Flash Flood Risk Mitigation Through Urban Design

FLASH FLOOD RISK MITIGATION THROUGH URBAN DESIGN IN KUALA LUMPUR CITY CENTRE

MOHD ZAMIR BIN MOHD ZAMRI

FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA 2015

FLASH FLOOD RISK MITIGATION THROUGH URBAN DESIGN IN KUALA LUMPUR CITY CENTRE

MOHD ZAMIR BIN MOHD ZAMRI

This academic project is submitted to fulfil the requirement in awarding the Degree (HONS) in Bachelor of Urban and Regional Planning

Urban and Regional Planning Department Faculty of Built Environment University of Malaya

December 2015

i

UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION

Name of Candidate: Mohd Zamir Bin Mohd Zamri (I.C. No: 930217146539) Registration/Matric No: BEU120009 Name of Degree: Degree (HONS) in Bachelor of Urban and Regional Planning Title of Academic Project (“this Work”): Flash Flood Risk Mitigation through Urban Design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre

I do solemnly and sincerely declare that: (1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work; (4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work; (5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained; (6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any other action as may be determined by UM.

Candidate’s Signature

Date: 30th December 2015

Subscribed and solemnly declared before, Supervisor’s Signature

Date: 30th December 2015

Name: Dr. Hanan Mohamed Hassan Elsawahli Designation:

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TUNTUTAN PIHAK KETIGA

Projek Ilmiah ini disediakan bagi memenuhi sebahagian daripada syarat keperluan bagi pengijazahan Sarjana Muda Perancangan Bandar dan Wilayah oleh Universiti Malaya. Pihak Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Wilayah, Fakulti Alam Bina, Universiti Malaya tidak akan bertanggungjawab atas sebarang tuntutan dari pihak ketiga yang berhutang kait dengan Projek Ilmiah ini.

30 Disember 2015

DISCLAIMER

This academic project is prepared here in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Urban and Regional Planning by the University of Malaya. The Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment and University of Malaya make no responsible for any claim from the third party with regards to the production of this Academic Project.

30th December 2015

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DEDICATION

This academic project is dedicated to my parents, En. Mohd Zamri Md Rasip and Pn. Rosilah Mohd Som as well as my siblings and to my loyal supporter, Elanni Md Affandi for being there for me through thick and thin.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Bismillahirrahmanirrahim. Alhamdulillah. Thanks to Allah SWT, for giving me such a great the opportunity to complete this academic project entitled ‘Flash Flood Risk Mitigation through Urban Design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre’.

The outcome of this research required a lot of help and assistance from different groups of people. I am very blessed to have these kind of helpful people who stay helping throughout the process of completing this research.

It might be impossible to do without these great people by my side. Hence, I would like to thank to the people who had helped and assisted me all the way of completing this project.

I am highly thankful to my supervisor, Dr. Hanan Elsawahli, for the contributions of guidance, comments and constructive suggestions throughout the preparation which helped improve and polish my work in many ways. I would also like to thank to the other lecturers who have always motivated and encouraged me to keep on concentrating to this academic project.

Deepest thanks and appreciation to my father, Mohd Zamri Bin Md Rasip, and my mother, Rosilah Binti Mohd Som, for always being here with me and for all motivated words. They have always helped me a lot especially in financial aspect. I am also feel thankful to my one and only soulmate, Elanni Binti Affandi for always giving motivational and inspiring quotes and advices to me.

A big thanks also to my course mates and others, for their help, inspiration, fruitful idea and full of support for the research completion from the beginning.

Lastly, I would like to thank anyone who have been contributed by supporting my work and help me during the research progress till it is fully completed.

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ABSTRACT

Flood occurrence in Malaysia has expanded worryingly for the past decades generally because of development concentrated on flood plain areas, demolition of forestry value and development on highland. Flood fatality is recorded to be high yet flood cases that happened for past decades is an outcome of the problems stated. Several mitigation measures have been undertaken to overcome flood hazard in Kuala Lumpur City Centre which include SMART tunnel which the construction was completed in 2007. To the extent of that, this research is done aims to evaluate significant urban design elements that would help in flash flood mitigation in Kuala Lumpur City Centre.

The research objectives outlined in the research are: to examine the principles of urban design that are used in flash flood mitigation; to identify the elements of urban design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre that help in flash flood mitigation:; and to draw the recommendation of urban design elements in mitigating flash flood in Kuala Lumpur City Centre. Some of the urban design elements which have been taken into account are urban form, landscape characteristics, streetscapes, open space, and building design. Several recommendations are highlighted in order to achieve the final objective of this research. The recommendations of this research are building underground water tank at basement parking, creating urban wetlands park, constructing pervious concrete sidewalk, applying porous asphalt and interlocking street, installing water bench, and installing dry flood-proofing on buildings. The study shows that all these urban design elements could help in flash flood mitigation in Kuala Lumpur City Centre if they are brought closer to stakeholders.

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ABSTRAK

Kejadian banjir di Malaysia semakin membimbangkan untuk beberapa dekad yang lalu disebabkan tertumpunya pembangunan di kawasan dataran banjir, kemusnahan hutan, dan pembangunan di tanah tinggi. Kematian daripada masalah banjir direkodkan sebagai kes-kes tinggi yang berlaku selama beberapa dekad yang lalu disebabkan masalah-masalah tersebut Beberapa langkah pencegahan telah dilaksanakan untuk mengatasi masalah banjir di Pusat Bandar Kuala Lumpur termasuklah terowong SMART yang siap dibina pada tahun 2007. Oleh yang demikian, kajian ini dilakukan bertujuan untuk menilai elemen-elemen reka bentuk bandar yang dapat membantu dalam menangani masalah banjir kilat di Pusat Bandar Kuala Lumpur. Objektif kajian yang digariskan adalah: untuk mengkaji prinsip-prinsip reka bentuk bandar yang digunakan untuk menangani masalah baniir kilat; untuk mengenal pasti elemen-elemen reka bentuk bandar di Pusat Bandar yang dapat membantu menangani masalah banjir kilat; dan untuk mencadangkan elemen-elemen reka bentuk bandar dalam menangani masalah banjir kilat di Pusat Bandar Kuala Lumpur. Beberapa elemen reka bentuk bandar yang telah diambil kira adalah bentuk bandar itu sendiri, ciri-ciri landskap, landskap jalan, kawasan lapang, dan reka bentuk bangunan. Beberapa cadangan telah dikenal pasti untuk mencapai matlamat akhir kajian ini. Cadangan tersebut adalah membina tangka air bawah tanah di tempat letak kereta, mewujudkan taman tanah lembap, membina laluan pejalan kaki konkrit tidak kedap, membina permukaan jalan berliang, memasang bangku yang mampu menampung air, dan memasang bahan kalis air pada bangunan. Kajian menunjukkan bahawa semua elemen-elemen reka bentuk bandar boleh membantu dalam menangani masalah banjir kilat di Pusat Bandar Kuala Lumpur.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ED ACKNOWLDEGEMENT ................................................................................. v

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... vi ABSTRAK ..................................................................................................... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLE ............................................................................................. xi LIST OF FIGURE ........................................................................................... xi LIST OF PLAN .............................................................................................. xii CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 1.1

Introduction .................................................................................... 2

1.2

Research Background ................................................................... 4

1.3

Problem Statement ........................................................................ 4

1.4

Research Questions ...................................................................... 5

1.5

Research Aim ................................................................................ 5

1.6

Research Objectives ..................................................................... 5

1.7

Scope of Study .............................................................................. 6

1.8

Significance of Study ..................................................................... 6

1.9

Structure of the Study .................................................................... 7

1.11

Summary .................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................... 9 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 9 2.1

Introduction .................................................................................. 10

2.2

Natural Disaster Phenomenon..................................................... 10

2.2.1

Characteristics of Disasters in Africa .................................... 12

2.2.2

Characteristics of Disaster in Americas................................. 13

2.2.3

Characteristics of Disaster in Asia ........................................ 13

2.2.4

Characteristics of Disaster in Europe .................................... 14

2.2.5

Characteristics of Disaster in Oceania .................................. 14

2.3

Malaysian Natural Disasters ........................................................ 15

2.3.1

Overview of Disasters in Malaysia ........................................ 15

2.3.2

Floods Definitions ................................................................. 17

2.3.3

Characteristics and Types of Floods ..................................... 18 viii

2.4

Flood Mitigation in General Context ............................................ 20

2.4.1

Structural Measures .............................................................. 20

2.4.2

Non-structural Measures ....................................................... 20

2.4.3

Technologies and Engineering Approach Vulnerability ......... 21

2.5

Mitigation Measures: Urban Design Context ............................... 21

2.5.1

Urban Design ........................................................................ 21

2.5.2

Contemporary Urban Design Theory on Disaster Mitigation . 22

2.5.3

The Elements of Urban Design in Flood Mitigation ............... 22

2.6

Summary ..................................................................................... 23

CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................. 24 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................ 24 3.1

Introduction .................................................................................. 25

3.2

Research Design ......................................................................... 26

3.2.1

Literature Review .................................................................. 27

3.2.2

Visual Survey ........................................................................ 28

3.2.3

Review of Governmental Documents, Guidelines and Policies.

