Z0D27

Sarah Alhasan

1

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my tutor, Elizabeth Baldwin Gray for her invaluable guidance and support throughout the course of this dissertation. I would also like to thank Dr Samuel Austin and Christos Kakalis for their strong belief in my success and for helping me throughout this degree. Their contribution are sincerely appreciated and gratefully acknowledged.

To family and friends who in one way or another shared their support, either morally, financially or physically, Thank you.

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Abstract

The appropriation of monumental imagery or symbolism to fuel consumerism is a common reoccurrence in today’s architecture, this architectural stance can be particularly found in Dubai. Dubai’s architecture was directly influenced by western hegemony and has succeeded in attracting global attention by methods of fabrication of perception and imagery of the city to mean something that is not true. This paper argues against the use of architecture in Dubai as means of self-promotion. Beginning with analysing Dubai’s city planning and reasons for the skyscraper emergence in Dubai, then further elaborating on the result of such planning in producing a “Generic city”. The research presented here further expands on “the Bilbao effect” being utilized in the creation of the Burj Khalifa, and the difference between the real and the synthetic meaning of buildings exploiting such term. In addition, it underlines the use of Burj Khalifa in film in altering perception of Dubai to the foreign audience. In illustrating this point, the movie Mission Impossible: Ghost protocol is brought into discussion and analysed to showcase that, the movie has aided in the appeal of Dubai’s image to the public.

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Content 0 Introduction 0.1 Background

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0.2 Structure

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1 A History of Dubai’s architecture and infrastructure.

1.0 Introduction to Dubai’s city planning.

20

1.1 Brief history of skyscraper emergence.

26

1.2 The rise of tall buildings in Dubai.

30

1.3 Critique of the transition: how does this define Dubai?

36

2 Dubai built upon consumerism.

2.0 Globalization and the Generic City theorem.

40

2.1 Burj Khalifa and the Bilbao Effect.

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3 Recasting Burj Khalifa As A Cinematic Set.

6

3.0 Influence of film on a destination’s image

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3.1 Mission impossible role in enhancing tourism in Dubai over the years

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4 Conclusion

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5 Bibliography

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7

List of illustrations Figure 1: “Dubai Big Road - Sheikh Zayed Road”, (2013) <http://emifromchch.blogspot. com/2013/02/dubai-big-road-sheikh-zayed-road.html> [Accessed 4 December 2019] Figure 2: By author Figure 3: Commission On Building Districts And Restrictions, Final Report (New York: Board of Estimate and Apportionment, 1916), pp. 245-259 Figure 4: AlTurk, Emre, ‘Dubai, Copied and Pasted’ in Al Manakh 2, ed. by Rem Koolhaas, Arjen Oosterman, Daniel Camara, Todd Reisz, Lilet Breddels and Mitra Khoubrou (Amsterdam: Stichting Archis, 2010), pp. 455.

Figure 5: “Dhow”, Wikipedia, (n.d.) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhow> [Accessed 21 January 2020].

Figure 6: ”Burj Al Arab”, Wikipedia, (n.d.) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Al_Arab> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 7: “Chicago Sears Tower”, Wikimedia Commons, (2008) <https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Chicago_Sears_Tower.jpg> [Accessed 4 December 2019] Figure 8: By author Figure 9: Twitter, 2015 <https://twitter.com/burjkhalifa/status/640499555457454080> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 10: Perfil, Ver, “Unit 2: Islamic Arches”, (2017) <http://oscargeographyandhistory.blogspot.com/2017/11/unit-2-islamic-arches.html> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 11: “Burj Khalifa”, SOM , (n.d.) <https://www.som.com/projects/burj_khalifa> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 12: By author Figure 13: “Generic City”, Atributosurbanos , (n.d.) <https://www.atributosurbanos.es/en/ terms/generic-city/> [Accessed 21 January 2020]

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Figure 14: “Emirates Launches New Global ‘Hello Tomorrow’ Campaign”, Campaign Brief, (2012) <https://campaignbrief.com/emirates-launches-new-hello-to/> [Accessed 21 January 2020]; Wixted, Brian, “The World Of Tomorrow 2013 Ads For Emirates Airlines”, Blogger, (2013) <http://econscapes.blogspot.com/2013/06/the-world-of-tomorrow-2013-ads-for.html> [Accessed 21 January 2020]; “Emirates Ad”, Deviant Art, (2012) <https://www.deviantart.com/ tanzeel-ur-rehman/art/Emirates-Ad-327735331> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 15: “Atlantis The Palm”, WATG , (n.d.) <https://www.watg.com/project/atlantis-palm-dubai/> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 16: Rowe, Diana, “The Affordable Atlantis Option: Comfort Suites Paradise Island”, Traveling Mom, (2019) <https://www.travelingmom.com/family-vacations/caribbean-family-vacations/comfort-suites-paradise-island-hotel-bahamas/> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 17: Murphy, Darragh, “Dubai Global Village 2019: What You Need To Know”, Time Out Dubai, (2019) <https://www.timeoutdubai.com/things-to-do/420973-dubai-global-village-2019what-you-need-to-know> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 18: “Russia Tour: Moscow & St Petersburg”, The Times , (n.d.) <https://www.thetimes. co.uk/travel/experttraveller/tours/moscow-st-petersburg-russia-tour/enquire> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 19: Lee, Jess, “25 Top-Rated Tourist Attractions In Dubai | Planetware”, Planet Ware , (n.d.) <https://www.planetware.com/tourist-attractions-/dubai-uae-dub-dubai.htm> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 20: “The Old School House”, National Trust , (n.d.) <https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/ holidays/the-old-school-house-durgan-cornwall> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 21: By author, using “Dubai Statistics Center”, Government of Dubai , (2019) <https:// www.dsc.gov.ae/en-us> [Accessed 3 December 2019] Figure 22: By author, using “Dubai Statistics Center”, Government of Dubai , (2019) <https:// www.dsc.gov.ae/en-us> [Accessed 3 December 2019] Figure 23: By author, using “Dubai Statistics Center”,Government of Dubai , (2019) <https:// www.dsc.gov.ae/en-us> [Accessed 3 December 2019] Figure 24: By author Figure 25: Bird, Brad, Mission Impossible: Ghost Protocol (Hollywood: Paramount Pictures, 2011)

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Figure 26: Smith, Stephan, “Burj Khalifa, Dubai, Tallest Building In The World”, Found The World, (2015) <https://foundtheworld.com/burj-khalifa/> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 27: Bird, Brad, Mission Impossible: Ghost Protocol (Hollywood: Paramount Pictures, 2011) Figure 28: Bird, Brad, Mission Impossible: Ghost Protocol (Hollywood: Paramount Pictures, 2011) Figure 29: Bird, Brad, Mission Impossible: Ghost Protocol (Hollywood: Paramount Pictures, 2011) Figure 30: “Discover Dubai”, Panorama Travel , (n.d.) <http://panoramatravel.com/discover-dubai/> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 31: Harding, Robert, “Manhattan Skyline”, Dissolve , (n.d.) <https://dissolve.com/ stock-photo/Manhattan-skyline-New-York-skyline-Empire-State-Building-sunset-royalty-freeimage/101-D246-38-10095> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 32: Li, Meocre, “Sunset Over Victoria Peak”, Meocre , (n.d.) <https://meocre.smugmug.com/Hong-Kong/Sunset-over-Victoria-Peak/i-PLmTrFP> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 33: Arnaut, Galib, “Sunset Over Dubai Skyline.”, Fstoppers, (2019) <https://fstoppers. com/photo/427461> [Accessed 21 December 2019] Figure 34: By author Figure 35: “Dubai Property Price Declines Slow In October”, Arabian Business, (2019) <https://www.arabianbusiness.com/news/432963-dubai-property-price-declines-slow-in-october> [Accessed 21 January 2020] Figure 36: By author

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Introduction.

