“WillTheyKnowWhoIAm?”: ContactBetweenIncarceratedMothersandTheirInfants
KimberlyPiontkowski1,2,JenniferLao2,JamilyaNurkanova3,NatalieSlopen2, JoannaBoyles4,andBethanyKotlar2
1 DepartmentofBehavioralandSocialSciences,BrownUniversitySchoolofPublicHealth,BrownUniversity
2 DepartmentofBehavioralandSocialHealth,HarvardT.H.ChanSchoolofPublicHealth,HarvardUniversity 3 CentreforCriminologyandSociolegalStudies,UniversityofToronto 4 MotherhoodBeyondBars,Atlanta,Georgia,UnitedStates
TheUnitedStateshasthehighestwomen’sincarcerationrate,and2%–4%ofincarceratedwomenare pregnantonadmission.Motherswhogivebirthduringincarcerationaretypicallyseparatedfromtheir newborns,jeopardizingtheirabilitytoformamaternalrelationship.Thisqualitativestudyexaminedthe experiencesof27mothersinGeorgiaandPennsylvaniawhogavebirthduringincarceration,using semistructuredinterviewsconductednearthetimeofreleasetoexplorehowtheycommunicatedwiththeir infants,thechallengestheyencountered,andtheimpactofseparationontheirmaternalidentityandwellbeing.Threethemeswereidentified.The firstthemewascarceralalienation:Alandscapeofrestrictive policies,logisticalbarriers,technologicalfailures,andhighcommunicationcostsdisruptedtheirabilityto nurturerelationshipswiththeirinfants.Thesecondthemewasmaternalresilience:Despiteobstacles, mothersdemonstratedpersistenteffortstoconnectwiththeirbabies,engaginginprenatalbondingand collaboratingwithcaregiverspostpartum.Thethirdthemewasdisruptedmotherhood:Mothersreported grief,depression,andongoingstrugglestorebuildrelationshipswithchildrenwhodidnotknowthem postrelease,withreunificationdescribedasanongoingprocess,especiallyafterlengthyseparations.These findingsillustratetheinadequacyofthecurrentU.S.carceralsysteminsupportingtheneedsofmotherswho givebirthwhileincarcerated.Community-basedalternativestoincarceration,family-centeredcarceral policies,andreunificationsupportareneededtopromotehealthymother–childrelationshipsandmitigate thelong-termimpactsofmaternalincarceration.
Keywords: incarceration,mother–infantrelationship,postpartumwomen Supplementalmaterials: https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0001520.supp
TheUnitedStateshasthehighestincarcerationrateintheworld (Kajstura,2018).MassincarcerationintheUnitedStateshasbeen drivenbypoliciesdatingbacktothe “WaronDrugs” inthe1970s, whichledtoharshersentencinglawsandincreasedarrestrates fordrug-relatedoffenses,particularlyincommunitiesofcolorand thosewithlowersocioeconomicstatus(Alexander,2012; Pettit& Western,2004; Roberts,1997).Thesepunitivemeasureshavehad lastingrepercussionsnotonlyforthoseincarceratedbutalsofor theirfamilies.Nearly3millionU.S.childrenhadatleastonejusticeinvolvedparentin2016(Maruschaketal.,2021).Althoughthe
StephenA.Erathservedasactioneditor.
KimberlyPiontkowski https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4256-5521
BethanyKotlarservedasanunpaidboardmemberforMotherhood BeyondBarsbetween2020and2023.JoannaBoylesisapaidstaffmember atMotherhoodBeyondBars.ThisarticlewasfundedbytheNationalInstitutesofHealth,EuniceKennedyShriverNationalInstituteofChildHealth andHumanDevelopment(GrantF32HD117535),awardedtoBethany Kotlar.ThisarticlewasfundedbytheNationalHeart,Lung,andBlood Institute(GrantT32HL098048),awardedtoBethanyKotlar.Thisresearch wassupportedbytheMaternalandChildHealthBureau,HealthResources andServicesAdministration(GrantT03MC07648-12-06).
