Wind has the power. Fraser Brown

SUPER TERRESTRIAL.

WIND HAS THE POWER. CASPER, WYOMING. THE PROTOTYPICAL TOWN. FRASER BROWN. S3872985.

WIND HAS THE POWER. CASPER, WYOMING. THE PROTOTYPICAL TOWN.

I would like to acknowledge the Wurundjeri and Boonwurrung people who are the Traditional Custodians of the lands upon which I live, work and RMIT University is based. I acknowledge and pay respects to their Ancestors and Elders, both past and present and extend that respect to all other Indigenous peoples.

REFERENCES: AcreValue. (n.d.) [Map of landowners in in Central Wyoming}. Retrieved September 22, 2020 from: https://www.acrevalue.com/map/WY/?lat=42.915965&lng=-105.912917&zoom=11 Desai, M., & Harvey, R. P. (2017). Inventory of US greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990 2015. Federal Register, 82(30), 10767.

Dolly Jørgensen, & Finn Arne Jørgensen. (2018). Aesthetics of Energy Landscapes. Environment,

Space, Place, 10(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.5749/envispacplac.10.1.0001 Gateway West Transmission Line Project. (2018). About the Project: Route Information. http://www.gatewaywestproject.com/route.aspx GE Renewable Energy. (2020). [Map of GE Renewable Energy Locations]. Retrieved September 4, 2020 from: https://www.ge.com/renewableenergy/about-us/locations Hoen, B., Brown, J. P., Jackson, T., Thayer, M. A., Wiser, R., & Cappers, P. (2015). Spatial hedonic

analysis of the effects of US wind energy facilities on surrounding property values. The Journal of Real

Estate Finance and Economics, 51(1), 22-51.

Homeland Infrastructure Foundation-Level Data (HIFLD). (2020). Electric Power Transmission Lines

[Data set]. National Renewable Laboratory. Retrieved October 5, 2020 from: https://maps.nrel.gov/tribal-energy-atlas/?aL=0&bL=mcMugQ&cE=0&lR=0&mC=32.62087018318113% 2C-83.3642578125&zL=4 Homeland Infrastructure Foundation-Level Data (HIFLD). (2019). Solid Waste Landfill Facilities [Data

set]. Homeland Infrastructure Foundation-Level Data (HIFLD), Retrieved October 5, 2020 From:

https://hifld-geoplatform.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/solid-waste-landfill-facilities?geome try=50.001%2C-3.164%2C-75.506%2C75.930 Larsen, K. (2009). Recycling wind turbine blades. Renewable energy focus, 9(7), 70-73.

Maasakkers, Joannes D, Jacob, Daniel J, Sulprizio, Melissa P, Turner, Alexander J, Weitz, Melissa, Wirth, Tom,

Hight, Cate, DeFigueiredo, Mark, Desai, Mausami, Schmeltz, Rachel, Hockstad, Leif, Bloom, Anthony A,

Bowman, Kevin W, Jeong, Seongeun, & Fischer, Marc L. (2016). Gridded National Inventory of U.S.

Methane Emissions. Environmental Science & Technology, 50(23), 13123–13133. https://doi.org/10.1021/ acs.est.6b02878 Moroni, Stefano, Antoniucci, Valentina, & Bisello, Adriano. (2016). Energy sprawl, land taking and

distributed generation: towards a multi-layered density. Energy Policy, 98, 266–273. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.08.040 NASA JPL (2014). NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Combined Image Data Set [Data set].

NASA EOSDIS Land Processes DAAC. Retrieved August 28, 2020 from: https://doi.org/10.5067/MEaSUREs/SRTM/SRTMIMGM.003 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Weather Service (NWS).

(2006). NOAA / NWS & National Centre for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) / Real-Time Mesoscale

Analysis [Data set]. Earth Engine. Retrieved September 18, 2020 from: https://www.nco.ncep.noaa.gov/pmb/products/rtma/ North American Cooperation on Energy Information (NACEI). (2017) Renewable Energy Power

plants, 1MW or more [Data set]. ArcGis Hub. Retrieved October 2, 2020 from: https://hub.arcgis.com/datasets/SIPP::renewable-energy-power-plants-1-mw-or-more?geome try=-145.431%2C26.155%2C3.192%2C49.979 Olson, S. K. (2013). Power politics: The political ecology of wind energy opposition in Wyoming.

ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

OpenStreetMap. (2020). [Map of Central Wyoming]. Retrieved August 26, 2020 from: https://www.openstreetmap.org/#map=10/42.9583/-105.9878 OpenStreetMap. (2020). [Map of the United States]. Retrieved September 29, 2020 from: https://www.openstreetmap.org/#map=5/39.758/-98.856 Pasqualetti, M. J. (2019). Social Barriers to Renewable Energy Landscapes. Geographical

Review, 101(2), 201–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2011.00087.x Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy. (2020). Location Finder.

https://www.siemensgamesa.com/en-int/about-us/location-finder# TransWest Express. (2020). TransWest Express: Schedule and Timeline. http://www.transwestexpress.net/about/timeline.shtml U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2012). [Mapping of current U.S. Energy Systems and

infrastructure]. Retrieved October 7, 2020 from: https://www.eia.gov/state/maps.php United States Geological Survey. (1951). USGS 1:24000 – scale Quandrangle for Casper, WY

1951. https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/5a8a2912e4b00f54eb3c631e United States Geological Survey. (1961). USGS 1:24000 – scale Quandrangle for Casper, WY

1961. https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/usgs-1-24000-scale-quadrangle-for-casper-wy-1961 United States Geological Survey. (1988). USGS 1:250000 – scale Quandrangle for Casper, WY

1988. https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/usgs-1-250000-scale-quadrangle-for-casper-wy-1988 United States Geological Survey. (2018). [Aerial map of 2016 National Land Cover in Central

Wyoming]. Retrieved September 9, 2020 from: https://viewer.nationalmap.gov/advanced-viewer/ United States Wind Turbine Database. (2020). [ Aerial map of Central Wyoming]. Retrieved August

28, 2020 from: https://eerscmap.usgs.gov/uswtdb/viewer/#9.79/42.901/-106.2017 Wan, Z., Hook, S., Hulley, G. (2015). MOD11A1 MODIS/Terra Land Surface Temperature/Emissivity

Daily L3 Global 1km SIN Grid V006 [Data set]. NASA EOSDIS Land Processes DAAC. https://doi. org/10.5067/MODIS/MOD11A1.006 Worldpop. (2020). Open Spatial Demographic Data and Research. Retrieved September 12, 2020, from https://www.worldpop.org/ Wyoming Statuses Act. Title 18, Chapter 5. Stat. § 18-5-504 (2012) Young, L. ed., 2019. Machine Landscapes: Architectures of the Post Anthropocene. John Wiley & Sons.

Profound urbanisation driven by population growth and increased social awareness of climate change has resulted in a growing movement and need to produce larger amounts of renewable energy. This has led to the exploration of clean alternative energy practices to fuel the needs of the rapidly increasing population. Wind power’s common affiliation as a minimal impact methodology is assumed by the wider community. However, due to its rising popularity, the mass production of wind turbines has led to the generation of significantly more non-biodegradable infrastructure governing the use of regional landscapes. Despite being one of the most environmentally friendly methodologies when operational, the short life spanned wind turbine blades’ composite composition inhibits their recyclability resulting in them ending up in landfills (Larsen, 2009).

Identified as a primary location to accommodate the expansion of wind energy production, the small city of Casper, situated in the plains of Central Wyoming has become enclosed by eight new wind energy projects consisting of 391 wind turbines (Map 1.1 & Map 1.2), where it’s regional landfill has controversially begun to facilitate decommissioned wind turbine blades. In an anthropogenic landscape, the implementation and decommissioning of wind turbines are set to dictate future land use In Central Wyoming.

Using Casper is the prototypical town, my atlas intends to create a dialogue discussing how Central Wyoming’s ideal landscape for wind energy extraction is currently utilised and continually shaped by wind turbines during operational occupancy and is continued to be exploited by decommissioned wind turbine blades post-occupancy, disposed of into landfill. This will be achieved by identifying and contrasting the material implementation and transaction that occurs within the focal area and across the life cycle of wind energy infrastructure as a means of addressing anthropogenic climate change.

Largely unchanged since the 1950s, Casper’s minimal expansion (Map 2.1) highlights the speed at which wind energy’s recent growth has occurred (Map 2.2). Mirroring the city’s minimal expansion, the lack of urbanisation over the last 15 years confirms the stagnant growth rate at which Casper is developing (Map 3.1 & 3.2).

Positioned around Casper, the Central Wyoming landscape remains primarily covered by grasslands and shrubs, remaining vastly undeveloped and utilised for agriculture and livestock (Map 4.1). Viewing through a lens of designing for machines in the post Anthropocene, the bare landscape offers an optimal platform to be occupied by machines, engineering landscapes where wind turbines can be planted like trees, becoming so ubiquitous that they become nature themselves, converting the undeveloped plains of Central Wyoming into circuit boards for energy extraction (Young, 2019). It is because of these reasons that this region is deemed ideal for wind energy extraction. The large areas of flat uninhabited land provide an optimal setting for wind turbines, reducing possible impacts on any above-ground vegetation or neighbouring residential areas.