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0.1 Background 1 “Emirates Print Advert By BBDO: Burj | Ads Of The World™”, Adsoftheworld.Com, (2019) <https://www.adsoftheworld.com/media/ print/emirates_burj> (Accessed 13 October 2019).

Yasser Elsheshtawy, Planning Middle Eastern Cities (London: Routledge, 2010), p. 7.

2

Gerard Kearns and Chris Philo, Selling Places: The City As Cultural Capital, Past And Present (Architectural Press, 1993)

T

his study is inspired by my growing interest in the fragmented system that I live in United Arab Emirates most known city, Dubai. Dubai is known for its extravagant futuristic architecture, luxurious hospitality and entertainment facilities. It is marketed as an entity that reimagines the world,1 A hybrid community that accepts and welcomes all races and nations, but the underlying question that inevitably surfaces is how does a city like that work?

In a world of unreserved entertainment and luxury where do citizens find themselves?

Due to the lack of material provided on the planning and origins of Dubai, this paper extensively relied on Yasser Elsheshtawy’s efforts in researching the past of Dubai, forming the basis of my research. In particular “Dubai: Behind An Urban Spectacle” offers exploration into the history of Dubai and documents the process of architectural evolution that Dubai has experienced throughout the 19th and 20th century.

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Urban cities are assuming a prevailing role in being considered as a product that needs to marketed2 but at what cost? How does architecture influence the process of a city’s identity and place, what is its role in today’s society and how did we end up here? are all questions that will certainly demand to be answered in the 21st century. Urban cities have embraced a role that inevitably leads to branding the city as a commodity to be sold, their main objectives are to raise their economic enterprises and increase tourism in the area.3 But where does that leave ordinary citizens and locals in the scope of all these aims and goals led by the rulers and society?

The use of appropriation of monumental imagery or symbolism as means to fuel consumerism is widespread in Dubai. This study will investigate the implication and consequences of architecture in Dubai being used as a tool to enhance its global image and economic resources. With particular focus on iconic buildings in Dubai such as Burj Khalifa, the world’s tallest skyscraper and how it is being utilized in different ways to further enhance Dubai’s image and draw more tourists in Dubai.

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0.2 Structure To recognize and fully understand the context and progress of the city of Dubai and how it reached its world status today. The first chapter will be an introduction to Dubai’s city planning principles from the 20th century to the present. Highlighting on particular themes of western hegemony and influence on the middle east and the history of the skyscraper’s emergence from the west to the east.

Further discussions will be made against the exploitation of tradition and culture to push forward certain narratives in Dubai, such as the so called “implementation of Islamic architecture’s arches” into the design of Burj Khalifa.

The third chapter will focus more towards utilizing Burj Khalifa as a cinematic set in the world of cinematography, highlighting on films like the Mission Impossible: Ghost Protocol. The chapter will analyse screen caps and the way the building was filmed to highlight the landmark and emphasize its importance globally. Furthermore, it will also underline the effect of using buildings in cinematography, people’s perception of Dubai and the Burj Khalifa and emphasise how representation changes people’s perception of certain landmarks and places.

The second chapter will focus particularly on themes of globalization and its manipulation in the middle eastern region, then will further underline Rem Koolhaas’s generic city theorem within the context of globalization and modern architecture. In addition, comparisons of places in Dubai and other cities will be made to showcase the replication of structures in order to create “Landscapes of fantasies”, certain critiques about this motive will be made. The chapter will also investigate and define the Bilbao effect and its widespread to the middle east and then bring forward Burj Khalifa and analyse it within the setting.

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A History of Dubaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architecture and infrastructure.

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1.0.

Introduction to Dubai’s city planning.

Mike Davis and Daniel Bertrand Monk, Evil Paradises (New York: New Press, 2011), p. 49.

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Abdullah Nergiz and Havayolu Video, (n.d.) “Emirates – Dubai Inspires A Whole New Look” (n.d.) <https:// www.havayolu101. com/2012/09/02/ emirates-dubai-inspires-a-whole-newlook/> [Accessed 17 November 2019] 5

Yasser Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind An Urban Spectacle (London [u.a.]: Routledge, 2013), p. 108.

6

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind An Urban Spectacle, p. 107.

7

20

8

Ibid., p. 107.

9

Ibid., p. 107.

10

Ibid., p. 107.

11

Ibid., p. 108.

12

Ibid., p. 108.

D

ubai, an emerging dreamworld of eye-catching consumption and what locals market as supreme lifestyles,4 the city that claims to offer a new gaze to the world5 has not always been the city that it states that it is. Before the discovery of oil, which impacted the growth of Dubai’s infrastructure and architecture in 1996,6 it was shaped by local residents living in three small communities located at the mouth of the creek. Both the creek and the Arabian gulf were considered the primary source of profit for the local population and their trade activities were mostly involved with fishing and pearl diving,7 the land use was mainly residential with highly constrained commercial space.8 The environment and living space was primitive, limited to housing clusters that were interconnected for privacy and security purposes,9 This phase was the first in the urban development of Dubai and extended from 1900 to 1955.10 The second phase of urban development in Dubai commenced with the British architect John Harris who drew up the first masterplan for Dubai, the architect aided by his wife aimed at a modest approach to architecture and urban planning in the city, more imbedded to the land and takes account the wellbeing of the local residents.11 However, as the ruling sheikh Rashid at that time grew progressively unwell, the decision making moved into the hands of his sons, who had a different vision for the future of the city. A flow towards the monumental and the iconic, perhaps were informed by the settings of the time.12 This is feasibly the first of many, western influences incorporated into the city, having a British architect design a masterplan for a middle eastern city says a lot about the city of Dubai

and can undeniably make sense of the urban structure of the city today, albeit not being British in all sense of the word. It can be seen how these influences were incorporated into the environment and have opened doors to many other influences to take part in the creation of Dubai.

The city’s rulers were enamoured by London and have set it as an inspiration of what they wanted of Dubai13 and that is how John Harris ended up being the first architect to cater for the masterplan. After the initial masterplan was formed, the neighbourhood slowly and gradually started to see a change in its infrastructure and architecture. Concrete houses began to replace palm huts and house the local residents and the growing population of guest workers,14 the conventional wind towers had been replaced by cement containers with air conditioners installed within the new electricity framework.15 These steady changes were limited by the United Arab Emirates limited financial resources, prior to sufficient oil discovery.16 The sheikh’s urban planning directive was to:

Daniel Brook, A History Of Future Cities (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2014), p. 265.

13

14

Ibid., p. 264.

15

Ibid., p. 266.

