (AE.1960.0028.0001)

This panel shows the terrifying Shiva roaming about.

12 Brahma East India Pala Period, 11th century Basalt Purchased from Marcel Nies, 2005 MAS (AE.2005.0037.0001)

Brahma, the Creator Brahma is the mythical creator or architect of the universe, and together with Shiva and Vishnu he makes up a so-called triad.

These deities represent the cosmic process of creation, preservation and destruction.

Brahma has four heads in reference to the four sacred books, the Vedas.

In his hands he holds a sceptre, a square sacrificial spoon, a string of prayer beads (mala) and a pitcher of water. He sits on a lotus flower and his mount is a goose.

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Vishnu, the Protector

The Hindu god Vishnu is considered to be the protector of humanity.

He lets good triumph over evil and has the power to preserve the universe. If the order of the world is disrupted, he comes to earth to save it from deterioration. Vishnu has many manifestations.

In the sacred book Bhagavad Gita, as Krishna, he counsels on the duties of Hindus. According to him, people need not be afraid of death as only the body dies and not the soul. He calls on people to act altruistically and to lovingly devote their souls to him.

Vishnu is a kind-hearted deity with blue skin, a high crown and four hands, each showing one of four important attributes: a wheel representing the disc of the sun, a conch shell horn, a lotus flower and a club.

His wife, Lakshmi, is the goddess of wealth and happiness.

13 Vishnu

Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 2002 Purchased from Theo Van der Veken, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0019.0001, AE.2002.0018.0001 to 0005, AE.2002.0019.0002)

Bangladesh Pala Period, 12th century Basalt Purchased from A. Haeck, 2004 MAS (AE.2004.0013.0001)

Vishnu strides through the cosmos in three steps. The goddesses Lakshmi and Saraswati are shown underneath.

14 Series of miniatures with avatars of Vishnu Rajasthan, India 19th century Painting on paper

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• Matsya, the fish avatar and the legend of the deluge • Kurma, the turtle avatar and the churning of the ocean (recto) • Varaha, the boar avatar and the saving of mother earth (verso in facsimile) • Narasimha, the man-lion • Vamana, the dwarf • Rama, the hero of the Ramayana epic • Krishna, the cowherd • Kalkin, the man on the horse, the future avatar

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Avatars Vishnu is often depicted in ten manifestations, or avatars, which in Sanskrit mean “descents”. Every time the world is in danger, Vishnu descends to earth as a hero or an animal to save it and ensure that order is maintained.

It is believed that he has already appeared nine times and that he will still descend a tenth time, but some people have added other avatars.

In this series of miniatures, the sixth (Parashurama) and ninth (Buddha) avatar are missing. The best-known avatars of Vishnu are Krishna and Rama.

15 Temple painting with Krishna Nathdvara Rajasthan, India Early 20th century Gouache on canvas Purchased from All India Handicrafts board, 1964 MAS (AE.1964.0021.0006)

In the centre is Krishna lifting up Mount Govardhana. He is surrounded by images of the 24 celebrations in honour of Krishna.

Krishna, the Cowherd Krishna, the seductive cowherd, is a very popular deity. There are numerous legends and stories about his life as a baby and child, and as a flute-playing young man he often frolicked and danced with the herdsmen’s daughters.

Their love symbolizes longing for god, while them dancing in a circle represents union with the universal soul.

16 Matsya, first avatar of Vishnu India Second half of the 19th century Wood Purchased from Gallery Dorekens, 1960 MAS (AE.1960.0028.0002)

On this panel from a processional wagon, Vishnu is depicted as a fish.

17 Narasimha, man/lion avatar of Vishnu Northern India Gupta Period, 400-600 Sandstone Purchased from Marcel Nies, 2007 MAS (AE.2007.0023.0002)

This type of red stone was often used for fortresses and palaces and has also been used on the facades for the MAS building.

18 Three drawers with merchandise: Contemporary products with depictions of deities India 2009 Donated by Chris De Lauwer, 2018 MAS (MAS.0257.001 to MAS.0257.008)

Gods in Soap Operas Hindus live with and among the gods and heroes, who are often venerated in a lively manner. Children grow up hearing the myths, and the stories and depictions appear in contemporary comic strips, films and soap operas. These deities are also popular in the west, for example as images on consumer products.

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Films • Rath Yatra, festival in honour of the Hindu deity Krishna Organized by the ISCKON Hare Krishna movement and the City of Antwerp.

Antwerp, 19 June 2010 Production: © MAS and Tempora

• Ganesh Caturthi, festival in honour of the Hindu deity Ganesha.

Organized by the Indian community and the City of Antwerp.

Antwerp, September 2009 Production: © FilmNatie, Belgium

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Jainism: Non-violence and Reverence of All Life

Jainism is one of India’s oldest religions. It is akin to animism in that it is believed that everything in nature has a soul. Besides humans, animals and plants, Jains also consider the four elements as living beings: earth, water, fire and air. Since they believe that none of these things may be harmed, Jains are absolutely non-violent and are acutely aware of ecology.

Jains follow the example of the 24 Jinas and believe that this can liberate them from the cycle of rebirths. Their teachings very precisely describe how every living being has a soul to that is contained in a physical body.

By living a strict ascetic life, individuals can purify their souls and achieve liberation after their death, a condition of eternal bliss.

Jainism prohibits any profession which harms nature, and in this context Jains are primarily known as diamond merchants. This activity means that many Indian Jain families have settled in North America and Europe, for example in Antwerp.

The 24 Jinas Jains venerate 24 Jinas, princes who abandoned their lives of luxury to become wandering monks. After long periods of fasting and meditation they attained omniscience and, after death, liberation – they were no longer reborn. Jina therefore means ‘spiritual conqueror’. Jinas are also called Tirthankaras, or ford-builders, because they help people ford the waters of rebirth.

Most Jinas lived in a very distant past. The last two in the series, Parshva and Mahavira, are historical figures who lived in the 9th and 6th century BCE respectively. Mahavira is regarded as the founder of Jainism, but in fact he reformed what was then already an ancient doctrine.

Jains envisage time as a wheel, eternally moving in an upward and downward motion. These motions symbolize successive world ages of prosperity and adversity. In each world age the line of 24 Jinas appears, to teach the eternal doctrine of Jainism.

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19 Three standing Jinas

22 Parshva

Gujarat, Northern India Dated 1447 Bronze Purchased from Ronny De Jonghe, 2004 MAS (AE.2004.0047.0001)

Uttar Pradesh, Northern India 10th century Sandstone Purchased from Marcel Nies, 1997 MAS (AE.1997.0021)

Jinas are often represented without clothing, so in other words free of worldly possessions. Sculptures such as this one are generally gifts made to a temple.

A seven-headed mythical snake protects Parshva from a downpour while he meditates.

20 Parshvanath Tritirthi Rajasthan, India Dated 1063 Bronze Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1998 MAS (AE.1998.0046)

Next to Parshva are two other Jinas, two servants and two tutelary deities (Yaksha and Yakshi).

21 Samavasarana, Mahavira preaching Rajasthan, India Late 18th century Gouache on canvas Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1997 MAS (AE.1997.0029)

Parshva and co.

In art, all Jinas are depicted in an identical, stereotypical manner because, after all, they are the embodiment of perfection. However, each Jina has his own emblem which in most cases is shown on the base of the statue. Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara, can be recognized by the cobra.

Jinas are always depicted with small curls on their heads and with elongated earlobes. Their eyes are wide open, there is a flower- or diamond-shaped gem adorning their chest, and they are always depicted sitting or meditating.

Mahavira preaches before monks and nuns, laymen and laywomen. The animals around them are sitting peacefully next to their prey.

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A World in Three Parts

According to Jainism, the universe is an eternal, infinite and empty space with at its centre an inhabited world consisting of three parts: an upper world of divine beings, a middle world for humans, animals and plants, and a lower world inhabited by hellish beings. At the very apex of this tri-part world is the crescent-shaped abode of the liberated souls.

Living beings, including gods, are mortal and are endlessly reborn in one of the three worlds. Where and how depends on their previous deeds. Every time someone thinks, speaks or acts, particles of matter attach themselves to his originally pure soul. The greater the violence associated with a thought or act, the greater the amount of matter that settles on the soul. And the greater the amount of matter on the soul, the lower the world and the life form in which he is reborn.

Strict asceticism cleanses the soul and brings it to a state of perfection.

This liberates it from the worlds of rebirth. Only in human form can a being attain this stage.

23 Lokapurusa, the Cosmic Man

The Middle World

Western India 16th century Gouache on paper Purchased from Robert Mulder, 2004 MAS (AE.2004.0046.0001)

This cosmogram shows the upper, middle and lower worlds.

24 Adhai dvipa pata, cosmogram with the middle world Rajasthan, India 16th - 17th century Gouache on canvas MAS (AE.1991.0035) 70

This is the middle world of humans and animals. The central disc is the continent of the Jambu, or rose apple tree, with Mount Meru at its centre, and it is surrounded by circular oceans and continents. The yellow lines are mountain ranges in which greyish-blue rivers take their source.

The two horn-shaped rivers in the Himalayas at the bottom are the Indus and the Ganges, with India in the middle. Jains believe that liberation can only be attained in this area.

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25 Torture in the Jain hells

27 Manuscript holder

India 19th century Gouache on paper Purchased from B.N. Aryan MAS (AE.2002.0020.0001 and AE.2002.0020.0002)

India 19th century Canvas on cardboard Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1997 MAS (AE.1997.0061.0001)

26 Folios from the Kalpasutra

The eight auspicious symbols: swastika, powder box, chest jewel, throne, mirror, vase, pair of fish and endless knot.

Northern India 1450-1500 Gouache on paper Purchased from Alfred Jacobsen, 2001 MAS (AE.2001.0041.0001 and AE.2001.0041.0002)

The first manuscript shows Adinatha being crowned, while the second shows Mahavira. The white moon crescent on which he is sitting symbolises liberation.

Manuscripts with swastikas Jain temple libraries have a treasure trove with boxes of manuscripts.

These manuscripts are in the form of elongated sheets kept together between two boards. These folios are often illuminated with miniatures, and similar decorations can also be found on the manuscript holders in which the folios are placed for reading.

28 Book cover Rajasthan, India 19th century Painted wood Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1997 MAS (AE.1997.0061.0002)

These are depictions of the fourteen portentous dreams of Mahavira’s pregnant mother.

The eight auspicious symbols were commonly depicted, among which was the swastika. For Jains, this ancient Indian symbol for luck represents the four forms of rebirth: as a human, an animal, a divine being or a hellish being.

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Monks and Laymen

Jains liberate their soul through the ‘three jewels’ – right knowledge, right belief and right conduct. They observe five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing, untruth, unchaste behaviour, and attachment to possessions.

For lay Jains, these are only guidelines, which are followed in good conscience. They particularly avoid intentionally killing, so cutting down trees, fishing and slaughtering animals are forbidden. Jains do not eat meat, fish or eggs, or tuberous plants, as these contain many living elements.

To attain liberation, a Jain must first become a monk or nun. Monks and nuns follow the rules of Jainism to an extreme degree. They also avoid the unintentional killing or harming of any living being. They cover their mouths with cloths to avoid breathing in any insects, for instance.

Before they take a step they use a special brush to sweep away any tiny creatures that might inadvertently be trodden on. They have no possessions, lead an itinerant life and do not cook. To these Jains, fasting is the best way to avoid killing any living beings and to purify the soul.

29 Siddhapratima, image of the liberated soul

India 20th century Bronze Acquired in situ by Chris De Lauwer, 2010 MAS (MAS.0019.0001)

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30 Temple statue of a donor Gujarat, Northern India 12th century Marble Purchased from Marcel Nies, 2000 MAS (AE.2000.0206)

Persons who financed the building of a temple were often depicted on the temple’s walls.

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31 6 Shatrunjaya tirthapata Gujarat, Northern India 1800 Gouache on canvas Purchased from Lempertz, 1997 MAS (AE.1997.0060)

This cartographic illustration shows the Jain pilgrimage site on Mount Shatrunjaya in Palitana, Gujarat.

Pilgrimage painting This painting of a pilgrimage shows

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the temple complex on Mount Shatrunjaya. The central temple is dedicated to Adinatha, the first Jina.

A winding path full of pilgrims goes to the top of the mountain. The coloured plates illustrate the roughness of the terrain, which is populated by monks and animals.

In the white sphere at the top is a dead monk. He died a ritual death by fasting and reached the abode of liberated souls, which looks like a crescent moon or a white gold overturned umbrella.

Reflections at the Pilgrimage painting

Thoughts on a work of art, in memory of the late Chris De Lauwer, curator and keeper of the Asia collection in the MAS from 2011 to 2018.

Chris De Lauwer (Kanpur, India 1955 - Antwerp 2018) was an authority in the field of Jain studies. This made her a highly respected person among the Jain community in Antwerp. She was granted the privilege of acting as a guide at the Jain temple in Wilrijk. Chris took part in all the rituals and festivals of the community and documented these extensively.

The temple complex on Shatrunjaya hill in Palitana (State of Gujarat, India) plays an important role in Jain tradition. Together with her husband, Jan Van Alphen, former Asia curator and director of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, and their then two-year-old son, Chris visited this place of pilgrimage for the first time in 1986.