Wyoming’s current policies governing the siting location of wind turbines, defined by Wyoming Statuses Act (2012), designates a required minimum distance between each turbine and varying surrounding infrastructures. With each wind turbine requiring 1.5 acres of land, developers have targeted the large blocks of land through both the Natrona and Converse Counties as locations for current projects. Leasing the privately owned land, in return, developers pay property owners rent for the set duration of the agreed period of the lease. Within the 50km radius of Casper, all 391 wind turbines fall into this category, residing on privately owned land (Map 4.2). Receiving consistent rental payments for use of their land, there is a strong possibility that landowners will begin to offer increased amounts of their property to developers for future expansion of current and new wind energy production. In a rural agricultural context where income can be slow, the economic benefits provided to the landowners present an undeniable incentive to persuade their decision making. The results giving rise to the increasing occupation of land to create machine landscapes designed for power generation, contributing to energy sprawl’s relentless expansion (Moroni et al., 2016).

Despite their positive climate impact and economic benefits, wind power consistently encounters social barriers. In the United States, one of the most common objections to the installation of wind turbines is their interference with scenic vistas, leading to perceived impacts on residential market values (Pasqualetti, 2019).

From Casper and the towns across Central Wyoming, the flat landscape enhances the visibility of wind turbines and associated infrastructure, which does interfere with the views of the vast landscape (Map 5.1 & 5.2).

However, prior research about wind energy and property values has identified that homes around wind turbines do not experience statistically significant impacts on property values (Hoen et al,. 2015). Whilst wind-related property value effects might occur near wind turbines, the effects are marginal and are likely to fade as time progresses as homebuyers who are more accepting of them move into the area. Human’s aesthetic values of energy landscapes vary profoundly, affecting our relationship with the land and how we occupy it (Jørgensen et al., 2018). With growing social awareness of climate change, it is unlikely that wind turbines are going to deter future home buyers looking into Wyoming, as the renewable energy methodology continues to expand.

Established as a location highly targeted for wind energy production because of its open surface and lack of urbanisation, it is Wyoming’s topography and climate that produce its notoriously consistent winds (Olsen, 2013). Inadequate shade from minimal infrastructure and reduced vertical vegetation growth enables the incoming solar energy to have an immense impact on the average land surface temperature (Map 6.1). Wyoming’s rising average surface temperatures are generating larger low-pressure systems around the boundary layer, before rising as cold air rapidly sinks to equalize the air pressure (Map 6.2). The constant change of pressure difference and significant air movement is the causation of the strong wind speeds in Central Wyoming. An examination of the Nation Weather Service’s Real-Time Mesoscale Analysis (2006) and the elevation of the topography, exhibits the influence of the changing air pressure on average wind speed (Map 7.1) and wind direction (Map 7.2) across the Central Wyoming plains surrounding Casper. The mappings reflect the strategic positioning of wind turbines in areas with high average wind speeds for maximum power generation potential, whilst also putting the spotlight onto the vast areas of the landscape with high wind speeds which are yet to be accessed by developers. Wyoming’s high wind resources, electricity generation potential and low population density are allowing Casper and Central Wyoming’s Landscape to become littered with energy sprawl’s extensive infrastructure. Repercussions of giving energy sprawl access to these undeveloped landscapes are presently minimal, but as landscapes are progressively consumed by machines, the impacts are set to become alarmingly apparent.

Solely using GE Energy and Siemens Gamesa’s onshore wind turbines, essential components are required to be transported extensive distances from manufacturing locations to Casper’s wind project sites for the final stages of construction. Spreading from GE Energy’s LM Wind Power turbine blade manufacturing facility on the Northern edge of North Dakota, through to Siemens Gamesa’s facilities in the Midwest, and down to the South Eastern state of Florida to GE Energy’s hub assembly facility, the increased demand for wind energy production within the United States conscribes these major manufacturers to disburse their components nationwide (Map 8.1). Premeditating a response to current counterproductive transport methodologies, it can be confidently assumed increased numbers of manufacturing facilities will be established around the country to reduce the unnecessary distance currently travelled to realign the company’s renewable status. Travelling via substations and transmission lines once extracted, the mass amounts of electricity produced in Central Wyoming exceed the requirements of the state’s small population (Gateway West Transmission Project, 2018). Currently distributed via the Gateway West Transmission Project into Idaho, with the future TransWest Express Transmission Project set to distribute to Utah and Las Vegas, the co-dependent relationship between the region’s flourishing energy production rate and associated infrastructure as a means of transportation is a critical link to future success (Map 8.2).