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind An Urban Spectacle, p. 108.

16

Brook, A History Of Future Cities , p. 265.

17

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 108.

18

19

Ibid., p. 108.

Bring Dubai from the third world – or fourth world – into the first world in fifteen years. Number two: Dubai was only two hundred thousand in population, design it for one million. Number three: design Dubai as if there’s no oil. Number four: make it the centre of the middle east and number five: go around the world and copy.17

Subsequent to the oil discovery of 1966, a new masterplan was in the making, replacing the initial plan due to increased economic resources.18 The phase saw the formation of a series of landmarks and the zoning of different parts of Dubai to accommodate the changes that were envisioned to happen. John Harris was involved in the design of the tallest building in the Arab world at the time, the Dubai World Trade Centre. Hence, began the start of Dubai’s global success, lighting the way for the city’s significance globally.19

21

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 109.

20

21

Ibid., p. 109.

22

Ibid., p. 111.

23

Ibid., p. 111 - 115.

24

Ibid., p. 111 - 115.

25

Ibid., p. 116.

26

Ibid., p. 116.

27

Ibid., p. 116.

Emergence of buildings soon followed after the World Trade Centre, scattering across Sheikh Zayed Road towards Jebel Ali20 (Fig. 1). The period of time between the late 1970s and the early 1980s marked a compact growth for the city of Dubai, pushing forward numerous projects that were constructed along the highway resulting in the beginning of a change in Dubai’s skyline21 (Fig. 2) Due to this rapid expansion, some problems have been raised because it started to create fragments that did not exist before.

Thus, the city called for a re-evaluation of it’s current masterplan as it was criticized to be too rigid for the developments that were in vision for Dubai.22 Dubai Structural plan was established by the Dubai municipality in 1995, which paved a way for a plan that was versatile enough to accommodate the changes happening in the city.23 However, due to the unforeseen compact growth of the city, especially the unpredicted flow of foreign labour which caused social and economic issues in the region.24 Criticism towards the lack of a sustainable strategy, negligence of social justice and a lack of 3D massing, perspectives and visual character resulted in what appears to be a generic twenty-first century city.25 the plan needed to be altered again. In 2007, the Dubai Urban Development Framework (DUDF) was launched and was curated by an Australian consultancy firm called URBIS.26 The vision for this proposal was meant to direct Dubai’s architecture and infrastructure up to 2020 and beyond.27

Figure 2 Dubai’s skyline at night time

The challenges that the metropolis has faced during the years and the amendments in place further verify that it was initially a city with some kind of direction, However, as time went on the vision gradually became more fragmented mirroring the urban status of the city. Although, the proposal tackled several problems including environmental, economic and social sustainably. One

28

Ibid., p. 117.

29

Ibid., p. 118.

of its firm aims was still gaining global attention by setting Dubai within the short list of the worlds’ most “liveable places”.28 It is debateable whether all these aimed refinements moved beyond propaganda and actually took place in real time. It feels as though these aims were set more for the justification of the compact growth within the city because regardless of whether they wanted to achieve these certain goals, problems still arised. Some of the challenges that were faced were the transportation issues, infrastructure needs and cultural difference due to the increase of foreign population in a short period of time.29

Figure 1 illustration of the street view from sheikh Zayed road towards Jebel Ali

22

23

This certain scheme was the pivotal point to the rise of capitalism in Dubai, which fuelled the emergence of the skyscraper in the region. With the aid of the oil profit and gradually the opportunity for more labour workers in the region due to the foreign population increased. Dubai was on its way to the top of the world, and the next part of this section will discuss the emergence of the skyscraper movement. With emphasis on the United states which paved a path for other cities to emulate such structures.

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1.1.

Brief history of the Skyscraper emergence.

Willis, Form Follows Finance, p. 45.; Thomas Wensing, “The Future Of The Skyscraper”, Design Curial, (2015) <http://www.designcurial.com/news/ the-future-of-the-skyscraper-4684792/> [Accessed 18 January 2020].

30

Rem Koolhaas, Delirious New York (United States of America: The Monacelli press, 1994), p. 82.

31

Carol Willis, Form Follows Finance (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), p. 181.

32

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 153.

33

Anthony King, Spaces Of Global Cultures (London: Spon, 2004).

Hilary Ballon, The Greatest Grid (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).

37

Koolhaas, Delirious New York , p.

107.

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T

he skyscraper was the result of, American city’s desire to shift away from the standard European style of architecture.30 In 1853, the elevator was invented and paved the path for buildings to rise vertically because it conquered the issue of accessibility and adaptability. Prior to its creation buildings that were more than two stories were considered difficult to navigate and buildings that were more than five stories were impossible to accommodate.31 The four-storey walk-up was the standard in New York because that was the maximum number of stairs a person could comfortably walk.

The skyscraper was considered an object that expresses independency and economic power. Carol Willis, the architectural critic described skyscrapers as the ‘ultimate architecture of capitalism’.32 Its creation in the 19th century started the plethora of skyscrapers in New York and other cities in the United States, up until mid 20th century it was considered distinctly an American phenomenon.33

Figure 3 Setback principle, 1916 zoning law.

34

Kheir Al-Kodmany and Mir M Ali, The Future Of The City: Tall Buildings And Urban Design, 1st edn (Southampton: WIT Press, 2012) p. 40.

35

36

26

Ibid.

It was only in the late 20th century that the rise of skyscrapers in Asia commenced.34 This is due to the fact that according to Robert Assagiolio, an inventor of psychosynthesis theories, the concept of height relates to “human capabilities”.35 Thus, Asian cities aspired to promote their capabilities through building tall, because it creates an image of power and wealth. It is also known that tall structures construct an identity for a city, for instance, Big Ben is London, Eiffel tower is Paris and in the case of Dubai, Burj Khalifa is it’s character.36

The lack of regulation in the design of the skyscraper in New York resulted in health and safety issues.37 Furthermore, concerns about the insufficient sun light and street congestion due to the massing and height of some skyscrapers caused the creation of the 1916 zoning law.38 The planning committee in New York had some efforts in trying to implement limitations towards the design of skyscraper unlike in Asia.

27

39

Ibid., p. 107.

Commission On Building Districts And Restrictions, Final Report (New York: Board of Estimate and Apportionment, 1916), pp.

245-259.

40

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 102.

41

Robert F. Worth, “Yemen Finds Dreamland Of Architecture”, The New York Times, (2009) <https:// www.nytimes. com/2009/11/16/ world/middleeast/16yemen. html> [Accessed 18 January 2020].

42

Emre AlTurk, ‘Dubai, Copied and Pasted’ in Al Manakh 2, ed. by Rem Koolhaas and others (Amsterdam: Stichting Archis, 2010), pp. 454-455.

43

44

28

Ibid.

The 1916 zoning law implements the setback principle (fig. 3) which states that a building’s height couldn’t exceed a certain ratio to the width of the street, the process of replicating the façade of a building vertically would only be permitted to a certain height and then the building must step back from the plot line at a certain angle to allow lights into the street.39 Furthermore, the zoning law implemented some urban planning rules such as, banning industrial work in residential or business districts.40 This had an impact on the characteristic of skyscrapers in New York. As the New York building commission started implementing a unifying rule for skyscrapers to follow, further leading to shaping an identity distinctive to its skyline. New York’s skyline is especially different from Asia, and particularly Dubai in this case, which has no regulation and no set of orders to derive forms from.