28

3.3

Selection of the Study Area ......................................................... 29

3.3.1

Jalan Tun Perak .................................................................... 33

3.3.2

Jalan Masjid India ................................................................. 34

3.3.3

Jalan Dang Wangi ................................................................. 35

3.4

Summary ..................................................................................... 37

CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................. 38 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................. 38 4.1

Introduction .................................................................................. 39

4.2

Overview of Flood Prone Areas in Kuala Lumpur ........................ 39

4.3

Overview of Urban Design Elements in Study Area .................... 42

4.4

Urban Form ................................................................................. 43

4.4.1

Building Structure .................................................................. 44

4.4.2

Enclosure .............................................................................. 46

4.5

Landscape Characteristics .......................................................... 48

4.5.1

Quality of Soil ........................................................................ 48

4.5.2

Plant Characteristics ............................................................. 52

4.6

Streetscape ................................................................................. 53

4.6.1

Street Furniture ..................................................................... 53 ix

4.6.2

Sidewalk................................................................................ 55

4.6.3

Street .................................................................................... 57

4.7

Open Space................................................................................. 58

4.7.1

Public Realm ......................................................................... 58

4.7.2

Park ...................................................................................... 59

4.8

Building Design ............................................................................ 60

4.8.1 4.9

Building Material ................................................................... 60

Summary ..................................................................................... 61

CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................. 62 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ........................................... 62 5.1

Introduction .................................................................................. 63

5.2

Recommendations....................................................................... 63

5.2.1

Underground Water Tank at Basement Parking ................... 64

5.2.2

Urban Wetland Park .............................................................. 65

5.2.3

Pervious Concrete Sidewalk ................................................. 67

5.2.4

Porous Asphalt and Interlocking Street ................................. 69

5.2.5

Water Bench ......................................................................... 71

5.2.6

Dry Flood-Proofing ................................................................ 73

5.3

Conclusion of Research Findings ................................................ 74

5.3.1 Objective 1: To examine the principles of urban design that are used to mitigate flash flood ................................................................ 74 5.3.2 Objective 2: To identify the elements of urban design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre that help in flash flood mitigation ........................ 75 5.3.3 Objective 3: To draw recommendation for urban design in mitigating flash flood in Kuala Lumpur City Centre............................. 75 5.4

Conclusion of Research .............................................................. 76

REFERENCES ............................................................................................ 77 APPENDICES .............................................................................................. 79

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LIST OF TABLE Table 1 History of Disaster in Malaysia ........................................................ 17 Table 2 Elements in Urban Design for Flood Risk ....................................... 23 Table 3 Research Design ............................................................................ 27 Table 4 Flood Prone Areas in Malaysia ....................................................... 40 Table 5 Exisitng Urban Design Elements within Study Area ........................ 42 Table 6 Approximate Values of Soil Porosity ............................................... 49 Table 7 Recommendations on Flash Flood Risk Mitigation through Urban Design .......................................................................................................... 64 Table 8 Research Gap ................................................................................. 79

LIST OF FIGURE Figure 1 Occurrence of Major Disasters from 1900-2003. Adapted from (Guha-Sapir et al., 2004) ............................................................................. 12 Figure 2 Mixed Methods Technique ............................................................. 26 Figure 3 Flood Prone Areas in Malaysia ...................................................... 30 Figure 4 Masjid Jamek LRT Station at Jalan Tun Perak .............................. 33 Figure 5 Jalan Masjid India is one of the Famous Shopping Spots.............. 34 Figure 6 KL SOGO Located at Jalan Dang Wangi ....................................... 35 Figure 7 KL SOGO Applies Elevated Ground Floor ..................................... 44 Figure 8 Non-elevated Ground Floor at Jalan Tun Perak and Jalan Masjid India ............................................................................................................. 45 Figure 9 Existing Basement Parking in Menara OCBC ................................ 46 Figure 10 Type of Enclosure Ratio............................................................... 47 Figure 11 Illustration of Water Level between Two Different Ratios............. 47 Figure 12 Enclosure Ratio at Jalan Dang Wangi ......................................... 48 Figure 13 Type of Soil in Jalan Dang Wangi ................................................ 51 Figure 14 Shrub Plant Species .................................................................... 52 Figure 15 Street Furnitures along Jalan Tun Perak ..................................... 54 Figure 16 Street Furniture along Jalan Dang Wangi .................................... 55 Figure 17 Paving Stone for Sidewalks along Jalan Tun Perak .................... 56 Figure 18 Sidewalk along Jalan Dang Wangi .............................................. 57 Figure 19 Type of Street in Jalan Dang Wangi and Jalan Tun Perak .......... 58 Figure 20 Public Realm Components .......................................................... 59 Figure 21 Historical Building along Jalan Tun Perak.................................... 61 Figure 22 Underground Water Tank ............................................................ 65 Figure 23 Urban Wetlands Cross-section .................................................... 66 Figure 24 Urban Wetland Park in Nugegoda, Sri Lanka .............................. 66 Figure 25 Pervious Concrete Layer ............................................................. 67 Figure 26 Pervious Concrete System .......................................................... 68 Figure 27 Pervious Concrete Sidewalk ........................................................ 68 Figure 28 Cross-section of Porous Asphalt .................................................. 69 xi

Figure 29 Application of Porous Asphalt at Burnsville, United States of America ........................................................................................................ 70 Figure 30 Interlocking Pavement at Road Junction ...................................... 71 Figure 31 Water Bench ................................................................................ 72 Figure 32 Water Bench Founded in Mumbai, India ...................................... 72 Figure 33 Dry Flood-proofing Measure ........................................................ 73 Figure 34 Movable Barrier Method in United States of America .................. 74

LIST OF PLAN Plan 1 Key Plan ........................................................................................... 31 Plan 2 Location Plan .................................................................................... 32 Plan 3 Site Plan ........................................................................................... 36 Plan 4 Flood Prone Area in Kuala Lumpur City Centre ................................ 41

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Introduction

Flooding is a natural phenomenon that used to be one of the most fatal disasters in any part of the world. Until now, it still occurs mainly in any city or region located near to the coastline area. Civilizations took place at valleys or river which tends to face flooding incidences that might cause death and property damage. Flood can be grouped into several types include flash flooding, urban drainage, riverine flooding, and coastal flooding. Surface runoff leads to any type of flooding incidences. But among the types of flood, flash flood is recorded to frequently happen in any country.

According to National Weather Service (2014), flash flood is a fast and extreme flow of high water into a normally dry area within six hours of the event. It is also characterized by a rapid rise in water with high velocity. According to (Knocke & Kolivras, 2007), these occasions grow under six hours after a precipitation occasion and make unsafe circumstances for individuals and property. In the past history, there is some memorable flash floods happened since 1972 at West Virginia dam caused one hundred twenty five people died.

In the past decades, Malaysia has been facing some sort of major disasters particularly in flash flood. In Kuala Lumpur City Centre, flash flood is synonymy known when history stated that this kind of floods started to happen on 1971 within Bangunan Sultan Abdul Samad and Dataran Merdeka area. It was estimated that 50% of Kuala Lumpur City Centre were facing flash flood disaster. The major disaster caused 57 people died and government had to face the loss up to RM87.4 million.

In the perspective of urban development, flash flood will be one of the most hazardous disaster if it happens in a dense urban area. According to (Wheater, 2006), urban

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advancement is known to make the probability of floods occurrence, consequently procedures are routinely executed to minimize the effect. By referring to the statement, a preliminary assumption can be made which is urban development within Kuala Lumpur also leads to a major flood disaster. This disaster will harm the urban areas if the area is not fully managed and utilized in a proper way. The probability of facing flash flood in urban areas is higher than in suburbs. Urban areas are mostly filled in with rapid development and buildings are built close to each other. This impact on the wideness of space between the buildings. In urban areas, it is quite hard to manage and build some sort of engineering mega structure as the buildings density is so high on the ground. Despite engineering basis which will always be used to mitigate major disasters, there is some other mitigations from other perspectives.

Urban design is another element that needs to be considered as flash flood is not only caused by the heavy rainfall, but how the structure of urban areas is developed and planned. Urban design is characterized as the multi-disciplinary movement of modelling and overseeing urban environments, intrigued by both the procedure of forming and the spaces it helps shape (Madanipour, 1997). It is hardly to say that flash flood can be warned of in a timely manner, so the way to mitigate it effectively might be through urban design itself. Urban design is functioned to provide urban form that facilitates a functional balance between human needs and environmental factors.

That is meant by the role of urban design which is to mitigate the negative impacts caused by urban development. Flood is considered as one of the negative impacts.

Throughout the history, urban design has never been used to defend any kind of negative impacts by natural disaster. Regarding the flash flood disaster, instead of focusing more on engineering fundamentals, urban design can to help mitigating flash flood in terms of space management. Flash flood usually happens due to the space management at certain urban areas.

In addition, space management in urban design will be explored on how it could mitigate the flash flood at certain time when it occurs. Urban design is seen as a key to in creating a sustainable environment. Meaning that, environment without any disaster occurs may lead to a sustainable city. People these days like exploring city centre which is Kuala Lumpur and it makes the area high dense. By having urban design approaches in mitigating flash flood, people will be more self-assuredly going to the city where they will not bother if heavy rainfall occurs because there is a way of mitigating flash flood at the place. Apart from that, Australia has been practicing Water

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Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)1 as an approach of mitigating flood in Urban Planning and Design perspective (Qin, Li, & Fu, 2013). This kind of approach can be referred in order to lessen the impacts of flash flood in Kuala Lumpur City Centre.

1.2

Research Background

The mitigation of flash flood in urban areas, in urban planning context, has a broad definition and throughout the studies that have been done. Before starting any studies, the awareness of flash flood disaster must be taken into account as it needs to be done at the first place. Community has always come into confusion of the concept of mitigating flash flood.

Flash flood mitigation, in urban area context, is technically defined as the doctrines of lessening the impacts of flash flood within urban area. Further concept is defined by (Woodward, Kapelan, & Gouldby, 2013), it is all around perceived that versatile and adaptable flood hazard procedures are obliged to record for future instabilities. The mitigation is a must in conjunction to face the future uncertainties impacted by flash flood.

The process of flash flood mitigation from urban design perspective has been researched. A research by (Chan, 1997) has stated that Malaysia have been used two different solutions in mitigating floods which area structural and non-structural method. Common solutions which has always been used are engineering based which involves a construction of mega structures; dams, tunnels, reservoirs, diversion channels. But from the perspective view of urban design, the solution that will be conducted or mitigation process is based on the non-structural method.

1.3

Problem Statement

Flash flood in Kuala Lumpur City Centre is no longer seasonal because it seems to be an annual-round phenomenon despite the fact that there is a mega structure in mitigating flash floods in KL which is Storm Water Management and Road Tunnel (SMART)2 Tunnel. Back in 2011, some parts of Kuala Lumpur was again hit by flash

1 2

It is about integrating water cycle management into urban planning and design.

A mega storm drainage and road structure which is undergrounded-built.

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flood where it was declared as the worst flood ever hit the city centre (The Star Online, 2011). A question raised, what happened to the SMART Tunnel?

According to (Billa, Mansor, & Mahmud, 2004), flooding disaster has alarmed most of the countries in this world as it would affect the population and economic growth. To the extent of that, no one yet established the implementation of urban design in flash flood mitigation. Urban design somehow could help in mitigating flash flood in many aspects and it is important for a case study to be conducted.

1.4

Research Questions

All through the study, the research questions that will be answered: i.

What are the principles of urban design involved in mitigating flash flood?

ii.

What are the existing elements of urban design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre that help in flash flood mitigation?

iii.

1.5

How would urban design correlate with existing flood risk mitigation?

Research Aim

The study aims to evaluate urban design elements in mitigating flash flood in Kuala Lumpur City Centre.

1.6

Research Objectives

The objectives that will be carried out throughout this research are: i.

To examine the principles of urban design that are used to mitigate flash flood.

ii.

To identify the elements of urban design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre that help in flash flood mitigation.

iii.

To draw the recommendations of urban design elements in mitigating flash flood in Kuala Lumpur City Centre.

