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Invisible but Undeniable: Atmosphere in Moroccan Riads

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Name: Latifa Al Nawar Newcastle University Student Number: 170003892

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Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards my tutor, Dr Neveen Hamza for her invaluable guidance, support and knowledge throughout this dissertation period. I also would like to thank my family, especially my mom for her faith and support. Last but not least, i would like to thank my friends for their support and love.

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Table of Contents

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Table of Contents

Introduction 1.

Traditional courtyard context

1.1.

Morocco and its architecture

1.2.

Traditional courtyard housing in Marrakech

1.3.

Riad and its spatial characteristics

1.3.1. Form and orientation

1.3.2. Daylighting and shading

1.3.3. Materiality

1.3.4. Cosmology

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Atmospheres 2.1.

Defining atmosphere 2.2.

Default atmosphere 2.3.

Perception in atmosphere 2.4.

Diagramming atmosphere and its antecedents

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Psychological and physiological effect 3.1.

Environmental psychology and perception 3.2.

Thermal comfort and visual comfort 3.3.

Acoustical experience

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Observational Case Study

4.1.

Riad AlWachma

4.1.1. Environmental factors

4.1.2. Spatial factors

4.2.

Riad Alili

4.2.1. Environmental factors

4.2.2. Spatial factors

4.3.

Riad Olema And Spa

4.3.1. Environmental factors

4.3.2. Spatial factors 5.

Questionnaire Case Study 6.

Discussion and Analysis 7.

Conclusion

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1. Introduction Background One main question that was addressed in a seminar held by the Finnish Foundation organised by Alvar Aalto Academy on the topic of atmosphere and architecture was “how is the atmosphere of a space created?”(Embracing Atmosphere, 2014). Atmosphere is a term that is commonly used among individuals liberally to signify a characteristic in our built environment, however, it is not always intentionally “created” by designers and architects as it is the user’s singular experience that defines it. There is a “spirit of place” in every architecture, whether desired by the architect or not, and it is characterized by the Juhani Pallasma as he was describing the atmosphere in his writing as “ephemeral, unfocused, and non material experiential character … which gives its uniques perceptual and memorable character and identity” (Architectural Atmospheres, pg. 20). The existence of an atmospheric quality in every place raises the question of what elements shape the atmosphere in buildings that we already inhabit. This dissertation will study the existing atmosphere in Moroccan Riads as they are traditional courtyard housing that were built before the term atmosphere became interlinked to architecture yet is still considered to carry a unique ambience as it is known for its “peaceful atmosphere” (The perfect escape). Moroccan traditional courtyard housing has an intimate connection to the culture, religion, and nature as it is responsive to the occupant’s needs. However, these traditional houses, called riads, were then renovated and converted to hotels where they attracted visitors from

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around the world to experience their authenticity. The main elements that create the overall experience of riads is the courtyard that acts as a lobby, as it is the space where the main interaction, activities and circulation takes place. The lobby, which is defined as the large space in front of the main entrance of a building, gives the traveler a sense of arrival to make them relaxed after a journey (Countryman and Jang, 2016). Countryman and Jang, professors in hospitality, investigated that the effect of hotel lobby’s atmosphere shapes the first impression of the customers and users (2016). This study will approach the analysis of the courtyard, classified as a lobby in riads, through the lens of atmosphere as the importance of the atmospheric qualities shape the visitor’s experience and perception and towards the whole hotel.

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Aims & Objectives This dissertation study aims to understand the ways in which the traditional riads of Marrakech carry the atmospheric qualities studied by architects of the 21st century.

and discussion. Different perspectives on the topic was discussed to understand the common factors and create a cohesive understanding to create boundaries to the analysis of atmosphere in architecture.

Objectives: 1. Set the context and base of atmosphere in architecture by studying the concepts, theories and approaches of different architects and practitioners.

For the primary quantitative data collection, Lux readings through a light meter was then used to assess lighting in riads, which is the main environmental factor that shapes atmosphere. Moreover, thermal readings were collected using EasyLog data loggers to analyse the thermal comfort. These two factors are collected to be able to understand the quality of the environmental factors and the perception towards them by visitors and their effect towards the atmosphere, through the discussion and relation to the literature review.

2.Explore the environmental and spatial factors in a Moroccan Riads that could contribute to the atmospheric qualities.

3. Reveal the correlation between the atmospheric elements established in the literature review and the factors studied on a Moroccan Riad in Marrakech.

Methodology

A questionnaires has been conducted by satisfactory levels to understand the visitors perception towards the comfort in different areas of riads. The questionnaire consists of elements analysed through the literature review with the purpose of understanding how the different elements that make up the atmosphere are perceived in riads.

In order to approach the dissertation in a comprehensive manner, both primary and secondary research strategies were conducted with analysis to understand the correlation between quantitative and qualitative data.

Finally, a discussion and analysis section was conducted to understand the correlation between the literature review and the case study.

4. Test and analyze the findings on three riads as case studies.

A literature review was demonstrated to understand theories and concepts of atmosphere in order to derive a set of criteria for the analysis

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1. Traditional Courtyard Context 1.1.Morocco and its architecture Morocco (Fig. 1), or al-mamalakah al-maghribiyah in Arabic, is located on the coast of North Africa bordering the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Its cities range in climate from arid to tropical. Marrakech, its fourth most populous city, stands about 460m above sea-level in the west foothills of the High Atlas Mountains in Morocco. The temperature in summer can reach up to 42 degrees Celsius in summer and as low as 4.4 degrees Celsius in winter. The Medina of Marrakech is the medieval walled area of the city (Fig. 2) and was founded by the Almoravids in 1070-1072. It served as a major capital of the Muslim world and is a primary example of medieval Islamic architecture and urban fabric (Schwerdtfeger, 1982). The structure, spatial arrangement, window placement, a roof terrace, and other elements of the housing in Morocco are largely influenced by the Islamic requirements.

Tourism in Marrakech has increased drastically from about half a million in 1965 to 10.1 million in 2018 and has been rising at a fast rate ever since (Schwerdtfeger, 1982). In the late 1980’s, wealthy Westerners and

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Figure 1 Morocco’s Location

Moroccans sought to capitalize on the distinct architectural qualities of riads by transforming them into hotels for tourists. These restorations often included linking two or more courtyard houses to create a larger range of rooms for visitors. Morocco’s riads, especially Marakech, carried the ambience of the culture and tradition in its architecture as visitors and tourists would classify them as; “stunning atmosphere… quiet but in the middle of life”, “you feel the vibes of the medina in the riad”, and “an oriental atmosphere”(Booking.com, 2016). The experience of being in a riad and being connected to the context of the city was also a huge part of Winston Churchill’s life in 1953 as he used to paint the landscape from the rooftops of the riads and described the experience of being in the riad as a “remarkable panorama” of the natural elements in the courtyard and the context of the riad simultaneously (Coughlin, 2017). These unique riad hotel experiences increased the amount of visitors and warrant further inquiry into the aesthetic and architectural lure of the riad and its atmospheric characteristics. Even though the riads have been through renovations and restorations instead of being in the exact same original state, they still carried a lot of traditional and cultural value in its ambience.