In 2014, Chris repeated the journey to the hill with a film crew. She was commissioned by the MAS and supported by Antwerp's Jain community (Jain Cultural Centre Antwerp) to write the commentary displayed here.

The scroll painting, a bird's-eye view of the sanctuary and its numerous temples, is a beautiful metaphor for Chris' life and professional career: the difficult climb up the steep winding path, the unblemished purity of the many temples in white marble, yearning for purification and earning good karma, striving for equanimity and compassion for all forms of life... These are all ideas that Chris held dear.

The painting illustrates the close bond that Chris had with the Jain philosophy and way of life, her academic background and at the same time an example of her very personal contribution to the museological functioning of the MAS. Furthermore, the work holds a special place in the hearts of the family that Chris leaves behind.

For more information: Chris DE LAUWER in: “Steps to Liberation: 2,500 years of Jain art and religion”, Jan Van Alphen (ed.), Ethnographic Museum, Antwerp, 2000, p.128-131

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32 Mouth cloth and broom

34 Fly whisk

India 20th century Cotton, wood Donated by Lalit Kumar, 2000 MAS (AE.2000.0596)

India 20th century Silver and yak’s tail Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 2001 MAS (AE.2001.0021.0005)

33 Samovasarana tower

When venerating images, it is customary to sway a fly brush as a sign of respect.

India 20th century Silver, bronze and mirror glass Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 2001 MAS (AE.2001.0021.0001.1-2/2)

35 Siddhachakra, circle of the liberated soul

During rituals, Jains literally emulate the Jina ideal.

The Daily Prayer A Jain meditates 48 minutes every day, but he is not praying to a godcreator. Instead, he shows reverence to five supreme beings. The prayer reminds him that only humans can attain liberation and it goes as follows: “Obeisance to the spiritual victors, Obeisance to the liberated souls, Obeisance to the spiritual leaders, Obeisance to the spiritual teachers, Obeisance to all saints in the world".

This mantra is often depicted on a diagram in the form of an open lotus flower.

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Western India 18th century Gouache on canvas Purchased from Paul De Smedt, 2001 MAS (AE.2001.0022)

This diagram is a memory aid in the daily prayer.

Film • Jains in Antwerp; building the Jain temple, inauguration of the Jain temple.

Wilrijk, 2010 Production and montage: © FilmNatie (Renaat Lambeets, Kristel Dotremont, Dirk Dumon) in collaboration with Chris De Lauwer

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The Jain community in Antwerp Approximately 400 Jain families live in Antwerp, with most of them originating from the western state of Gujarat.

They are here because of the diamond trade. Close to 90% of Indian diamond merchants are Jain, and their share in the sector currently exceeds that of the Jewish community.

To demonstrate that they are not attached to material possessions, Jains regularly give away money, for example to charity, for setting up animal shelters, or for building a temple. The impressive

Jain temple in Wilrijk was built using donations from the community.

At the temple, people work towards the liberation of their soul. They meditate and contemplate on the Jinas’ ideal.

There is no set day of the week for common worship, but there is always one during festivals. Paryushana is the most important Jain festival. It is considered to be a time for reflection, fasting and asking for forgiveness for the harm done to others, whether intentionally or unintentionally.

∂ 36 Game of Snakes and Ladders India 2006 Painting on paper Donated by Ratna Nidhi Charitable Trust, 2007 MAS (AE.2007.0016.0002)

The texts and the images point out the rules of behaviour in Jainism.

Snakes and Ladders This is an ancient round game consisting of a board with one hundred compartments and pictures of snakes and ladders.

Players take turns throwing a die and try to reach the top box as quickly as possible. Whoever lands on a ladder can climb up and whoever lands on a snake’s head must move down to the tail.

In the monastic variant of the game, the ladders represent good deeds while the snakes represent bad deeds. The winner of the game attains heavenly blissfulness.

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Buddhism, the Path to Nirvana

Buddhism owes its name to Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince whom his followers went on to call Buddha, the “awakened one” or “enlightened one”. He lived during the 6th century B.C. and was opposed to the caste system, the worshipping of deities, and the sacrificial practices of the time. His aim was to find a way in which to escape from suffering and the cycle of rebirths.

Passion and desire: these are, according to Buddha, the primary causes of suffering. Attachment to worldly matters leads to rebirth. But by living instead in a peaceful and detached manner, a Buddhist builds up good karma, which amounts to the sum of his deeds. This karma follows a person into his/her next life.

If one continues to improve his/her karma, then this person can achieve enlightenment through proper meditation and concentration. Upon an enlightened person’s death, nirvana, the endless nothingness, is attained, and that person is no longer reborn. This releases a person from the cycle of rebirth.

Buddhism is the most widespread religion in Asia and it has had a major influence on art and culture.

The Historical Buddha Siddhartha Gautama was born in 566 B.C., and as the son of a local king in Northeast India he led a princely life. However, he soon found this life to be empty and useless.

According to the legend, four encounters prompted him to change his life. He successively encountered an old man, a sick person, and a corpse. Their suffering shocked him, and after meeting an ascetic, he decided to leave the palace and its luxuries and live a life of detachment and meditation. After six years Buddha reached enlightenment, the highest level of understanding and awareness, and at the age of 80 attained nirvana.

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Buddha is depicted either sitting in meditation, lying down, or standing.

He wears a monk’s robe leaving one shoulder bare and has a number of set characteristics: elongated ear lobes, a tuft of hair in the centre of the brow, small curls and an ushnisa, a symbol denoting spiritual wisdom, rising from his head. Every image makes a symbolic hand gesture, with the best-known being the reassuring abhaya-mudra or “fear not”.

37 Buddha Sakyamuni

39 The nirvana of Buddha

Nagapattinam, Southern India Vijayanagara Period, 14th century Bronze Purchased from Marcel Nies, 2001 MAS (AE.2001.0001.0001.1-2/2)

Eastern India Early Pala Period, Ca. 800 Granite Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1995 MAS (AE.1995.0002.0002)

In this style, a flame replaces the ushnisa, the symbol denoting spiritual wisdom rising from his head, as a symbol of Buddha’s superhuman knowledge.

Students surround dying Buddha. Worth noting is one figure with its back turned to the audience.

38 Buddha Sakyamuni East India Pala Period, 11th - 12th century Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1994 MAS (AE.1994.0009)

There is a stupa, a burial monument and a symbol for nirvana, to the left and right of Buddha’s head.

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Philosophy or Religion?

Buddhism has two major traditions: Hinayana, or the “Small Vehicle”, and Mahayana, or “Great Vehicle”. Hinayana Buddhists consider Buddha as a philosopher and teacher. They follow his example and work towards their own nirvana as individuals through study and meditation, but few actually succeed.

Mahayana Buddhists consider Buddha as a deity who regularly appears on earth to lend assistance. They want humanity as a whole to find enlightenment and see Buddhism as a religion. They worship various divine Buddhas as well as bodhisattvas, saints who have reached enlightenment but have postponed their nirvana out of compassion for others: their aim is to bring everyone who is not yet enlightened to that level of insight. The best-known bodhisattva is Avalokitesvara, the compassionate one.

Bodhisattvas are depicted as princes wearing a beautiful robe and jewellery, with the earliest representations being from Gandhara, a region in present-day Pakistan. Alexander the Great came through this area, which accounts for the Greek influences such as sandals and draped robes.

40 Crowned Buddha Sakyamuni Mandalay, Myanmar (Burma) Ca. 1850 Wood, lacquer, gold leaf and glass Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1984 MAS (AE.1984.0013.0001)

The flames on the arms represent the knowledge exuded by Buddha.

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A richly adorned Buddha This gold-painted meditating Buddha is not a sober monk as required by tradition: quite to the contrary he is richly adorned with a crown and much jewellery. This custom became popular in Burma and Thailand during the 18th century and it emphasises Buddha’s princely lineage.

Buddha is touching the earth with one hand, which is his way of calling her as a witness to his virtues in previous lives.

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41 Guan Yin China 14th century Polychrome wood Donated by M. Vanden Bosch, 1957 MAS (AE.1957.0011.0001)

Guan Yin is a popular Chinese form of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the compassionate one.

42 Bodhisattva Maitreya, the future Buddha Gandhara, Afghanistan-Pakistan 100 - 300 B.C. Slate Purchased from Marcel Nies, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0009.0001)

Maitreya is a Buddha who will once again preach to the world the forgotten teachings.

43 Bodhisattva Maitreya, the future Buddha Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka 600-800 Bronze with traces of gilding Purchased from Marcel Nies, 2004 MAS (AE.2004.0002.0001)

This masterpiece was found in Borneo, which is proof that Buddhist art was already being exported to Southeast Asia during the 7th century.

44 Set of paintings on the Sarvavid Vairocana mandala Wangzimiao, Jehol, China Second half of the 18th century Gouache on paper Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1977 MAS (AE.1977.0026.1-54/54)

1. Maya dreams of a white elephant, which is a sign that she will give birth to Buddha.

2. Birth of Prince Siddhartha Gautama, Buddha in his later years.

3. The growing prince attending lessons, learning to ride and practicing archery.

4. The prince encounters an old man, a sick person, a corpse and an ascetic.

5. Prince Gautama leaves the palace in search of the truth. He achieves enlightenment in the forest.

6. Buddha is in the middle. To the left there is a book with his teachings and to the right a mandala.

7. High point in meditation: beams of light come out of the meditating persons’ fingertips and combine to form a full, white moon, a symbol of emptiness. From this, everything takes shape.

8. The meditating person is surrounded by mantras written on golden circles.

The power of these words clears away obstacles during meditation.

9. A beam of light comes out of the heart of a meditating person, in which the four-headed Vairocana can be seen.

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10. White light with highly symbolic signs shines from the heart area of the meditating person. The multi-coloured beam of light shows Vairocana.

11. The five divine Buddhas appear in light beams above the head of the meditating person.

12. The meditating person has reached enlightenment, the highest goal consisting of emptiness, which is both the origin and purpose of everything.

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A Guide to Meditation These miniatures are a selection from a series of 54. Together, they serve as a guideline for meditating on a mandala, a representation of the cosmos with the divine Buddha Vairocana at the centre.

The paintings show what the meditating person builds in his mind. He first concentrates on the life of Buddha, cleanses his mind of interfering thoughts, and enters a peaceful state. After this, step by step, he visualises various aspects of the divine, and in doing so attains a higher level of consciousness where he finally becomes one with Vairocana.

Depictions of the meditative process are almost non-existent, which makes this series quite unique.

These were brought back from East Mongolia in 1923 by a Flemish Scheut father, RafaĂŤl Verbois.

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Buddhism in Japan

45 Kannon Bosatsu

The Body as a Shell

Japan 16th -17th century Wood and gold paint Purchase from Georges Giroux, 1917 MAS (AE.4822)

This princely figure is sitting on a lotus throne, which is an indication of his divine status. He is holding a scroll in his left hand.

Guardian of Deceased children Kannon Bosatsu is the Japanese version of Avalokitesvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, and Jizo has been one of his manifestations since the 16th century. He is a very popular deity in Japan, particularly among pregnant women and travellers who ask for his protection. Jizo accompanies the souls of deceased children to find the way to the world of the dead and obtain a better rebirth.

These “nine contemplations” show a beautiful princess in great splendour followed by the decomposition of her corpse. At the end, nothing remains.

The message here is: a body is just a temporary shell, and only the soul remains to be born again in a new form. Together with the Chinese verses, these illustrations helped monks meditate and chase away their earthly desires.

This masterpiece is one of the oldest of its type. The seventh painting is missing.

46 Nine Contemplations on the Impurity of the Human Body Kinugasa Morishige Japan 1670-1680 Paper Bequeathed by Max Elskamp MAS (AE.4552.1-20/20)

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First contemplation The newly departed

“Her accustomed colour in everyday life has faded during her illness, and her fragrant body, as if asleep, has the appearance of somebody who has just passed away. Loved ones and friends of old are left behind and are still here, but whereto has her soul at dusk flown away?

We see flowers that suddenly wither during the third month of spring and the leaf of life easily falls at a certain moment in autumn. Old age and youth really have no fixed boundaries. What comes later and what comes earlier are hard to get away from, whether fast or slow.”

Second contemplation The swollen belly

“It is difficult to tell the name of the newly departed with swollen belly.

It only appears after seven days. Her pretty complexion becomes sallow and loses its beauty. First her black hair falls out and the hairs attach themselves to the roots of the grass.

Her six intestines putrefy in what remains of the coffin and her four limbs, swollen and straight, are lying on the open plain. It is quiet on the open plain.

Nobody accompanies her and alone she follows the road leading to Hades. Her soul is there.”

Third contemplation Blood-smeared

“Her bones broken and her flesh to[in?] pieces she stays in the Northern Mang.

Her appearance has changed inconceivably. Her rotted skin has come loose and shows a deep purplish blue colour.

Purulent blood suddenly flows. It leads to the putrefaction of her intestines.

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The world is unstable and appears and disappears like the sun. The body is impure. This becomes evident at this moment. From here relatives and friends have gone into the void. The soughing gusts of wind and the cool breeze seem to ask for clothing.”