The rapid development of wind energy landscapes in Wyoming is now creating a growing waste disposal issue correlating with the current and future decommissioning of wind turbine blades. Most components of a turbine, such as the towers and nacelles, can be recycled, reused or sold. But due to their complex material compositions containing non-recyclable matrix fillers, fibres and thermoset resins, the blades cannot be recycled or reused. As the most cost-effective disposal method, the wind turbine blades end up in landfill (Map 9.1), unable to degrade in an environmentally sympathetic way (Larsen, 2009). Integrated into the construction, the blade’s organic material adds a layer of complexity when disposed of into landfill, breaking down over time producing the greenhouse gas methane. With short 20-year life spans, future expansions of wind energy projects surrounding Casper will result in thousands of retired blades becoming non-biodegradable waste leading to the production of methane gas emitted from the small regional landfill.

Widely unrecognised by the community, the production and mitigation of landfill gases (LFG), such as methane, emitted from the anaerobic digestion and decomposition of solid municipal waste can generate energy through monumental waste to energy conversion technologies. The high energy potential of LFG has received increasing interest as a fuel for future energy production. The United States alone produces close to 14% of the world’s total greenhouse gas (Map 10.1), with emissions from waste landfills amounting up to 115.7 Mt of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) (Desai, et al., 2017). The rising density of landfills in the United States is resulting in drastically increased quantities of methane entering the atmosphere (Map 10.2). Across the country, dozens of stations are operating to capturing LFG gas emissions from landfills to generate energy. But as energy sprawl progresses through states like Wyoming, the generation of substantially more wind turbine blades will continue to accelerate the growing quantity of municipal solid waste entering landfills per year, extending its grip over how land endures to be used.

Distinguished as a primary location for wind energy production, the surrounding central plains of Central Wyoming are developing into giant circuit boards covered with wind energy infrastructure, questioning how it will impact land use in the coming future. Casper’s dormant urbanisation has allowed current energy sprawl to consume landscapes with increasing numbers of wind turbines. The extent of the recent expansion has culminated in the form of a dramatic increase of material extraction and accumulation, resulting in electrical by-products powering regional communities, and methane emissions contaminating the atmosphere. Overall, this investigation has demonstrated wind energy’s current and projected impact of Casper’s land use in the post Anthropocene.

MAP 1.1 Central Regional Wyoming 1 : 90 000

MAP 1.2 Casper, Wyoming 1 : 30 000

Using data from Open Street Maps and the United States Wind Turbine Database (USWTDB), this map identifies the major and minor road network, waterways, train line, power lines, and wind turbine locations used throughout this investigation. Giving insight into the layout of the surrounding landscape of Casper, it provides a scale of the varying radial distances between the wind turbines and the surrounding towns of Glenrock and Rollings Hills in relation to the focal area of the investigation. At a maximum radial distance of 50km, the analysis examines a large area of the Central Wyoming plains as the area interest, reviewing how landscapes are inhabited by wind energy projects, leading to the dictatorship Central Wyoming’s future land use in the post Anthropocene.

Reviewing Casper through a smaller scale, this map presents information not visible on a large scale. Highlighting the modest size of Casper and the proximity of the nearest wind turbines, the data provided by OpenStreetMap pinpoints the location of the Casper Regional Landfill in relation to Casper and the surrounding wind energy projects. Casper’s landfill has become one of the most recent locations to accommodate decommissioned wind turbine blades from surrounding wind energy projects.

Rapidly consuming land, the process of decommissioning wind turbine blades into landfills is a key focus of this investigation, analysing how wind energy continues to influence how land is used post-operational occupancy.

Rolling Hills, WY

Glenrock, WY

Casper, WY

5km

20km

LEGEND. LEGEND.