Figure 2 Medina of Marrakech

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1.2. Traditional courtyard housing in Marrakech

Figure 3 Dar

Traditional courtyard housing is most commonly found within the walls of the Medina and accounts for 64.1 percent of its buildings (Edwards, Sibley and Hakmi, 2005). Morocco’s traditional courtyard housing consists of two types corresponding to lower and higher classes, the dar and the riad (Figs. 3-4). A dar is composed of one main open space courtyard in the middle of a smaller scale house, while a riad can contain up to 60 courtyards (Fig. 5) typically outfitted with large rooms, high quality finishes, luxury furniture, and a water feature with greenery in the centre. The main spatial organisation and layout are similar as they revolved around a main courtyard space for interactions and circulation, with surrounding kitchen, rooms, and an indoor living area. The outer wall of a riad consisted of few to no windows as the Muslims believed that their women doing daily activities should not be seen by passer-by’s (Edwards, Sibley and Hakmi, 2005). This was also to prevent the wind and dust from entering the rooms. Moreover, riads consisted of roof terraces with usually high walls for privacy as a space for laundry, gardens, pools and/or gardens.

1.2.1. Riad and its design variants

Figure 4 Riad

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Aside from Islamic requirements, Moroccan courtyard housing considers its environmental factors to fit the hot and dry climate of Marrakech. The main element in a riad that help control daylighting, temperature, and wind is the courtyard as it varies in design from one riad to another (Aldawoud, 2008 and Tablada, 2005). Moreover, the courtyard also provides

acoustic and visual protection from the exterior. Another element that is essential in a Moroccan riad is the use of greenery and trees to help with the microclimate of the building and provide shade and meditation (Rust,2010). The activities taken place in a riad hotel is usually an open living area and social space or a place to dip in the pool when there is one. The courtyard with their surrounding arcades or colonnades played an important role is social interaction within families for thousands or years and still aims to act as a lobby in a riad hotel that brings all the guests together (Mier, 2000). One could categorize the main elements of a courtyard that could affect the outcome of these factors and its environmental performance into four categories; The courtyard form and orientation, daylighting and shading devices, material, and cosmology.

Figure 5 Royal Mansour 60 courtyards

1.2.2. The courtyard form and orientation: The basic plan of a courtyard traditional house in Morocco is a fully enclosed rectangular or square shape. Muhaisen (2006) studied the effect of different courtyard ratios and heights to understand what the most suitable form for different climatic conditions is. His simulation concludes that for hot humid climate three storeys are preferred, for hot-dry climates, two storeys are the most suitable while in colder regions, it is most suitable to have one storey courtyard housing. In Marrakech, the average height of the courtyard houses are two storey heights due to the hot-dry climates. Moreover, Aldawoud (2008) related the form and shape

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of a courtyard to have direct impact on the user’s thermal comfort. To understand the effectiveness of the form, the orientation must be considered to be able to analyse the amount of sun radiation on the space (the Malaysian paper). Despite the fact that courtyards are designed to maintain the coolness of the building during Marrakech’s hot weather, it is also important to provide a substantial amount of winter sun in the courtyard to heat up the space for the users. This varies with the courtyard and could be assessed through the solar shadow index (figure …). The higher the ratio, the less winter sun reaches the floor (Reynolds, 2002).

1.2.3. Daylighting and Shading Devices: Traditional houses primarily focused on natural light from courtyards to illuminate the spaces during the day. The riads usually contained three main degrees of exposure to the sun when moving from courtyard to the interior. There is usually a transitional space from the bedrooms, living room and kitchen to the courtyard to allow for circulation and create a shaded threshold (Figure showing a section). These transitional spaces where usually arcades or colonnades. To understand the degree of openness to the sky and the amount of daylight that could enter, it could be measured by the aspect ratio of the courtyard, which is the area of the courtyard floor divided by the height of the surrounding walls. Depending on the orientation of the building, the aspect ratio allows to know the amount of direct solar radiation in the space, the high-

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er the direct radiation, the lower the thermal comfort (Reynolds, 2002).

Figure 6 Tadelakt

1.2.4. Materials: The main material used in the on the floors and walls of riads is called “tadelakt”(fig. 6) and it is an ancient tradition passed on for many centuries.

This waterproof material allows surfaces to appear smooth and seamless as its flexibility allows for curves, carvings and sharps edges (Manby, 2018). Even though it is labour-intensive, it is a plaster that is suitable for interiors, exteriors, baths, pools, and spas. Another reason why tadelakt is used in riads is due to its low thermal conductivity. It takes too long to heat up the surface of the material, thus preventing the riad from getting the high temperature of the desert through the courtyard. Another material that is known for its various patterns that represents Moroccan aesthetics is mosaics, known as zellig (fig. 7). It is commonly found in riads and is appreciated as it is considered as a cultural element (Fisher, 2020).

1.2.5. Cosmology:

Figure 7 zellige

Almost every riad contains vegetation, a fountain, and/or a pool in its courtyard and/or terrace. This distinguishes the experience of being in a Moroccan courtyard house rather than many others. The connectedness to natural elements in an urban space is proven to enhance social interaction and level of satisfaction in humans and it also has an environmental psychology effect as it focuses on the nature of well-being ((Swami et al., 2016)). Other than the positive psychological effect,

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exposure to nature in a space also affect the thermal comfort as it is found that trees, shrubs, and flowers provide shaded areas for users to make use of (Safarzadeh & Bahadori, 2005). Moreover, placing a water body in a space also bring a cooling effect to hot dry regions when it is sunny as it affects air temperature and humidity levels (Abdulkareem, 2016). The embodiment of humans in spaces with a controlled natural environment allows them to reach a certain level of comfort, which then creates a positive perception of that place. Moreover, the greenery and the water body elements create a healing environment for users (Rust,2010). To understand the effect of the amount of vegetation and water bodies in relation to the space, a ratio should be derived to appropriately assess the impact on thermal comfort (Almhafdy et al., 2013).