The collective spirit of disorder in Dubai is what drives the city to be open to change and accepting of change, the fact that nothing has a sense of hierarchy of decorum makes it all the more open and accepting of said changes, and makes it easily influenced by different attributes of the west instead of deriving its identity from the existing building typology like New York. Dubai’s skyline has been heavily criticized by the media, ‘Headlines such as “skyline on crack or “the architectural insanity of Dubai” were quite common’.41 However, what is appalling is that many middle eastern cities tend to want to emulate such skyline, such as Beirut42 and Turkey.43 Turkish real estate agent, Mehmet Gokceoglu was running for mayor and his vision for Turkey was to follow Dubai as a utopian model and replicate its skyscrapers in various parts of Turkey. In his proposal he managed to photoshop various proposed projects that were meant for Dubai in Turkey through creating ‘its very own saturated Bilbao effect by means of a heap of iconic buildings’.44

Figure 4 A photoshop campaign in Turkey, run

by Mehmet Gokceoglue photoshopping Dubai’s skyscrapers on Turkey’s map

Perhaps the reason why cities wanted to emulate Dubai, was their want to gain a global image. Due to reasons, such as the success of Dubai’s planning methods in creating global awarness and driving investments and tourism into the city.

29

1.2.

The rise of tall buildings in Dubai Brook, A History Of Future Cities , p. 268.

45

46

Ibid.

47

Ibid., p. 268.

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 137.

48

Khuan Chew and Uschi Schmitt, 1001 Arabian Nights At The Burj Al Arab (Dubai: ABC millennium, 2000).

49

“Burj Al Arab”, ATKINS, (n.d.) (https://www.atkinsglobal.com/en-GB/ projects/burj-al-arab) [Accessed 20 November 2019].

50

Figure 5 A picture of a Dhow ship, emphasizing the sail, that resembles the Burj Al Arab design.

30

T

he notion of skyscrapers or tall buildings as per say, started with the creation of Dubai’s own World Trade Centre, it was aimed to raise Dubai’s global status and raise attention from the western world and was purposefully given an unoriginal name in tribute to its first western-influenced landmark.45 Sheikh Rashid (the ruling king), commissioned this project and sought to embrace an American style inspired building that was exceptional to the region.46 However, the only press the building gained from the west was to ridicule it because a thirty-nine-story tower was insignificant in a world were hundred-story towers existed.47

His perception of the city was that the residents there were “forward looking” and “aiming at the future” hence he was open to exploring designs that moved away from historical context.49 Finally settling on a sail shaped building, designed to resemble the flowing sail of a Dhow (Fig. 5).50

The next building to overshadow the scene was Burj Al-Arab (Tower of the Arabs) (Fig. 6) A fifty-six storey, ‘seven’ star hotel and on the list of one of the tallest hotels in the world.48 Designed by the British firm W.S Atkins and its head architect Tom Wright. The design was based on the motive of finding an “iconic form”.

Figure 6 Burj Al Arab

31

Brook, A History Of Future Cities , p. 353.

51

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 156.

52

53

Ibid., p. 156.

Brook, A History Of Future Cities, p.

354.

54

55

Ibid., p. 373.

Dan Halpern, “Arabian Heights: How Does An Emerging Global Power Announce Itself? With The World’s Tallest Building.”, ARCHITECT, (2007) <https:// www.architectmagazine.com/design/ urbanism-planning/ arabian-heights_o> [Accessed 20 November 2019].

56

Shortly after, Emirates Towers (Fig. 7) emerged which was commissioned by Sheikh Mohammed (The heir of the past ruling king, Sheikh Rashid). His vision for Dubai was not different from his father, he insisted on constructing a building that is taller than any in Europe.51 Emirates tower was ‘an office/hotel complex with fifty-one storeys and a height of 350m’.52 After its completion, It was considered the tallest building in the Middle East and Europe.53 Sheikh Mohammed wanted Dubai to be number 1 in the world and wanted it to rival with the most high-status financial centres such as London and New York.54 Further partaking in the decision to push forward building the tallest tower in the world, Burj Khalifa (Fig. 8).

Designed by the American architect, Adrian Smith of SOM (Skidmore, Owings & Merrill).55 The SOM design was picked among the rest in a competition because according to the committee:

Figure 8 Burj Alarab

Figure 9 Designers of Burj Khalifa trying to illustrate its inspiration, that comesfrom Figure 7 Willis Tower in Chicago, USA.

32

the Hymenocallis flower and islamic arches.

33

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 158.

57

Brook, A History Of Future Cities , p. 373.

58

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 158.

It has the heroic, romantic massing qualities of the great New York skyscraper, but had a modern skin and was technically state of the art. They also picked up subtle references to Islamic architecture in the arched plan shapes, which appealed to the Emirati staff (who) worried that the building would look like it could belong anywhere.56

59

60

Ibid., p.159.

Figure 10 Islamic arches types.

34

The architect claims that the design was loosely inspired by a black, three lobed 1960s skyscraper in Chicago ‘Similar to Chicago’s Sears Tower’ (Fig. 7)57 but with an ‘Arab twist’, he declares it takes on the pointed arches that originate in Islamic architecture.58 However, Dubai municipality were aiming at a statement that expresses more authenticity than ‘a tower inspired by a skyscraper in Chicago’.59 Hence, they asked for a more conceptual statement that contextualizes the tower’s form and footprint. SOM returned shortly after with a new justification for their design, arguing that it was derived from the desert flower “Hymenocallis” (Fig. 9), and that deemed to be a reasonable statement for the municipality to approve of the design.60

Elaborating on the accreditation of design to Islamic architectural inspiration, it feels as though it was a propagandist rhetoric rather than actually relating to Islamic architecture in the literal sense.

The illustration produced by the official Burj Khalifa social media presence (Fig. 9), feels contrived although they have shown a diagram of the floor plan over-layed on top of an Islamic arch.

Even if there was some truth to that connection, Experientially, the move is useless, as its form would be visible only from the air, thus having little impact on those at ground level.

Figure 11 Burj Khalifa topdown view

61

Ibid., p.159.

62

Ibid.

According to Elsheshtawy, The real value of the project, was in its height.61 Faridooni, a leading Dubai based architect, claimed that in negotiating with the sheikh about the building, the sheikh kept demanding for it to be bigger and bigger. In talks with SOM, he made sure that the architects knew what the sheikh’s vision was, because it seemed to be that most of his interest lied under if it was the tallest or not.62

35

Yasser Elsheshtawy, Temporary Cities: Resisting Transience In Arabia, 1st edn (Routledge, 2019), p. 2.

63

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 4.

64

65

Ibid,. p. 22.

“A Survey Of Cities: The World Goes To Town”, The Economist, (2007) <https://www.economist.com/special-report/2007/05/03/ the-world-goes-totown> [Accessed 21 November 2019].

66

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 128.

67

68

Ibid., p.128.

Glendinning, Architecture’s Evil Empire?, p. 13.