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1.7

Scope of Study

In relation with the objectives to be carried out, the research will focus on the principles of urban design involved in mitigating flash flood. In order to carry out the process, the principles of urban design that might help to mitigate flash flood should be identified at the first place. The elements arise should be significant to what mitigation process needs. Additionally, the process of flash flood mitigation should be realistic and referred to the case studies that have been conducted in order to ensure the rational of choosing urban design as parts of flash flood mitigation.

Though in urban design context, is impossibly seemed to help in mitigating flash flood but the significance of urban design itself. Urban form and how the space is managed in an urban area should be looked into because it might be the reason of flash flood to happen. Besides, the efficiency level of urban design towards mitigating flash flood is the consequences from the process of mitigation for flash flood. It is to determine whether urban design elements are efficiently used to mitigate flash flood. Thus, the research shall be conducted in lined with aim and objectives stated.

1.8

Significance of Study

Flash flood disaster is the common annual subject that need to be concerned a lot as the impact of the disaster will give bad impression of Kuala Lumpur City Centre.

Generally, flash flood mitigation relates with engineering components and fundamentals that are used to minimize the flash flood impact. The new approach through urban design seems to be parts of the solution to this matter. The significances of taking urban design approach as the flash flood mitigation are: i.

Case study in Australia shown that there is a program called Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) run by Greater Sydney Local Land Services where it is about meeting expectations with groups to guarantee the planning, plan, development and retrofitting of urbanized scenes are more delicate to the natural water cycle. This program acts as a guideline and benchmark for the implementation of flash flood mitigation through urban design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre. Instead of taking engineering fundamentals or information technology system as the solution for the disaster, urban design can be a new approach to apply for this subject matter as flash flood still happened.

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ii.

Many mitigation measure have been taken place in lowering the flash flood frequency, yet it still happened due to the improper framework or plan conducted. This is the time for new approach from urban planning perspective takes place. The elements of urban design including space, street, drainage, buildings, and pedestrian are essential for mitigation measures. It is time to shift current approach to a new method of mitigating flood disaster in Kuala Lumpur.

1.9

Structure of the Study

This research is structured by the outline which will be separated into different chapter.

Chapter 1: This chapter focuses on introduction, research background, problem statement, research questions, aim and objectives, scope of study, and the significance of study.

Chapter 2: Second chapter will emphasize reviewing of related literature and study in which researcher have to study and refer to the past or recent studies in order to make the research proposal can be rationally accepted.

Chapter 3: In this chapter, a clear methodology used in this research will be further clarified and specified. The issues and problems related to the research topic will be stated and the solutions will start to be identified.

Chapter 4: Chapter four highlights the findings that have been collected and the analysing method for the findings. The way of interpreting data and linkage between present findings and previous literature will be shown.

Chapter 5: Final chapter will be a conclusion of overall study that has been conducted and recommendation and also specifically to answer research questions. A summing part should recap the important issues raised in this thesis.

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1.11

Summary

Generally, this chapter has explained on the background study of flash flood mitigation in urban design perspective. A clear problem statement has come up with vary questions and objectives that need to be solved. Urban design might play an important role to mitigate current disaster problem faced by Kuala Lumpur. Thus, it needs to be studied either it is compatible with current condition in Kuala Lumpur or not.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Introduction

This chapter will begin with a review of the literature which discusses on natural disaster phenomenon all over the world and some historical events related to major flood disaster. The part that will be highlighted is the flash flood risk mitigation through urban design perspective. The purpose of this review is to provide a better understanding on this research as well as providing a rationale for choosing this research topic.

2.2

Natural Disaster Phenomenon

Disaster is any negative event occurs on the earth which might give impact to environment and human being. The word “disaster” is now and then related with specific sorts of physical agents, for example, tremors, floods, fires, and blasts.

(Quarantelli, 1985). It is more likely to be physical agents which will lead to huge physical impacts on earth. Dynes (1976) stated that, disaster is “something” that can conceivably deliver an impact on nature. To the extent of it, disaster is profoundly defined as the cause that would lead to detrimental effects on environment in a period of time. Both definitions are solid enough to make a conscious statement that disaster is basically defined as physical agents which may affect environment and any mankind living on the earth.

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Natural disaster as individual definition might be an occurrence of any physical disaster which naturally initiated by the God’s creature3. Catastrophes happen when expansive numbers of individuals or financial resources are harmed or obliterated during the occurrence (Dilley, 2005). Natural hazards event include floods, drought, earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, and cyclones. These hazardous events are extremely terrifying and may cause a major loss of life. Further clarification by (Perry & Lindell, 1978), catastrophe recurrence gives off an impression of being expanding and it speaks to a noteworthy wellspring of danger for the poor and wipe out development up and amassed riches in developing nations. It is clearly stated that despite of affecting lives, natural disasters may occur to affect a country’s economic growth if the country face property damage and loss of assets.

According to Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), it has been recorded that natural disasters happened exceeded 9,000 since 1990, (Guha-Sapir, Hargitt, & Hoyois, 2004). Additionally, out of 9,000 reported natural disasters, 80% of them have occurred over the last 30 years. The superior number of natural disasters occurrence shows that the events could not be evaded and potentially to increase expeditiously in future. Moreover, impacts created by natural disaster is harmful, even the existing mega structural technologies has no guarantee to prevent from occurrence of natural disasters. According to (Guha-Sapir et al., 2004), there is polynomial patterns over the earlier century of the four primary sorts of catastrophe, which namely floods, droughts, windstorms, and geological disasters. Floods and related disasters include floods (84%), landslides and mudflows (13%) and avalanches4 (3%). Secondly, windstorms include storms (31%), typhoons (20%), cyclones (16%), hurricanes (13%), winter storms (9%), tornadoes (7%) and tropical storms (4%). Next disaster will be geological disasters include earthquakes (83%), volcanic eruptions (16%) and tidal waves (1%). Lastly is droughts and correlated disasters include droughts (58%), extreme temperatures (21%) and wildfires (21%).

3 4

Involve any of His creatures including human being and natural environment.

Landslides disaster.

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Figure 1 Occurrence of Major Disasters from 1900-2003. Adapted from (Guha-Sapir et al., 2004) Figure 1 displays the four major types of natural disasters since 1900 until 2003.

Among those natural disasters, the most hazardous natural disaster that might be confronted by countries around the world is flooding disaster. Earthquake is another catastrophe which ranks the most destructive natural disaster. To sum up, it shows that an increment in all four classifications of catastrophe give the worrisome to any human being.

2.2.1 Characteristics of Disasters in Africa Around 73% of the natural catastrophes5 that happened in Africa in 2007 comprised of epidemics, floods, droughts, and windstorms. Besides that, most of the human losses (80.8%) in Africa were because of floods, epidemics, droughts, and windstorms. Meanwhile, the dominant part of individuals affected by disasters in Africa were affected by drought, which represent almost 94.6% of the overall affected people in Africa on 2007. A slightly different trend were seen in earlier year 2006, when droughts accounted for around 81% of the individuals affected while floods accounted for 16% of the people affected. Additionally, windstorms and epidemics also added to the aggregate influenced population in Africa in 2007. Zambia, Sudan, Malawi, Tanzania, Togo and Mozambique were seriously hit by floods, drought and 5

Another term used for natural disasters.

12

epidemics. It is fascinating to note, then again, as per the accessible 2007 information, that the majority of the financial harm managed in Africa was affected by flooding and windstorms in 2007 practically like the earlier year 2006 (Natural Disaster Data Book 2007: An Analytical Overview 2008).

2.2.2 Characteristics of Disaster in Americas

In the Americas which incorporates the nations of North and South America, floods and windstorms accounted the dominant part (nearly 76%) of natural disasters that happened in 2007 as it was in the earlier year 2006, was an overwhelming year to this continent. Earthquakes, extreme temperatures, wildfire, drought, slides and volcano explosions also formed destruction in the Americas in 2007. Regarding human loss, around 94% of people were dead caused by windstorms, floods, and earthquakes. About 45% of people affected by floods alone and the rest is mostly from windstorms, extreme temperatures, wildfire, drought and earthquakes in 2007 (Natural Disaster Data Book 2007: An Analytical Overview 2008).

2.2.3 Characteristics of Disaster in Asia

In Asia region, around 75% of the disasters in Asia comprised of windstorms and floods, trailed by epidemic (6.7%), earthquake (6%) and slides (4.7%). It is significant that windstorms and floods in Bangladesh, India and China brought on impressive human losses (around 89%) in Asia, trailed by epidemics, extreme temperatures and slides. Floods alone brought about very nearly 87% of the human sufferings in Asia and took after by windstorms. Besides that, around 44% of the monetary damage in 2007 in Asia originated from the earthquake in Japan (Niigata) and rest of the harm is primarily from windstorms and floods (just about 56%). Basically, the Asian area is catastrophe prone and defenceless against both hydro-meteorological and geophysical catastrophes. Despite the fact that the amount of disasters diminished, human suffering and economic damage created by these Asian natural disasters fundamentally expanded in 2007 from year 2006 (Natural Disaster Data Book 2007: An Analytical Overview 2008).

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2.2.4 Characteristics of Disaster in Europe

Like the earlier year, in 2007, floods, windstorms, and extreme temperatures caused destruction in Europe. The larger part of catastrophes in 2007 were floods, windstorms and extreme temperatures, signifying 83% of all disasters. The main cause of human losses is extreme temperatures (58%). Moreover, 70% of the affected people were affected by wildfire in Europe (primarily from Macedonia), as opposed to 2006 which saw floods and extreme temperatures influencing dominant part of the people in the area. Floods and windstorms in UK, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and Austria contributed essentially to the human losses and monetary damage in 2007. In 2004, droughts made substantial financial losses, yet in 2005 and 2006 floods brought on extreme monetary harm in the region. The year 2007 was a fairly unrestrained one for Europe (Natural Disaster Data Book 2007: An Analytical Overview 2008).

2.2.5 Characteristics of Disaster in Oceania

The patterns of disasters in Oceania may be a slightly different from other regions, as the natural catastrophes strayed from the normal typical trends. Not a wide range of natural disasters happened here, but majorly did happen was windstorms and floods representing 82% of the overall. The rest comprised of floods and earthquake. The dominant part of human losses were because of windstorms (71%), trailed by floods.

It was due to the windstorms that hit Fiji and Papua New Guinea, the tsunami that hit Solomon Islands, and floods in Australia, Fiji and Papua New Guinea. The overall affected people in Oceania in 2007 were affected by floods and windstorms in Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Australia (98%), and wave/flood (tsunami) in Solomon Islands.

This strange picture is because of extreme windstorms that hit Australia and the adjacent little pacific island nations in Oceania, and tsunami in Solomon Islands. Most of the monetary harm was created by floods in Australia (85%) and windstorms (15%) fundamentally from Australia, and pacific island nations (Natural Disaster Data Book 2007: An Analytical Overview 2008).