Figure 8 Equations for the above criteria

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While atmosphere is a relationship between the natural atmosphere and the components purposefully added, it is essential to understand and distinguish the effect they have on each other in a space to be able to be aware of the possible outcomes.

2. Defining atmosphere The term atmosphere is commonly used among individuals and carries a meaning that could be interpreted and understood differently depending on the preceded adjectives, for example, a “soothing atmosphere”, a “calming atmosphere”, an “intense atmosphere”. However, one of the set meanings of atmosphere relates to the gaseous layer surrounding our planet which emits the temperature affecting our comfort, humidity and moisture, the sun rays touching our skin, and causes other sensorial qualities that are perceived and experienced (Suriano, 2016). Relating this natural phenomena of atmosphere to architecture could be related to two main aspects, which is the environment, as an effect of the “natural atmosphere” and the surface, which are the elements that form boundaries or relationships to the environment (Bøe, Faber and Strandhagen, 2014: chp.7) This emphasizes the immateriality of the environment as being a natural element and materiality of the surface which is consciously produced and could be designed by architects.

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Philippe Rahm is an architect that believes that the natural environment and atmosphere itself could create architecture through the air, light, humidity, and temperature in space rather than primarily focusing on solids and borders to create a “sensorial experience with the world” (Rahm, 2009). This meteorological approach to creating spaces focuses on the experience of the user and creating an engagement with the environment. This emphasizes the potential of the meteorological elements in shaping the atmosphere of the architecture. Steven Holl, an architect that won a gold AIA award, states in an interview that the creation of atmosphere is essential through the understanding of season, like sunlight, air, and wind. He goes on to say that natural light is his favourite material, as it is an aspect that changes with time, thus designing to incorporate it in the design creates an everlasting line of different experiences that depend on the natural environment (Holl, 2015). This accentuates the ability and potential of the design around the natural environment to shape atmosphere.

On the other hand, Peter Zumthor, a Swiss architect, in addition to the meteorological approach of creating an architecture that is in full sync with the exterior environment, he focuses on additional elements that

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Figure 9 Seating

create a relationship with the interior as well. As the German Philosopher and architect Gernot Bohme sees it, architecture is an envelope of the worlds atmosphere not an object situated or a separate entity (Borch et al., 2014). There is a harmonized connection between the matter designed by architects and the natural envrionmental factors. Peter Zumthor characterizes the main elements in architecture that he believes that contribute to this as; The Body of Architecture, Material Compatibility, The Sound of A Space, The temperature Of a Space, Surrounding objects, Composure and Seduction, Transition between Exterior and Interior, The Light on Things, Architecture as Surroundings (Zumthor, 2018). These aspects are a combination of the tangible and intangible aspects as temperature, sound, and light are environmental components while materiality, surrounding objects and the architecture itself is a tangible element.

The reason Peter Zumthor considers surrounding objects as an atmospheric element is due to thier effect on the users’ perception of spaces. The surrounding objects in place are not necessarily designed by architects, however, Zumthor categories this as an important element in shaping the atmospheric character of a space when the object itself takes its place within a building and adds a characteristic to the space (Zumthor,2018). This emphasizes the effect an object could add to the user’s perception of that space. One way it could be affected is by the arrangement of furniture in a space as it can affect the mood and emotions, leading to comfort or discomfort in that space (Haworth, 2009). A room or

space with furniture in close proximity to each each might affect the comfort of the users with their personal spaces (Figure 9). Moreover, there is also a physiological effect caused by material of furniture on the cooling and heating of the physical environment (Johra and Helseberg, 2017). Furniture material affect the thermal comfort of occupants, as some materials vary in their absorption and conduction of heat, thus resulting in how often the users visit and the duration in which they are comfortable in that space.

Figure 10 Therme Vals

2.2. Default atmosphere In Adrian Forty’s book of Words and Buildings, he claims that the idea of bringing back nature into architecture is a rising phenomena that started in the 19th century as it became essential to be part of the environmental movement (Forty, 2000). This becomes evident in projects that set a desired atmosphere through nature like the Therme Vals by Peter Zumthor in Switzerland (figure 10) where he uses local materials to shape the atmospheric quality in the interior and Adlof Loos’ projects where despite the fully enclosed spaces that are segregated from the exterior environment and meteorology, he creates a mood in the interior that is inspired by natural elements like wood, leaves, and water through different materials and furnishings (figure 11). However, one could argue that the incorporation of the qualities from the natural environment and nature started long before the 19th century as traditional architecture Figure 11

Adolf loos interior elements relate to nature

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and vernacular architecture were built by locals to be suitable for climate conditions and to be structured through local materials. Even though the word “atmospheres” was not used in earlier architecture to shape the spaces in their built environments, there was still a strong relationship with traditional architecture as it focused on energy as a correlation between the building and its environmental factors. On the other hand, modern architecture sometimes disregards the natural energy in the surroundings due to the technological approaches and developments to produce the environmental factors characteristics of the building (Sayigh, 2019: chp.1). Therefore, one could say that the environmental elements that are considered to shape atmosphere in contemporary architecture was possibly evident in earlier traditional architecture unintentionally.

Christian Borch believes that every architecture has a default atmosphere as he states in his essay The Politics of Atmosphere, “every encounter with architecture contains the possibility that we are being seized by its atmosphere, even if some atmospheres are felt more intensely than other” (Borch et al., 2014). This highlights the possibility of shaping and creating atmospheres unintentionally whether it is through material or immaterial characteristics. For example, though shaping “atmosphere” is not an intent in a hut that was built during primitive architecture, there is some level of a certain atmosphere created for a user in that space opposing to another. Whether it is due the response to the natural surroundings or the detail in the aesthetics of the hut, there is a definite atmosphere created.

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2.3. Perception in atmosphere Atmosphere is all around us whether it is tangible or intangible properties in a space and it is constantly experienced despite our awareness to it.

Juhani Pallasma, a Finnish architect, relates to the ambiance of the atmosphere of a space as the peripheral perception and the existential experience (Borch et al., 2014, pg. 230-245) . On the other hand, Peter Zumthor explains atmosphere as the physical perception and emotional sensibility of a space (Zumthor, 2018). Despite their different use of phrases to define atmosphere, they both relate the word “atmosphere” directly to the user’s experience rather than the components that shape it. Pallasma uses the word “peripheral” as it means something that is related to or that is secondary to, in which he believes that peripheral vision or perception is the key to really understand the atmospherics of a space. It is unconscious, uncontrolled, and felt immediately without having a process. Similarly Zumthor expands on this point as he states, “We are capable of an immediate appreciation, of a spontaneous emotional response, of rejecting things in a flash” (It is what it is book). He uses this concept as a guiding principle in his architecture to understand that when designing a building, the atmosphere of a space is perceived without a thought process, making the existence of an individual in a space, in that temporal moment, the essential factor to completely comprehend it. Moreover, Bohme’s interpretation of the concept also suggests that “the human body is the fundamental measure of architecture as it is an instrument which absorbs and

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considers architectural quality ad atmosphere of its temporal environment” (Böhme, 2013, pg. 21-32). While it is inarguable that the mind creates an emotional reaction to elements that it perceives (Bøe, Faber and Strandhagen, 2014) therefore this highlights the relationship between the existential experience and emotional response in the perception of the atmosphere of a space. Therefore, to understand the atmospheric quality of a space, the perception of the users towards space becomes essential.