69

36

T

he thing that distinguishes Dubai from most western metropolises is the absence of contextual limits, that aspect is usually a constrain to American and European cities such as London and New York. This absence empowers its urbanity and operates within a tabula rasa effect,63 permitting it to become some sort of laboratory in which numerous urban experiments are being achieved.64 Such initiatives are used to revitalize an otherwise “Stagnant” metropolis additionally referred to as the “Bilbao Effect”65 which will be touched upon in subsequent chapters. As a result, those mega projects remodel the image of a city into an extremely modern, fun- filled metropolis.66 Elsheshtawy believes that the key ingredient to achieving a global city status is by developing iconic mega structure in architecture which seize attention through the use of superlatives (such as biggest, tallest, etc).67 Additionally, he goes on and adds that the act of replicating some styles of other regions and cultures and rebranding them as the city’s own also factors in a city’s global success.68 Dubaim, albeit facing criticism and controversies in articles and through media press continues to use that to its advantage and draws upon global attention. Most if not all of the buildings discussed previously were built by western architects, which in retrospect can be an advantage towards those designers as they do relish in the degree of freedom that does not really exist anywhere else in the world.

But what does that leave the middle eastern city looking like? It feels like the only Arabian relation that the city utilizes is the Arabian labels and symbols of old Arabian history. Because the way Dubai is fabricated feels like it can be replicated anywhere in the world which is something elaborated on in chapter 3. This certain individualism, worship of symbols and the act of competing all fall under the title of capitalist commercialism.69

Heights in Metres

1.3.

Critique of the transition: how does this define Dubai?

Years

Figure 12 Chart representing the timeline of tall buildings in Dubai.

37

Dubai built upon consumerism.

38

39

2.0 Globalization and the Generic City theorem.

Glendinning, Architecture’s Evil Empire?, p. 14.

70

Philip Kotler, Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry, And Tourism To Cities, States, And Nations (Simon and Schuster, 1993).

71

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 128.

72

Yasser Elsheshtawy, Planning Middle Eastern Cities (London: Routledge, 2010), p. 3.

73

Jane Jacobs, Edge Of Empire: Postcolonialism And The City (London: Routledge, 1996).

74

40

T

he narrative so far has discussed the formation of the UAE, and Dubai, by examining various planning principles and rulers’ visions for the city. In restating what has been discussed in chapter 1, this chapter focuses more on the implications of a city created for consumption and human leisure. Debates made about how architecture became an object that is sold to the public instead of utilizing its fundamental role as a stabilizing and anchoring agent.70 In this chapter I will focus on how high-end building and architecture is used as a tool for self-promotion, further enhancing a city’s global status but also as a consequence of such a creation leading it to what Koolhaas likes to identify as the “Generic City”.

Places are treated as merchandise whose identities and values need to be tailored, designed and marketed to nations.71 Dubai feels as a new product that has been put on spotlight and needs to reach a new target quota. Through the journey of its architectural and status growth it has always relied on the wild card, it be designing the tallest, the biggest, the largest etc. It has used superlatives to reach world status.72 The outcome of such propaganda is, structures that have no real expression beyond perpetuating wealth and illusive sense of tradition.

Perhaps Dubai has justified its exceptional urban planning decisions on one phenomenal that’s called “Globalization”. Globalization in Dubai has allowed for the opportunity to create hybrid buildings that seem out of place, Elsheshtawy (2010) claims that it has pushed forward western hegemony in the middle east, leading to diaspora and transculturation.73 However, Jane Jacobs (1996) disagrees with the negative claims about globalization and instead thinks that globalization leads to recreation and revalidation of place.74 Cities in the middle east have already adapted a paradigm in which they use their heritage and culture to create certain images that attract investments and tourists.75 Globalization was a tool in which cities could justify their lack of true traditional architecture in order to create the so called ‘hybrid form’ that attracts tourists and locals to the area. While the imagery associated with these built forms is linked to cultural elements, such as the use of “Hymenocallis” in the design of Burj Khalifa and the use of the flowing sail of a dhow to design Burj Al Arab. The suggested buildings

Steven Miles, Spaces For Consumption (Los Angeles, Calif: Sage, 2010), p. 35.

75

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 139.

76

77

Ibid.

Neil Brenner and Roger Keil, The Global Cities Reader (London: Routledge, 2009); Elsheshtawy, Planning Middle Eastern Cities, p. 3.

78

only cater to the elite community, mostly being rich tourists. And the reality is locals and ordinary citizens might never set foot in those buildings that are made to represent the local community.76 Ending up in concealing its true nature and advertising itself in the veil of tradition and heritage.77 Post-industrial cities rely on globalization as means to change the city and continue reworking it towards their own narrative.78 History is only used in this context if it benefits the city’s image of providing the “ultimate Arabian experience” which is not a reality but an exploitation of traditional and cultural history. As Murray puts it:

41

Chris Murray, Making Sense Of Place (Gloucestershire: Comedia Publications, 2001).

79

a narrative is built upon past culture or tradition being used in buildings and having inspired infrastructure, that is not entirely the truth. A manipulation to foreigners is being made to attract them to a place that so calls embraces its own culture and tradition in a new and contemporary way.79

Anne-Marie Broudehoux, The Making And Selling Of PostMao Beijing (New The depiction of the city that is fabricated and promoted in the process York: Routledge, of commodifying places is frequently based on a vision that does not 2004), p. 26.

80

Brook, A History Of Future Cities , p. 268.

81

Koolhaas and Mau, S, M, L, XL. 82

resemble reality but is reliant on stereotyped notions and exaggerated representations, which seeks to enhance the marketability of the city.80 Sheikh Rashid (The first ruler of Dubai), sought recognition through iconic architecture and built environment,81 However, did not see through the consequences that that will build up in the future. As Rem Koolhaas describes it best in “S,M,L,XL” it has aided the creation of a ‘Generic City’.82 The generic city ideology can be best described as a city that is devoid of history, it is a city that is flexible and tailored towards present need and present conditions. In Koolhaas’s words: It is a city big enough for everybody. It is easy. It does not need maintenance.

If it gets too small, it just expands. If it gets old, it just self-destructs and renews. It is equally exciting – or unexciting- everywhere. It is “superficial” – like a Hollywood studio lot, it can produce a new identity every Monday morning.83

42

Figure 13 Rem Koolhaas’s “Generic City” cover

43

Koolhaas and Mau, S, M, L, XL, p.

1250.

83

Anna Klingmann, Brandscapes (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2007), p. 19.

84

Dubai is known to be a transient city, its aim is to experience it for a moment but what that said moment entails points at one direction: consumption.

‘For architecture, in the experience economy, the relative success of design lies in the sensation a consumer derives from it – in the enjoyment it offers and the resulting pleasures it evokes’.84

Architecture in Dubai aims more towards creating a once in a lifetime experience. It promotes itself through slogans such as “Dubai welcome you to the fun” (Fig. 14), “Tomorrow redefines luxury” (Fig. 14), etc. Such self-promotion perpetuates a vision of Dubai which embodies affluence and wealth to the consumer. This is an idealized utopian reality that simply does not exist without downfall.

The certain image that Dubai tries to exude to attract consumers is an image of artificiality and momentary euphoria, which can be compared to the image that Disneyland vibrates and puts across the globe for people to visit it.