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2.3

Malaysian Natural Disasters

2.3.1 Overview of Disasters in Malaysia

Generally, location of Malaysia is in a geographically stable zone free from seismic tremors6, volcanic disasters, as well as windstorms, for example, typhoons which occasionally happened to neighbourhood countries. It situated geologically simply out from the "Pacific Ring of Fire" (Chan, 2012). Thus, it makes Malaysia volcano-free as well as earthquakes. Furthermore, it likewise lies far away south of the real hurricane ways, in spite of the fact that last parts of typhoons have periodically hit it.

Nevertheless, Malaysia is not entirely "free" from catastrophes because floods, droughts, landslides, tsunami, haze, and human-made catastrophes frequently hit Malaysia (Parker, 1997). Every year, catastrophes for example, floods account a huge number of destruction, illness plagues, property and harvest harm and other vague losses (Chan, 2002).

In the previous couple of decades, the nation has encountered different risky climatic occasions, such as El Nino in 1997 has incited serious droughts. Floods and thunderstorms nearly occurred annually due to La Nina in 2011 and 2012 which caused flash floods and avalanches, death and damage of properties by monsoonal floods in some parts of the country. Monsoonal floods are a yearly event fluctuates as far as seriousness, place and time of events with a recent 2015 flood in Kelantan, Terengganu, Kedah, Pahang, Johor, and Sarawak was the worst flood ever happened in Malaysia. Government faced major loss in economic and financial.

At the point when two or a greater amount of these occasions correspond, for example, the "Awful twins" which are La Nina and also storm season hit the Kuala Lumpur and Selangor in 2011, the fatality is worsened (The Star, 2011). In 1997, Massive haze brought on noteworthy issues because of losses in tourism sector, wellbeing impacts and hospitalization expenses, and alleviation losses (Kunii, 2002).

In June 2013, the most hazardous haze scene in Malaysia was a week-long haze that affected basically the central and south region of Peninsular Malaysia. Terrible quality of air especially in Kuala Lumpur made the authorities encouraged residents to stay at home (Ahmad and Hashim, 2014). A highly sensitive situation was proclaimed in Selangor.

6

Defined as earthquakes.

15

In December 2004, Tsunami disaster hit Peninsular Malaysia, mainly in Perlis, Penang, and Kedah (Chan, 2009). Because of Malaysia atmosphere management which is continuous substantial downpour, avalanche disaster are normal. In earlier decades, landslides tragedies in the Klang Valley Region and somewhere else have created massive death, infrastructure destruction, and ecological obliteration (Chan, 1998; Periasamy, 2011). Furthermore, Malaysia is likewise frequently hit by fires, the breakdown of structures, and accidents caused impressive harm to infrastructure and death (Hussin, 2005).

As far for man-made, Abdul Malek (2005) recorded the major significant tragedies: Bright Sparklers manufacturing plant fire in Sungai Buloh in 1991 which killed 22 people; tragedy of fire at South Port Klang in 1992 killed 10 people; Highland Towers 1993 tragedy in Hulu Kelang killed 48 people; enormous Genting Highlands 1995 tragedy which cause landslide killed 20 people; Pos Dipang mudslides tragedy in Perak on 1996 killed 44 people; worst haze in 1997 and 1998 created decrease of tourism income and hospitalized a huge number of individuals; landslides at Sandakan, Sabah in 1999 because of substantial storm which killed 17 lives; collapse extravagance home on November 2002 in the Ulu Kelang killed 8 people.

Apparently, in Malaysia, floods are the most recurrent and lead to a major loss yearly.

They can be considered as one of the most serious calamity happened in Malaysia.

Generally, there have been enormous flood occasions (Chan, 2012). The 1926 flood was recorded to be "The tempest forest flood" because of the fact that it obliterated numerous square kilometres of Besut and Kelantan streams specifically lowland forest located on floodlains. The flood was actually joined by powerful winds. This surge was viewed as "the greatest flood in living memory" in the country because it impacted practically the whole Peninsula Malaysia, bringing on expansive harm.

Table 1 shows the history of disasters in Malaysia.

16

Table 1 History of Disaster in Malaysia

2.3.2 Floods Definitions

A flood is defined as "a makeshift state of surface water (waterway, lake, ocean), in which the water level and/or release surpasses a certain worth, in this manner getting away from its typical limits" (Douben, 2006, Schultz, 2006).

The overflowing or failing of as far as possible for instance steam, lake, ocean or accretion of water as a result of heavy precipitation through lack or beyond of the release limit of channels, or snow melts, dams or embankments break affecting regions" (Douben and Ratnayake, 2005).

17

2.3.3 Characteristics and Types of Floods

Generally, there are four main types of floods: coastal floods, flash floods, river floods, and urban floods (MunichRe, 2007).

Coastal Floods This flood could occur up and down the coast furthermore nearby tiers of vast lakes (MunichRe, 2007). Additionally, floods for the most part when storms happen together with high tides can cause breaching of shorelines. It may likewise occur via ocean waves such as tsunamis, surprisingly colossal tsunamis because of lava explosion or seismic tremor movement in the sea. Typhoons and storms can create heavy downpour, or direct sea water into inland. This kind of floods can produce massive loss and bring about an expansive number of fatalities.

The speeding ascent in ocean levels without a doubt is foreseen as an impact on environmental which will strengthen the threat of coastal erosion. Coastal flooding level is categorized as minor, direct or major, taking into account the amount of water that surpasses the normal tide in a specific region. Coastal flooding might be extremely damaging (Natural Environment, 2007).

This flooding happens when ocean (sea) level exceeds more distant from its ordinary fluctuations; land subsidence and dynamic sea level rise are likewise viewpoints that cause the sea level to increase. Coastal region and low land states are defenceless against coastal flooding.

Flash Floods Flash floods are provisional inundations of distinctive regions, for example, subcatchments, and waterway bowls (river basin). Short times of extreme downpour can bring about flash floods, they typically happen in mix with thunderstorms and a small region. The ground is normally not soaked but the rainfall intensity surpasses the permeation rate, the water keeps running off the surface and soon accumulates in the delivering waters.

Flash floods can occur at any place, so that mostly everyone is vulnerable. Once in a while, flash floods, foresee the start of a major river flood, however typically they are split, singular occasions of local significance, scattered freely in space and time.

Engineered works, for example, dams, barriers and levees, are put set up for flood prevention. They generally are developed to bear an inundation with a figured threat of event. A dam, embankment or levee may be constructed to hold a flood at a

18

particular area on a stream that has a certain possibility of happening. If a greater flood happens, then that structures will hypothetically be overtopped. While overtopping the structure will face a failure, this water will turn into a flash flood (Perry, 2000, Kron, 2005).

Flash floods kill and harm the most. These sorts of floods happen without noticing and transport tremendous amount of quick moving water. Sadly, they are additionally the most widespread kind of flood. With respect to time, flash floods, happen in shorter time than stream surges (river floods). The principle water capacity will pursue off again a couple of hour.

River floods Floods along streams are a characteristic event. River floods happen when the spring downpours and winter snows melt merge. The stream bowls (river basins) are filled too quickly and afterward the stream will overflow its banks. River floods can likewise happen because of heavy rainfall for a time of days over an expansive region. The soil gets to be soaked and could not adapt to any more water so that the rain runs straightforwardly into the rivers (Hoyt, 1955).

River floods do not happen rapidly yet develop continuously regardless of a short time. River floods can last from a couple of days to a couple of weeks. The overflowed area could be extensive if the river valley is uncovered and vast and the river conveys an immense volume of water. River flooding likewise brings indirect dangers to food and drinking water deficiency and the spreading of illness (Douben, 2006b).

Urban floods Urban floods range generally brought by extreme rainfall, merged with blocked drainage systems. This kind of flooding relies on upon soil and geological conditions and the quality of the drainage system (Douben, 2006b).

These urban floods are expanding on the grounds that they are the impact of urban and rural sprawl, where urbanized area is not proficient or rainfall retention. Urban floods happen generally as an aftereffect of the permeability of structures and streets.

In time of immense precipitation, the substantial amount of rainfall cannot be absorbed into the ground and leads to urban spill over. The urban floods rely on upon the geography and soil conditions (Douben, 2006). These sorts of flood with diverse flow regimes

and

intercessions

methodologies

can

make

various

types

of

defencelessness in waterway bowls, sub-catchments and urban areas, contingent upon the neighbourhood circumstance.

19

2.4

Flood Mitigation in General Context

Numerous studies describe the conceivable causes and effects of floods regarding death and property damage and conceivable counter measures that can be encompassed to minimize their outcomes. In general, flood risk mitigation has different ways to deal with in order to decrease floods occurrence and for mitigating their consequences. Flood mitigation is a broad scope of water resources activities aimed for lessening possible harmful effects of floods on people, environment and economy of a territory.

It is further defined as all exercises that go for supporting or enhancing the capacity of a region to adapt to floods. Risk is characterized as an element of flood probabilities and flood impacts. Generally, the methodologies for flood mitigation and resistance can be partitioned into two: structural and non-structural measures. The point of structural is to alter the flood pattern, while non-structural measures go for lessening of the flood impacts (Parker, 2000).

2.4.1 Structural Measures

The structural measures comprise of infrastructure development that alters the stream, like dams, barrage, channels, levees, channelling, etc. that reduce floods from causing damages to the population or infrastructure in the flood prone area (Douben, 2006b). The basic principles consist of storing, diverting and/or confinement of floods. They usually consist of large investment for large engineering structures, which sometimes are inevitable to preserve the safety and development of a region.

2.4.2 Non-structural Measures

Mitigation measures depend on the flood perception and capacity of individuals to get ready where catastrophe happens. Non-structural measures comprise of a few relief measures not changing the river flow, for example, planning, programming, setting guidelines, co-facilitating, encouraging, bringing issues to light, helping, readiness, reaction, enactment, flood determining and cautioning frameworks, post-flood restoration financing, instructing, preparing, managing, reporting, advising and evaluating. "In the event that basic measures are the metallic casings of a surge

20

moderation program, the alleviation is its shroud" (Andjelkovic, 2001). Mitigation measures are customarily introduced to as non-structural measures.

2.4.3 Technologies and Engineering Approach Vulnerability

Regarding flooding occurence, the significant sort of disaster in Malaysia, a great part for applicable related research highlights this techno centric approach firmly emphasizes on utilization of structural methods for mitigating floods (Chan, 1995).

Hence, it may not be shocking to discover that majority literatures on flooding occurrence in Malaysia concentrated only in the perspective of engineering. Actually, Jones (1991) has examined that invention of technologies can expand ineffectiveness to floods.