2.4. Diagramming atmosphere and its antecedents After analysing the views and approaches on atmosphere in architecture by different architects and theorists, a list of the commonly agreed and significant elements were categorized to be applied to the riads (figure 12). The main elements that will be used is temperature, daylighting, materials, surrounding objects, and sounds. Moreover, it could also be concluded that the level and application of these elements in architecture are approached through the users’ perception and existential experience.

Figure 12 Atmospheric factors dervied from above literature.

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Figure 14 factors that shaped tourist perception

Psychological and Physiological Effect

3.1. Environmental Psychology and Perception Environmental Psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the interrelation between the individual and their surroundings. Gibson’s Affordances approach in environmental psychology states that the perceptual responses of individuals consider the environment as a whole with surfaces, textures, and their arrangements rather than as individual features (Kopec, 2012). This underlies the importance of knowing the context of a singular object or feature in the environment in understanding its significance. For example, the restoration of Port Lympne Reserve in Kent, England (Fig. 13), aimed to replicate the form, style, and experience of a traditional Moroccan courtyard (Lympne, 2017).

However, England’s cold and wet autumn and winter climate clashes with qualities of the materials used, which is Moroccan marble, as it has

Figure 13 Port Lympne Reserve, morrocan courtyard in kent

cooling effect and becomes slippery when it rains. It is important to understand how different aspects of the environment work together with materials and spaces as a whole in order to satisfy guest perception.

and feel; it is our brain collecting stimuli (Steane and Steemers, 2013). On the other hand, perception is the ability of sensation with the effect of past experiences, attention to detail, emotional state, and responsive ability, translating the stimuli to information (Kopec, 2012). This emphasizes the ability to develop an understanding and awareness of the physical world around us. Rapoport (1993) states that this process allows one to shape the emotions and feelings they have towards that specific space.

This shows that the experience in a space is a correlation between the perceiver’s personal factors and the physical environment (Figure …).

To understand the perception of users in riad’s hospitality setting is essential to understand how their perceptions are shaped. For tourists, the perception of a place can be categorized into three components: expectations before reaching the destination, experience during the stay, and memories after leaving (Fig. 10) (Robbins, 2005). All three components determine an individual’s long-lasting perception and decision to visit the place again or not. During the stay, the perception of the spatial qualities is a result of a temporary experience caused by the state in that particular moment and that could possibly be affected by the road and way to the location (Kopec, 2012). That temporal experience should be comfortable for visitors as the result of comfort in space shapes a positive perception towards that space (Jakubiec, 2019).

Sensation is the ability to react to the fives sense, smell, touch, hear, see,

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3.2. Thermal comfort and visual comfort Thermal Comfort: Microclimatic conditions affect the user’s comfort which leads to the duration the users want to spend in that space (Huang, Lin and Lein’s, 2014). Therefore, it is essential for architects to understand the qualities that affect thermal comfort in a building. ASHRAE Standard 55-2004 defines thermal comfort as “the state of mind that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment” (2009). It is difficult to maintain set thermal qualities of a building at all times as it is a combination of environmental factors and personal factors. For this study, the focus is only on the environmental factors as it has a direct impact on the users perception of the atmosphere of a space. The environmental factors that affect thermal comfort is humidity, air temperature, mean radiant temperature, and air movement. For humidity, it is recommended to maintain the level of relative humidity between 25% and 65% as it could get uncomfortable when it gets too dry or too moist (Parsons, 2014). While for temperature indoors, 18-20 degrees Celsius is the standard for comfortable warmth indoors and 20-22 degrees Celcius outdoors for healthy human that are appropriately dressed (Ponni and Baskar, 2015).

The implementation of a water body helps to reduce the temperature in a built environment as the interaction between the water vapor and

solar radiation causes a cooling feature to the surroundings (Gupta, Mathew and Khandelwal, 2019). Another natural element that help increase thermal comfort in hot-arid climates is greenery. Studies were done in Syria, France, and Greece were done to demonstrate the impact greenery and water bodies on the enhancement of thermal comfort in these hot-arid summers as the air temperature decreases by 2-3 degrees Celcius ((Ghaffarianhoseini, Berardi and Ghaffarianhoseini, 2015).

However, it depends on the amount of greenery to the area of the space, which could give a better understanding of the extent in which it could decrease the air temperature ((Almhafdy et al., 2013)

Figure 15 arcade as transition

Visual Comfort: When analyzing the appropriate daylight for a space, visual comfort is the main aspect that determines occupant satisfaction . Visual comfort refers to being free from “sensitivity, pain and distraction,” mainly caused by glare. Brightness perception describes how the eye adjusts the flux of the retina according to the surrounding brightness (Tregenza and Wilson, 2011). This connects daylighting phenomena and architecture to perceptual experience (Steane and Steemers, 2013). This is important to consider when designing courtyards as it emphasizes the eye’s adaptation mechanism when it is in contact with daylit spaces. Even though an interior or exterior space may have adequate lighting, the transition between spaces plays an important role in one’s perception and response

Figure 16 overhang as transition

Figure 17 no shaded transition

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to daylight. There should be a smooth transition when moving in a space with the level of dayligght illuminance to prevent eyes from getting tired. This could be measured through minimun lux level divided by the average lux level to get a ratio and the recommended level is between 0.40 to 0.70 (ES lighting handbook, 1974) In courtyards, there are arcades, corridors, and overhangs that create smooth transitions from the sky lit courtyard to the dark rooms (Fig. 15,16,17), preventing the eyes from flickering and providing stable changes to the perceptual system (Giarma, Tsikaloudaki and Aravantinos, 2017). The eye’s habitation to continuous change gives a more nuanced approach to analyzing and assessing daylight.