MAJOR ROADS MINOR ROADS MAJOR ROADS

WIND TURBINES

MINOR ROADS

POWER LINES

WIND TURBINES

TRAIN LINES

POWER LINES Data Sources:

TRAIN LINES WATERWAYS

50km

OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

WATERWAYS CASPER REGIONAL LANDFILL SUBSTATIONS

Data Sources: OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Casper, WY United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

MAP 2.1 Casper 1950 - 2020 1 : 30 000

MAP 2.2 Wind Energy Projects 1 : 90 000

By referencing and tracing historical maps from the United States Geological Survey, this map overlays the collated data to illuminate the expansion of Casper from 1950 to 2020. Beginning in 1950, Casper is depicted as a small regional town, stretched out into multiple areas of residential land. Utilising gradient colour blocking, the map illustrates Casper’s passive rate of growth over the decades. Logically expanding around arterial roads and the town centre, the data indicates future expansion will continue to occur close to the centre of Casper. At its current rate, it can be concluded that it is improbable that future expansion of Casper will not impede current land use within Central Wyoming, impacting future land use for any wind energy projects.

Contrasting the slow expansion of Casper, this map depicts the accelerated rate of expansion which has resulted in eight wind energy projects, consisting of a total of 391 wind turbines, constructed since 2008. Collaborating data from the United States Wind Turbine Database and OpenStreetMap, the overlay of information is used to depict how swiftly the current energy sprawl is increasingly occupying Central Wyoming, converting it into an energy landscape. With such rapid growth, in a vastly open landscape, wind energy in a post Anthropocene landscape is presented with a vacant platform upon which it can grow exponentially for renewable energy production.

Rolling Hills Project

Glenrock I Project

Glenrock III Project

Glenrock 3 Project Campbell Hill Project

Top Of The World Project

Casper Wind Farm Project

LEGEND.

LEGEND.

MAJOR ROADS MINOR ROADS

MAJOR ROADS

WIND TURBINES

MINOR ROADS

POWER LINES

POWER LINES

TRAIN LINES

TRAIN LINES

WATERWAYS SUBSTATIONS 1950

1990

1970

2020

WATERWAYS

Data Sources: OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Casper, WY United States Geological Survey (1951) United States Geological Survey (1961) United States Geological Survey (1988) United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

Pioneer Wind Park Project

YEAR ONLINE: 2008

2010

2009

2016

Data Sources: OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

MAP 3.1 Casper Population Density 2005 1 : 30 000

MAP 3.2 Casper Population Density 2020 1 : 30 000

As a state, Wyoming has one of the lowest populations in the United States. Lacking major infrastructures like airports and universities, Wyoming remains to be a destination location for people seeking untouched and quiet landscapes. Casper is one of the two largest residential areas in Wyoming. Using the 100m x 100m cell grid data from the Worldpop Open Spatial Demographic research, this map visualises the relationship between population density and the area of Casper in 2005. With a maximum of 255 people per 100m cell, the map outlines Casper’s low population density.

By comparing the 2005 and 2020 population density maps of Casper, it can be concluded that the area has experienced a lack of urbanisation over the last 15 years. Through the analysis of Casper’s population, its slow urbanisation rate indicates that a change in the stagnant growth of the area is highly improbable. An increase in Casper’s population would mirror an increase to the area required for residential land use, impacting the location of boundary lines as defined by the Wyoming Statuses Act (2012), designating required minimum distances between each turbine and surrounding infrastructure. Such an increase would impede siting for future wind energy projects, ultimately reducing the amount of potential land that can be utilised for renewable energy production.

LEGEND.

LEGEND.

LOW DENSITY 33 PEOPLE

MAJOR ROADS

MAJOR ROADS

MINOR ROADS

MINOR ROADS

WIND TURBINES

WIND TURBINES

POWER LINES

POWER LINES

TRAIN LINES

TRAIN LINES

WATERWAYS

WATERWAYS

CASPER REGIONAL LANDFILL

CASPER REGIONAL LANDFILL

SUBSTATIONS

SUBSTATIONS

HIGH DENISTY 255 PEOPLE

Data Sources: OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Casper, WY United States Wind Turbine Database (2020) Worldpop (2020)

LOW DENSITY 33 PEOPLE

HIGH DENISTY 255 PEOPLE

Data Sources: OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Casper, WY United States Wind Turbine Database (2020) Worldpop (2020)

MAP 4.2 Land Ownership 1 : 90 000

MAP 4.1 Land Cover 1 : 90 000 Using data from the 2016 United States Geological Survey, the map illustrates how the landscape is predominately covered by grass and shrubs, exposing the land’s undeveloped surface that is covered by low-level vegetation. Identified with overlayed 20m contour lines, the focal area of Central Wyoming is relatively flat, rising in the southern region at the base of Casper Mountain. Comparing the low population density and sprawl of the Central Wyoming region against how the landscape is covered, the map visually demonstrates the surface as a primary location for the sprawl of future wind energy landscapes and infrastructure to be developed, unlikely to experience above-ground disturbances from any trees, forests or existing structures or population expansion.