Due to its accentuation on innovation as a method for lessening hazards, it has frequently been scrutinized as being excessively limited a methodology. No field of science can foresee the event of disaster risks with any level of assurance. Studies by others have additionally demonstrated that catastrophes happen due to the misapplication of innovation, institutional ineffectualness, cautioning inadequacy, and risk producing socio-political frameworks (Winchester, 1992). Thus, keeping eyes on these kind of approaches will narrow anyone’s mind to think outside and seek for effective mitigation measures.

2.5

Mitigation Measures: Urban Design Context

2.5.1 Urban Design

Urban areas and cities are the aftereffects of the procedure of civilization. Urban areas can be defined as physical signs of human ecologies (Waldheim, 2006). The strategy for making these "physical appearances" of civilization is referred to today as "Urban Design". Urban design can be outlined as the art of place making in urban areas and towns (Walton, 2000). Today, the use of Urban Design is to enhance the social communications inside urbanized spaces, while fulfilling ecological and monetary needs. Though, the reason for urban configuration was not generally so. Through history, urban design has been utilized to/for: •

Demonstrate labour over fellow man and nature

21

•

Economic development

•

Defence from aggressive assault and:

•

To make up for loss of nature

These purposes of urban design emerged from social, economic, cultural, political and natural changes and occasions in the society (Wall & Waterman, 2010). Thus, urban design produces a combination of elements cities need to have.

2.5.2 Contemporary Urban Design Theory on Disaster Mitigation

Contemporary urban design at an intersection of building design, landscape modelling and city planning. It works as a collective, inventive process between a few orders and results in three dimensional urban structures and space, upgrading the life of the city and its tenants (Wall & Waterman, 2010). Urban design is concerned with how places capacity, not exactly what they look like. Until recently, urban design did not address environmental needs or concerns. This was obvious in the flooding disaster of the Jersey Shore in the mid 60's (McHarg, 1992). Contemporary urban design principle is concerned with forming city and urban spaces to: •

Encourage social exercises inside of the urban fabric

•

Create positive social connections

•

Satisfy natural needs

•

Mitigate negative impacts of urbanization

•

Promote financial development (Wall & Waterman, 2010)

2.5.3 The Elements of Urban Design in Flood Mitigation

Neighbourhoods and buildings structure must be planned to survive a flood occasion, additionally be useful during non-flood conditions which will conquer the dominant part of the time. Streets and walkways should give continuous and diverse pedestrian understandings on maintaining an extensive variety of walkable and vibrant neighbourhoods.

22

Table 2 Elements in Urban Design for Flood Risk Elements

Physical Parameters

Urban Form

Building height Enclosure ratio

Landscape Characteristics

Quality of soil Plant characteristics

Streetscapes

Street furniture Sidewalks Street

Open Space

Public Realm

Building Design

Architectural features

2.6

Summary

This chapter basically has reviewed the literatures which discusses on natural disaster phenomenon all over the world and some historical events related to major flood disaster. Flash flood risk mitigation through urban design perspective has been emphasized in details. The purpose of reviewing the literatures has been achieved in order to get better understanding on how urban design principles related with flood mitigation.

23

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

24

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1

Introduction

This chapter highlights the research methods to be applied to conduct study involving the flash flood risk mitigation through urban design. Research methodology is perceived as means to answer the research question systematically. It is perceived as a science of studying how research is implemented, in which aims to provide a work plan for the research.

Research methodology is also crucial as an aiding subject in extensive range of academic disciplines. Frequently, research methodology can be classified into two (2), which are qualitative and quantitative methodologies. According to Park (2008), he stated that both methods; qualitative and quantitative have been applied to give permits to the researcher to study selected issues as well as increases the understanding of the cases and situations studied as whole. Both are distinguished in terms of the methods for data collection, approach adopted in processing and analysing the gathered data as well as means of presenting the outcomes of the study.

This chapter explains about the techniques applied in completing this research study which is done through mixed methods research which involve both quantitative and qualitative. Mixed methods research are purposely done to provide a better understanding of a research problem or issue than either research approach alone.

Quantitative methods are commonly associated with the collection of numerical data.

For this research, the data will be quantitatively collected through audit checklist. This method will be done to identify the existing elements of urban design in selected areas which help in mitigating flash flood. Qualitative methods are the data that will be

25

collected by visual survey, reviewing of governmental documents, guidelines and policies, and audio-visual materials. Qualitative method is used to identify the issues of urban design pertaining in mitigating flash flood. All methods used will then be mixed up to produce a better output.

3.2

Research Design

Research methods can only be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods which is a combination of both quantitative and qualitative techniques. This research, as have been mentioned, used mixed methods. Essentially, combination of different methods adopted for the research is illustrated in figure below.

Quantitative Methods: Audit checklist

Mixed Methods Qualitative Methods: Literature review Visual survey Review of governmental documents, guideliens and policies Audio-visual materials

Figure 2 Mixed Methods Technique

Basically, every method is assigned for specific research question and research objective. For instance, literature review is specifically done to examine the principles of urban design that are used to mitigate flash flood. Table below has summed up the research methodology used in conducting the study.

26

Table 3 Research Design Research

Research

Question

Objectives

Methodology Methods

Analysis Technique

RQ1 What are

To examine the

Qualitative:

Descriptive

the principles of

principles of urban

Literature review

analysis.

urban design

design that are

on documents,

involved in

used to mitigate

printed materials.

mitigating flash

flash flood.

flood?

RQ2 What are

To identify the

Quantitative: Audit checklist and visual survey.

Evaluation and

the existing

existing elements

elements of

of urban design in

urban design in

Kuala Lumpur City

Kuala Lumpur

Centre that help in

that help in flash

flash flood

flood mitigation?

mitigation.

RQ3 How would

To draw the

Qualitative:

Analyse the

urban design

recommendation of

Review of

findings and draw

correlate with

urban design

documents and

recommendation.

existing flood risk

elements in

audio-visual

mitigation?

mitigating flash

materials.

assessment.

flood in Kuala Lumpur.

3.2.1 Literature Review

Literature review is basically employed to evaluate the discipline of the research, in which has been rectified in the study. It also serves as the outline of the research itself, in which describes the gulf between the researcher’s interest and understanding pertaining to the subject area. Moreover, it is also most significant in identifying the problem throughout the study that can be resolved through data collection.

Furthermore, literature review might also be significant in knowing the work that has been done by previous researchers is not repeated again. Thus, researchers can

27

improve in terms of the research design and instrumentation, which was not successful previously (Cottrell and Mackenzie, 2011).

A proper organized literature review also exhibits credibility of researcher to gain the complete assistance of the work (Leary, 2004). It also clarifies suitable hypothetical arrangement for the study, which aids in comprehending the work easily. The best way to establish the significance of the study is through literature review (Houser, 2007).

3.2.2 Visual Survey

The main feature of this approach as a research method is that it allows the investigator an opportunity to capture ‘live’ data from naturally occurring social situations. This provide a direct look at what is actually taking place rather than relying on second hand accounts. Although it is a qualitative method, but it is rather systematic way in the assessment of few aspects throughout the study. For this particular research, the visual survey is to gain a fast input effectively through observations in order to get an overview or glance of the subject matter (Longnecker & Ott, 2011).

3.2.3 Review of Governmental Documents, Guidelines and Policies.

Review of governmental documents provide a basis for understanding and provide information in the context within the research participant operate. As a method for research, document review is mainly applicable to qualitative case studies, intensive studies producing rich descriptions of a single phenomenon, event, organisation, or program (Bowen, 2009). Furthermore, (Labuschagne, 2003) claimed that ‘Documents of all types can help the researcher uncover meaning, develop understanding, and discover insights relevant to the research problem (Labuschagne, 2003). To relate with this study, acquiring information through reviewing governmental documents, guidelines and policies to gain information on the context and the vary nature of the urban design’s existing condition and how it could help mitigating flash flood.

28

3.3

Selection of the Study Area

Kuala Lumpur is the federal capital of Malaysia and most crowded city in the country.

The city covers a range up to 243 km² (94 sq.mi) and the approximated population is 1.6 million starting 2010. Kuala Lumpur or known as Greater Kuala Lumpur, a compact urban area covering comparative region because the Klang Valley is actually an urban area comprises 7.5 million individuals starting 2012. Kuala Lumpur among the quickest developing metropolitan areas in South-East Asia, as far as population and economy. In relation with the research study, some parts in this metropolitan areas have been identified as major flood prone areas particularly along Jalan Tun Perak, Jalan Masjid India, and Jalan Dang Wangi. These areas will be covered for this research study.

All the selected areas are considered to be study areas due to the some justifications.

Firstly, all the chosen locations are located near to Sungai Klang and Sungai Gombak.

As have been mentioned in Chapter 2: Literature Review, flash flood occurs when non-stop raining happens in a shorter time and cause the overflow of river. The nearer the location to the river, the higher the possibility of getting affected by flash flood.

Secondly, Kuala Lumpur City Centre was found at where the meeting point of Sungai Klang and Sungai Gombak. According to Drainage and Irrigation Department Malaysia (2013), Kuala Lumpur City Centre has been identified as one of the major flood prone areas in Malaysia. All selected areas of this study are located within Kuala Lumpur City Centre. Figure 3 illustrates the major flood prone areas in Malaysia.

29

Figure 3 Flood Prone Areas in Malaysia Source: Retrieved from http://www.water.gov.my/our-services-mainmenu-252/floodmitigation-mainmenu-323/programme-aamp-activities-mainmenu-199?lang=en

Jalan Tun Perak, Jalan Masjid India, and Jalan Dang Wangi is respectively located within Kuala Lumpur City Centre. And the locations are well-known and frequently visited by local as well as foreigners. Plan 1 displays the location of study areas in Kuala Lumpur.

30

Title: Key Plan Legend:

No. Plan: 1

Drawn by: Mohd Zamir b. Mohd Zamri

Study Area

Road

Highway

River

Railway

Landmark

Date: 02/11/2015

N Scale: Not to scale

31

Title: Location Plan Legend:

No. Plan: 2

Study Area Road Railway

Drawn by: Mohd Zamir b. Mohd Zamri River

Date: 02/11/2015

N Scale: Not to scale

32

3.3.1 Jalan Tun Perak

Jalan Tun Perak was formerly named as Jalan Mountbatten (1961-1981) is situated at Kuala Lumpur City Centre. Jalan Tun Perak was built up across Sungai Gombak and Sungai Klang. The estimated length of Jalan Tun Perak is 736 m equals to 2414.7 ft. The famous historical landmark situated at Jalan Tun Perak is Masjid Jamek Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur. Other surrounding developments of Jalan Tun Perak including Menara Maybank, Menara OCBC, and Panggung Bandaraya DBKL. Jalan Tun Perak is a well-known road in Kuala Lumpur due to the surrounding activities. It is also highly accessible by any sort of transportation comprises private and public.