3.3. Acoustical experience Acoustics in design can be classified into three main categories: background noise, insulation between spaces, and acoustic surroundings (Steane and Steemers, 2013). In his book Atmospheres¸ Peter Zumthor refers to buildings as instruments that collect, amplify, and transmit sound. He refers to the sound that is made through materials, activities, air, whether intentional or natural, as an element that allows a person to experience the atmospheric quality of a space. Sound gives the sense of a city-centre if you hear vehicles, the sense of a tunnel if you hear a metro, or the sense of tranquility if you hear nothing. This sound experience is referred to as naturally existing background noise not created deliber-

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ately by a designer. However, the deliberate use of sound by designers also shapes the occupant’s comfort and behavior (Steane and Steemers, 2013). Finnish architect Juhani Pallasma states, “a powerful architectural experience silences all external noise: it focuses our attention on our very existence, and as with all art, it makes us aware of our fundamental solitude“ (Pallasma, 2012). Being able to control the sounds in a space creates a correlation between design and sound. For example, Le Louvre museum in Paris (Fig. 15), the architect controls the user’s transition from the city, to the pyramid square, to the interior by adding an exterior waterfall to subtlety transition between the noisy city and the calm museum interior.

Traditional courtyards create a sense of interior privacy through acoustics by attenuating noise from the outside. Sayed M. Etouncy and Fergues R. Fricke shows that the traditional building features of the walls, vegetation, and openness to sky all enable a courtyard house to cancel out exterior noise (YEAR). Depending on the materials, the noise level varies as follows, “the smaller the depth of the courtyard, the greater the sound pressure levels inside the yard” and “the greater effective height of the outer wall, the greater the attenuation obtained.” This highlights the degree of control that a designer could have to shape the acoustics of a building and that would affect the overall atmosphere.

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Case Study Introduction The following chapter applies the studies from chapters two and three to analyse the design variants and characteristics of riads and elements that may affect their overall atmosphere. Three buildings—Riad Alili, Riad Olema and Spa, and Riad Alwachma—are used as case studies. The buildings were chosen because of they are all hotels that have maintained traditional riad characteristics, are similar in size, share the same climatic conditions, and are all located within the walls of the Medina. All three are refurbished and renovated older traditional houses.

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4.1. Riad Al Wachma

Riad Alwachma started operating as a hotel in 2011 following renovation and consists of 9 rooms that can hold up to 20 guests. The courtyard acts as a recreational space and lobby as it is the main circulation and social interaction space.

Figure 18

Figure 19

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Light The following LUX readings were collected on 25/08/2019 as increments between 12 pm to 4pm.

Courtyard housing uses the courtyard to illuminate building spaces, and Riad Alwachma maintain this. The surrounding rooms—the kitchen, treatment rooms, and the entrance are all naturally lit until sunset. However, due to the lack of windows on the outer walls, it is necessary to analyse whether the central courtyard provides sufficient daylight to reach recommended illuminance levels in spaces that depend on the courtyard for light.

Figure 20 Riad alwachma, ground level

Figure 21 Riad alwachma, first floor

Figure 23 Lux levels and uniformity ratio of ground floor

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Figure 24 Lux levels and uniformity ratio of first floor

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Figure 22 Ratios of the courtyard and its elements.

Due to Marrakech’s clear skies, direct sunlight entering the courtyard impacts the visual comfort of occupants throughout the day. An arcade acts as a shadow device when standing in front of the rooms and creates a cool space for circulation around and between the main recreational space. This creates a smooth transition in light levels that will not cause any flickering in the eye’s adaptation mechanism. To further analyse the transition of the light in the space, the uniformity of each space was calculated to assess the change when moving form one space to another, especially from indoors the outdoors. To understand the change, Figs. 3-4 show changes in illuminance levels between different spaces in plan.

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Temperature: The following thermal readings were taken from 26/11/19 to 28/11/19 The open space of the courtyard shapes the building’s microclimate and occupant thermal comfort. To gain more control over the air temperature and humidity of the courtyards, elements like vegetation and water are added for their cooling effects. Their effects were analysed by placing EasyLog Data loggers in close proximity to vegetation, water elements, and surrounding spaces.

C Figure 25

Figure 26

The uniformity graph of the ground floor shows that there is a smooth transition of daylight from point 1 to point 3, which is from the entrance space, through the arcade to the central courtyard, suggesting that there is visual comfort in the transition between these spaces. However, when moving from point 3 to 4, from the courtyard to the interior living area, there is a steep rise in the level of difference in lighting, showing that the eye’s mechanism requires a longer time in discomfort and to adapt to the illuminance ratio of the new space.

For level 1, the level of uniformity of the spaces changes gradually as there are windows and arcades to attenuate light.

However, the staircase does not receive much light from the courtyard, as it is in a corner with a narrow 1-meter width, which creates a more sudden change in light level when entering or leaving the staircase to the courtyard or arcades.

B

Figure 27 Thermal data logger placement in the courtyard

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A

Figure 28

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Figure 29 Thermal readings

Spatial Factors:

Figure 30 Thermal readings

A courtyard’s functions usually differ from one riad to another but the objects surrounding it give clarity and meaning to its use and activities. Riad Alwachma’s courtyard is mainly used for dining at any time of day, which is reflected in its furniture . The materials, colours, and arrangements of furniture impact occupant perception towards the space.

The arrangement of the tables in the courtyard revolve around the fountain and each table can only seat two people. Tables are topped with tile mosaics and made of steel, and steel chairs are topped with cushions. Steel’s high thermal conductivity will cause it heat up or cool down rapidly extreme temperatures, making it potentially uncomfortable for users to use at any time of the day. This may limit the occupant’s experience of the courtyard and affect the occupant’s perception of the courtyard space.

Graph A

Graph B

Graph C

Figure 31 Furniture placement in courtyard

The humidity and the temperature of data collected in Grpah A wERE influenced by the water fountain as when the temperature increased, the water from the fountain evaporation may have caused the moisture in the air to increase, which results in a higher relative humidity level. Compared to ohter loactions, the temperautre reached the lowest and the humidity was the highest which could be a result of the water body proximity. For graph C, Despite the unstable temperature and humidity of the different areas of the exterior, this shows that the effect of the vegetation and water elements allow the interior to have a comfortable amount of relative humidity in the living rooms and rooms since their main windows are facing the central courtyard.