Fourth Contemplation Confused

“Although washed by rinsing it with the waters of the sea, how could it be pure when reflecting on its confusion? White worms are wriggling darkly in her body.

How numerous do the bluebottle flies fester on her flesh!

The wind carries the stench over a distance of two or three miles, and the moon shines upon her naked corpse during four or five watches. How sad are the new and old bones near the brushwood! As the years go by, one no longer knows their names.”

Fifth Contemplation Devoured

“On the wide plains people are scarce.

What is there? Wild beasts fighting for the corpse cannot be kept off. In the morning one sees the form of the swollen and rotting belly. In the evening one hears the howling of the tigers and wolves devouring it.

Hungry dogs bark and destroy the piled up earth. Greedy birds flock together after having left the woods of their villages.

The high expectations of present-day life are a dream among dreams. Should one not be ashamed of it?”

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Sixth Contemplation

hair fill the open plain and the skull is rotting at the edge of a rock.

“How depressing is it at the accumulated old graves! All colour has gone, but the joints remain linked. When the year is young the remaining flesh lies on the grass of spring. How blue-black are the remains of the skin in the evening wind!

On rainy evenings, when it is cloudy in the West, it rots year after year. In stormy weather, when it is dark in the East, it everywhere goes to ruin. Suddenly it becomes earth on the plain of the Dragon Gate. One does not know to whom, disgraced or honoured, the coffin formerly belonged.”

Blue-black

On the places washed clean by the continuous autumn rains the bones are slowly uncovered. When once the morning sun will shine, it will pierce the skulls. These elements make them be wild things. Alas! For many kalpas they are sunk in the Yellow Springs.”

Seventh Contemplation

The remaining together of the white bones (This painting is missing) “Before one fundament decays it is very rotten, but when the five limbs are opposed to each other they destroy this body. A wine jar, empty and broken, still lies next to her pillow, and her threadbare clothes, just tidied away, decay to dust.

In former times she was a woman with a pink face who had gone to the imperial court. Now she is a person with white bones on the open plain. Whilst clouds and rain darken the moon above the plain, weeping people are keeping watch the whole night over the spirit of her corpse.”

Ninth Contemplation The old graves

“The five aggregates may by nature all be empty, in their course and at their end, during his whole life one loves this person. Remaining at the burial mound, the mysterious soul flies in the moonlight of the night and having left the corpse the ignorant soul rustles in the autumn wind.

The name remains, without form, at the edge of the pine-clad hills. The bones turn to ashes in the grassy marsh.

The inscriptions on the stones are obliterated and indistinct. At the graves of the ancients tears redden (the eyes).”

Eighth Contemplation

The scattering of the bones

“Creeping herbs finally tie up her bones, although they are lonely and scattered.

Scattered there and abandoned here, they are hard to find even when one is looking for them. Separated, nails and – KARMA AND REBIRTH –

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Buddhism in Tibet

Buddhism as it is practiced in Tibet recognises an impressive number of gods and demons. In addition, it also makes extensive use of ceremonial and ritual objects. Spiritual teachers play a major role by initiating monks and teaching them to recite texts, engage in yoga exercises and apply meditation techniques so that they can quickly attain enlightenment and nirvana.

Mahayana Buddhism only came to Tibet from India one thousand years after Buddha, and by then it had been strongly influenced by Hinduism with its many gods and by the secret teachings of Tantrism.

Then, in Tibet, it was once again combined with popular beliefs and the shamanistic Bön religion, which explains its complexity.

Until it was annexed by China in 1959, Tibet was a theocracy where the Dalai Lama ruled as both the secular and religious leader. He is considered an earthly manifestation of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the god of compassion.

47 Votive stupa Tibet, China 19th century Bronze and gold leaf Purchased from Victor Servranckx, 1962 MAS (AE.1962.0021)

Stupa

placed under a burial mound. The pin going diagonally through the half-sphere is crowned with parasols, and this shape symbolises how the universe is built, with the earth’s axis in the middle.

The shape of pagodas, Buddhist temples in the Far East, is often inspired by stupas.

A stupa is a burial monument which symbolises Buddha’s nirvana. Prior to the use of stupas, the cremated remains of important people were

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48 Palden Lhamo Tibet, China 18th century Bronze Bequeathed by Jean-Pierre Esman, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0002.0043)

This is the Hindu goddess Kali, who in Buddhism is known as dharmapala, protector of the teachings.

51 Yamantaka, the terminator of the demon of death, Yama Tibet, China 19th century Bronze Bequeathed by Jean-Pierre Esman, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0002.0025.1-10/10)

49 Naro dakini, protective deity and personification of wisdom China Yongle Period, 1403-1424 Gilded bronze Bequeathed by Jean-Pierre Esman, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0002.0001)

This is the only known version of this dakini from the Yongle imperial workshops. Dakinis are female intermediaries in Tibetan Buddhism.

50 Buddhakapala China Xuande Period, 1426-1435 Gilded bronze Bequeathed by Jean-Pierre Esman, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0002.0030)

A number of the bronze statues in the MAS collection, including this one, are considered prime examples of ChineseTibetan bronze artwork starting in the Ming Period (15th century).

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The Jewel in the Lotus

Tibetan Buddhism intensely uses magic words and diagrams, mantras and yantras. During rituals, hand movements and highly symbolic objects help in quickly attaining enlightenment.

The best-known mantra is “Om mani padme hum”, or “The jewel in the lotus”, and it can be seen depicted everywhere and heard everywhere being continuously mumbled by Tibetans. By doing this they hope to improve their karma and be reborn in a more favourable position.

Tibetan art is generally intended as an aid for meditation to allow monks to touch upon the essence of the gods and gain insight into the order of the world and themselves. Scroll paintings and bronze figures depict an extensive world of the gods.

There are three levels of divine essence, the highest of which cannot be grasped and is symbolised by the AdiBuddha, or Primordial Buddha.

The second level can only be reached in meditation. Here, there are five paradises with the divine or Dhyani Buddhas and the bodhisattvas. At the third, earthly level, Buddhas can be seen in human form, such as the historic Buddha.

52 Namasangiti Thanka

Thangkas

Tashilumpo, Tibet, China 1780 Painting on canvas and brocade frame Purchased from Vloors-Bruynseels, 1953 MAS (AE.1953.0005.0016)

Thangkas are generally made of cotton with a brocade frame, and a silken, rollup curtain protects the sacred image.

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Thangkas hang on temple walls but are easy to roll up and carry around.

They are used as aids for meditating.

Namasamgiti is the bodhisattva, or manifestation, of wisdom, Manjusri.

He holds a central position among the five transcendent Buddhas, who can only be perceived through meditation. Under them are the three human Buddhas from the past, present and future. Around them are sixteen bodhisattvas or divine Buddhas with underneath three dharmapalas, or protectors of the teachings.

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53 Avalokiteshvara Mahakarunika, the great compassionate one Tibet, China 18th century Bronze Bequeathed by Jean-Pierre Esman, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0002.0024.1-6/6)

55 Sitatara, the white Tara Tibet, China 18th century Bronze Bequeathed by Jean-Pierre Esman, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0002.0032.1-2/2)

With his eleven heads, this bodhisattva exudes compassion in all directions.

This female bodhisattva of compassion has seven eyes in her head, the palms of her hands and the soles of her feet.

54 Mahakala, the great black one

56 Syamatara, the green Tara

Tibet, China 18th century Gilded bronze Purchased from Gallery 43, 1966 MAS (AE.1966.0029.1-3/3)

Tibet, China Second half of the 18th century Bronze Bequeathed by Jean-Pierre Esman, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0002.0019)

This is the Hindu god Shiva, who in Buddhism is known as dharmapala, protector of the teachings.

Taras are female bodhisattvas who live in a heavenly paradise and are always ready to help humans.

Masterly Bronze

57 Bardo tower

Bronze sculptures of Tibetan gods, which are often gilded, are aids for meditation which offer protection and take away the fear of death. At the same time, however, they can be terrifying with their many arms and legs, skull wreaths and skull cups.

They are depicted trampling bodies symbolising ignorance, which is the source of all evil.

Tutelary deities, often shown in a sexual embrace, eliminate all discrepancies and allow the faithful to see the unity of everything.

Nepal 19th century Painting on canvas Purchased from Grimbers, 1973 MAS (AE.1973.0023.0001 to 0003)

These are the visions people see during the first four weeks following their death.

Bardo: a journey between death and rebirth According to the Bardo Thodol, The Tibetan Book of the Dead, between death and rebirth the soul makes a journey lasting seven weeks, a period called Bardo. A monk recites the itinerary to give comfort to dying persons.

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For the first four days, the deceased is still aware of reality, but is no longer able to act. Then, for 14 days, he encounters 58 terrifying and 42 peaceful gods. Afterwards, during the next 31 days, he sees a white light and the world into which he will be reborn.

58 Bardo tower

This thangka, or scroll painting, shows the evolution of a human embryo from conception to birth and is still used for teaching purposes in traditional Tibetan medicine. This particular document is recent but the model is from the 17th century.

The development of the foetus’s body and soul takes 38 weeks and the most important stages are compared with those of animals: fish, turtle (reptile), pig (mammal).

Nepal 19th century Painting on canvas Donated by Pia Van der Wee, 1974 MAS (AE.1974.0044.0001 and 0002)

These are the visions people see during the last three weeks before their rebirth.

Towers with Visions This representation of Bardo is unique because it has a three-dimensional structure. The two towers form mandalas, or representations of the cosmos, with gates opening out onto the four points of the compass, while the illustrations show the visions of the deceased during their transitional state.

59 Thangka on embryology Tibet, China 20th century Painting on canvas and brocade frame Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 1995 MAS (AE.1995.0010.0003)

At the upper left of the work is the medicine Buddha explaining the medical textbooks.

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The Embryo: old knowledge, modern insights

60 Thunderbolt or diamond-sceptre (vajra) Tibet, China 1920-1928 Copper Donated by M. Verbois, 1977 MAS (AE.1977.0027.0016)

Ritual Instruments The primary ritual instruments in Tibetan Buddhism are the bell and the vajra (thunderbolt). Monks use these instruments while gods have them as attributes.

The round bell (ghanta) represents the female principle, the pure sound of the doctrine, wisdom and the ultimate goal. It is used along with the vajra, the imperturbable male principle symbolising the way and the method. Together, they help to attain insight and enlightenment where the way and the purpose are one.

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61 Bell (ghanta) Tibet, China 19th century Copper Donated by M. Vanden Bosch, 1957 MAS (AE.1957.0015.0014)

62 Ritual dagger (phurbu)

64 Thangka with the Buddhist wheel of transformation Tibet, China 19th century Painting on canvas Donated by P.A. de Weerdt, 1976 MAS (AE.1976.0009.0004)

The Wheel of Life

Tibet, China 20th century Copper Donated by M. Vanden Bosch, 1956 MAS (AE.1955.0044.0004)

A phurbu is used to pin demons to the ground as they are enemies of the faith.

63 Crown of a lama Tibet, China First half of the 19th century Cardboard, pigments, cotton Donated by Lieve Verleye-De Meester, 1993 MAS (AE.1993.0017.0013)

Lama Crown During important ceremonies, Tibetan priests generally wear a crown with five leaves, each one with a depiction of one of the transcendental Buddhas. They originate from one Primordial Buddha and are shown as meditating princes.

Each one has a name, colour, point of the compass and symbol, here from left to right: Ratnasambhava (yellow, south, earth), Akshobhya (blue, east, water), Vairocana (white, centre, ether), Amitabha (red, west, fire), and Amoghasiddhi (green, north, air).

A depiction of the cycle of rebirths can often be found hanging in Tibetan temples with Yama, the god of death, holding the wheel. In the centre there is a pig, a snake and a rooster representing the vices of greed, hate and deception, which lead to rebirth.

Between the spokes are the six realms where one can be reborn: that of the gods, demigods, hungry ghosts, hell, animals and humans.

The wheel’s outer rim shows the twelve factors at the root of endless rebirth.

65 Ritual skull cup Tibet, China 19th century Skull bone, copper, brass and turquoise Purchased from J. Schijns, 1960 MAS (AE.1960.0013.0001.1-3/3)

A Skull as a Sacrificial Dish In Tibet, the body is considered worthless without a soul, and this gives rise to “sky burials” where bodies are dissected and placed on mountaintops to serve as food for vultures.

Remaining skulls are used as ritual sacrificial dishes and drums while tibias and femurs serve as flutes.

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For special ceremonies, priests wear magnificently worked aprons made from human bones.

These customs and objects refer to mortality and death as an opportunity for a new and better spiritual life.

66 Ritual hand drum (damaru)

69 Prayer wheel Tibet, China 19th century Wood, silver, copper and stone Donated by M. Van den Bosch, 1957 MAS (AE.1957.0004.0009)

Turning the wheel multiplies the number of times a prayer is said, so one prayer in fact becomes one hundred.