KimberlyPiontkowskiplayedaleadroleinwriting–originaldraft,a supportingroleinconceptualization,methodology,andwriting–reviewand
exactnumberofchildrenwithanincarceratedmotherisunknown,it isestimatedthatapproximately58%ofincarceratedwomenare parents(Maruschaketal.,2021).Further,anestimated2%–4%of incarceratedwomeninprisonswerepregnantatadmission,withat least1,000womengivingbirthduringtheirincarcerationeachyear (Sufrinetal.,2019, 2020).Typically,incarceratedmothersinthe UnitedStatesareseparatedfromtheirnewbornswithinhoursor daysaftergivingbirth(Clarke&Simon,2013).Community-based alternativestoincarcerationandprisonnurseryprogramsallow incarceratedwomentocarefortheirinfantsandfosterearly
editing,andanequalroleindatacuration,formalanalysis,andvisualization. JenniferLaoplayedanequalroleinformalanalysis,software,visualization, andwriting–reviewandediting.JamilyaNurkanovaplayedasupportingrole informalanalysisandanequalroleinwriting–reviewandediting.Natalie Slopenplayedasupportingroleinsupervisionandanequalroleinwriting–reviewandediting.JoannaBoylesplayedanequalroleinwriting–review andediting.BethanyKotlarplayedaleadroleinconceptualization,funding acquisition,investigation,methodology,resources,software,supervision, andvalidation,asupportingroleinwriting–originaldraft,andanequalrole indatacuration,formalanalysis,andwriting–reviewandediting.
CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoKimberly Piontkowski,DepartmentofBehavioralandSocialSciences,BrownUniversity SchoolofPublicHealth,BrownUniversity,121SouthMainStreet,Providence, RI02908,UnitedStates.Email: kimberly_piontkowski@brown.edu
bonding,butonlycoverasmallsubsetofmothers(Jensen,2021). Thus,mostchildrenborntoincarceratedmothersarecaredforby nonmaternalcaregivers(Kotlar,Yousafzai,etal.,2025; Pendletonet al.,2022; RodriguezCarey,2019).Althoughseparatedphysically, mostincarceratedmothersretainlegalcustodyoftheirchildren (Fessler,1991; Thompson&Newell,2021).Mostincarcerated mothersarereleasedwithin3yearsaftergivingbirth(Butcheretal., 2017; UnitedStatesSentencingCommission,2018),andmany intendtoresumeparentingtheirchilduponrelease(Fessler,1991; Thompson&Newell,2021),makingtheestablishmentofamaternal relationshipduringincarcerationimperativeforlaterreunification.
TheU.S.carceralsystemdoesnotfacilitateorencouragecontact, andresearchrevealsthatchildrenrarelyvisittheirmothersinjailor prison(Glaze&Maruschak,2008; Mumola,2000; Poehlmannet al.,2010).Phonecallsandlettersarethemostfrequentlyused methodsofcontactbetweenolderchildrenandtheirincarcerated mothers(Shlaferetal.,2015; Stringer&Barnes,2012).However, primarycaregiversfacevariousbarrierstofacilitatingcontact betweenincarceratedmothersandtheirchildren,includingrestrictive prisonpolicies(e.g.,limitedvisitingorphonecallhoursandapproval requirements),caregiverconstraintsduetoworkandotherresponsibilities, financialburdens,longdistancestofacilities,andtechnologicalfailuresrelatedtovirtualvisits(Kotlar,Piontkowski,etal., 2025; Poehlmannetal.,2010; Tasca,2016; Tuerk&Loper,2006). In-personvisitswereinitiallysuspendedduringtheCOVID-19 pandemicand,consistentwithpriorresearchonwidespreadrestrictionsincorrectionalfacilities(Charlesetal.,2022),remained limitedevenafterpandemic-relatedpolicieswerelifted.