Figure 32

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Figure 33

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Figure 34 greenery and water elements in courtyard

The vegetation ratio in Riad Alwachma is 0.02, which is considered to be low for making significant impacts on the occupant’s perception of the space. However, Riad Alwachma has a fountain running throughout the day in the centre of the courtyard, which attracts visitor and elongates the time they spend in the courtyard. This is due to the positive psychological impact that connection to natural elements like water bodies or greenery can have on a human. Moreover, the fountain has an acoustic effect, as the courtyard amplifies its steady white noise in the surrounding rooms. This element enhances visitor connection to nature during their stay and soothes the transition from the noise of the busy medina to the calm courtyard interior. The noises from the medina are attenuated by the thick walls of the riad, as it cancels background noises to create a soothing environment.

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4.2. Riad Alili Introduction: Riad Alili is within the medina walls of Marrakech. It was renovated to a hotel in 2012 with 9 rooms that could hold up to 20 people.

Figure 35

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Figure 36

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Light The following LUX readings were collected on 25/08/2019 as increments between 12 pm to 4pm.

1

1 2

2 4

Figure 40 Lux levels and uniformity ratio of ground floor

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3

6

Figure 37 Riad alili ground level

Figure 39 Ratios of the courtyard and its elements.

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3

Figure 38 Riad alili first floor

Figure 41 Lux levels and uniformity ratio of first floor

Figure 42 direct sunlight in courtyard

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Temperature: The following thermal readings were taken from 26/11/19 to 28/11/19 Figure 43

Figure 44 Figure 45 Thermal readings placements in courtyard

The vegetation ratio in Riad Alwachma is 0.02, which is considered to be low for making significant impacts on the occupant’s perception of the space. However, Riad Alwachma has a fountain running throughout the day in the centre of the courtyard, which attracts visitor and elongates the time they spend in the courtyard. This is due to the positive psychological impact that connection to natural elements like water bodies or greenery can have on a human. Moreover, the fountain has an acoustic effect, as the courtyard amplifies its steady white noise in the surrounding rooms. This element enhances visitor connection to nature during their stay and soothes the transition from the noise of the busy medina to the calm courtyard interior. The noises from the medina are attenuated by the thick walls of the riad, as it cancels background noises to create a soothing environment.

Figure 46 Thermal readings

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Figure 47 Thermal readings

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Surrounding Objects:

Figure 48

Figure 49

In riad Alili, temperature measurements were taken at two main points to represent indoor and outdoor conditions. As is shown in fig., Area 1 contains extreme changes in humidity and air temperature levels. This may be impacted by the interaction the swimming pool, vegetation, and changes in sunlight throughout the day. The courtyard space contains an average air temperature of 16.5°C and humidity level of 69.5%, meaning that both factors do not meet the recommended levels to satisfy the comfort of occupants. However, Area 2 contains consistent levels of the vvenvironmental factors, as shown in fig.2, and also achieves the recommended indoor values of occupant satisfaction

with an air temperature of 18°C and humidity levels of 56.5%.

Figure 50 Greenery and water elements

Figure 52 Steel furniture

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Figure 51 furniture arrangement

Figure 53

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There are two types of furniture in Riad Alili, an outdoor couch at the corner of the courtyard with a light beige colour and four steel circular tables with steel chairs. The colour of the couch and material are suitable, as it does not reflect the heat of the solar radiation onto visitors. However, the steel tables and chair are high heat conductors, which could prevent the visitors from using the furniture. Riad Alili’s furniture arrangement is concentrated by the walls of the surrounding guest rooms and alongside the windows at times, which could possibly jeopardize the visual privacy of guest in ways that do not align with traditional Islamic courtyard housing design. However, the vegetation ratio in this riad is 0.20, which is a higher ratio than Riad Alwachma, and could possibly enhance guest sense of visual and acoustic privacy. Tthe trees, for instance, block clear views into the surrounding rooms. This also signifies a better relationship between visitors and nature in the courtyard, as it could possibly enhance visual and acoustic privacy. Another significant aspect is that the ratio of vegetation in all three riads relate to their interior/exterior ratio, meaning that the riads with the most openness to sky use more most vegetation to create comfortable shaded seating areas protected from direct sunlight and heat.

Figure 54

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4.3. Riad Olema & Spa This riad consists of two draws that are linked to from one large riad for people to stay at. This riad contains 8 rooms and could hold up to 17 people in the rooms at once. It was built and renovated in 2016 to become a hotel in the Medina of Marrakech

Figure 55

Figure 56

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Light The following LUX readings were collected on 25/08/2019 as increments between 12 pm to 4pm.

Figure 61 Lux levels and uniformity ratio of ground floor

Figure 57 Riad Olema & spa ground floor

Figure 59 Ratios of the courtyard and its elements.

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Figure 58 Riad Olema & spa first floor

Figure 62 Lux levels and uniformity ratio of first floor

Figure 60 Ratios of the courtyard and its elements.

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Temperature: Figure 63

Figure 64

The following thermal readings were taken from 26/11/19 to 28/11/19

Figure 67

In Riad Olema, the ground floor plan is separated from indoor spaces, which are shown in fig.1 as Areas 2,5, and 7, as well as outdoor spaces, Areas 1,3,4, and 6. The average daylight LUX level of both courtyards IS 1940 LUX in Area 1 and 851 LUX in Area 6. The first floor is also provided with external courtyard areas shown in Areas 3-5 with average LUX levels of 980 LUX, 1940 LUX, and 580 LUX, respectively. As shown in Graphs 1 and 2, the daylight uniformity in riad Olema is relatively constant when transitioning between indoor and outdoor spaces and may be perceived as visually comfortable for occupants moving around outdoor spaces in bright sunny conditions. These results are due to the implementation of overhangs placed around the two main courtyards to control daylight uniformity and exposure and illuminate the building in all orientations.

Figure 65 thermal reading allocation in courtyard

Figure 66 Graph A

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Figure 68 Graph C

The average temperature of each courtyard—Area 1 and 3 in fig.x—was 15.5°C and 18.5, respectively. This is slightly below the range of air temperature recommended to satisfy the thermal comfort of building occupants. However, the indoor spaces, Areas 2 and 4, contain temperatures of 17.5 and 18 Celsius, meaning they achieve recommended indoor air temperature values. As shown in the line graphs, Areas 1 and 3 contain significant changes in temperature and humidity levels, which could be caused by wind, temperature variations between day and night, as well as the cooling effects of the nearby pool and vegetation. While Area 2 is indoors, the consistency of the humidity and temperature as shown in (fig.) is due to the space being completely open on both sides,. The indoor area, Area 4, has consistent temperature and humidity levels averaging 7.5 degrees Celsius and 65%, respectively, providing a sophisticated and comfortable indoor environment.