Masjid Jamek LRT Station is situated on Jalan Tun Perak precisely above Sungai Klang. The LRT station makes the place prominent as Masjid Jamek is one of the shopping spots in Kuala Lumpur.

Figure 4 Masjid Jamek LRT Station at Jalan Tun Perak Source: Fieldwork, 2015

33

3.3.2 Jalan Masjid India

Jalan Masjid India or Little India is one of the well-known roads in Kuala Lumpur City Centre which was built up nearby Sungai Klang. It was formerly named as Dickson Street and currently named after a local mosque, Masjid India. The length of Jalan Masjid India is approximately to 360 m (1181.1 ft.). Jalan Masjid India is among the famous spots particularly when it comes to fashion and shopping. People frequently visit Jalan Masjid India right before festive seasons. The southern part of the road was converted into a pedestrian street due to the demand of shop workers. The landmark of Jalan Masjid India is Semua House, which is located at the northern part of the street. Other surrounding activity is Bazaar Jalan Tunku Abdul Rahman.

Figure 5 Jalan Masjid India is one of the Famous Shopping Spots Source: Fieldwork, 2015

34

3.3.3 Jalan Dang Wangi

Jalan Dang Wangi is another prominent road in Kuala Lumpur City Centre formerly named after Douglas Campbell (1867-1981) who was Johor’s first British advisor. The length of Jalan Dang Wangi is about to 820m which equivalents to 2690.29 ft. The landmark of Jalan Dang Wangi is SOGO shopping complex. It is located at the intersection of Jalan Tunku Abdul Rahman and Jalan Dang Wangi. Other surrounding developments include Pertama Complex, Campbell Shopping Complex, and Maju Junction. Jalan Dang Wangi is one of the busiest road in Kuala Lumpur City Centre.

Figure 6 KL SOGO Located at Jalan Dang Wangi Source: Fieldwork, 2015

35

3

2

1

Title: Site Plan Legend:

No. Plan: 3

Drawn by: Mohd Zamir b. Mohd Zamri

Study Area

River

Road

1

Jalan Tun Perak

Railway

2

Jalan Masjid India

3

Date: 02/11/2015

Jalan Dang Wangi

N Scale: Not to scale

36

3.4

Summary

In summary, employing the right method is vital towards obtaining data and information pertaining to the study. For this particular study, it has been decided that mixed methods is deemed to be the most suitable approach to produce wider result on the study. The use of mixed methods by some means will help to merge the output from both quantitative and qualitative method. Overall, the main purpose of applying suitable research methods is to be able to obtain convincing research outcomes.

Among the array of methods available to assist this research include the selection of using a combination qualitative and quantitative methods, which allows flexibility towards the study.

37

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

38

CHAPTER 4

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1

Introduction

This chapter shall discuss the results and findings of this study which has been conducted in accordance to the methods as mentioned in Chapter 3. The findings shall also be discussed according to the objectives and its relation to answering the research questions. The data collection through mixed methods will then be further assessed and discussed. By employing mixed methods, the data will be merged and presented in some numerical form and text or illustrations form. At the end, the combination of mixed methods research will provide more evidence regarding the study on flash flood mitigation through urban design in Kuala Lumpur.

4.2

Overview of Flood Prone Areas in Kuala Lumpur

In general context, all states in Malaysia have been hit by major flood occurrence as well as Kuala Lumpur. For the past 5 years, several major flash flood hit Kuala Lumpur and caused economic loss to Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL). Table 4 displays the data on flood prone areas in Malaysia according to National Register of River Basins (2013).

39

Table 4 Flood Prone Areas in Malaysia State

Affected Area (km²)

Total Affected People

Perlis

26.74

12,736

Kedah

209.44

117,368

Pulau Pinang

206.83

342,524

Perak

662.84

275,374

1,788.70

669,217

13.18

157,302

129.48

40,887

80.85

27,811

Johor

2,366.71

290,571

Pahang

6,271.62

615,127

Terengganu

2,222.87

425,395

Kelantan

1,640.38

714,287

Sabah

3,284.04

652,174

Sarawak

10,895.50

478,492

Total

29,799.18

4,819,265

Selangor W.P. Kuala Lumpur Negeri Sembilan Melaka

Source: National Register of River Basins, 2013

The affected area of Kuala Lumpur is about 13.18 km² which equivalents to 5.42% from the total area of whole Kuala Lumpur (243 km²). It is quite a large percentage where 5.42% of the total area of Kuala Lumpur is actually considered as flood prone area. The number of affected people is 157,302 out of 1.6 million population in Kuala Lumpur. It is about 9.83% of population in Kuala Lumpur is affected by flash flood occurrence. Major activities held in Kuala Lumpur will be affected and cause that particular percentage of population to be affected. Despite of having that percentage of affected area and population, it is not the whole part Kuala Lumpur are affected.

There are only some parts of Kuala Lumpur are affected especially in the city centre where the meeting point of Sungai Gombak and Sungai Klang is found. There are 5 zones have been identified as flood prone areas in Kuala Lumpur. The selected study areas are located within Zone 1. In order to have clearer picture on flood prone areas in Kuala Lumpur, Plan 4 illustrates the major flood prone areas in Kuala Lumpur.

40

2

1

3

4 5

Title: Flood Prone Area in KL Legend:

No. Plan: 4

Drawn by: Mohd Zamir b. Mohd Zamri

Flood Prone Area

River

Road

Railway

X

Date: 02/11/2015 Flood Prone Area

by Zone

N Scale: Not to scale

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4.3

Overview of Urban Design Elements in Study Area

In order to attain the research objectives and questions, audit checklist is done to check the existence of urban design elements that would help mitigating flash flood in specific flood prone areas which are Jalan Tun Perak, Jalan Masjid India, and Jalan Dang Wangi. The audit checklist is done based on 5 elements of urban design that have been recognised which are urban form, landscape characteristics, streetscapes, open space, and building design. Generally, the existing urban design elements that would help in mitigating flash flood in chosen study are likely to be deficiency. Table 5 displays the existing condition of urban design elements in Jalan Tun Perak, Jalan Masjid India, and Jalan Dang Wangi.

Table 5 Exisitng Urban Design Elements within Study Area

Elements

Jalan Tun Perak Yes

No

Jalan Masjid India Yes

No

Jalan Dang Wangi Yes

No

1. Urban Form A. Building structure i.

Elevated ground floor

ii.

Basement parking









 

B. Enclosure i.

Wide size of street

ii.

Building located close to each other

 









2. Landscape Characteristics A. Quality of soil i.

High porosity of soil







B. Plant characteristics i.

Large in size and shape







ii.

High permeability species













3. Streetscape A. Street furniture i.

Material used is high permeability

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ii.

Linkage to underground water tank







B. Sidewalk i.

High permeability pavement







ii.

High elevated













C. Street i.

High permeability surface

4. Open space A. Public realm i.

Lots of greenery space







ii.

Park







iii.

Ponds or wetlands nearby

5. Building Design A. Building material i.

Use flood proofing materials







ii.

Green rooftop







Source: Fieldwork, 2015 Basically, the table outlooks the overall picture of the study on urban design elements that would help in mitigating flash flood risk in Kuala Lumpur. Detailed aspects for every urban design elements have been specified regarding the study. Further explanation and remarks on the findings will be more elaborated in the next section.

4.4

Urban Form

Urban form element comprises two aspects which embrace building structure and sense of enclosure. Building structure is seen to be a factor that will affect water runoff and flash flood risk mitigation. The mitigation measures are by elevating ground floor and making basement parking as water bank. Sense of enclosure also might affect the time taken for water runoff which determines the occurrence of flash flood. More explanation and evaluation will be elaborated regarding the urban form element in the selected study area.

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4.4.1 Building Structure

Generally, most of the buildings in Jalan Tun Perak and Jalan Masjid India do not apply elevated ground floor. There is only one building in Jalan Dang Wangi applies elevated ground floor which is the largest single departmental store, KL SOGO (Figure 7). Practically many designs can be applied to elevate ground floor roughly up to 4 ft. and above. It can be elevated by using staircase. Most of the ground floor is 90° correspondingly to sidewalk (Figure 8). It shows that no preparedness of facing flash flood risk on the ground floor.

Figure 7 KL SOGO Applies Elevated Ground Floor Source: Fieldwork, 2015

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Figure 8 Non-elevated Ground Floor at Jalan Tun Perak and Jalan Masjid India Source: Fieldwork, 2015

The illustration of ground floor level in Jalan Tun Perak and Jalan Masjid India evidently shows that the existing design of the building is not elevated and nonresilient to face major flash flood. The non-elevated ground floor will not be able to resist the flood from inflowing to the building. Thus, one of the best ways to mitigate flash flood risk by elevating ground floor so that it can prevent water runoff from flowing into the building.

Moving on to the next factor that could help mitigating flash flood which is basement parking. Basement parking could be multifunctional which is operated as parking lot and at the same time could possibly as a water bank which could store water from flash flood events. The fundamental used in SMART tunnel can practically be applied into basement parking system in Kuala Lumpur. Most of the buildings along Jalan Tun Perak and Jalan Masjid India provide parking lots outside the buildings but some of the buildings have their own basement parking. For instance, parking basement for Menara OCBC located at Jalan Tun Perak with the height is roughly around 5m-6m (Figure 9).

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Figure 9 Existing Basement Parking in Menara OCBC Source: Fieldwork, 2015

Several buildings along Jalan Dang Wangi (e.g. Wisma Dang Wangi) also provide their basement parking. With the provision of basement parking in the building, it is possible to mitigate flash flood by making the basement parking as a water bank which could accumulate water runoff and channel it to proper water storage.

4.4.2 Enclosure

Enclosure is widely defined as the space between buildings. Enclosure ratio is principally the ratio between building height to street width. Rationally, the ratio of building height to street width might determine how high the water level is if flash flood happens. It might affect water runoff as well. Ideally, the minimum ratio of a place could attain is 1:1. Meaning that the height of buildings should averagely identical to the street width. Typical streets usually attain 1:1.5 for the ratio height-to-width. Figure 10 illustrates the typical ratio for enclosure in a public space.

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Figure 10 Type of Enclosure Ratio Source: A Myth of Urban Design: The ‘Sense of Enclosure’ Theory, 2012

It can be said that if flash flood occurs, the enclosure ratio will determine the water level height. Let us say that two places with 1:1 and 1:2 ratio respectively, if flash flood occurs in both places with same volume of water runoff the water level for the place with 1:1 ratio is higher than the other one (Figure 11).