Spread over Wyoming’s Natrona and Converse Counties, the 391 wind turbines are situated on 24 blocks of private land, owned by 15 different companies and/or personnel. Using the limited available information to identify how the blocks of land are used, the map demonstrates land used for farming and agriculture against the land that isn’t. On the private property occupied by wind turbines, large areas of land remain vacant, with the potential to accommodate a dramatic increase in the number of wind turbines and associated infrastructure. With landowners receiving a financial incentive, in the form of rental payments from energy companies, there is little to stop the increasing rate of wind energy sprawl converting the undeveloped landscapes into circuit boards in the post Anthropocene.

LEGEND.

LEGEND.

MAJOR ROADS

WIND TURBINES

MINOR ROADS

POWER LINES

WIND TURBINES

TRAIN LINES

POWER LINES

20M CONTOURS

TRAIN LINES

WATERWAYS

WATERWAYS

MEDIUM DENSITY

GRASS LAND

LOW DENSITY

FOREST

DEVELOPED SPACE

CROP LAND

Data Sources: OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming NASA 30m SRTM Data (2014) United States Geological Survey (2018)

COUNTY LINE PRIVATE PROPERTY AGRICULTURAL LAND

CONVERSE COUNTY

MAJOR ROADS

NATRONA COUNTY

MINOR ROADS

Data Sources: AcreValue (n.d.)

OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

MAP 5.1 Turbine Visibility - Central Wyoming 1 : 90 000

MAP 5.2 Turbine Visibility - Casper 1 : 30 000

This map analyses the visibility of the wind turbines through Central Wyoming. Because of the gentle rise and fall of the central plains, the map exhibits the high visibility of the wind turbines across the landscape. With a total height of close to 200m at the peak of rotation, they can be seen from up to 50km away with clear conditions. The analysis reveals the western face of Casper Mountain as the only location they remain not visible. Their perceived adverse impacts on the landscape’s scenic vistas and housing prices are a common misconception and social barrier conflicting their implementation despite their positive economic and climate impacts on surrounding communities.

The high visibility within Casper’s residential area is heavily impacted by the neighbouring Casper Wind Farm Project, leaving minimal housing land without a view of at least one wind turbine. But as social awareness of climate change increases, the effects of the marginal impact on property value are likely to diminish as time progresses, with homebuyers who are more accepting of renewable wind energy infrastructure moving into the area. The small population of Casper, and Wyoming as a whole, is enabling current and potential future wind energy sprawl, as the low population and largely undeveloped landscape remain key factors for location consideration. With a small population, current and future implementation is likely to impact fewer members of the public, resulting in reduced social barriers to the establishment of wind energy landscapes

LEGEND.

LEGEND. ROADS

ROADS

WIND TURBINES

WIND TURBINES

20M CONTOURS WATERWAYS LOW VISIBILITY

HIGH VISIBILITY

20M CONTOURS

Data Sources: NASA 30m SRTM Data (2014) OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

WATERWAYS LOW VISIBILITY

HIGH VISIBILITY

Data Sources: NASA 30m SRTM Data (2014) OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

MAP 6.2 Air Pressure Average (2016-2020) 1 : 90 000

MAP 6.1 Average Land Surface Temperature (2016-2020) 1 : 90 000

This map visualises data from the National Weather Service’s Real-Time Mesoscale Analysis to identify how land surface temperature heat fluxes induce local convection in the surface boundary layer to produce changes in the air pressure creating wind. As the surface and air temperature increase, the expanding molecules rise, creating areas of lower air pressure. This is replaced by sinking cool air to equalize the air pressure. The pressure difference causes air to move, thus creating wind. Because of the high average land surface temperature, this creates frequent air pressure changes generating a high average wind speed through the Central Wyoming region.

Utilising the MOD11A1 Version 6 dataset, this map provides a visual average land surface temperature in a 1200km x 1200km grid with 1000m spatial resolution. Land surface temperature is an important climate variable in the production of wind, impacting air pressure systems that generate wind production. As a predominantly flat landscape with low vegetation and no shade, the incoming solar energy impact on the landscape is immense, heating the surface to a high temperature, producing a low-pressure system. Exhibited on the map, as the landscape’s surface temperature drops relative to the change in elevation impacting the air pressure around Casper Mountain, ultimately effecting both the wind’s strength and direction.

LEGEND.