Thesechallengesaremagnifiedforinfantsbornduringtheir mother’sincarceration,astheyfaceuniquedevelopmentalrisks withoutthebenefitofapreexistingrelationshipwiththeirmothers. Separationfollowedbyalackofmeaningfulcontactcaninterfere withbondingandsecureattachment,criticalfactorsforhealthychild development(Arditti&McGregor,2019; Poehlmannetal.,2010). Disruptedearlyattachmentisassociatedwithemotional,cognitive, andbehavioraldifficultiesthatmaypersistintolaterchildhood (Dallaireetal.,2015; Poehlmann,2005a).Contactmethodsbetween incarceratedmothersandtheirinfantsareevenmorelimitedcomparedtocontactwitholderchildren,asinfantscannottalkonthe phoneorreadorwriteletters.Assuch,in-personandpotentiallyvideo visitsremaintheonlydevelopmentallyappropriatewaytoformearly attachment(Bowlby,1982; Poehlmann,2005b).However,visitsare rarelyreportedamongincarceratedmothersofolderchildren(Loper etal.,2009; Poehlmann-Tynan&Pritzl,2019; Tuerk&Loper,2006). Inadditiontotheconsequencesofseparationonchildren, incarceratedmothersalsoreportedadverseimpactsontheirown well-beingandqualityoflife.Pregnancyduringincarcerationis oftenaccompaniedbyheighteneddepressionandanxiety(Fogel& Belyea,2001; Howlandetal.,2021),whichmaydisruptprenatal bondingandintensifythetraumaofseparation.Researchwith incarceratedmothersofolderchildrenfoundthatmaintaining contactisassociatedwithgreaterpsychologicalwell-beingamong mothers(Celinska&Siegel,2010; Loperetal.,2009; Poehlmann, 2005b; Tuerk&Loper,2006),reducesparentingstress(Houck& Loper,2002),andstrengthensmotivationtoworktowardrelease andreunification(Arditti&Few,2006).Withoutopportunitiesfor sustainedcontact,mothersmayfacelastingchallengestotheir emotionalwell-beingandstruggletorebuildrelationshipswiththeir childrenafterrelease.
Inthecontextofmaternalincarceration,mothersandtheir childrenarereliantontheirchildren’scaregiverstofacilitatecontact. Infantsseparatedfromtheirmothersatbirthareoftenplacedinthe careofagrandparentorotherrelativeduringthemother’sincarceration(Kotlar,Yousafzai,etal.,2025; Pendletonetal.,2022; RodriguezCarey,2019).Whileourownresearchhasdemonstrated thatcaregiverstypicallydesireandpursuecontactbetweenincarceratedmothersandtheirchildren(Kotlar,Piontkowski,etal.,2025), theyfacetheirownchallenges:managingthelogisticsofprison visitation,balancingmultipleresponsibilities,andoftennavigating complexinstitutionalrules(Poehlmannetal.,2010; Tasca,2016). Theconsistencyandqualityofcaregiverinvolvementinfluencethe likelihoodofreunificationandthestrengthofthemother–infantbond (Charlesetal.,2023; Loper&Clarke,2013; Poehlmannetal.,2008), whichcanimpactthewell-beingofboth.Researchsuggeststhat motherswhosecaregiversvalueandactivelyfacilitateconsistent contactaremorelikelytoreunifywiththeirchildrenfollowingrelease (Poehlmann,2005b).
Therearefewstudiesfocusedoncontactbetweenincarcerated mothersandtheirinfants,despiteevidencethatearlycontactis criticalforestablishingsecureattachment,supportingmaternalwellbeing,andfacilitatingsuccessfulreunificationafterrelease(Arditti &McGregor,2019; Benoit,2004; Poehlmannetal.,2010)In additiontoexploringthesechallenges,thepresentstudyhighlights strategiesmothersusedtomaintaincontactandfeelconnected withtheirinfantsduringincarceration.Focusingonthesestrengths providedinsightintowhatpracticesmaybesustainedorexpanded throughpolicyandprogrammaticinterventions.Understanding theseexperiencesisimperativebecauserestrictionsonmaternal–infantcontactcanhavelastingconsequencesforchildren,mothers, andfamilysystems.Thegoalofthepresentstudywastoaddressthis criticalgapintheliteraturebyexamininghowmothersnavigate communicationandseparationduringincarceration,howthese circumstancesshapematernalidentityandrelationshipswiththeir infants,andhow findingsmightinformpoliciesandpracticesto bettersupportincarceratedmothers,promotebonding,andfacilitate successfulpostreleasereunification.Specifically,thisstudyinvestigatedthefollowingresearchquestions:(a)Howdomothers experiencecommunicationwiththeirinfantsduringincarceration? (b)Whatarethechallengestocontact?and(c)Howdoesseparation impacttheirrelationshipwiththeirinfantandmentalhealth?To answerthesequestions,weconductedaqualitativeanalysisof interviewsconductedwithmothersseparatedfromtheirchildrenat birthwhowerereleasedfromprison.