44

Figure 14 Advertisments of Dubai through Emirates Airline

45

John Urry and Jonas Larsen, The Tourist Gaze 3.0, 3rd edn (SAGE Publications Ltd, 2011), p. 53.

85

86

Ibid, p. 103.

87

Ibid, p. 103.

The term Disneyfication, describes the strategy through which businesses commodify ideas, objects and services in order to increase value and attract consumers by transforming them into prominent experiences primarily based on western hegemony and consumerist lifestyles.85 Dubai feeds off Disneyfication, in a city where almost everything resembles artificiality, luxury and technological advances. This is an architecture of façades and appearances that propagates entertainment and consumerism, which can be easily compared to Las Vegas. Sociologist, John Urry refers to Las Vegas’s architecture as an architecture that liberates off manifestos of narrative that fit with consumerist wants.86 Additionally, he claims “Las Vegas heightened symbolism builds a fictional fantasy landscapes.”87 which in many cases can relate to Dubai’s image.

Illustrating this point by showcasing pictures of different places in Dubai that look like they belong to different regions, First starting with Atlantis The Palm (Fig. 15), which unexpectedly is identical to The Bahamas Atlantis (Fig. 16), Then the Global Village In Dubai (Fig. 17) that replicated the Red Square of Moscow, Russia (Fig. 18) and Lastly a Dubai parks and resorts (Fig. 19) that looks like an exact replica of Lake Houses (Fig. 20) in United kingdom.

Figure 15 Atlantis The Palm, Dubai.

Figure 16 Atlantis Paradise Islands, Bahamas.

It is fascinating how cities like Dubai, can get away with this sort of replication and symbolism that feels as though it has been copied and pasted from other cities. The lack of awareness of the potential that tradition and cultural value can bring in to the city results in this kind of stance. The endless efforts of the rulers and the planning committee trying to associate such structures with heritage and culture have failed and only resulted in it looking contrived and out of place to the eyes of the educated and the critics.

46

47

Figure 17 The Global Village in Dubai, Mimicking the design of Moscowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s red square in Russia.

48

Figure 18 Moscowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s red square in Russia.

49

Figure 19 Dubai Parks and Resorts

It is unfortunate that architecture of the 21st century has reached this outcome, It proves that buildings can be treated as commodities that seek to be advertised and capitalized off. Instead of embracing the past of the city and incorporating it to create rich designâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s that not only work for consumption purposes but also facilitate the culture and tradition that they are situated at. In Asia, architecture seeks to become more western influenced resulting in cities that look out of place.

Figure 20 British Lake House in Cornwall.

50

51

2.1 Burj Khalifa and the Bilbao Effect.

Elsheshtawy, Dubai: Behind an Urban Spectacle, p. 151.

88

Elsheshtawy, Planning Middle Eastern Cities, p. 8.

89

Rowan Moore, “The Bilbao Effect: How Frank Gehry’S Guggenheim Started A Global Craze”, The Guardian, (2017) <https://www. theguardian.com/ artanddesign/2017/ oct/01/bilbao-effectfrank-gehry-guggenheim-global-craze> [Accessed 3 December 2019].

90

91

52

Ibid.

A

s discussed previously, Burj Khalifa was intended to be the tallest building in the world to seek global attention and attract tourism (Fig. 21) and investment into Dubai. The discourse of it indicates its arrival to the world stage and the retreat from middle eastern influences.88 Architecture of the twenty-first century in many instances is used as a means to create ‘eye catching’ impressions.89 For instance, the Guggenheim museum in Bilbao for which the Bilbao effect was named demonstrated that architecture could be used to regenerate and promote a city globally, attracting massive tourism creating a term called “The Bilbao Effect”.

The Bilbao effect, known to many, is a phenomenon where economic, cultural influences and iconic architecture came together to elevate the city’s image and provide exposure.90 Although it has suffered criticism from theorist and architects, the Guggenheim museum remains an undeniable successful landmark. It was regarded as ‘the father of “iconic architecture’,91 and was the origin from which countless extravagant buildings started from. Similar to Burj Khalifa’s case its construction has faced numerous difficulties and some rulers feared it would never be finished, however strikingly after its completion in 2010, it has grabbed attention like no other towards Dubai. Now it is considered the main landmark of Dubai along-side Burj Al Arab and has increased the economy and number of tourists throughout the years to a double (Fig. 22) since its completion.

Alongside increasing the popularity of Dubai among social media (Fig. 23). What both advances have in common is the use of a spectacle to attract attention from the world.

Figure 21 Number of international visitors in millions in 2018.

Figure 22 Chart based on Dubai Statistics Centre of the number of international overnight visitors in millions per year in Dubai.

Figure 23 Most searched Dubai places in Google Searches.

53

Kevin Lynch, City Sense And City Design: Writings And Projects Of Kevin Lynch (London: MIT Press, 1995), p. 749.

92

Brook, A History Of Future Cities, p.

265. ; Elsheshtawy, Planning Middle Eastern Cities, p. 172.

93

Graeme Evans, Hard Branding The Cultural City, 2003.

94

Cities around the world make efforts in building landmarks to increase status and create a global image. As Lynch puts it ‘Landmark structures might be encouraged at significant locations’,92 For instance, when people recall Spain, they subconsciously think about La Sagrada Familia. Similarly, Paris is identified by the mere thought of the Eiffel Tower. Significant landmarks lead to the increase of the city’s global image and thus inevitably leads to global growth. Not only was Burj Khalifa meant to appeal to the public but it was also designed to lead Dubai on a direction toward everlasting prosperity that could sustain it when the oil revenue diminished.93 The consequence of such buildings is that they struggle to establish an articulate sense of their own identity, they have no clear idea of what their practical role may be beyond simply being iconic and bringing in capital to the city.94 The fact that most residents and the majority of tourists cannot even set foot in Burj Khalifa says much about the structure, it is there for show, and the spaces provided inside are only meant for the elite community to experience.

54

Figure 24 Burj Khalifa

55

Recasting Burj Khalifa As A Cinematic Set.

56

57

3.1 Influence of film on a destination’s image.

Beeton, Sue, Film-Induced Tourism (Clevedon: Channel View Publications, 2005), p. 43.; Christian Nielsen, Tourism And The Media: Tourist Decision-Making, Information, And Communication (Melbourne: Hospitality Press, 2001).

96

Nichola Tooke and Michael Baker, “Seeing Is Believing: The Effect Of Film On Visitor Numbers To Screened Locations”, Tourism Management, 17.2 (1996), 8794 <https://doi. org/10.1016/02615177(95)00111-5>.

E

xpanding more on the use of Burj Khalifa as means to market Dubai, United Arab Emirates. This chapter focuses and illustrates the use of the building in visual media, precisely film to encourage more visitors onto locations. Furthermore, discussions about the tourist gaze and the influence of images created by films on people will be made. The film that will be discussed in this section is Mission Impossible: Ghost Protocol because some vital parts of the film took place in Burj Khalifa.

97

Beeton, Film-Induced Tourism, p. 8.

98

99

Ibid.

Peter Schofield, “Cinematographic Images Of A City: Alternative Heritage Tourism In Manchester”, Tourism Management, 17.5 (1996), 333-340 <https://doi. org/10.1016/02615177(96)00033-7>.