Tibet, China 19th century Skull bone and goatskin Purchased from J.Schijns, 1960 MAS (AE.1960.0013.0002)

70 Small prayer rolls

67 Bone apron and bracelets Tibet, China 19th century Human bone and textile Purchased from M.L.J. Lemaire, 1965 MAS (AE.1965.0021.1-3/3, AE.1998.0530)

Buddhist deities have been engraved into the bones of the apron. Together with the wearer they make up a mandala.

68 Prayer beads

Tibet, China 19th century Paper Donated by G. Bellemans, 1959 MAS (AE.1959.0034)

71 Small prayer flag Tibet, China 19th century Textile Donated by C. Troch, 1973 MAS (AE.1973.0016.0006)

Prayers in the Wind

Tibet, China 19th century Human bone and cotton string Donated by P.A. de Weerdt MAS (AE.1976.0009.0013)

There are 108 beads, which corresponds to the number of totality. It is thought that repeating words or sets of words 108 times gives them their greatest effectiveness.

A prayer wheel is turned clockwise on a number of occasions, for example when taking a walk, visiting the temple, while on a pilgrimage, etc.

The cylinder contains rolls on which mantras have been printed or written.

When the wheel is turned the words are taken by the wind and this means that each time the cylinder rotates all the prayers are said.

Prayer flags are also omnipresent and are printed with a mantra or a “wind horse”, which carries prayers along with the wind.

90

– ASIA –

72 Reliquary Tibet, China 19th century Gilded copper and clay Bequeathed by J.P. Esman, 2002 MAS (AE.2002.0002.0046)

This votive tablet in clay (tsa-tsa) is also worn as a protective amulet (gau).

to also symbolise Buddhism’s victory over the local Bön religion. Nowadays it is performed as a purification ritual during the New Year’s celebrations.

The mask with the bull’s head is the god of death, Yama Dharmaraja, who decides where each deceased person is reborn. His third eye symbolises inner insight.

76 Telescoping trumpets

73 Steel drum with striker Tibet, China 20th century Wood, iron and animal skin Purchased from J. Schijns, 1960 MAS (AE.1960.0020.0002.1-2/2)

74 Cymbals

Tibet, China 20th century Copper Formerly in the Museum Vleeshuis, 1962 MAS (AE.1962.0022.0001 and 0002)

Films:

Tibet, China 20th century Brass Purchased from M.R. Aryal, 1980 MAS (AE.1980.0027.0001.1-2/2)

75 Mask and suit for Cham Dance Mongolia 20th century Textile and papier-mâché Donated by the Friends of the Ethnographic Museum Antwerp, 2000 MAS (AE.2002.0599 to 0606)

• The construction and destruction of a sand mandala. An exercise in transience.

Tibetan monks from the Ganden Shartse Sockpa Khangsten monastery, India.

Eeklo, 25-29 October 2010 • Performance of the Cham from Tibet.

Lama Karta and Tibetan monks from the Sonada monastery, India.

Knokke, 23 August 2008

Cham Dance This mask and costume are worn by Tibetan and Mongolian monks dancing the Cham. Originally, this was a shamanistic ritual intended to drive away evil spirits and placate protective ones, but later the dance went on – KARMA AND REBIRTH –

91

77 Buddha Shakyamuni In the Sukhothai (14th century) style of temple statues Thailand 2000-2012 Bronze

This image represents an important moment in Buddha's life. He sits in the meditation position with both hands in his lap, but lets his right hand slide forward to touch the earth. In this way he calls the earth as a witness of his victory over Mara. This demon tried to bring Buddha out of his concentration.

Buddha remains imperturbable and reaches enlightenment, the highest form of consciousness.

92

This hand gesture is called bhumisparsha (touching the earth). The most important body characteristics of the historical Buddha are: long earlobes, small curls, a skull elevation, three pleats in the neck, and a close-fitting monk's robe that leaves the right shoulder exposed. The stylized flame on his crown and the end of the garment over the left shoulder are typical of statues from Thailand.

Watch or touch the image and sit in the same position.

Close your eyes.

Can you list the body characteristics of Buddha?

– ASIA –

– KARMA AND REBIRTH –

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RELIGIONS OF THE BOOK

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JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM - ON LIFE AND DEATH Judaism, Christianity and Islam are religions of the Book.

God reveals himself to mankind in the Torah, the Bible and the Quran.

God's guidelines determine a good or righteous life, and death and burial rituals ensure the proper transition to eternal life after death. At the end of time the dead are resurrected.

God judges their life's work. A positive judgement means they are taken into His eternal harmony, into paradise.

Otherwise they will be banished from it, into hell.

How was and is this portrayed by religious people? This depends very much on the religions themselves and their various branches, spirit of the times and personal attitude.

One religious person imagines it very specifically. For the other any representation is inadequate. The objects and rituals on display here come from many centuries. These days, some are experienced more spiritually than literally.

Jerusalem, a holy city for all three religions, holds a central position, due to its holy events and reminiscent buildings.

Heavenly Jerusalem is symbolic of the prospect of eternal life.

95

Life: do what is right

‘Earning your place in heaven’: this expression indicates there is something wonderful awaiting you after a temporary life on earth. And that you must do something for it.

Jews, Christians and Muslims trust in the one God who says what is right and good. By being obedient to God's will you will be rewarded with an eternal life in paradise. It is a sin to disobey God's will.

Adam and Eve are disobedient to God and illustrate man's original sin.

Abraham's near-sacrifice of his son, to serve God, illustrates obedience but also trust in God. God's guidelines for life have been gathered up in handy summaries.

Jews follow 613 Mitsvot or laws. The most famous are the Ten Commandments on the Stone Tablets given to Moses by God, YHWH Christians follow these as well, along with the seven acts of mercy and the sacraments. Muslims adhere to the five pillars, important ritual acts in support of Allah's holy laws.

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' '

follow, clockwise, the 1st terrace of the presentation: life in judaism, christianity and islam

Jerusalem Eternal life Death: passage Life

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– RELIGONS OF THE BOOK –

|

|

GOD AS AN ETERNAL LIGHT

HOLY BOOK, THE WORD OF GOD

God is eternal and everywhere. It is difficult, if not impossible to comprehend or visualise the spiritual and immaterial. The way this is done depends on the religion and its particular branch.

The Torah, Bible and Quran are holy books: they are the written version of what God himself has passed on to mankind. This is what Jews, Christians and Muslims believe and what their lives are focused upon. Their holy book provides a framework, contains guidelines and gives direction to their lives. These days it is also read in a digital format or with an app.

Jews, Christians and Muslims all present the intangible divine presence as light. Such light is not only light, but also brings light and in doing so takes away the darkness.

Both in a literal and figurative sense.

The divine light hangs in synagogues, churches and mosques: before the Ark with the Torah scrolls, before the tabernacle with the blessed wafers, at the place of prayer (mihrab) and elsewhere in the mosque.

See the objects:

|1 | 20 | 41

Many iconic tales in western culture and numerous expressions in our language come from the Bible: Adam and Eve, Abraham's sacrifice, Moses in the desert, paradise on earth… They illustrate the impact and influence of this holy book on everyday life and thinking. Even for non-believers.

See the objects:

| 2, 3, 4 | 24, 27 | 42, 44

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|1 Lamp - ner tamid: eternal light The Netherlands or Belgium, 1906 Twisted, poured and beaten copper Inscription: ‘Ter herinnering aan myne dierbare moeder (In memory of my dear mother) / Albert Soesman / April 1906’ Jewish Historical Museum, Amsterdam (M009995)

The ner tamid hangs in the synagogue before the Ark with the Torah scrolls. It refers to the holy lampstand (menorah) that stood in the Temple in Jerusalem, but particularly to God's eternal presence.

Read more p. 97

|2 The Holy Word of God: the Torah With the books Genesis (Bereshit), Exodus (Shemot), Leviticus (Vayikra), Numbers (Bemidbar) and Deuteronomy (Devarim)

(Hebrew/Dutch) Amsterdam, 2007 Edition from the Dutch-Israeli Church community: the Pentateuch with Haftaroth On loan from the Jewish Community Shomre Hadas, Antwerp

Torah means ‘teaching’ or ‘law’.

Together with the book of Prophets (Nevi'im) and the Psalms and Proverbs (Ketuvim) this forms the Tanakh. They contain the rules and commandments that Jews must respect: they form the basis of the religious law (Halakha) and life.

In addition to the Tanakh, Jews also trust the Talmud, containing a commentary, explanations and interpretations of the Tanakh.

Read more p. 97 The Torah is opened alternately at the following chapters: 98

• Genesis 3: the sin of Adam and Eve and their banishment from paradise • Genesis 22: Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac • Exodus 20-21: Moses receives the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai

|3 Torah cloth 20th century Paper, wood, textile, silver plated metal MAS (MAS.0258)

The hand-written parchment of the Torah scroll is attached to two wooden sticks or ‘trees of life’ (etz chaim): everything inside concerns life itself.

Once rolled up, the Torah is wrapped in a velvet cloak and kept in the Holy Ark in the synagogue. During the reading the scroll is laid on a raised lectern.

Read more p. 97

|4

Jews on the meaning and importance of the Torah

We hear: Jacob Friedrich and Hermine Milgram-Weinreb Antwerp, 2014/2018 MAS (MAS.0184.001, MAS.0184.016)

Read more p. 97

|5 Adam and Eve and the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil Antwerp, 2018 ( after the original pillowcase of the Jewish Historical Museum Amsterdam, Alsace, 18th century, M000998) Cotton

At the right and left of the tree is the name ‫( אדם‬Adam) and ‫( וחוה‬Eve).

Read more p. 102

– RELIGONS OF THE BOOK –

|6 Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac

stone tablets, from God (YHWH, I am that I am) on Mount Sinai.

1700 Stone carving Jewish Historical Museum, Amsterdam (M000634)

Read more p. 109

The story of Abraham and his son Isaac is read on the second day of the Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah).

After God's intervention, Abraham sacrifices a ram instead of his son.

The Hebrew text means: binding of Isaac.

Read more p. 102

The lampstand (menorah) on the lithography refers to the duty of respecting a weekly day of rest (Shabbat). It became the most important symbol of Judaism.

Ten Commandments (Words, Laws): translated from the Torah, Exodus 20 1. I am the Lord, Your God.

|7 Ram's horn (shofar) 21st century Horn MAS (MAS.0254)

2. Thou shalt have no other God. 3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord in vain.

4. Remember the Sabbath Day.

The shofar is blown at important ceremonies, such as the Jewish New Year, when God gives judgement over the world. Or the week after, at the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) when people repent and all sins are forgiven.

The ram's horn refers to the ram that was sacrificed instead of Isaac.

5. Honor thy father and thy mother.

6. Thou shalt not murder.

7. Thou shalt not commit adultery.

8. Thou shalt not steal.

9. Thou shalt not bear false witness.

10. Thou shalt not covet.

Read more p. 102

|8 Moses shows the Ten Commandments Marc Chagall France, 1966 Lithography on paper (alternated with a reproduction, for conservation reasons) MAS (MAS 0140.001)

|9 Picture postcard with Mount Sinai 20th century MAS (AE.1998.1825.D)

Read more p. 109

Moses received the Ten Commandments, inscribed on two

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99

Life as it is: 248 positive commandments (dos) + 365 negative commandments (don'ts) = 613 rules (Mitsvot) In addition to the Ten Commandments the Torah also contains many other rules for leading a good and devout life. They cover almost everything: eating kosher food, wearing the right clothes for prayer, the number and timing of prayer moments, the attachment of Torah fragments to door posts, respecting the Shabbat, the celebration of occasions such as Passover, blowing the ram's horn, the repetition of blessings…

| 10 Passover dish as a reminder of slavery and the exodus from Egypt

| 11 Kiddush-cup featuring a picture of the Western Wall ca. 2000 Metal On loan from Diane Keyser

To launch the Shabbat or a celebration, an expression or blessing (Kiddush) is repeated over a beaker or glass of wine. This example featuring a picture of the Western Wall keeps the memory of Jerusalem alive.

| 12

Antwerp, 2010 Metal and wood MAS (MAS.0038.001)

Passover: ‘Next year in Jerusalem!’

Passover is the most important Jewish feast. It remembers the exodus of Israelites from Egypt led by Moses and the journey to Canaan, the Promised Land. On the first evening of the feast, Passover Seder, the Passover dish is filled with symbolic food: Bitter herbs = slavery in Egypt Vegetables = spring Apple, nuts, red wine and cinnamon = the mortar used by Jewish slaves in construction work in Egypt ‘Matzo’, bread without yeast = hurried exodus from Egypt Roasted lamb = blood of the lamb that was fixed to the door posts Hard-boiled egg = new start

100

Passover Seder always ends with: ‘Next year in Jerusalem!’ The wish refers to the time when Jewish pilgrims travelled to the temple in Jerusalem.

Since its destruction in 70 A.D. this has no longer been possible. This blessing shows the strength of the desire for the temple and Jerusalem.

Tzedakah or Jewish charity: offering box for alms (kupa or pushke) Antwerp, early 20th century Copper On loan from the Jewish community of the Sephardic rites, Antwerp

Read more p. 109

| 13 Metal text tubes for door posts (mezuzah) 20th century Metal On loan from Aaron Malinksy

The tubes contain two texts from the Torah and are attached to door posts.