Method
Participants
Twenty-sevenformerlyincarceratedmotherswhogavebirth duringtheirincarcerationwereincludedinthepresentstudy(see Table1).IncludedmotherswereparticipantsintheBirthBeyond BarsStudy(BBBStudy),anongoingbirthcohortofchildren exposedprenatallytomaternalincarceration.TheBBBStudyrecruitseligiblechildrenandtheirprimarycaregiversatbirththrough acollaborationwithnonprofitsthatservepregnantandpostpartum incarceratedwomenorDepartmentsofCorrectionsinGeorgia, Maine,andPennsylvania.Motherswhoremainincarceratedafter thechild’sbirtharerecruitedonreleasefromprisonorjail.
Table1
SampleDemographicsofIncarceratedMothers(N = 27)
Twenty-sixmothersincludedinthepresentstudywereincarceratedinGeorgia,andonemotherwasincarceratedinPennsylvania. Georgiahasawomen’sincarcerationrateof181per100,000,and Pennsylvaniaof129per100,000,makingthemhigh-incarcerating statescomparedtotheUnitedStatesaverageof49per100,000(Vera InstituteforJustice,2024).Inbothstates,womenwhogivebirth duringtheirincarcerationareseparatedfromtheirinfantsshortlyafter birth.Participantsdeliveredatoneoftwolocalbirthinghospitalsand weretransportedbacktothecarceralfacilityafterreceivingpostpartumcare.Intheabsenceofmedicalcomplications,separation typicallyoccurredwithin24–48hraftergivingbirth.Infantsthen remainedwithanonmaternalcaregiverwhilemotherscompleted theirsentences.
Twenty-sixmothers(96%)gavebirthduringtheirincarcerationin prison.Oneparticipantdeliveredhertwinsatacountyjailandwas subsequentlytransferredtoprison.WomenwhoidentifiedasBlack wereoverrepresentedinoursample(41%)comparedtothepopulationofincarceratedwomennationally(17%; Kajstura&Sawyer, 2024).Theageofmothersatenrollmentintothestudyrangedfrom 23to48(M = 31, SD = 5.6).Caregiversofchildrenduringthe mother’sincarcerationweremostlikelytobematernalgrandparents (48%)orothermaternalkin(11%).Fatherscaredfor22%ofthe includedchildren.Theageofthechildatthetimeofthemother’s
releaserangedfrom3weeksto31months(M = 9months, SD = 7.2 months).
Procedure
Semistructuredquestionsweredevelopedpriortothelaunchof theBBBStudyinAugust2020throughaliteraturereviewand discussionamongtheBBBStudyresearchteam,whichincluded onememberwithlivedexperienceofincarcerationandmotherhood, twoprogrammaticstaffatnonprofitpartners,andseniorauthor, BethanyKotlar(see Table2).Interviewswereconductedbetween February2021andApril2025.Interviewsrangedinlengthfrom20 minto1.5hr.Dataweredrawnfrominterviewsconductedonintake intotheBBBStudy,whichoccurredonthemothers’ releasefrom incarceration.Interviewsoccurredasclosetothemothers’ release fromincarcerationaspossibleandwereconductedoverthephoneor Zoombyresearcherstrainedinqualitativeinterviewing.Allinterviewswereaudiorecordedandtranscribedverbatim.