Figure 67 Graph B

Figure 70 Graph A

Figure 71 Graph B

Figure 72 Graph C

Figure 69 Graph D Figure 73 Graph D

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Spatial Factors:

Figure 74 Furniture arrangement

Figure 76

Figure 78

Figure 77 Fabric material

Figure 79 Wooden seating

Figure 75 Greenery and water elements

Riad Olema & Spa consists of two courtyards with different spatial characteristics and elements which work together to shape the overall atmosphere through an interlinking indoor/outdoor seating area.

The first courtyard focuses mainly on greenery and vegetation. The vegetation ratio is 0.19 which could create shadows for the seating areas. In the second courtyard, the main element is the poo, which takes up 35% of the area and plays a significant role in increasing humidity while decreasing temperatures. This also provides the surrounding rooms with a comfortable psychological effect, as connection to water bodies enhances people’s mood and well-being. The furniture in both courtyards varies in material, size, and arrangement, which gives the visitors options for different activities they want to pursue in the space. The main materials for the couch are a light-coloured fabric which does not conduct any heat and is soft, while the dining tables contain some steel which could possibly affect thermal comfort. Light colours are used overall and maintain the thermal comfort levels of the seating.

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5. Questionnaire Study This section consists of questions that are based on the main design characteristics and the overall environmental qualities of the riads. This will give an insight into how visitors perceive the elements of the hotel and distinguish it from other hotels or accommodation experiences. The questions are not only based on just the courtyard space but also on the surrounding rooms affected and shaped by the quality of the courtyards.

The courtyard space:

These questions contains give insights on visitor preferences towards the different elements, like cosmology, open sky, shading, that characterizes a Riad courtyard and their comfort in those spaces.

Figure 82

According to figure (...), the respon-

According the figure (...), the respondents seem to prefer the riads were there were a larger ratio of water in the courtyard spaces, as they visitors of Riad Olema and Riad Alili both contain a larger area of water elements.

dents of Riad Alwachma were mostly satisfied with the circulation around the space, and this could be due to the partly segregated arcade which creates an interrupted flow around the areas, while in Olema & Spa, respondents were not in preference to the open spaces with furniture,

According to figure (....), nearly two thirds of the respondents were mostly satisfied with the amount of natural light entering in the courtyards, which could result in acceptable visual comfort.

Figure 80

Figure 83

greenery and a dipping pool with no

According to (...), just as the previous question, the respondents preferred the riad where there was the most greenery elements in the surroundings, which relates to the preference of connectedness to nature.

clear circulation space.

According to figure (...), respondents were mostly satisfied with the shaded areas in Riad Olema & Spa, this could be due to the overhangs that could create more shade for areas like the seating area. Moreover, this could also be due to the lower aspect ratio of the courtyards, creating a more

enclosed experience.

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Figure 81

Figure 84

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Questions on Guestrooms: This section consists of questions that revolve around the experience of the surrounding rooms and spaces around the courtyard to understand the effect of the courtyard on them in accordance to user satisfaction and perception.

According to fig. (...), the majority of the responses perceived the courtyards of all riads to have a satisfactory thermal comfort, this emphasizes that the natural environmental factors could create a comfortable environment for the visitors.

According to fig. (...), the respondents of this question had varying answers towards the thermal comfort of the room, this may be due to the placement of the room in relation to the courtyard as the subjectivity to it could change with the level and orientation.

Figure 85

According to fig (...), the visitors responding are mostly satisfied with the surrounding arrangement of Riad Olema & spa , this could be a reaction due to the variety of seating arrangement as it is the main objects that allows the flexibility of seating choice. Moreover, the users of Riad Alili showed a more unsatisfactory to neutral response to the arrangement, which could be due to the close proximity to the windows of surrounding guest rooms.

Figure 87

According to Figure (...), similar to the previous question, this element is also affected by the position and orientation in relation to the courtyard, resulting with the respondents varying answers, however, there is a higher number with dissatisfaction of the amount of daylight illuminance of the guest rooms.

Figure 86

Figure 88

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According to fig (...), the respondents responded with mostly satisfactory to the windows of the rooms as it is the main element that allows for a connection to the activities taking place in the courtyard and the natural elements that could influence the quality inside the guest rooms.

Figure 89

According to fig (...), The respondents were mostly unsatisfied with the acoustics privacy of the riad as they were able to hear the activities taking place in the courtyard from the surrounding rooms. However, some were satisfied, and this could be due to the acoustic privacy from the exterior of the riads.

Figure 90

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6. Discussion and Analysis

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Light:

Temperature:

As previously mentioned, technology and code requirements have had limiting effects on the inventiveness of designers with respect to using natural elements to create atmosphere. However, the way that lighting shapes the atmosphere is how it falls on things, how it changes the way a person perceives the same element, and, with daylighting, this can change from one time of the day to another. In the case study, the analysis of daylight in riads allowed showed a correlation between the courtyards spatial characteristics and its surrounding spaces. Riad Alili, Riad Alwachma, and Riad Olema all have a courtyard that utilizes sunlight to illuminate the spaces of the buildings; however, the different aspect ratios of each building affect visual comfort and stability as well as the way the overall space is perceived and experienced. LUX readings varied as well due to aspect ratio, as the openness to the sky is the main factor determining exposure to direct sunlight and its effects on thermal comfort. The riad with the highest aspect ratio was also the least satisfying to guests surveyed about visual comfort. It exceeded the uniformity level ratio at times which takes longer for the eye to adapt to. Despite the quality of daylight in the spaces, this could possibly create a direct relationship to the overall context of Marrakech and visitor distinctions between riads and typical commercial hotels.

Due to the rise in environmental awareness around sustainability in architecture, passive design strategies have become much more prominent for achieving suitable thermal comfort levels. In riads, the use of courtyards was always to create a suitable microclimate to cool down rooms in the hot and sunny weather. In the three case studies, temperature and humidity levels change relative to the amounts of vegetation and water bodies. These elements were mainly designed and added to cool the buildings and create a comfortable environment for occupants. The data collected reveals a rise in humidity and a decrease in temperature close to bodies of water and vegetation. However, the humidity rises higher than 65%, which is the maximum level of recommended humidity in riads with larger areas of water. To correlate the space of riads to visitor perception, survey data showed that two thirds of respondents were satisfied with the overall thermal comfort of all riads. Respondents were least satisfied with thermal comfort levels at Riad Alili, which could be due to the aspect ratio of the courtyard, as it creates direct sunlight, which can directly affect thermal comfort and indirectly affect perceptions of temperature.

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Surrounding Objects: The surrounding objects in a room characterize its space and possible functions. They impact how an individual interacts with architecture.