100

58

In order to market a place successfully, the place must be initially commodified, like a product. A set of strategies regarding design and marketing must be set in order to achieve an economic success because not only does destination marketing attract tourists but, it also attracts business investment, tourism employment and attracts professional workers to the city.96 Before going to consider the specific influence of Burj Khalifa used in film on tourism in Dubai, it is worth knowing some cases in which film has influenced other parts of the world to build positive images for them. Film and popular media play a vital role in providing considerable exposure to a particular tourist attraction, city or region.97 A compelling demonstration of the impact that film exerts in today’s society is the way it was used in reconstructing the image of the United States subsequent to 9/11.98 The use of fictional characters, real celebrities and sport athletes in film and advertisement post 9/11 has made it possible for people to believe that New York can not only be a safe place to visit as a tourist but can be enjoyed again even after the events that happened in 2001. Further demonstrating the power of the media in the 21st century.99

Theories have been constructed in the fact that many tourists have a tendency to revel in the world through a sequence of framed images. Whether it through brochures, vehicle windows or camera lenses. The tv screen is just another frame through which tourists vicariously experience a destination. The production of particular images in film can be a strong motivator for tourists to visit the place on screen.100

Beeton, Film-Induced Tourism, p. 54.

101

Eugene D Jaffe and Israel D Nebenzahl, National Image & Competitive Advantage (Frederiksberg: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2006).

102

103

Lapage and Cormier claim that

Ibid.

In many cases, it’s probably the image more than the factual information that produces a tourist’s decision on where to travel

In most cases place marketing is aimed towards either reinforcing an existing image to prospective tourists’ minds or creating a new image that replaces vague or negative images.101 Image is the perception a person has of an object, in this case a place.102 It is the image that is formed inside the consumer’s imagination that motivate consumer behaviour.103 As in if the visitor formed positive images and saw extraordinary scenery from film, these images will build up in their imagination and manifest into the decision of wanting to travel and visit the location.

59

John Urry, The Tourist Gaze: Leisure And Travel In Contemporary Societies (London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 1990), 86.

104

What individuals gaze upon are mediated representations of a building, city or place in film. To illustrate this point, a comparison has been made between a shot from the film, mission impossible showcasing Burj Khalifa in the midst of an advanced urban environment (Fig. 25) and a real wide perspective shot of Burj Khalifa in the midst of what looks like a circle of skyscrapers, surrounded by the desert (Fig. 26). The difference that has been made through the careful manipulation of particular framed images is evident. In mission impossible, the shot implies that the surrounding buildings and infrastructure mimic the same level of advancement as the Burj Khalifa wheres the realistic shot tells a different story.

Thus by mediating representations of places, it manifests a fantasy into the mind of the viewer about the certain place.104 Even in instances where the place fails to live up to the expectation in a visitor’s mind, it will still be talked about, involuntarily raising attention and question about it globally.

Figure 25 Screencap from the film, Mission impossible: Ghost Protocol

The mediated representation of places plays a vital role in Dubai specifically because it is this representation that influences people’s perception of Dubai, as most of the individuals have not yet visited it.

In this way the act of visiting a location becomes increasingly linked to the images perceived before-hand. Expanding on this, Janosson argues that the tourist gaze is not based of first hand experiences but rather [...] governed by and measured against mediated representations created by the tourism industry or by the culture industry at large.105

This accounts to the realisation that buildings and physical infrastructure are used as means to provide raw material for media representation that function as customized scenery and emphasized structures that represent a luxurious and e-lite lifestyle that will be provided to its visitors.

60

Figure 26 Burj Khalifa perspective shot.

André Jansson, “Spatial Phantasmagoria: The Mediatization Of Tourism Experience”, European Journal Of Communication, 17.4 (2002), 429443 <https://doi.org/ 10.1177/026732310 20170040201>.

105

61

3.2 Mission impossible role in enhancing tourism in Dubai over the years Keith J Fernandez, “UAE Travel Industry Could Benefit From Film Marketing”, Gulf News, (2015) <https:// gulfnews.com/travel/ advice/uae-travel-industry-could-benefit-from-film-marketing-1.1621020> [Accessed 16 January 2020].

106

Beeton, Film-Induced Tourism, p. 23.

107

T

his unique impression doesn’t just raise awareness of a city, hotel or street, but actually help people to view them in a different light, We may be aware that the Burj Khalifa is the tallest skyscraper in

the world, but it holds an entirely new fascination after watching Tom Cruise scale its exterior.106 - Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Maktoum

In the movie, Mission Impossible: Ghost Protocol, Burj Khalifa was used in the film to perform an operation by the team. In the midst of the scene Tom Cruise playing Ethan Hunt in the movie had to climb down the building from the outside to locate some servers and allow technical connections to be made to perform the operation (Fig. 27). This scene has caused great impact and representation of Dubai’s tallest building, Burj Khalifa. As the stunt was performed

by Tom Cruise himself. The movie not only features Dubai as one of the city’s visited but also is premiered there giving chance for huge publicity and global attention.

Cities like Dubai capitalize off the image of Burj Khalifa to bring in tourists from around the globe. The exposure that Mission Impossible provided for the city is undeniable and can also be compared to Mad Max in it’s impact on Australia’s tourist numbers increasing rapidly after its release.107

Figure 27 Screencaps from the film, Mission impossible: Ghost Protocol

62

63

BBC News, Mission: Impossible Premiere In Dubai, 2011, <https://www. bbc.com/news/ video_and_audio/ features/enterntainment -arts16063652/1606352> [Accessed 16 January 2020] 108

Beeton, Film-Induced Tourism, p. 52.

109

110

Ibid., p. 52.

Simon Anholt, Places (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), p. 89.

The studios in the states and the studios in Hollywood looking at this part of the world emphasize that this region has undergone an immense type of growth, so to open such a big film like this in a small city like Dubai is really something we are proud of.

108

– Abdelhamid Juma

Some visitors can begin to perceive Dubai through the lens of mission impossible and anticipate the idea of climbing up Burj Khalifa or seeing it in real person and experiencing the luxury provided and that leaves a strong mental image in their mind that they can remember and reflect on when they travel and visit such places.

111

64

112

Ibid., p. 89.

113

Ibid., p. 89.

Individuals tend to visit places that reflect their ideal self image109, in other words “the greater the match between the destination visitor image and the tourist self concept, the more likely that this tourist will be motivated to visit that destination”.110 if the destination’s image showcases an extraordinary e-lite luxurious life and the individual’s self aspires to be living like that then that will motivate them to pursue and experience such lifestyle.

When individuals decide to visit Dubai and experience this kind of lifestyle and encounter all the scenery that has been represented to them through Film and various media outlets, it empowers the image of the city in their mind. Thus, when they return home, they abandon their preconceptions about the place and are left with a sense of validity and reality that places like this actually exist.111 The significance of a good experience for a tourist is extremely important, as people talk to each other about their holidays.112 Especially if those people are part of a predominant demographic, because overtime they can influence and construct a real and relatively considerable improvement in the city’s overall global image.113 Ultimately, this kind of behaviour enhances and encourages people to want to experience and relate to what is talked about therefore increases the rate of tourism in the city.