Figure 11 Illustration of Water Level between Two Different Ratios Source: Fieldwork, 2015

For Jalan Tun Perak and Jalan Masjid India, the enclosure ratio is 1:1. Differently from Jalan Dang Wangi, the enclosure ratio is 1:2 (Figure 12).

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Figure 12 Enclosure Ratio at Jalan Dang Wangi Source: Fieldwork, 2015

The enclosure ratio plays an important role in determining water level when flash flood occurs. The greater the ratio, the lower the water level when flood occurs.

4.5

Landscape Characteristics

Landscape characteristics need to be considered as well in mitigating flash flood. It is one of the urban design elements which might best serve flash flood in Jalan Tun Perak. The components which are assessed and evaluated along Jalan Tun Perak are quality of soil and plant characteristics.

4.5.1 Quality of Soil

Before planting any trees or shrub, there must be soil investigation phase where the soil is experimented for infiltration. Soil investigation will determine the type of soil and its porosity level. Generally, quality of soil usually relates to its porosity level. Porosity level is fundamentally a scale or percentage of soil capacity to absorb or filter the

48

water. The higher the percentage of effective porosity of soil, the higher the quantity of water that can be absorbed. It also relates to the relative soil particle sizes. The higher the particles size of particular soil, the higher its porosity level. Table 6 shows the approximate values of soil porosity.

Table 6 Approximate Values of Soil Porosity Type of Soil

Percentage of Effective Porosity (%)

Macadam

40

Crushed rock

30

Gravel (2 to 20mm)

30

49

Sand

25

Pit run natural gravel

15-25

Till (boulder clay)

5-10

Dry crust clay

2-5

50

Clay and silt (composition)

0

Source: Department of Irrigation and Drainage, 2015 By referring to the table, the highest soil porosity is macadam whereby the lowest goes to clay and silt. Commonly, this kind of soil is suitable for most of the plants. The sample of soil at Jalan Dang Wangi has been taken in order to identify the type of soil.

The sample taken shows that the composition of clay and silt is the soil type found along Jalan Dang Wangi (Figure 13). It can be said that the porosity level is 0%. It causes the soil has very low capacity to absorb the water. It is a must that proper and suitable choice for the surface of soil to be known and understood.

Figure 13 Type of Soil in Jalan Dang Wangi Source: Fieldwork, 2015

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4.5.2 Plant Characteristics

In relation with porosity of soil, the selection of plant also need to be considered as some of the species might be high permeability and high resistance to flash flood.

Various aspects of plants in term of their functions are evaluated and considered in order to mitigate flash flood at the selected study area. The landscape architects usually take the size and shape of plants as a matter to make the place looks eyecatching. But the chosen plants should have their own distinctive functions. The characteristics of a plant should cover some criteria which are economical, manageable, less maintenance required, sustainable, and community’s educational benefits. In flash flood risk mitigation viewpoint, the chosen plants for landscaping should be able to withstand inundation of water.

By conducting a study on type of plant by habit, most of plant in Jalan Tun Perak, Jalan Masjid India, and Jalan Dang Wangi are characterised under shrub plant. Shrub plant is a small to medium-sized woody plant commonly under 6m (20 ft.) tall. Some of the identified shrub plant species are Ixora coccinea, Gold mound duranta, and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Figure 14).

Figure 14 Shrub Plant Species Source: Fieldwork, 2015

According to Urban Storm Water Management Manual for Malaysia, by Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia (2000), all this kind of shrub are not suitable to withstand inundation of water. All the species are not recognized as plants which

52

could withstand flood. Though the species are quite beautiful for landscaping but they are seemed to not really suitable in terms of resistance to inundation of water.

4.6

Streetscape

Streetscape is defined as the appearance or perspective of a road or street. When a person is walking on a street, everything or anything he/she looks at is defined as streetscape. Streetscape components include street furniture, sidewalks, and street.

All these components might give impact on mitigating flash flood if they are properly managed and well-designed for flood risk.

4.6.1 Street Furniture

First component that has been evaluated is street furniture. Street furniture usually consists of streetlamp, phone boxes, bus stops, traffic light, benches, sidewalk barrier, traffic signs, bollards, memorials, sculptures, fountains, waste containers, and wayfinding. In order to ensure the street furniture could help in mitigating flash flood, it should be multifunctional. Multifunctional here means street furniture is essentially used by public but at the same time has its own distinctive function specifically for water storage. For instance, benches, are purposely used for sitting and resting but the design or its structure may store water and have a link to underground water bank.

Street furniture along Jalan Tun Perak are found to be just for public uses. There is no distinctive functions or sustainable design for water storage. The street furniture found are bollard, streetlamps, traffic lights, dustbin, and sidewalk barrier (Figure 15).

Along Jalan Masjid India, there is only one element of streetscape which is waste container.

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Figure 15 Street Furnitures along Jalan Tun Perak Source: Fieldwork, 2015

Street furniture along Jalan Dang Wangi consists of traffic light, wayfinding, street signs, bus stop, waste container, streetlamps, and sidewalk barrier (Figure 16). By evaluating and observing all the street furniture along this road, there is no street furniture with distinctive function which can specially help to store water.

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Figure 16 Street Furniture along Jalan Dang Wangi Source: Fieldwork, 2015

4.6.2 Sidewalk

Other component categorized under streetscapes is sidewalks. Sidewalk is so significant to urban design elements for public. Proper provision of sidewalk will promote walkability and place-making. In order to ensure the sustainability of the sidewalk, the chosen pavement and material of sidewalk need to be considered and take into account whether the material or surface can let water to flow through it or in a shorter term is pervious. The concept is similar to soil porosity which can be applied in sidewalk.

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There are so many designs and materials of making pervious concrete for sidewalks.

The sidewalks in Jalan Tun Perak are mostly made up from paving stone. The stones are arranged precisely in order to make a network of sidewalks. Nevertheless, the materials are seemed not to be porous or permeable to water. There is only drop and curb inlets used to receive water runoff (Figure 17). The system is not really sustainable as lesser amount of water runoff can be received by inlets rather than using other sustainable way which could receive high amount of water runoff at one time.

Figure 17 Paving Stone for Sidewalks along Jalan Tun Perak Source: Fieldwork, 2015

Differently, Jalan Dang Wangi applies dissimilar material which are interlocking paver sidewalk and concrete sidewalk (Figure 18). Both sidewalks are commonly used for most development in Malaysia. Pattern of interlocking bricks used is uni-paver where the brick is likely to be a ‘zigzag’ pattern. But the pavement material is still recognized to be impervious and could not let water runoff flow into drain. Logically, this kind of pavement is not sustainable in terms of water permeability and the capability of pavement to filter the water. Different method and system should be practically applied to change the conventional way of making sidewalks.

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Figure 18 Sidewalk along Jalan Dang Wangi Source: Fieldwork, 2015

4.6.3 Street

In relation with sidewalks, street also one of the components which may play bigger role to mitigate flash flood. When it comes to street, the aspect to be measured is the pavement material. Commonly, heavy rain usually will result in accumulation of water or puddle. Puddle will next cause flood due to the heavy flow of water. The pavement along Jalan Tun Perak and Jalan Masjid India is likely to be made up of impervious asphalt (Figure 19). Apart from asphalt, some parts of the street at Jalan Dang Wangi applies interlocking paver specifically at the signalised junction. Due to the impervious pavement, the water runoff is hardly to be absorbed directly by the street.

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Figure 19 Type of Street in Jalan Dang Wangi and Jalan Tun Perak Source: Fieldwork, 2015

4.7

Open Space

Open space is well-defined as open areas include green spaces, recreational parks, and other open zones. The perspective of open space can extend from playing field to profoundly sustained atmospheres. They are generally open to community range from young to old. Nevertheless, open space may be exclusively owned by an individual or a group.

4.7.1 Public Realm

Public realm comprises all the spaces between buildings that can be freely accessed.

It incorporates outdoor open space including parks, sidewalk, streets, and bicycle lane. Public realm should encourage the sense of belonging. The condition of public realm will give a major impact on the quality of life. On the other hand, public realm also could be the place where people could gather if flash flood happens. Usually, public realm will be badly affected through damage from flash flood. Public realm in the study area encompasses open space and sidewalk (Figure 20). The public realm found in the study area should be enhanced and designed to resist flash flood in the future.

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Figure 20 Public Realm Components Source: Fieldwork, 2015

4.7.2 Park

A park is a place of natural, semi-natural, or planted space set up for people happiness and amusement or for the security of untamed life or any other habitats. It may comprise of lush areas, and trees, however might likewise contain man-made structures and different antiquities, for instance, landmarks, fountainheads or playground. Commonly, numerous parks have sports fields such as football field, badminton court, basketball, and futsal. Some parks are developed next to water bodies, lake, wetlands, or pond. Ponds and wetlands which are proper built with suitable plants might be the best management practice in mitigating flash flood. As there is no park found in study area, an assumption can be made is further recommendation should be followed up to support flash flood risk mitigation through urban design.

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4.8

Building Design

Building design broadly refers to the aspect of architectural based which encompasses engineering and technical components. This element plays a major role in influencing attraction from people. Buildings should be designed in a way the features have their own distinctive function. Sustainable materials should be used in designing a building. Moreover, building design should take into account environmental condition as well as climatic. Sustainable building design should be resilient to any disaster especially flash flood. Some features need to be adapted to store water runoff from rainfall.

4.8.1 Building Material

Flash flood usually relate with some parameters including duration of inundation, velocity of water flow, rate of water level rising, frequency of occurrence, as well as depth of water. In order to protect and reduce post-flood clean-up cost, waterproof building material is the essential way to mitigate flash flood risk. It is actually a structural measure in flood mitigation which should be undertaken by the developers or building occupants. Flood-proofing means making a building practically impermeable to floodwater.

Basically, the findings show that buildings in Jalan Tun Perak, Jalan Masjid India, and Jalan Dang Wangi do not apply flood proofing measure in mitigating flood. Most of the buildings are historical buildings but adaptive reuse is applied to keep making use the buildings (Figure 21).

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Figure 21 Historical Building along Jalan Tun Perak Source: Fieldwork, 2015

4.9

Summary

This chapter have delivered the findings and discussion which was carried out by audit check listing. The discussion on identification of urban design elements in mitigating flash flood risk has been elaborated. The urban design elements in all study area are still lacking in terms of distinctive functions of every element. Some of the urban design elements are not practically found in Jalan Tun Perak, Jalan Masjid India, and Jalan Dang Wangi. Further recommendations need to be specified in order to achieve the aim of the study.

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CHAPTER 5 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

62

CHAPTER 5

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1

Introduction

After the data obtained have been discussed and elaborated, this chapter will then be focusing on recommendation and will concluded at the end of the research. In order to achieve the final objective, the recommendations will be drawn and outlined so as to support the study on flash flood mitigation through urban design.