They feature a letter of the word

– RELIGONS OF THE BOOK –

Sjadaj, the Almighty, the keeper of the doors of Israel.

One mezuzah also features a picture of Jerusalem.

| 14 Prayer shawl (tallit) 20th century MAS (MAS.0043.002)

| 15 Prayer tassels (tzitzit) 21st century Textile MAS (MAS.0043.005)

Prayer tassels have five knots supporting eight threads. Add to that the value of the word tzitzit (600) and you get the number 613. This is a reminder of the 613 rules for life (Mitsvot).

| 16 Prayer straps (tefillin) 20th century Black coated leather, cotton, parchment MAS (MAS.0043.001)

The straps holding boxes with texts from the Torah are attached to the forehead and left arm during morning prayers. They are a reminder of the rules in the Torah.

| 17 Skullcap (kippah)

| 18 - AT THE WALL Veil before the Ark (parochet) Are shown alternately: * White veil illustrating the stone tablets and Temple columns Antwerp, ca. 1900 Velvet/cotton embroidered with golden thread Donor's text: ‘Van de gebroeders Diamant uit Antwerpen ter nagedachtenis aan de slachtoffers van de sjoah’ (From the brothers Diamant of Antwerp in memory of the victims of the Shoah) On loan from the Jewish Community Shomre Hadas, Antwerp * Bordeaux veil illustrating the portable Ark of the Covenant Antwerp, 1893 Velvet embroidered with golden thread The text says: 'Gift of the ladies of the chevra kadiesja, 1893' On loan from the Jewish Community Shomre Hadas, Antwerp

The Ark of the Covenant (Aron HaBrit) was the most holy object in the Jewish religion: a portable box with the two stone tablets, in which the Ten Commandments were engraved : the covenant between God and mankind.

Later the Ark stood in the middle of the first Temple in Jerusalem, until its destruction. A veil protected the Ark. In its memory, in synagogues, a velvet veil hangs before the Ark (Aron HaKodesh or holy chamber), a niche where the Torah scrolls are kept. It is often beautifully decorated, with references to the lost Temple and its Ark of the Covenant.

20th century MAS (MAS.0043.003)

| 19 A young Jew talking about his vision on life and death

The head is covered in honour of God.

Antwerp, 2018

We hear: David Grunfeld

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101

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GOOD AND EVIL, OBEDIENCE AND DISOBEDIENCE Two iconic tales from the Torah, Bible and Quran are powerful illustration of the human struggle: the difficult choice between good and evil. Or: the decision whether or not to obey God's will.

versus Adam and Eve (Hebrew: Chavah, Abraham's sacrifice: the obedient Arabic: Hawa): the disobedient being, good behaviour being, (original) sin, evil The tale of Adam and Eve (their name means ‘human’ and ‘(she who gives) life’ illustrates the idea of sin: the person who disobeys God. In Earth's Paradise they eat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, although this was forbidden by God. Their disobedience is the first sin and the original sin of man, who continues to succumb to what is not allowed. This is symbolised by the snake.

The sinner is chased out of Earth's Paradise.

The dramatic tale of Abraham/ Ibrahim, who is prepared to sacrifice his own son Isaac/Ismael in order to serve God, is the ultimate proof of his obedience and dedication to God and his faith in him.

God appears as eternal goodness.

Using angel Gabriel/Jibreel he stops Abraham just in time.

Jews, Christians and Muslims consider Abraham to be their founding father. This is why they are also known as the Abrahamic religions.

See the objects:

102

| 5, 6, 7 | 28, 29, 30 | 45, 46

– RELIGONS OF THE BOOK –

| 20 Sanctuary lamp: eternal light Belgium, 19th century Silver MAS (AV.1916.002.028)

The eternally burning lamp of devotion hangs in the church before the tabernacle. This closed recess is where the blessed or holy wafer is kept, a morsel of bread that Christians believe to be the body of Christ. The lamp is not lit if there are no holy wafers in the recess.

Read more p. 97

| 21 Fragment of retable (altarpiece) with the Holy Trinity Northern Low Countries, 1545-1555 Oak MAS (AV.5617.1-3)

A central aspect in the Christian faith is the belief in one God. One that consists of three divine persons: the almighty Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. The latter is represented as a dove. He lights up and strengthens worshippers during their lives.

| 22 Dove representing the Holy Spirit Probably Antwerp, 17th-18th century Wood, paint MAS (AV.2008.001.042)

| 23 God’s all-seeing eye: God can see me No swearing here 19th-20th century Wood print on paper MAS (AF.01029)

The divine trinity – God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit – is illustrated on this Catholic devotional print as an authority that always sees what people do and say wherever they happen to be.

God the Father is often shown in Catholic representation as a human figure: an old man with a beard. The Jewish, Protestant and Muslim custom is to show Him less or not at all.

| 24 The Holy Word of God: the Christian Bible Rotterdam/Antwerp, 2004 The New Bible translation (Nederlandse en Vlaamse Bijbelstichting en -genootschap) (Dutch and Flemish Bible Foundation and Association) Antwerp, Hoger Instituut voor Godsdienstwetenschappen (Higher Institute for Religious Studies) (TPC: LZ 117/132b)

Bible comes from the Greek word for 'books'. The Christian Bible consists of two parts: • The Old Testament covers the Old Covenant between God and man: Moses receiving God's Ten Commandments, following earlier agreements between God and Abraham.

This part is shared by the Christian and Jewish faith. It can therefore be referred to as ‘the Hebrew or Jewish Bible’.

• The New Testament deals with the New Covenant between God and man: man is redeemed of original sin

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103

thanks to the crucifixion of Jesus. The focus is on the description of the life of Jesus: the joyful message or gospel.

This was recorded after Christ's life by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

Read more p. 97 The Christian Bible is opened alternately at the following chapters:

This was developed as an educational list of questions and answers: the Mechelen Catechism.

These days, schools guide children in their worldly and religious development.

| 27 Christians on the significance and importance of the Bible

• Genesis 3: the sin of Adam and Eve and their banishment from paradise • Genesis 22: Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac • Kings 3: the Ark and the Temple in Jerusalem • John 19: the crucifixion of Jesus

We hear: Ilse Dupont and Johan Visser Antwerpen, 2014/2018 MAS (MAS.0184.005, MAS.0184.008)

| 25 Lectern for the Bible

| 28 Adam and Eve, the snake and the forbidden fruit

The Low Countries 17th century Bronze MAS (AV.1816)

Read more p. 97

Germany, 2nd half of the 16th century Iron hearth panel MAS (AV.2260)

To honour God, the Bible is always raised during a reading in a church service.

| 26 Mechelen Catechism (Dutch version) Bruges, 1952 Hoger Instituut voor Godsdienstwetenschappen (Higher Institute for Religious Studies), Antwerp

The disobedience of Adam and Eve to God is considered in Christianity to be the original sin: the sin that is inherent in men. Jesus’ crucifixion redeems or frees mankind of the consequences of this (original) sin: eternal punishment and banishment from paradise. With Jesus’ sacrifice mankind can once again look forward to a heavenly paradise.

Read more p. 102

Until fifty years ago the emphasis in religious education lay on knowing the Catholic doctrine ‘because it teaches us what we must know to be saved’.

104

– RELIGONS OF THE BOOK –

| 29 Our Lady and child on the globe: Maria stamps out evil Antwerp, 18th century Terracotta, silver, paint MAS (AV.5544)

Of all the Christian saints – certainly for Catholics and the orthodox – Mary is the most important. She shows people how to live a good life. As the mother of God she goes between God and man. Mary is born free of original sin: she stamps out evil, symbolised by the snake that led Adam and Eve to sin in earth's paradise. Mary is Eve's antithesis.

Read more p. 102

| 30 Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac Belgium, 17th century Relief in palm wood MAS (AV.0903) Bequest G.H. Key-Adriaenssens

Read more p. 102

| 31 Christ on the cross Europe, 19th century Wood, bone MAS (VM.2004.0689.001)

The cross on which Jesus died has become the symbol of Christianity. It is portrayed with and without Christ and exists in many forms, depending on the Christian ideology and the accent one wishes to illustrate: the Latin, Greek, Jerusalem cross…

| 32 Christ on the cold stone Belgium, 16th century Retable (framed altarpiece) made of pear wood, paint and iron MAS (AF.04315)

The suffering Christ is resting, during his Calvary to Mount Golgotha.

Jesus’ suffering and crucifixion: redemption of sin The Passion story or Jesus’ suffering and death takes place in Jerusalem.

After the Last Supper with his disciples he prays on the Mount of Olives, where he is betrayed by his disciple Judas. Christ is then martyred and crucified on Mount Golgota.

Jesus’ crucifixion redeems mankind of the consequences of (original) sin: eternal banishment from paradise.

Thanks to Jesus’ sacrifice mankind can once again look forward to a heavenly paradise. His resurrection is the ultimate triumph over death. This is remembered every year at Easter, the most important Christian celebration.

| 33 - AT THE WALL Retable (altarpiece) from Averbode: the lamentation of Jesus Sculptor: Jacob van Cothem, painter unknown Antwerp, 1514 Oak, oil paint MAS (AV.0887)

This altarpiece is one of Flanders masterpieces. It illustrates Christ’s crucifixion, the sorrow over it and his resurrection. Jesus’ sacrifice frees mankind from the consequence of original sin and launches a new covenant between God and His worshippers

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105

| 34 Moses receives the Ten Commandments

| 35 The Seven Acts of Mercy

Rotterdam, 18th century Fired earthenware MAS (AV.7834.03-17)

Moses receives the Ten Commandments from God, as described in the Bible. There are endless illustrations of this story, such as on this wall tile.

The Ten Commandments are also set to rhyme, in order to remember them better.

Read more p. 109

Joseph-Ernest Buschmann 19th century Wood print on paper MAS (MFA.1956.116.1580 or MFA.1956.116.1581)

This cheap mass printing illustrates in cartoon format the 'acts of mercy' that worshippers are required by Christ to perform as good deeds. Protestants call them ‘gracious acts’: you do them because they are ‘good’, as thanks for the fact that you have so much yourself.

Read more p. 109

Ten Commandments: the Catholic-Christian version 1. Thou shall have no God but me.

2. Before no idol bow thy knee.

3. Take not the name of God in vain, 4. Nor the Sabbath day profane.

5. Give thy parents honor due.

6. Take heed that thou no murder do.

7. Abstain from words and deeds unclean.

8. Steal not, for thou of God art seen.

9. Tell not a willful lie, nor love it.

10. What is thy neighbor's, do not covet.

Mercy times seven … not just any odd number, but a symbol of completeness For christians, helping those in need is a way to lead a good life, and to earn a place in paradise. Jesus himself layed the foundations : 1. To feed the hungry 2 To give water to the thirsty 3 To shelter the homeless 4 To clothe the naked 5 To visit the sick 6 To visit the captive

Ten Commandments: the Protestant-Christian version

7 To bury the dead

Protestants follow the Jewish commandments (p. 99), adding one more commandment:

And the 8th act since 2016 is To care for creation

…

‘Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image'.

106

– RELIGONS OF THE BOOK –

| 36 Mercy: tokens for bread, peat, lard, burial, money and alms Antwerp, 16th and 17th century Copper, brass or lead MAS (various numbers, amongst others: AF.04756)

These tokens were shared out, for example during the burial of a benefactor. Poor people were able to use them to buy bread or other necessities. In return the benefactor received gratitude and prayers, such as stated in one of the inscriptions: ‘Bidt voor de zielen’ (Pray for the souls).

Read more p. 109

| 37 Christening dress Belgium, ca. 1900 Alternately displayed: 1. cotton, lace, plastic 2. cotton, lace, pearl MAS (VM.2009.101.044 / VM.1991.059.001)

Sacraments are holy rituals bringing the worshipper closer to God. Catholics have seven (baptism, the eucharist, confirmation, reconciliation, anointing of the sick, holy orders, matrimony) and Protestants have two: the christening (or baptism) and the Lord’s supper.

The christening cleanses the worshipper of original sin and any other sins. These days this tends to signify your acceptance in the worshipping community. A nice christening gown emphasizes the happy occasion.

| 38 Vessel for carrying holy wafers or pyxis (catholic) Europe, 1400-1425 Copper MAS (AV.1779)

The Eucharist (meaning literally 'good gifts' but also 'thanksgiving') is the most important sacrament along with the christening. The faithfull remember and recall Christ’s crucifixion, which begins with the Last Supper.

For catholics the wine blessed by the priest becomes the blood of Jesus, the holy wafer is his broken body. This holy wafer is stored in a special holder known as a ciborium.

This type of vessel for holy wafers was used to transport the wafers, e.g. when visiting the sick at home. An example of this can be seen in the multimedia presentation about the Brotherhood of the Fortnightly Adjudication: see | 63

| 39 Protestant Supper set: two beakers, two plates Early 20th century, tin On loan from the Protestant Church Antwerp South, De Wijngaard jug Strasbourg, early 20th century, tin MAS (AV.1951.004.056)

By sharing supper Protestants remember Jesus’ Last Supper and sacrifice. The broken bread is shared around on a plate and wine is drunk from beakers.

– JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM –

107

| 40 A young christian talking about her vision on life and death

Antwerp, 2018

We hear: Eline Vandendriessche

108

– RELIGONS OF THE BOOK –

| TEN COMMANDMENTS, TEN FUNDAMENTAL RULES The Ten Commandments summarise how people must behave according to the three Religions of the Book.

They have a strong symbolic meaning for non-believers too. Used in the creation of countless images, both in art and popular culture, they have shaped our thinking.

Originally these were God's rules for life passed to mankind via Moses on Mount Sinai. They were inscribed on two stone tablets. They refer to God himself, the relationship between God and mankind, the relationship between individuals and the inner being.

| HELPING OTHERS The concept of ‘social security’, whereby the government supports those in need is considered normal in Belgian society. It is a neutral solidarity, unconnected with religious benevolence. However, it is in fact founded on this virtue, in this charity.

For the three Religions of the Book, helping those in need is an important value: known as tzedakah among Jews, Acts of mercy of gracious acts for Christians, and the zakat for Muslims. In doing so you also help yourself: ‘your earn your place in heaven’.

What was originally a commitment between God and Jewish people was adopted and modified by Christians and Muslims.

It is about doing good deeds or financing them: offering meals and food parcels, giving shelter to refugees and the homeless, collecting old clothes, providing care to the sick and terminally ill, visiting inmates, organising funerals and the mourning process…

See the objects:

See the objects:

| 8, 9 | 34 | p. 111

| 12, 59 | 35, 36 | 50, 51

– JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM –

109

| 41 Lantern: eternal light Saudi Arabia, 19th century Tin National Museum of World Cultures, the Netherlands (RV-1973-17)

In a mosque, lamps refer to God, as described in the Verse of Light (surah 24:35): ‘God is the light in heaven and on earth.

His light is like a recess that holds a lamp The lamp is in a glass The glass is like A shining star Ignited on a blessed tree An olive tree No east and no west Its oil would surely shine Even if had not been touched by fire Light above light.’

Read more p. 97

and words from the Prophet, but also interpretations and explanations of texts in the Quran.

Read more p. 97

The Quran is opened alternately at the following chapters: • Surah 53 (The Stars/al-Najm), verses 7-18: Prophet Mohammed's ascension to heaven • Surah 2 (The Cow/al-Baqara), verses 35-38: Adam and Eve in paradise • Surah 37 (The engagement/al-Sâffât), verses 101-111: the sacrifice of Ishmael

by Ibrahim • Surah 36 (The Arabic Letters/Yasin), verses 78-79: Resurrection Day

| 43 Support or throne (kursi) for reading the Quran Unknown origin and date Wood MAS (AE.2008.0007.0004)

| 42 The Holy Word of God: The Noble Quran (Arabic/Dutch) Den Haag, 2000 An edition from the Islamic Cultural Centre in the Netherlands On loan from Iqbal Qureshi

The Quran (al Qoer'a- n) – Arabic for ‘book’, ‘declaration’, ‘recital’ – is the Muslims' holy book. It contains the revelations of God (Allah) received by the prophet Mohammed as from ca.

610 via the angel Jibreel (Gabriel). The Koran has 114 surahs or chapters with instructions for its followers as well as stories.

In honour of God and the Quran the book is always raised during a reading.

| 44 Muslims on the significance and importance of the Quran We hear: Omar Nahas, Sevda Karaaslan and Ahmed Azzouz Antwerpen, 2014/2018 MAS (MAS.0184.012, MAS.0184.011, MAS.0184.010)

Read more p. 97

Muslims also trust in its traditions (Hadith) to provide guidance in their lives. The Hadith contains actions 110

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| 45 Adam and Eve in paradise 20th century Print on paper (alternated with a reproduction, for conservation reasons) MAS (AE.1973.0030.0013)

Read more p. 102

| 46 The angel Jibreel (Gabriel) prevents the sacrifice of Ishmael

by Ibrahim (Abraham) 20th century Print on paper (alternated with a reproduction, for conservation reasons) MAS (AE.1973.0030.0014)

Read more p. 102

Some dos and don'ts in the Quran: surah 6 (The Cattle) verses 151-152 1. Take no god but one God. 2. Honour your parents.

3. Do not kill your children for fear of poverty.

4. Commit no indecency, neither externally nor internally.

5. Kill no-one (unless in self-defence).

6. Don't touch an orphan's possessions unless with respect until he reaches independence.

7. Remain true to the lawful measures and weights.

8. Be fair in your expressions, and also when talking about a family member.

9. Respect your commitment to God. Read more p. 109

The Five Pillars of Islam A Muslim's faith rests on five pillars, ritual actions as expressions of his faith: 1. the profession or testimony of faith (Shahada) 2. ritual prayers (Salat) 3. the giving of alms to the poor (Zakat) 4. fasting during the month Ramadan (Sawm) 5. the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) A Muslim that follows these rules obeys God and is peace loving. The word ‘Islam’ means both ‘surrender’ and ‘peace’.

These pillars are very important guidelines. In the Quran there are many other dos and don'ts that determine the Muslim's daily routine.

| 47 Five Pillars: profession of faith (Shahada) Tile with text: Allah (God) and Muhammed (Mohammed) Ca. 2002 Glazed earthenware National Museum of World Cultures, the Netherlands (TM-6121-1 and 2)

The Islam profession of faith: ‘There is no God but God and Mohammed is His Allah messenger.’ The calligraphy of the names of Allah and the prophet are popular forms of art and decoration.

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| 48 - AT THE WALL

| 50 Five Pillars: cleansing with alms (zakat) Collection vessel for alms

Five Pillars: ritual prayers (salat) Curtain for the mihrab Turkey, ca. 1900 Silk, cotton, paper and copper wire MAS (AE.1986.0009)

Muslims must perform the prayer (the salat) five times a day: either alone or in a group, in a appropriate place or in the mosque. The common prayer on a Friday and during celebrations is also performed in the mosque.

This veil is used to decorate the mihrab, a recess in the mosque wall which shows the direction for prayer (qibla) for the salat and which is considered by some as the gate to paradise. Prayers were originally made in the direction of Jerusalem, and this changed later to become Kaaba in Mecca.

| 49 - AT THE WALL Five Pillars: ritual prayers (salat) Prayer clock Pakistan/Antwerp, late 20th century Metal, wood, glass MAS (MAS.024) - donated by the Pakistan Mosque Noor-Ul-Haram, Antwerp

Antwerp, ca. 1990 Metal, leather On loan vzw Hizmet, Antwerp

The little case is used for contributions to help those in need. This ‘social tax’, 2.5% of your possessions every year, is intended to cleanse yourself from greed and share your possessions with those in need. The donor receives a blessing in return.

Read more p. 109

| 51 Five Pillars: cleansing with alms (zakat) Offering box for alms with Turkish inscription: ‘Thanks to your fitr and zakat you can also make a butterfly fly’, reference to surah 2, verse 177 Germany/Antwerp, 2017 Paper MAS (MAS.0249) - donated by vzw Hizmet, Antwerp

Read more p. 109

This clock was given to the mosque by a Pakistani living in Antwerp. We know this from the inscription in Urdu and Arabic. Not only does the clock tell the actual time, it also indicates the five hours of obligatory daily prayer and the Friday prayers. The hours of prayer vary according to the position of the sun relative to the earth.

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| 52 Five Pillars: fasting (Sawm) Horn (nafir) to interrupt fasting Morocco, pre-1965 Brass (yellow copper) National Museum of World Cultures, the Netherlands (TM-3533-57a, b, c)

Interruption of fasting to have a meal (iftar) after sunset is a special moment. In some places a horn is blown to emphasize the moment.

For Muslims this is the religious centre.

Worshippers all over the world pray in the direction of the Kaaba. Those that are able must undertake the pilgrimage to Mecca in Saudi Arabia.

This picture shows the winged Buraq above the Kaaba.

| 55 Five Pillars: pilgrimage to Mecca (hadj) Pilgrimage souvenir from Mecca: key ring with Kaaba Mecca, 2011 Plastic, metal, water MAS (MAS.0154.002)

| 53 Five Pillars: fasting (Sawm) Ramadan lamp 2018 MAS (MAS.0250)

Lanterns are used to decorate streets and homes during the Ramadan. They have become the symbol of the month of fasting and add a cosy feel to the meal after sunset. In the past they were made by putting candles under glass, these days they involve batteries and plastic.

| 56 A young Muslim talking about his vision on life and death Antwerp, 2018 We hear: Mohamd Amin Chaib

| 54 Five Pillars: pilgrimage to Mecca (hadj) The Kaaba in Mecca 20th century Paper MAS (AE.1973.0030.0006)

The Kaaba, which was built by Ibrahim (Abraham) and Ishmael upon Allah's command, is a sacred shrine in the form of a cube in the city of Mecca.

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Death: passage to eternal life

The ultimate moment for the faithful to consider their lives in order to cleanse their souls and ask for forgiveness for sins against God and fellow men is as death approaches. Care of the deceased involves a spiritual and physical cleansing; this prepares the soul for the afterlife, the body for burial.

A burial and eternal grave are essential, particularly for Jews and Muslims. Indeed, at the end of time and upon resurrection the dead are restored to life. God gives final judgement on people's life's work.

Life's end and burial both involve rituals. The way these are carried out depend heavily on the religion, time and place. For some these are strict rules for an appropriate transition to the hereafter. For others the welfare of those left behind is the greatest concern.

Whichever rituals apply, they all involve the respectful handling of the deceased. They aim to provide the best possible guidance towards the unknown and divine, and comfort for those left behind.

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Jerusalem Eternal life Death: passage Life

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| 57 Jewish death and burial rituals - Image of the chevra kadiesja in Prague, ca. 1800. Jewish Museum, Prague (012.843) - Image of the chevra kadiesja in Antwerp: Ceremony at the Shomre Hadas Jewish Cemetery of Antwerp in Putte, The Netherlands, 27 February 2018.

Images: MAS. - Isi Mantel (Machsike Hadas, Antwerp) on Jewish death and burial rites, 2018.

There is a quick farewell, according to rituals laid down in the Torah. The chevra kadiesja or ‘holy society’, respected volunteers in the Jewish community, takes care of everything.

1. If possible the dying person expresses his faith. The dead body is covered.

2. Ritual washing or cleansing with water: men by men, women by women.

3. Dressing with a simple white shroud.

The body is placed in a coffin, possibly with some soil from Jerusalem. The rabbi says a prayer; only family and friends are present.

4. The burial ceremony follows as quickly as possible, attended by the community: • a gathering at the community and around the hearse; a collection box is passed for donations • at the Jewish cemetery, also known as ‘House of the Living’ (Beet chajiem) or ‘House of Eternity’ (Beet olam).

Belgian law does not allow for an eternal grave, which means that most Jews choose to be buried in Putte (the Netherlands) or sometimes in Israel, where the eternal rest is guaranteed.

5. Mourning speech at the coffin.

Saying the prayer (Kaddish). Placing the coffin in the grave. The bereaved place soil, might tear their clothes (Kriah) as a sign of mourning and wash their hands.

6. Period of mourning at home lasts seven days (Shiva): the family receives other family members and friends.

7. Annual remembrance on the anniversary of the death and also on the Day of Atonement or Yom Kippur: collection boxes, oil lamps and other objects are reminders of the dead.

| 58 Shroud (kittel): dress, upper part, linen cord, headpiece Belgium, 1950-1980 Linen, cotton Jewish Museum of Belgium, Brussels (16496, 14900, 14963, 14901)

After the ritual cleansing (washing away sins) and the purification of the body the ritual is known as Tahara - the dead are wrapped in a white shroud: in death all people are equal.

| 59 Donation box (kupa or pushke): alms for the funeral Chevra kadiesja in Antwerp's Jewish community Shomre Hadas, Antwerp/ Hungary, ca.1900 Jewish Museum of Belgium, Brussels (03234)

The profits from the offering box at the funeral are used to fund burial costs in the case of those in need, as well as other needs in the Jewish community.

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| 60 Memorial candles in memory of the deceased Antwerp, 2018 Tin

During the annual commemoration of the death of the deceased, this light is lit for one day.

| 61 Jewish gravestone France, 1792 Limestone Jewish Museum of Belgium, Brussels (17265)

The inscription says: ‘Simon, son of Jacob Juda, died on 4 February 1792 in Boulay'. On the back it says 'May his soul be connected in life', a wish for the deceased to remain alive in the memory. Visitors lay stones on tombs – vertical for Ashkenazi Jews, horizontal for Sephardic Jews – as a sign of respect.

| 62 Holy soil from Mount Zion, Jerusalem Israel, 20th century Earth, ink, linen, lead, rope Jewish Historical Museum, Amsterdam (M009868)

This bag is laid under the head of the deceased. It refers to the link with Jerusalem. The wish to be buried in Israel is also actually carried out by certain Jews.

| 63 Christian (Catholic) death and burial rituals - A selection of images from the Guldenboek van de Antwerpse Broederschap van de Veertiendaagse Berechting (Golden Book of the Antwerp Brotherhood of the Fortnightly Adjudication), who gave the Holy Communion to the sick and the dying, 1674-1960, Saint Pauls Church, Antwerp - Burial in the Saint Fredegand Church, Deurne-Antwerp, August 17th 2018.