The increase of tourism in a place can improve living standards in the city such as maintaining levels of employment and possibly creating jobs for the unemployed and brings a sense of gratitude and well-being to the people who live in such places because they start to believe that they have something special that other people strive to acquire in their cities.114

Beeton, Film-Induced Tourism, p. 14.

114

115

Ibid., p. 12.

Anholt, Places , p. 90.

116

117

118

Ibid. , p. 90.

Ibid , p. 40-41.

Regardless of how such positive outcomes can come from the increasment of tourists and migrants to the city people fail to acknowledge that such acts may also influence the city negatively.

In the case of Dubai, it can cause congestion and over population because excessive visitors may disrupt the environment, or the landmark visited leading to feelings of disappointment at the commotion that these congestions can cause onto their experience.115 Tourism is frequently the most powerful tool used to spread the value of the country. But can also eventually lead to negative consequences such as drowning out economic, political and even cultural voices, further promoting a skewed leisure oriented image. Due to this, it can in many cases conflict with the city’s reputation and cause decline of business investment and export in the country.116 Furthermore, such branding of a city to be luxurious and superficial built on purposes of leisure and enjoyment may disconnect the link between the place and the culture it wants to maintain.

Such exercise runs the danger of devaluing the essential dignity of the place, diminishing the actual heritage, culture, race and diversity of places like this.117 Thus, reducing the richness of the nation. In the case of Dubai the lack of awareness about its culture and heritage due to the shortage of representation resulted in, start-up organisations that hold up guided tours to educate and raise awareness on local tradition and culture.118

65

However, to contradict the last statement, albeit the movie showing close up’s of Burj Khalifa in all its glory. The scene building up to it showed another side of Dubai, A shot of the main characters

in a car driving towards Burj Khalifa in the midst of the desert was filmed and featured in the movie (Fig. 29) which contradicts the glamourous, luxurious life that Dubai and Burj Khalifa as a building tries to portray itself within. It is this careful sequence of scenes that make the viewer think about the juxtaposition scenery provided by the movie. The luxurious vs the primitive is an obvious opposition demonstrated in that scene.

Figure 28 Screencaps from the film, Mission impossible: Ghost Protocol

66

Figure 29 Screencaps from the film, Mission impossible: Ghost Protocol

The question that lies within these implications is how does a city represent itself as modern ,authentic and traditional at the same time without the risk of one aspect outweighing the other? The fact that Dubai has focused on trying to push forward an image of prosperity, growth and modernity alongside holding traditional and cultural values is controversial. Tradition, culture and modernity co-existing in Dubai simply is a lie. The city pushes forward a narrative that suits it at different time intervals and it’s clear that the loss of tradition and culture within the scope of the city has happened and continues to expand due to the blindness that’s caused by wanting to be at the top of the world and wanting to gain global awareness in ways that aren’t typical.

William [talks] : The Burj Khalifa, The tallest building in the world

67

Anholt, Places , p. 87.

119

John Urry and Jonas Larsen, The Tourist Gaze 3.0, 3rd edn (SAGE Publications Ltd, 2011), p. 105.

120

These cinematic scenes consisting of impressive buildings, interspersed with shots of families and local residents promoting some ethnicity and tradition coming into the skyscraper with suspense music in the background, are made to create the chosen perception that the city wants to reveal of tradition co-existing with dynamic and propelling modernity that inevitably seem to make very different cities look virtually identical.119 The shots in the movie would be unidentifiable if it weren’t for Burj Khalifa being the tallest building in the world and it being emphasized in the movie (Fig. 28). Otherwise, it could look like the shots were filmed in New York or Hong Kong. Modern architecture has made it difficult for cities to stand out because of the generated uniformity and has created a sense of place lessness which therefore impacts the city negatively as the tourist will feel like they have been there before.120 The only thing that can distinguish Dubai’s skyline from New York or Hong Kong to the eye of a person who has never been to either cities is the distinctive feature that Burj Khalifa adds onto Dubai’s skyline (See figure 33, 34, 35, 36 to illustrate how the skyline looks very bland without Burj Khalifa’s monumental value). Otherwise these cities fail to look anything but identical. Western hegemony has led Dubai to this outcome of having excessive skyscrapers to represent luxury and high standards of living.

Figure 30 Dubai’s Skyline at sunset.

Figure 31 New York’s Skyline at sunset.

Figure 32 Hong Kong’s Skyline.

68

69

Figure 33 Dubaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Skyline with Burj Khalifa during the night.

Figure 34 Photoshopped illustration of Dubaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Skyline without Burj Khalifa during the night.

70

71

Figure 35 Dubaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Skyline with Burj Khalifa during the day.

Figure 36 Photoshopped illustration of Dubaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Skyline without Burj Khalifa during the day.

72

73

Conclusion

74

75

Conclusion

D

ubai is the staged result of successive political orders which have tried to shape the city through the use of monumental imagery and symbolism to fuel consumerism. The city brands itself through mantras of superlatives and modernity, appropriating tradition and cultural history to construct its appeal.

Burj Khalifa, as the ‘tallest building in the world’, utilizes this claim as a method for attracting international attention, promising a ‘bucket-list’ experience. As a result, the successive power behind the construction of the building particularly requested that the building should have some sort of association to cultural and traditional values. This text shows a reality which challenges such a claim. Traditional and cultural links which it tried to portray have been discredited, the design instead based in contrived ideas in an attempt to fit a desired narrative.

It is evident, through prior discussions made in this paper, that the Bilbao effect has been implemented in Dubai to create the Burj Khalifa. It lacks any real meaning, a stark comparison to the Guggenheim museum which mobilized economic and cultural value to elevate the city’s image and provide exposure. Burj Khalifa is constructed to only attract media and foreigners, a façade used to market Dubai as the up and coming city of the 21st century. This prompted other nations to utilize the imagery of the Burj Khalifa and Dubai’s idealised skyline through the media of film, thus emphasizing it’s massive structure and high tech design. These movies provided free promotion of the city to wider audiences, boosting tourism.

76

Mission Impossible’s representation of Burj Khalifa, and subsequent growth of the city, shows the commodification of buildings for capital gain. Fabricated, positive imagery spreads a perception of Dubai which may not represent the truth.

Based on a qualitative and quantitative analysis that was given previously on the fabrication of perception through the use of buildings, it can be concluded that buildings can and are commodified and used as means to provide raw material for media representation. However, such acts also have consequences, one being the potential of reducing the richness of the nation, and also affecting the experience of the visitor after visiting the landmark whose experience is of congestion due to over-population of tourists in the site. Negative perceptions manifest from such an experience, leading to the city being viewed negatively abroad as more and more people visit and share their views.

Some questions that the paper addressed still remain unanswered by architects. How can this contradiction between the building and the image of the city be overcome and surpassed?

Under this act of commodity, buildings and places in Dubai have been dressed up in monumental veils, but we must question how long can this kind of approach last before people catch on to the superficiality and the lack of meaning of such places. Can places like this continue to exist and flourish in the next decade or will it have a negative consequence to it? Whilst all these questions remain to be answered, Dubai’s approach to architecture as commodity, will continue for one simple reason: power.

77

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