In the three case studies, courtyard layouts are centered around vegetation and water bodies, as these create soothing environments that have positive psychological effects on occupants. The compositions of each riad differs with vegetation and water ratios and enables a better understanding of questionnaire responses. Furniture is also a main element. The materials, colours, and arrangements of furniture affect the quality of the place and perceptions of occupants, and, in the analysis of each riad, there were unsuitable materials that could possibly affect thermal comfort. Regardless, the combination of all these aspects in close proximity creates a unique experience because of its connection to the surrounding context. The response of the visitors to the overall arrangement of elements in the courtyards was mainly satisfactory as they all shared an essence of nature and water elements as they pursued different activities around like dining, having tea, or taking a swim.

Acoustics: The sound of a place matters to the atmosphere in architecture as it creates an instant understanding of the type of activity taking place through loudness. Moreover, it can shape the atmosphere through designed

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elements like the sound of waterfalls or the sound of steps on hard floors. Because the riads in Marrakech are situated in the Medina, which is a very busy center with markets, they were designed to cancel out noise from the exterior context and maintain a calm home environment for the house. In addition to the soothing and cooling effects of greenery and water bodies in the courtyards of riads, the spatial analysis of each riad in the case study shows different sources of sound that affect the atmospheres. For example, in Riad Alwachma, the fountain in the middle of the courtyard is a subtle sound of splashing water that adds tranquility to the experience as the architecture amplifies the noise to the surrounding spaces and rooms. In Riad Alili and Riad Olema, the open courtyard does not have a certain element that is intended to create a sound for the experience; however, the use of trees attenuates noise levels and exchange between the courtyard and surrounding rooms.

Questionnaire responses show general dissatisfaction with acoustics in the three riads, and this could be due to the amplification of noise from people’s activity the courtyard. This underscores the fact that riads were originally intended to be used as residences for families and not hotels.

Since the courtyards have direct contact with the surrounding rooms, they are subjected to activities in the courtyard at all times of the day, which can create a negative perception towards the privacy on behalf of guests in riads.

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Materials: Materials affect atmosphere, as they act as in tandem with other factors to shape atmosphere. Due to their effect on temperature, light and the reflection, acoustic reflection, and layout, understanding the materials that riads carry helps clarify occupant comfort and perception of space.

The common materials used to varnish and decorate the riads are tadelakt and mosaic, as they contain the traditional materials found in Morocco. The use of tadelakt allows the courtyard to remain cool in hot weather in Marrakech as it takes a long time to absorb the heat reflected on it. Despite the fact that it could be used in different colors, Riad Olema and Riad Alwachma use a light colour palette, which was reflected so as to brighten up the space. This also keeps the space cool as opposed to to darker colors, which can heat up a space. There was a mix of fabric and steel in furniture throughout the riads, but light colours were widely implemented. The perception of the Moroccan tadelakt and mosaic that is found in the surrounding objects and walls of the courtyard provides a relationship to context in visitors a experience. The combination of all these materials emphasizes the tradition and culture of the riad in hotels and creates an authentic atmosphere.

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Conclusion To conclude, through this dissertation I was looking at the ideas of atmosphere in architecture and what architects claim shapes it, to then analyse the Moroccan riads through that lens. Traditional architecture was initiated for the purpose of creating a suitable environment that sits its context and its surroundings, therefore, the riads of Marrakech revolved around the environmental criteria. However, this study allowed us to understand how the important elements that are commonly agreed between different architecture theorists and practitioners to shape atmosphere are evident in the courtyards of the riads. Since the courtyard is the main space to shape the first impression of the riad, the analysis of the perceived atmosphere of the riads suggested that comfort is the key in Moroccan riads to shape a “positive” atmosphere. This was understood through the quantitative data collected to understand the quality of the space, then the qualitative data and questionnaires collected to understand how the visitors reacted to the qualities that make up a riad and shape its known “relaxing” atmosphere.

Studying the temperature, daylighting, surrounding object, acoustics, and materials proved Borch’s theory that architecture is the sum of everything in a place rather than a singular entity that creates a reaction.

Atmosphere is different from one person to another yet still shares qualities that could be communicated and shaped to reach the other individual. Despite the various factors discussed and analyzed to understand the atmosphere in this study, there are other elements that contribute to how the atmosphere in architecture is shaped and perceived.

An atmosphere of a space is not the same from one person to another as perception plays a great role on translating the underlying atmosphere of a place. This is shown through the questionnaires as there was no clear distinction between what visitors perceive as comfort, which has a great impact on their satisfaction of the place. However, the existential experience of staying in a riad, which is an unfamiliar environment for an accommodation or hotel allows the users to absorb or not absorb the different elements that shape the atmosphere.

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List of Ilustrations: Figure 1: Author’s own illustration Figure 2: Author’s own illustration Figure 3: Schwerdtfeger, F. (1982). Traditional Housing in African Cities. Bath: John Wiley & Sons.

Figure 4: Schwerdtfeger, F. (1982). Traditional Housing in African Cities. Bath: John Wiley & Sons.

Figure 5: Author’s own illustration Figure 6: Author’s own illustration Figure 7: The Vintage News. (2020). Zellige tiles, the lovely traditional Moroccan art form, used geometric shapes because Islam forbade human or animal figures. [online] Available at: https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/12/23/zellige-tiles/ [Accessed 23 Jan. 2020].

Figure 8: Author’s own illustration Figure 9: Author’s own illustration Figure 10: ArchDaily. (2020). The Therme Vals / Peter Zumthor. [online] Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/13358/the-therme-vals [Accessed 23 Jan. 2020].

Figure 11: Peregoy, B. (2020). Visit Restored Adolf Loos Interiors in Pilsen, Czech Republic. [online] Architectural Digest. Available at: https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/adolf-loos-pilsen-czech-republic [Accessed 23 Jan. 2020].

Figure 12: Author’s own illustration Figure 13: Lympne, P. (2017). Port Lympne Hotel - Moroccan Courtyard. [online] The Aspinall Foundation. Available at: https://www.aspinallfoundation.org/port-lympne/moroccan-courtyard/ [Accessed 24 Dec. 2019].

Figure 14: Author’s own illustration Figure 15: Author’s own illustration Figure 16: Author’s own illustration Figure 17: Author’s own illustration Figure 18: Riad-alwachma.com. (2020). Riad Alwachma Marrakech Morocco. [online] Available at: http://www.riad-alwachma.com/en/ [Accessed 23 Jan. 2020].

Figure 19: Riad-alwachma.com. (2020). Riad Alwachma Marrakech Morocco. [online] Available at: http://www.riad-alwachma.com/en/ [Accessed 23 Jan. 2020].

Figure 20 - 90: Author’s own illustration

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