Images: MAS - Chant: 'In paradisum'

The rituals in a Catholic funeral are focused on the afterlife: forgiving sins, recommending the dead to God. However, comfort for those left behind is becoming increasingly important these days. Burials or cremations are both possible. These are conducted by the priest, and the worshipping community gathers in the church.

1. The dying person is given a Holy Unction (anointment with oil) by the priest and receives a holy wafer: These days the focus lies more on the provision of comfort and divine support to the sick or dying person. This is also clear in the new name of this last sacrament: the anointing of the sick.

2. The dead body is washed, dressed and laid out in a mourning chamber. Family and friends pay their respects, these days mostly in a funeral parlour.

3. After four to seven days the body is laid in a coffin, and a funeral takes place in the church. The resurrection liturgy refers to triumph over death and the resurrection of Jesus Christ: • the community greets the close family and attends the ceremony;

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• prayers are sung and spoken, and ask for God's forgiveness and mercy. The life and character of the deceased are recalled;

lies on anointing the sick: this creates a sense of God's comforting presence for the sick or dying.

• the coffin/urn is sprinkled with holy water and incense. The ceremony can end with the song In paradisum.

| 65 Incense container in the form of a Gothic building

4. Journey to the cemetery, on foot or by car. Final prayers are said.

15th century Brass MAS (AV.1795)

5. The coffin is then lowered into the ground. With a cremation – which is done before or after the funeral – the ashes are buried in an urn or scattered.

6. Family and friends gather for a modest meal, to share the grief of those left behind.

7. Annual remembrance of the dead: individually on the date of death, and all the dead on 1 and 2 November (All Saints and All Souls).

| 64 Decorative plate with an illustration of the Last Sacrament or the Holy Unction From a series of seven sacramental plates Flanders, 19th century Glazed earthenware MAS (MFA.1964.076.1055)

The dying person receives a holy wafer and is anointed with oil known as (unctio infirmorum): these are symbols for the journey to eternal life and the link with Christ. He also confesses his sins, formerly known as ‘adjudication’.

These days the accent

A funeral finishes with a final tribute: sprinkling the coffin with holy water and the distribution of incense. The last plea for the deceased rises to God together with the incense.

| 66 Gravestone for the married couple Vryen-Torfs Antwerp, 1690 Blue stone MAS (AV.1931.010.001) Bequest of the former Saint Laurence Church (Oorderen-Antwerp)

Until a few decades ago the deceased were buried, according to the Christian tradition. These days more and more Christians choose to be cremated. The ashes may be buried or scattered.

The inscription at the bottom of this stone – ‘Bidt voor de sielen’ (Pray for the souls) – illustrates the belief that prayers can help souls to reach heaven.

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| 67 Muslim death and burial rituals Fragments from the documentary A Muslim funeral, Saïd El Kaouakibi/Muslim Television and Radio Broadcasting - A burial at Schoonselhof, September 25th 2018. In collaboration with Janaza Uitvaartzorg, Berchem

God decides everything, including where and when someone dies. Islam rituals and laws, which are dictated by the prophet Mohammed, help entrust the soul to God in as pure a state as possible. Ritual washers help to perform them. The attending community provides support. This is rewarded in the afterlife.

1. The dying and those around them say the confession of faith (Shahada) with the aim of reaching paradise. Those present make a plea.

2. After death people say ‘Truly, we belong to Allah and shall return to Allah’.

This is then followed by ritual washing with fragrant water: men by men, women by women. The body is wrapped in a white cotton shroud and laid in a coffin. This is sometimes done at home, but mostly in a funeral services centre.

3. The imam leads the funeral prayer (Salat-al-Janaza), usually in the mosque. Those in the community will be rewarded in the afterlife for their attendance.

4. The funeral then follows as quickly as possible, attended by family and friends. The deceased are laid on their right side in the grave, either in a coffin or not, facing the direction of prayer (Qibla): towards Mecca.

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eternal grave, which means that many Muslims choose to be repatriated.

However, there are increasing numbers of funeral plots - face eastwards (towards Mecca) - in Belgium.

5. A three-day period of mourning begins. Friends and family acknowledge the grief of those left behind and provide meals. Alms and prayers from the community help the deceased to reach paradise.

6. The grave may be visited at any time and is not linked to any specific period. It is a moment to consider your own mortality.

| 68 Perfumes for the physical and ritual washing of the dead Saudi Arabia, 2018 Sidr (lotus petals), camphor, musk MAS (MAS.0248) - Donated by Janaza Uitvaartzorg, Berchem

The ritual washing of the deceased is carried out as prescribed by the prophet. The use of perfumes such as camphor and musk is part of this.

Depending on the acts of life of the deceased, the admission follows whether or not in the overwhelming happiness of paradise: 'And no soul knows what kind of happiness lies hidden from them' (from the Hadith of Bukhârî).

| 69 Shroud (Kafan) Saudi Arabia, 2018 Cotton MAS (MAS.0248) - Donated by Janaza Uitvaartzorg, Berchem

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After the ritual washing (Wudu) the deceased is wrapped in a clear white cloth: in death all people are equal.

| 70 Incense burner Syria or Egypt, 19th century Brass MAS (AE.6061.1-2)

| 71 Gravestone Iran, 957 Andesite stone National Museum of World Cultures, the Netherlands (WM-63328)

After the funeral prayer (Salat-alJanaza) the dead are buried. They then await ‘the Hour’, the resurrection of all dead. Gravestones are usually rather modest. They state the deceased's name and date of death or include verses from the Quran.

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Eternal life

‘Heaven on earth’, ‘hell and damnation’… our language is filled with expressions about life after death. However, the ‘hereafter’ is theoretical.

No living person has ever experienced it. Even so, many believers like to imagine it.

Depending on the period and the religion – and the many ideologies within each religion – life after death is not represented, sometimes abstractly, sometimes in a very figurative way. It is not customary for Jews to portray ‘the world to come’. Christians and Muslims do, in different ways, although far less ‘literally’ these days.

The main principles are quite similar in the three religions: when a person dies they embark on eternal life. The body and soul are separated. The soul is cleansed and judged, the body is buried.

At the end of time all people rise from the dead – in the resurrection – to hear God's Final Judgement. This is what determines whether people are accepted into divine harmony (heaven or paradise) or banished from it (into hell).

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| 72 The world to come… cannot be illustrated We hear: Isi Mantel from Antwerp's Jewish community Machsike Hadas Antwerp, 2018

Armaggedon For Jews, life after death is incomprehensible and cannot be portrayed. There are no Jewish objects to illustrate the HaOlam HaBa (‘The world to come’).

The end of time (Armageddon) is announced by the arrival of the Messiah.

He brings the dead back to life and unites Jewish people. The temple is then restored to Jerusalem. God judges the dead and creates the eternal heavenly kingdom. The city of Jerusalem is a premonition of this heavenly Jerusalem, where there is harmony. Hell, Gehenna, is a theoretical concept to which little attention is paid.

| 73 Illustrations of life after death: a script with devotional cards Antwerp, 17th-19th century Hand-coloured paper Ruusbroec Institute, Antwerp, Print collection (Symbols)

1. H ow to live a good live? Stick to the devout and narrow path and receive your reward. Or follow the wide and debauched road to hell.

2. Death is followed by Judgement day, which leads either to Paradise or to Hell: the so-called Four Extremes.

3. The angel Michael guides the initial or individual judgement: he weighs the souls.

4. In temporary purgatory small sins and sanctions are erased.

5. The resurrection of the dead is followed by God's definitive and Final Judgement • Heaven awaits those with a positive verdict on the right side of God, along with the saints and angels.

• For those with a negative verdict hell awaits on the left side of God, together with the devils in an inferno.

These devotional cards feature what are now considered to be oldfashioned images. Today's Catholics, here, no longer think in these literal terms. However, they are firmly anchored in popular culture: hell, paradise, the final judgement are consistently used as powerful images, whether or not you are religious.

The crucifixion of Christ and his resurrection, and thus his triumph over death are essential for the believer: this makes paradise accessible once again.

But what was expected by a Catholic Christian, between the 17th and the mid-20th century, after his death?

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| 74 Windshield from the procession torch of the Broederschap der Gelovige Zielen (Brotherhood of Religious Souls) Antwerp, 1734 Metal MAS (MFA.1964.076.2990.B)

This Brotherhood prayed for the deceased's peace of mind in purgatory, where he remained temporarily. These days Catholics take purgatory less literally. It is no longer a place where fire burns, but a place of burning desire for God. Purgatory has never been a topic for Protestants.

| 75 Altarpiece fragment showing the Final Judgement The Low Countries, ca. 1550 Oak MAS (AV.5617.2-3)

| 76 Images of life after death: dreaming of paradise 1. Paradise as a blossoming garden - The resurrection and the Final Judgement Falnama: The Book of Omens: folio 8, 30.

India, 2nd half of the 16th century National Museum of World Cultures, the Netherlands (71803/8-30-33)

2. Paradise with the prophet Mohammed riding Buraq

3. Angels bearing God's throne The Marvels of Creation and the Monuments of Countries by Zakariya b. Muhammad al-Qazwīnī: folio 029b.

Persia (?), ca. 1602 Leiden University, Special Collections (Or. 8907)

A devout life guarantees a place in paradise (Djenna), a beautiful garden in eternal bloom. Poor judgement means going to hell (Jahannam). This is run by the angel Malik amidst the flames.

At the end of time the prophet Mohammed (in some traditions and times depicted and in others not) comes to collect his group of believers at the Pit of Souls. With the help of Jesus (Isa), the redeemer or messiah (al-Mahdi) comes on a white stallion to claim victory over the false messiah (Dajjal).

On the Day of the Resurrection (Yawm al-Qiyāmah) God weighs up a person's deeds (Mīzān). The dead must cross a bridge, narrower than a strand of hair, above hell. Good people reach paradise, bad people tumble into hell.

Some Muslim sources connect Jerusalem with the end of time. A wire runs from the Mount of Olives to Temple Mount. The deserving may walk along it. A river connects the heavenly Jerusalem with paradise.

Muslims interpret these images in different ways: one believes literally in pits of fire, another sees it as spiritual pain.

Supplément turc 190 (Miraj Nameh: The Miraculous journey of the prophet): folio 49v Afghanistan, 15th century Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris

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| 77 Religious print showing Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif) and symbols representing the end of time India, ca. 1900 Alternately the original print and a copy National Museum of World Cultures, the Netherlands (7031-15)

On the back of the walled square stands the Dome of the Rock, on the left David's (Dawud) mausoleum and on the right Moses' (Musa) mausoleum. Before the Dome of the Rock stand the scales to weigh the deeds of the dead and, underneath, the narrow path they must follow: believers reach paradise, non-believers fall into hell-fire. Down below on the right is the Pit of Souls, where the Prophet comes to gather his people during the resurrection.

Temple Mount to heaven. During this journey to heaven the prophet met God and other prophets and was accepted as part of their group. For some scribes and believers this was a physical journey, for others it was a spiritual one.

| 79 Dish portraying paradise: a garden in eternal bloom Glazed earthenware MAS (AE.1983.0009.0083)

| 80 Water fountain: dreams of paradise with crystal clear water Karagöz shadow figure Turkey 20th century Camel skin MAS (AE.1983.0009.0043)

The provision of water supplies counts as a good deed to ‘earn your place in heaven’. Water makes paradise a true ‘paradise’ where rivers rush.

| 81 Illustrated story with calligraphic text Egypt, 20th century Print on paper MAS (AE.1973.0030.0018)

The texts on the petals are a call to follow the right path. This shall be rewarded.

| 78 Buraq Karagöz shadow figure Turkey 20th century Camel skin MAS (AE.2004.0032.0029)

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Jerusalem

In Jerusalem, more specifically in the old city and on Temple Mount, essential events occurred from the time the Book Religions began.

This is why the city has many holy buildings.

For Jews these are the remains of the Temple, where the Ark of the Covenant stood and all ritual ceremonies took place. For Christians this is the Holy Sepulchre, where Jesus was buried and rose again.

For Muslims these are the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa shrine: where the prophet Mohammed is said to have ascended to heaven.

When the End comes, God's eternal Kingdom begins for Jews and Christians and heavenly Jerusalem descends upon earth. It is therefore also a place of hope and expectation.

Other names for Jerusalem are Zion, after the mountain with the same name, Yerushalayim in Hebrew and al-Quds in Arabic. As a city of three religions, Jerusalem is a place of pilgrimage but also a place of conflicts.

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82 Model of the old city of Jerusalem with Temple Mount (Har Habayit /Haram al-Sharif) MAS, Antwerp, 2018

1. Western Wall (Hakotel Hama'aravi or Kotel for short): remainder of the wall around Temple Mount on which the second Jewish temple stood. Destroyed

by Romans in 70 A.D. Also known as the ‘Wailing Wall’ by non-Jewish people and the Al-Buraq wall by Muslims.

2. Holy Sepulchre (Sanctum Sepulchrum; also known as Church of the Resurrection): basilica on the site where Jesus is said to have been buried and risen again.