LEGEND. 20M CONTOURS

20M CONTOURS WIND TURBINES ROADS WATERWAYS LOW 14135 k

HIGH 15100 k

WIND TURBINES

Data Sources: NASA 30m SRTM Data (2014) OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming MOD11A1 MODIS/Terra Land Surface Temperature Data set (2015) United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

ROADS WATERWAYS LOW 73182 PA

HIGH 87000 PA

Data Sources: NASA 30m SRTM Data (2014) OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming NOAA / National Weather Service (2006) United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

MAP 7.1 Wind Speed Average (2016-2020) 1 : 90 000

MAP 7.2 Wind Direction Average (2016-2020) 1 : 90 000

Because of the impacts of the high average land surface temperature and frequently changing pressure systems, the average wind speed is consistently high through Central Wyoming. Visualised using a 2500m cell grid, the map utilises data from the National Weather Service’s Real-Time Mesoscale Analysis to visually display the information. The landscape’s primarily flat surface allows the wind to flow uninterrupted across the central plains, powering wind energy projects in the region, identifying notable areas for future infrastructure. Situated in areas with the highest average wind speed, the wind turbines are strategically positioned in ideal locations for maximum power generation potential.

Using the National Weather Service’s Real-Time Mesoscale Analysis data, this map represents the average wind direction over four years. Blowing in the opposite direction from a low-pressure system, the average high air pressure of Central Wyoming rotates the wind in a clockwise direction.

Wyoming’s dynamic landscape plays a critical role in manufacturing the wind speed and direction, guiding the winds through the natural gap in the rocky mountains amplifying the wind speed through the giant wind tunnel along the southerly plains that produces Wyoming’s high wind speeds, making it an exemplar landscape for renewable wind energy extraction.

LEGEND.

LEGEND. 20M CONTOURS

20M CONTOURS

WIND TURBINES

WIND TURBINES

ROADS WATERWAYS 2.5 m/s

6.7 m/s

Data Sources: NASA 30m SRTM Data (2014) OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming NOAA / National Weather Service (2006) United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

ROADS WATERWAYS 143 °

234 °

Data Sources: NASA 30m SRTM Data (2014) OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Central Wyoming NOAA / National Weather Service (2006) United States Wind Turbine Database (2020)

MAP 8.2 Power Extraction & Transmission 1 : 6 000 000

MAP 8.1 Wind Turbine Manufacturing & Transportation 1 : 6 000 000

The large quantities of electricity generated from wind energy projects surrounding Casper are transmitted via the Gateway West Transmission Line Project to regional towns between Wyoming and Idaho. Recently approved by the Bureau of Land Management, the future TransWest Express Transmission Project will distribute electricity produced in Central Wyoming into Utah and Las Vegas, Nevada. Measured in kilovolts (kV), major transmission lines are categorised by their ability to carry various quantities of electricity. Visualised using data collected from the Homeland Infrastructure Foundation Level Database, this map represents a roadmap of the major transmission lines within the United States. By overlaying locations of current operational wind projects, the map highlights the dependant relationship between energy production and energy extraction infrastructure. Electricity generated from wind energy projects is most efficiently distributed over long distances via 200kV 500kV transmission lines. As it travels further from its origin point, the electricity can travel across lower-rated major transmission lines 100kV - 200kV, until the voltage is reduced and can be carried on sub-transmission lines, into homes across the U.S.

Overlaying locations of Central Wyoming’s wind energy projects with a wider visual representation of current operational wind energy projects across the United States, this map depicts the extensive transportation routes required to deliver turbine components from GE Energy and Siemens Gamesa’s manufacturing facilities (solely used in Central Wyoming) to project sites for the final stages of construction. Travelling thousands of kilometers from their respective manufacturing facilities via trucks, the map illustrates the growing demand for wind energy production within the U.S. highlighting the current move towards renewable energy methodologies. Future response to the growing demand will more than likely see increased manufacturing facilities to reduce the distance required to transport components to the expanding number of wind energy projects.

North Dakota Washington

LM Wind power Grand Forks, ND

Montana

Minnesota Maine South Dakota

Vermont

Westconsin New York

Oregon

Idaho Hemingway, ID Iowa

Wyoming

Michigan

Nebraska Siemens Gamesa Fort Madison, IA

Massachusetts Indiana Ohio

Connecticut

Clover, UT

Pennsylvania Nevada

Casper, WY

New Hampshire

Illinois

Kansas Colorado

West Virginia Siemens Gamesa Hutchinson, KS

Las Vegas, NV

Missouri

California

Oklahoma North Carolina

Texas

LEGEND. UNITED STATES (EXC. ALASKA & HAWAII

GE Energy Pensacola, FL

STATE BOUNDARIES

LEGEND.