5.2

Recommendations

The recommendations on the urban design elements that would help in mitigating flash flood have been identified. Based on the research findings and discussion done in the previous chapter, the urban design elements are still lacking in terms of its implementation and provisioned in the study area. The recommendations will be covering some of the urban design elements in the study area (Table 7).

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Table 7 Recommendations on Flash Flood Risk Mitigation through Urban Design Urban Design Elements Urban Form

Aspects Building structure

Recommendations Underground water tank at basement parking

Landscape Characteristics Public Realm and Open Space

Urban wetlands park

Streetscapes

Street

Pervious sidewalk

Sidewalk

Porous asphalt street

Street furniture

Water bench

Building material

Dry flood-proofing

Building Design

5.2.1 Underground Water Tank at Basement Parking

Practically, basement parking is commonly provided to fulfil the people needs in urban area specifically in Kuala Lumpur City Centre. However, in the context of flash flood mitigation a basement parking could be turned into or functioned as an underground water tank. Usually, flash flood will occupy basement parking at first place. In conjunction with that, underground water tank could be installed to store excessive water which fills up the basement parking. The excessive floodwater will next be channelled to main water storage (Figure 22).

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Figure 22 Underground Water Tank Source: http://www.waterworld.com/articles/wwi/print/volume-25/issue-5/editorialfocus/rainwater-harvesting/rotterdam-the-water-city-of-the-future.html

5.2.2 Urban Wetland Park

Wetlands are essential elements in scenic view that give various valuable beneficial for people and other living things. Some of the functions include enhancing water quality, create a habitat for wildlife, and storing excessive floodwater. These significant capacities are the result of the unique natural characteristics of wetlands.

If some particular areas specifically in study area are flooded with water, wetlands might act as a giant sponge because the plants can absorb excessive water. By absorbing the floodwater, it might help reducing water runoff and slowing down the water movement to surrounding areas. Wetlands help to temporarily store flood and slowly release them. This will result in minimizing the flash flood risk in study area.

Urban wetlands park is a wetland that offers scenic view and leisure activities, for instance, jogging, cycling, and fishing. Instead of acting as a floodwater storage, it is also could offer landscape view for public (Figure 23). Some of the countries have applied this measure in order to mitigate flash flood and promote landscape view to

65

show the connectivity between human activity and urban water stream (Figure 24).

Urban wetland park will be able to enhance public realm and at the same time help in mitigating flash flood.

Figure 23 Urban Wetlands Cross-section Source: http://urbanomnibus.net/2010/12/the-staten-island-bluebelt-storm-sewerswetlands-waterways/

Figure 24 Urban Wetland Park in Nugegoda, Sri Lanka Source: http://www.yamu.lk/place/urban-wetland-park/

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5.2.3 Pervious Concrete Sidewalk

Generally, sidewalk is usually built up from impervious material which would not allow the water runoff to be permeated. A strong recommendation of this issue is by making pervious sidewalk for water infiltration. Based on the findings, the sidewalk in selected study area does not apply the fundamental way of mitigating flash flood which is by constructing pervious sidewalk. Pervious concrete sidewalk is a material that has the capability of allowing water to permeate through it. The pervious concrete is the layer where it is laid above a crushed stone base to let the water permeate through the surface (Figure 25). With this vital system, water will be able to permeate the pervious concrete due to void spaces of 18-20% and the water will then be channelled underground drainage (Figure 26). Pervious concrete is seemed to be a coarser look compared to the conventional concrete (Figure 27).

Figure 25 Pervious Concrete Layer Source: http://www.barleystone.com/products/permeable-paving/

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Figure 26 Pervious Concrete System Source: http://www.barleystone.com/products/permeable-paving/

Figure 27 Pervious Concrete Sidewalk Source: http://www.hellerconcreteinc.com/pervious2.html

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5.2.4 Porous Asphalt and Interlocking Street

Generally, a conventional way of making the road or street is by using asphalt.

However, the material is seemed to not allow water from permeating to the underground. The mixture of conventional asphalt is too compact for water to be infiltrated. The solution for this issue is by using porous asphalt. Porous asphalt or open-graded asphalt is generally a mixture of less sand with the ratio of low water-tocement ratio. The system is conceptualized similar to the pervious concrete sidewalk where it can reduce the water runoff volume. Porous asphalt is a sustainable and environmentally friendly tool for mitigating inundation of water. It has an open-graded surface above a layer of stone recharge bed (Figure 28). Water will be permeated through porous asphalt due to the void spaces approximately to 16% compared to conventional asphalt which is only 2-3%.

Figure 28 Cross-section of Porous Asphalt Source: National Asphalt Pavement Association

The water infiltrated by porous asphalt will then be channelled to storage bed. The system is continuously undergoing as water runoff will not be accumulated on the asphalt surface. It is no doubt that porous asphalt can absorb gallons of water in a short period of time (Figure 29).

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Figure 29 Application of Porous Asphalt at Burnsville, United States of America Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_-5S9LIyYvQ

Interlocking pavement is an application which is applied similarly to porous asphalt.

Porous interlocking is a set of bricks which could infiltrate water in between the bricks.

It is due to the spaces between the bricks which are arranged particularly for water infiltration. The water will go through several layers before it is channelled to underdrain (Figure 30).

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Figure 30 Interlocking Pavement at Road Junction

5.2.5 Water Bench

Water bench is a rainwater-harvesting public seating that was introduced from the Lab’s Mumbai stopover. It is also known as Dubble Bench, which is made up from partially recycled polyethylene and undergrounded rainwater storage tank (Figure 31) which could store water up to 1,800 litres which equivalents to 475 gallons. Though it is fundamentally used to store rainwater, it somehow can be used to store floodwater as well. The concept of water storage can be taken so that the bench is not literally used for seating but can also act as floodwater storage. It is designed to create the atmosphere of an urban living room within the public realm. Besides functioning as floodwater storage or rainwater harvesting, the surface will remain dry for sitting. This innovation has been introduced in Mumbai, India (Figure 32).

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Figure 31 Water Bench Source: http://www.mnn.com/your-home/remodeling-design/blogs/water-bench-atwo-in-one-rainwater-harvester-and-snazzy-outdoor

Figure 32 Water Bench Founded in Mumbai, India Source: MARS Architects/BMW Guggenheim Lab

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5.2.6 Dry Flood-Proofing

Flood-proofing is a basic structural measure in flood risk mitigation at which should be undertaken by any individual or owner. Flood-proofing is a measure where buildings will be impermeable to floodwater commonly done for commercial and industrial buildings. Dry flood proofing is one of the flood proofing methods which making the building walls impermeable to waterflood or can easily be said as waterproof. Dry flood-proofing will prevent floodwater from entering into a building.

But this method of flood-proofing is compulsory to be certified by a registered professional engineer. One of the dry flood-proofing method is movable barrier.

Movable barrier is functioned to close or prevent the entrance of a building from floodwater (Figure 33). Some of the countries such as United States of America has applied this measure in order to prevent floodwater from entering into any building in a city (Figure 34).

Figure 33 Dry Flood-proofing Measure Source: http://www.climatetechwiki.org/content/flood-proofing

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Figure 34 Movable Barrier Method in United States of America Source: http://floodcontrolam.com/flood-wall-applications/flood-proofing/

5.3

Conclusion of Research Findings

In the early stage of this research, the aim and objectives of this research have been clearly outlined and highlighted. It is essential to assess the achievement of the objectives which will ultimately determine the reliability for the outcome of this research. The assessments on the achievements of objectives are presented in the following sections.

5.3.1 Objective 1: To examine the principles of urban design that are used to mitigate flash flood The first objective required author to examine the principles of urban design that are used to mitigate flash flood. Thus, chapter 2 which is literature review has been prepared in pursuit to achieve this objective. The second chapter of this research discusses theories and principles of urban design that could be used to help in

74

mitigating flash flood. The basic urban design principles was done through reviewing scholarly literatures from the global context.

5.3.2 Objective 2: To identify the elements of urban design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre that help in flash flood mitigation The second objective required author to identify the elements of urban design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre that help in flash flood mitigation. This objective needed to be conducted in quantitative data which was by audit checklisting. The checklist on existing urban design elements had been prepared and the existing urban design elements in Kuala Lumpur City Centre were evaluated through audit checklisting.

Some of the illustrations had been drawn to visualize the existing urban design elements which would help in flash flood mitigation.

5.3.3 Objective 3: To draw recommendation for urban design in mitigating flash flood in Kuala Lumpur City Centre The third objective was achieve through drawing recommendations in pursuit of mitigating flash flood through urban design in Kuala Lumpur City Centre.

The

achievement of this objective was done through recommending some mitigation measures related to urban design elements that might help mitigating flash flood. The recommendations include: i.

Underground water tank at basement parking

ii.

Urban wetlands park

iii.

Pervious sidewalk

iv.

Porous asphalt street

v.

Water bench

vi.

Dry flood-proofing

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5.4

Conclusion of Research

In conclusion, all the objectives and research questions outlined in this study have been achieved. This study revealed that urban design is one of the fundamental elements that could help in flash flood mitigation. All the urban design elements that identified have their own aspects in flash flood mitigation. Thus, the aim of this research which is to evaluate urban design elements in mitigating flash flood in Kuala Lumpur City Centre has been attained. In short, all objectives outlined in this study have met their answers and can be brought to a close.

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Wheater, H. S. (2006). Flood hazard and management: a UK perspective. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci, 364(1845), 2135-2145. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2006.1817 Winstanley, D. (1970). The north African flood disaster, September 1969. Weather, 25(9), 390-403.

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(C. Alexander, 1987; D. E. Alexander, 1993; Carmona, 2010; Dilley, 2005; Godschalk, 2003; Guha-Sapir et al., 2004; Jackson, 2003; Perry & Lindell, 1978; Tingsanchali, 2012; Winstanley, 1970) (Baum, Fleming, & Davidson, 1983; DeKay & McClelland, 1993; Doswell III, Brooks, & Maddox, 1996; Montz & Gruntfest, 2002; Nasiri & Shahmohammadi-Kalalagh, 2013; Pelling, 2003; Price & Vojinovic, 2008)

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APPENDICES

Research Gap Table 8 Research Gap Author

Title

Year

Focus

Wheater, H. S.

Flood hazard and management: a UK perspective

2006

Storm water flooding in urban areas.

Qin, H. P.

The effects of low impact development on urban flooding under different rainfall characteristics

2013

Sustainable solution for urban storm water management than conventional urban drainage systems

Caruso, B. S.

Rehabilitation and flood management planning in a steep, boulderbedded stream

2007

Flood management planning in a steep, boulderbedded stream

Chen, Y.

Urban flood risk warning under rapid urbanization

2015

Health risks by urban flooding

79