3. Way of the Cross or Suffering (Via Dolorosa): the route taken by Jesus through the old city before his crucifixion on Skull Hill (Golgotha, Calvary).

4. Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra): oldest Islamic holy place, built above a rock as the place that Jewish and Christians associate with Abraham's sacrifice and Muslims with the Prophet Mohammed's journey to heaven.

5. Al-Aqsa Mosque (or Furthest Mosque): for Muslims the oldest and third most important mosque, after those in Mecca and Medina.

6. Golden Gate (Gate of Mercy: Sha'ar HaRachami, Bab al-Rahma): the gate through which some Jewish sources believe the Messiah will come and through which, according to some Christian sources, Jesus entered Jerusalem.

Outside the city wall, to the right of the Golden Gate, east of the Temple Mount, are Jewish, Christian and Muslim graves.

Some sources from the three religions associate this site with the resurrection during the Final Judgement.

| 83 Model of the second Jewish temple in Jerusalem: Holy House (Beit HaMikdash) Jerusalem, 2018 Wood MAS (MAS.0251)

Lost temple The Bible claims that King Solomon built a temple on the site where God made a covenant with Abraham after preventing the sacrifice of Isaac. This is referred to with the name Temple Mount (Har Habayit, 'Mount of the House'). It was home to the most holy relics: the Ark of the Covenant (Aron HaBrit), a chest containing the stone tablets given to Moses by God. After the destruction of this temple and the disappearance of the Ark a second temple complex was built. The only remains are the western wall. The desire for and memory of the Temple determine Jewish philosophy, speech and behaviour.

| 84 Images of Jewish Jerusalem - Jerusalem today, 2010-2018 - A Jewish pilgrim going to Jerusalem, 2014: testimonial by Daniel Werner MAS (MAS.0184.004)

| 85 Model of the Holy Sepulchre or Church of the Resurrection Palestine, 1648 Cedar or rosewood inlaid with ivory and pearl Design Museum, Ghent (BO 064.1-3)

Church above Christ’s grave In 329 Helena, the mother of the Roman

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emperor Constantine who converted to Christianity, claimed to have found Jesus’ cross. This was where he was said to be buried and to have risen again. It is where Constantine built the Church of the Resurrection (Anastasis), above and around Christ’s grave.

The shrine was an immediate reason for pilgrimages to be made to Jerusalem.

Models of the Holy Sepulchre were treasured souvenirs, just like this prestigious miniature version.

| 86 Images of Christian Jerusalem - Jerusalem today, 2010-2018 - A christian pilgrim going to Jerusalem, 2014: testimonial by Ilse Dupont MAS (MAS.0184.005)

| 87 Model of the Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra) Western bank of the Jordan / Bethlehem, ca. 1995 Wood, pearl National Museum of World Cultures, the Netherlands (7013-1)

Noble Sanctuary Muslims refer to Jerusalem as al-Quds (the Holy). This refers to the Prophet Mohammed's ascension to heaven, but also to the holy temple of Solomon (Soleyman) and important Islam prophets such as Abraham (Ibrahim) and Jesus (Isa). Muslims originally prayed in the direction of Jerusalem.

As from 624, shortly after the beginning of the Islamic calendar, they turned to face Mecca.

The Temple Mount is called Haram al-Sharif (‘the Noble Sanctuary’). This is where the gold-covered Dome of the Rock is found. It is where the prophet Mohammed is said to have begun his nocturnal ascencion to heaven (mi’rāj).

He left his footprint behind on the rock.

Some traditions state that God will pronounce his Final Judgement from a throne above the Rock.

| 88 Images of Islamic Jerusalem - Jerusalem today, 2010-2018.

- A Muslim pilgrim going to Jerusalem, 2014: testimonial by Ahmed Azzouz MAS (MAS.0184.010)

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LIBERAL HUMANISM

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LIBERAL HUMANISM - MEANINGFUL LIFE, DIGNIFIED DEATH Liberal humanists aim for a good and meaningful life, in community. There is no life after death. Their view of life is based on a principle that relates to the free being. Not based on an external or divine authority.

Key words in liberal humanism are: autonomy, human reason and self-development, free research, justice, dignity, responsibility. People govern their own lives and death.

A dignified death concludes the ambition to live decently, for yourself and for others.

This liberal humanist attitude towards life comes from a long tradition of Greek, Roman, Jewish, Christian and atheistic thinkers. A number of the most important precursors are introduced here: over the centuries man took the place of a god as the central and ruling authority.

Today, the why and the how of life and death remain the subject of very diverse and constantly evolving humanistic discussions.

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1 The Vitruvian Man

3 Epicurus

Reproduction of the original drawing of Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, ca. 1490 Galleria dell'Accademia, Venice

Knowing how to see!

The Vitruvian Man is considered as an important symbol of humanistic thought: the focus is on man. This famous drawing by Leonardo da Vinci takes its name from the Roman architect Vitruvius. His writings included details of the perfect human dimensions and architectonic relationships.

A human figure, placed in two positions above one another and with arms and legs spread, fits perfectly into a circle and a square. The drawing illustrates da Vinci’s open view and his desire to learn based on his own observations. Saper vedere: knowing how to see.

Precursors of liberal humanism

Greek philosopher, 341-270 BCE People require peace of mind in order to be happy. This is achieved by not worrying about things that are beyond your power. Trust only what you yourself perceive and things that can be logically concluded. Dying means the death of the body. Nothing remains. Measure past life on its quality

4 Lucius Seneca Roman philosopher, stoicism, 4 BCE-65 You must live as conditions and nature determine. A good death takes place at the right moment, when the time comes: the most important thing is not to live a long life but a quality life.

Euthanasia is the Greek word for a ‘good’ death. Euthanasia has been a right in Belgium since 2002. This allows the very ill to request for their lives to be terminated when they are enduring unbearable suffering and thus end up in a hopeless and inhuman situation.

2 Socrates Athens, Greek philosopher, 469-399 BCE Continue asking questions until your discussion partner reaches real insights: this is the so-called Socratic method.

Learning critical thought and acquiring (self) knowledge leads to a virtuous life.

5 Desiderius Erasmus Dutch philosopher, humanist from the early renaissance, 1466-1536 By reading the Bible in a critical and meticulous manner you can expose the ethical and spiritual fundamental principles of the teachings of Christ. The focus lies on freedom of the individual, tolerance, justice and the replacement of

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dogmas with common sense. Through the perseverance of the will to learn, man can make his own choices, for the good.

6 René Descartes French philosopher and mathematician, Enlightenment, 1596-1650 One can doubt everything except doubt itself. This insight was considered the foundation of modern western self-consciousness. The rationalistic conviction that people can determine for themselves what is true and valid by correctly using their reasonable abilities is the basis of Enlightenment.

7 Baruch de Spinoza Dutch-Jewish philosopher, Enlightenment, 1632-1677 To live a good and happy life we must first recognise and understand reality – which is what we, as human beings, are part of. This prevents aberrations and leads to insights about divine providence and immortality of the spirit. Consideration of and happiness in reality in the here and now are more important than an afterlife.

8 Denis Diderot French philosopher, encyclopedist, sciences, 1713-1784 The famous Encyclopédie (1751-1772) is the most characteristic achievement of Enlightenment as a scientific, philo­ sophical and artistic project. Knowledge comes from man himself. It is the product of memory, reason and the power of the imagination. God and the soul do not exist, everything is physical and perceivable.

9 Immanuel Kant German philosopher, Enlightenment, 1724-1804 What can I know? What must I do?

What may I hope? The only reality that we can know is what can experience with our own senses. We can imagine the reality within itself or on its own – such as God or the transcendent – but have no knowledge of it.

It is best for people to act without emotion, in a way that does not harm the common good. Virtuous deeds lead to bliss.

10 Charles Darwin English biologist, theory of evolution, 1809-1882 People are biological creatures, as other creatures in nature, and the result of a long process of evolution. Man's continued existence and development is determined, as for all other species, by a selection mechanism. Those that are best adapted to their environment shall survive.

11 Today: testimonies of liberal humanists We hear: Marcela Caldas Dahas, Said Dnoub, Martine Konings, Frank Stappaerts Antwerp, 2018

12 Karl Marx German philosopher, industrialization and capitalism, 1818-1883 Man's philosophy and vision of (common) life depends on his material status.

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Changes must be focused on a society with no social or other difference. What is right or wrong should be determined by what is best for this evolution.

Religions encourage people to comply with their fate and therefore to abandon improving their earthly existence.

Because a reward or good life will be postponed until the hereafter.

13 Friedrich Nietzsche German philosopher, nihilism, 1844-1900 Life is chaotic, absurd and pointless.

People create systems to hide how pointless it is and to make life seem meaningful. The prospect of eternal life in the hereafter and a God that tells what to do on earth seem to make everything worthwhile and bearable. However, it is an illusion. Just like every system that seeks to define what is good and bad.

14 Jean-Paul Sartre French philosopher, existentialism, 1905-1980 Man does not ask to be born. From this existence he tries to find a reason and meaning for life. This individual freedom, to which we are condemned, brings responsibility and commitment: every person owes it to himself and others to make life meaningful by choosing a human purpose in life.

A number of important principles on which also liberal humanists rely, have been brought together in: Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

3. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

4. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

6. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.

7. All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

8. ‌

This statement, but also other international declarations, provide generally accepted moral rules.

Drawings: Erica Smalheer

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In memoriam This publication has been dedicated to our colleague at the MAS, Chris De Lauwer (1955-2018). She was keeper of the Asia collection and curator of the permanent exhibition Life and Death. On Gods and Men.

Colophon Realisation

Lenders

The MAS team led by director Marieke van Bommel and in collaboration with the colleagues of the city of Antwerp

Belgium

Curators and texts Egypt: Els De Palmenaer in collaboration with Eugène Warmenbol

Africa: Els De Palmenaer Oceania: Vicky Van Bockhaven (Melanesië), Mireille Holsbeke in collaboration with Hugo DeBlock (Vanuatu) Asia: Chris De Lauwer Religions of the Book: Vera De Boeck in collaboration with Leen Beyers, Annemie De Vos, Luit Mols Liberal Humanism: Vera De Boeck

Scenography B-architecten: Egypt, Africa, Oceania, Asia (2011)

Kinkorn: Religions of the Book, Liberal Humanism (2018) Soundscape: Sleichim, 2011

Translation (English) Oneliner

Layout and typesetting Ann Walkers, (BAI) 2018

Publisher BAI for MAS

© Textes: MAS, BAI and the authors.

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Antwerp, Heritage Library Hendrik Conscience Antwerp, Higher Institute for Religious Studies Antwerp, Hizmet Mosque Antwerp-Berchem, Janaza Uitvaartzorg Antwerp, Jewish Community Machsike Hadas Antwerp, Jewish Community Shomre Hadas Antwerp, Jewish Community of the Sephardic rites Antwerp, Diane Keyser Antwerp, Aaron Malinsky Antwerp, Pakistan Mosque Noor-Ul-Haram Antwerp, Protestant church De Wijngaard Antwerp, Iqbal Qureshi Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute, Print collection Antwerp, Saint-Pauls Church Brussels, Jewish Museum of Belgium Ghent, Design Museum Tervuren, Royal Museum of Central Africa The Netherlands Amsterdam, Jewish Historical Museum National Museum of World Cultures And all lenders who wish to remain anonymous.

D/2018/5751/14

Thanks to Caroline Bastiaens, Alderman for Culture, and her staff, volunteers and interns at Antwerpen Kunstenstad and all colleagues involved from the City of Antwerp.

The MAS also thanks its partners for their cooperation, expertise and advice in the creation of this new presentation on the Religions of the Book and on the Liberal Humanism: the Antwerp Jewish, Christian and Muslim communities; the Antwerp inspectors of the religious and the non-confessional education; various Antwerp liberal humanist and philosophical organisations; the testifying persons; all intermediaries that lead us to the right experts.

With special thanks to: Bruno Aerts, Ahmed Azzouz, Mohamed Amin Chaib, Houssin and Mohamed Ben Hamach, Jacob Berger, family Binnemans, Thamar Blokland, Freddy Boeykens, family Bryfel, Marcela Caldas Dahas, Christa Damen, Gert De Nutte, Caroline De Wever, Saïd Dnoub, Ilse Dupont, Willy Durinx, Dov Friedman, Jacob Friedrich, Anna Grunfeld, David Grunfeld, Nadine Iarchy, family Javed, Willy Kahan, Sevda Karaaslan, Martine Konings, Aaron Malinsky, Rudi Mannaerts, Isi Mantel, Marilia Martins dos Santos, Luc Meys, Hermine Milgram–Weinreb, Omar Nahas, Iqbal Qureshi, Zahava Seewald, Leo and Anny Schumer, family Slavaticki, Erica Smalheer, Frank Stappaerts, Eddy Strauven, Jan Van Alphen, Erna Van Looveren, Eline Vandendriessche, Luc Vinkx, Johan Visser, Daniel Werner, Dick Wursten, Adnan Yildiz.

The publisher has sought to apply the statutory provisions pertaining to copyright. Nevertheless, any parties believing that they are entitled to copyright are requested to contact the MAS (mas@stad.antwerpen.be)

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