WIND ENERGY PROJECTS

UNITED STATES (EXC. ALASKA & HAWAII

TRUCKING ROUTES GE ENERGY MANUFACTURING FACILITIES

STATE BOUNDARIES WIND ENERGY PROJECTS

SIEMENS GAMESA MANUFACTURING FACILITIES

735kV & ABOVE LINES 500kV LINES

STATES USING GE ENERGY WIND TURBINES STATES USING SIEMENS GAMESA WIND TURBINES STATES USING SIEMENS GAMESA & GE ENERGY WIND TURBINES GLENROCK I - III

CASPER WIND PROJECT

ROLLING HILLS &

CAMPBELL HILL

TOP OF THE WORLD

PIONEER PARK

345kV LINES 230 - 287kV LINES Data Sources: GE Energy (2020) North American Cooperation on Energy Information (2017) OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of The U.S. Siemens Gamesa (2020) U.S. Energy Information Administration (2020)

100 - 161 kV LINES GATEWAY WEST ROUTE TRANSWEST EXPRESS ROUTE POWER RECIPIENTS

Data Sources: Gateway West Transmission Line Project (2018) Homeland Infrastructure Foundation-Level Data (2020) North American Cooperation on Energy Information (2018) OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of The U.S. Transwest Express LLC (2020) U.S. Energy Information Administration (2020)

MAP 9.1 End of Turbine Blade Life Cycle Plan 1 : 18 000 Section A - A° 1 : 250 Section A - A° across the Casper Regional Landfill, illustrates how the adverse impacts of the most cost effective method for disposal of decommissioned wind turbine blades affecting the environment. With turbine blades measuring up to 70m in length, each blade has to be cut into thirds on site before being transported to the landfill where they are buried in the ground. Whilst in the ground, the organic material within the blade will breakdown over time, generating and emitting the greenhouse gas methane into the atmosphere. Mainly constructed of fibres, resins, and steel, the majority of the blade’s materials are unable to degrade and will rest in the ground once their life cycle is complete. Mainly affecting the soil quality, the mass burial of hundreds of turbine blades is going to continue to rise as wind energy develops, culminating in the detrimental increase of decommissioned turbine blades ending up in landfills.

A

A°

25m Emitted from the anaerobic digestion and decomposition of the organic material within the turbine blades, methane is produced and escapes through the top layer of soil into the atmosphere.

Unable to degrade, the remaining solid material of resins, fibres and rusting steel of the blades will remain in the ground, occupying and staining the soil forever.

Section A - A°

Data Sources: NASA 30m SRTM Data (2014) OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of Casper, WY

MAP 10.1 United States Methane Emissions 2012 1 : 6 000 000

MAP 10.2 United States Landfill Methane Emissions 2012 1 : 6 000 000

Referencing data collected from the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, this map represents the enormous quantities of methane gas produced from the agriculture, coal mining, oil and waste industries across the country in 2012. Primarily emitted across the Mid-West and major cities along the East and West coasts, the U.S. remains a major contributor to the global greenhouse gas

Processed into a quadtree mapping, in which each square represents 10 landfill sites, this map illustrates the corresponding relationship between the density of landfills throughout the United States to the correlating annual landfill waste methane emissions recorded in 2012. Currently heavily under-utilised as a source of energy production, landfill gas (LFG) emissions have continued to rise since 2012 as increased numbers of wind turbine blades are produced for power extraction, to be finally decommissioned into landfill sites, where the organic material breaks down, emitting larger quantities of methane. By visualising the correlation between the high levels of methane emissions and the density of landfill sites, it highlights the destructive relationship between current emissions and future LFG power generation potential as a by-product of wind turbine blade decommission.

LEGEND.

LEGEND.

UNITED STATES (EXC. ALASKA & HAWAII

UNITED STATES (EXC. ALASKA & HAWAII STATE BOUNDARIES LOW 0 (Mg a-1­k­ m-2)

HIGH 20 (Mg a-1­k­ m-2)

1 SQUARE = 10 LANDFILLS Data Sources: Maasakkers et al. (2016), A Gridded National Inventory of U.S. Methane Emissions OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of The U.S.

LOW 0 (Mg 1-1­k­ m-2)

HIGH 10 (Mg 1-1­k­ m-2)

Data Sources: Homeland Infrastructure Foundation - Level Data (2019) Maasakkers et al. (2016), A Gridded National Inventory of U.S. Methane Emissions OpenStreetMap (2020), Map of The U.S.