EthicalConsiderations
TheHarvardLongwoodArea’sInstitutionalReviewBoard approvedthisstudy(IRB20-1215,21-1247).Theethicsreviewprocess includedconsiderationofsampling,informedconsent,interview procedures,participantremuneration,datastorage,anddissemination. Aninstitutionalreviewboardexpertinstudieswithincarceratedand formerlyincarceratedindividualswasincludedinthereview.
Positionality
Primaryanalysiswasundertakenbythe firstthroughthethirdand lastauthors.The firstauthorisaWhite,cisgenderfemalewithno livedorfamilialexperienceofincarceration.Sheisnotamother. Herworkfocusesonsexualandreproductivehealth,withatheoreticalfocusonreproductivejustice.ThesecondauthorisanAsian American,cisgenderfemalewithnolivedorfamilialexperienceof incarceration.Sheisnotamother.Atthetimeofinterpretation,she hadrecentlygraduatedwithamaster’sinpublichealth.Herresearch focusesonhealthinequitiesrelatedtomassincarceration.Thethird authorisanAsian,cisgenderfemale,withnolivedorfamilial experienceofincarceration.Shehasextensiveexperienceworking directlywithjustice-involvedfamiliesinKazakhstan,butnotinthe UnitedStates.Sheisamothertothreechildren.Thelastauthor,who ledandcloselysupervisedallanalysisactivities,isacisgender Whitewoman.Whileshehasnotbeenincarcerated,shehasclose familymemberswhohavebeenincarceratedandhasoveradecade ofexperienceworkingwithincarceratedandformerlyincarcerated mothersintheUnitedStatesprogrammaticallyandthrough research.Herresearchisprimarilyfocusedontheimpactofmass incarcerationonfamilies.Throughoutthedataanalysisprocess, reflexivitywaspracticedthroughweeklyteamdiscussionsand memoing.Teammemberscriticallyexaminedhowdifferencesin experienceinfluencedcodingdecisionsandmeaning-making.
MethodologicalApproach
Thisstudywasguidedbyaphenomenologicalmethodology (Creswell,2013),whichcentersindividuals’ livedexperienceand recognizestheimportanceofinterpretingparticipants’ perspectives
Table2
SemistructuredInterviewQuestionsonMaternal–InfantContactDuringIncarceration Question
Howdidyouchoosesomeonetocarefor(infantname)whileyouwereinprison?
Whendidyou firsttalkto(infantname)’scaregiverabouttaking(infantname)?
Whoelsedidyouaskotherthan(infantname)’scaregivertocarefor(infantname)?
HowdidtheGeorgiaDepartmentofCorrectionsknowwhowouldtakecareof(infantname)duringyourincarceration?
WhatdidGeorgiaDepartmentofCorrectionsstafftellyou,ifanything,abouthowtheywouldcommunicatewiththecaregiverafter(infantname)wasborn?
Whendidyouhearthat(infantname)hadbeenpickedup?
Howdidyourrelationshipwith(infantname)’scaregiverchangeaftertheypickedup(infantname)fromthehospital?
Thinkingaboutthe first3monthsof(infantname)’slife,howdidhisorhercaregiverinvolveyouinhisorherlife?
Howdidyourbaby’scaregivershareinformationaboutyourbabywhileyouwereincarcerated?
Inthe firstmonthof(infantname)’slife,didyouhaveavideocallwithhis/hercaregiverwithhim/herthere?
Whatwasespeciallychallengingaboutcommunicatingwith(infantname)’scaregiverduringthe first3monthsofhis/herlife?
Inthe first3monthsof(infantname)’slife,whatdisagreementsdidyouandhis/hercaregiverhaveabout(infantname)?
Whatinformationaboutyourbabydidyouaskyourbaby’scaregiverforthattheydidnotwanttosharewithyou?
Overthe first3monthsof(infantname)’slife,whatplansdidyoumakeforwhowouldcarefor(infantname)whenyouarereleased? Howdidtheexperienceofhaving(infantname)changeyou?
Whatdidyoudo(ifanything)duringpregnancythathelpedyoufeelconnectedtoyourbaby?
Whatdidyoudointhehospitalwhen(infantname)wasbornthathelpedyoutofeelconnectedto(infantname)? Thinkingbacktowhenyouwereincarcerated,whatkindofcontactwith(infantname)helpedyoutotransitiontoparentingin-person?
Thinkingbacktowhenyouwereincarcerated,whatkindofinformationabout(infantname)helpedyoutotransitiontoparentingin-person? Whatelsehelpedyoutransitiontoparentingin-person?
incontextwhileseekingsharedmeaningacrossthoseexperiencing asimilarphenomenon.Thisapproachguidedthecreationof semistructuredinterviewquestionsandhowdatawereanalyzed. Specifically,researcherssoughttocenterparticipants’ descriptions oftheirlivedexperiencesindevelopingthemes.
Analysis
Thegoalofthecurrentanalysiswastoidentifythemesthat characterizedtheexperienceofmaintainingcontactwithachildborn duringincarcerationandtheimpactofthatcontactonmotheringafter releasefromincarceration.
Theresearchteamanalyzedtranscriptdatafollowingamultistep thematicanalysisprocessoutlinedby BraunandClarke(2006) First,researchersdevelopedacodebookofinductiveanddeductive codesbasedonaliteraturereviewandaninductivereadingof five randomlyselectedtranscripts.Toensurecodingagreement,theteam thentrainedonhalfofthetranscriptsuntilteammembersachieveda Cohen’s κ of.8oraboveonallcodes.Duringthisprocess,the codebookwascontinuouslyrefinedthroughweeklyteamdiscussions.WhenCohen’s κ scoreswereachieved,twoteammembers independentlycodedeachtranscript.Teammembersthenextracted andinductivelyreadandappliedmemostoeachcode’sexcerpts. Codeswerethengroupedanddescribed.Finally,preliminary themeswereidentifiedanddescribedthroughteamdiscussionand furtherinductivereadingofallcodedexcerpts.Thesepreliminary themeswerevalidatedthroughamember-checkingfocusgroup composedofsevennonprofitprogrammaticstaffatBBBStudy partnerorganizations,threeofwhomhadlivedexperienceof incarcerationandmotherhood.
TransparencyandOpenness
Wehavetakenthefollowingeffortstopresentourresearch withintheeightaspectsoftheTransparencyandOpenness
PromotionGuidelines.Citationsof allrelevantarticlesusedto informtheoreticalframeworksoranalysisareincludedaccording tojournalguidelines.Thesemistructuredinterviewquestionsand codebookarepresentedin Table2 and SupplementalTableS1, respectively.Thesedataarecon fi dentialandcannotbeshareddue toconcernsaboutpriv acy.Toprotecttheir identity,pseudonyms areusedforallmothers’ names.Thisstudywasnotpreregistered beforeanalysiswasconducted.However,allstepshavebeen outlinedhere.
Results
Threethemeswereidenti fied:carceralalienation,maternal resilience,anddisruptedmotherhood.Acrossthesethemes,mothersdescribedhowlimitedcommunicationwiththeirinfantswas frustratinganddisruptivetotypicalbonding.Despiteinstitutional restrictions,manyfoundwaystostayconnectedanddevelop strategiestonurturetheirrelationships,thoughthesemethodswere ofteninsuffi cient.Consequently,thelongertheperiodofseparation andtheolderthechildrenbecome,themorechallengingthereuni ficationtypicallyiswhentheirmotherisreleased.
CarceralAlienation
MothersdescribedaU.S.carcerallandscapethatinherently limitedthemfromstayingincontactwiththeirinfants,making bondingandrelationshipformationincrediblydifficult.Mothers reportedfrequentbarrierstocommunication,includingrestrictive carceralpolicies,inconsistentenforcementofsaidpoliciesby carceralstaff,longdrivestothefacility,technologicalfailures,and financialissuesthatseverelylimitedtheirabilitytointeractwith theirchildren.Forinstance,Heather,whowasseparatedfromher infantfor18months,explainedthatalthoughshewantedvideo visits,shedidnothaveanybecausetheapprovalprocesswasso
