Z0D20

Joseph Caden

A Forgotten Utopia

Joseph Caden

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my tutor, Steve Parnell, who has guided me through this process with his expert advice and encouragement. I would also like to thank URBED, the Sheffield Local Studies Library, Owen Hatherley and all those who responded to my questions and were able to help me with my research.

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Contents

15

Introduction

19

1. The Influencing Machine

21

1.1. Townscape, Visual Planning and the Picturesque

27

2. Gleadless Valley: On Top of the World in the South Yorkshire Hills

45

2.1. Gleadless Valley and Townscape

63

3. Decline and Fall

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3.1. Guilty by Association: The Decline of Modernism

81

Conclusion

85

List of Figures

89

Bibliography

95

Appendix

7

The Architectural Review August 1960

The Architectural Review March 1958

The Architectural Review September 1959

The Architectural Review April 1964

The Architectural Review March 1959

The Architects’ Journal March 1961

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Introduction Why has Gleadless Valley been forgotten considering it was once held in such high esteem?

The UK housing crisis and the need for social housing has been the focus of much debate over recent years. After Goldsmith Street became the first council housing scheme to win the prestigious Stirling Prize in 2019, the investment in Britain’s humble utopias must surely increase. While new social housing has been almost extinct since the early 1990s, the 1960s can be seen as a golden age for extraordinarily ambitious housing projects that were ultimately built for people – not investment. The UK once led the way in social housing and the city of Sheffield became an example to many around the world, “from France to the Soviet Union to Singapore”.1 Among the most well-known of these Sheffield projects is Park Hill, inspired by Le Corbusier’s Unité d’Habitation, the Brutalist icon is now considered a landmark of the city. Also equally admired in the early 1960s was the Gleadless Valley estate, the project contended with Park Hill as Sheffield’s most significant contribution to Britain’s post-war social housing.2 Gleadless Valley responds to the topography of the Sheffield suburbs in a similar way to Park Hill but in a more Picturesque, and scattered manner. In past years the estate has become a destitute environment and has clearly been neglected, Gleadless has consequently become a target for negative local news coverage. Furthermore, and partly due to the decline in the estate’s prosperity, the architecture has also been overlooked.

1 Owen Hatherley, Britain’s humble utopias: what the Stirling Prize means for council housing, The New Statesmen (2019), <https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/uk/2019/10/ britain-s-humble-utopias-what-stirling-prize-means-council-housing> [accessed 1 December 2019].

2 Ruth Harman et al., Sheffield (London: Yale University Press, 2004), p.243.

Introduction

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Through an analysis of local and architectural press coverage, this dissertation will demonstrate that Gleadless was once recognised as a beautiful place to live and was celebrated by the city. The purpose of this research is to comprehend why a so incredibly considered and architecturally ambitious project has seemingly been forgotten. This is yet more poignant when one compares the more recent writing on Park Hill with that of Gleadless Valley.

This dissertation will focus on Gleadless Valley’s media coverage in both the 1960s as well as the present day. The analysis of these vast changes in attitude and lack of coverage over the past 60 years can be used as a means by which to understand why Gleadless is seemingly respected yet overlooked in architectural writing, and ultimately vilified in local press. There is of course a connection between these perspectives, and both relate to the wider issue of the cyclical nature of architectural fashion.3 An association with Brutalism and a well-received refurbishment project has somewhat increased the iconic nature of Park Hill.

Brutalism has enjoyed an extraordinary rise in popularity in recent years, partly due to its coverage on social media.4 I will examine Gleadless Valley’s relationship with the lesser known architectural movement, Townscape. While Owen Hatherley acknowledged Gleadless Valley’s connection with the post-war campaign in his book, A Guide to the New Ruins of Great Britain, there has been no previous in-depth research into Gleadless and its association with the Architectural Review’s (AR) Townscape.5 Contextually, the term ‘Townscape’ has broader connotations with preservationist attitudes, this can confuse the origins of a largely modernist campaign.6

I will

therefore argue that the ambiguous nature of the campaign has left

3 Owen Hopkins, Lost Futures: The Disappearing Architecture of Post-war Britain (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2017), p.22.

4 Oliver Elser et al., SOS Brutalism (Zurich: Park Books, 2017), p.15.

5 Owen Hatherley, A Guide to the New Ruins of Great Britain (London: Verso, 2010), p.107.

6 Mathew Aitchison, Visual Planning and Exterior Furnishing: A Critical History of the Early Townscape Movement, 1930 to 1949 (Queensland: The University of Queensland, 2008), p.8.

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Gleadless without association with ‘fashionable’ aspects of post-war architecture. The decline of modernism and a change in attitude towards social housing has also contributed to the perceived downfall of the estate. This combined with the social problems associated with the estate’s inhabitants has further resulted in the architecture being lost amid these issues. Consequently, in a wider sense, architectural media has neglected the estate. To explain this argument, I will set out the similarities of Gleadless and the principles of Townscape and will place the estate in the context of Sheffield’s post war developments and the renowned Park Hill.

It is clear that the transformation of Gleadless Valley; from a place celebrated, to a place that is outwardly ignored (or negatively perceived) involves many factors - maintenance, geography, local and national politics, and of course social issues. It is important to recognise these matters, however exploring all contributing factors in detail is too broad a topic to be tackled in this dissertation.

Figure 1 - ‘A Boy Playing at Gleadless Valley’, taken by James Leslie Frederick Kellie (c.1960)

Introduction

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1 The Influencing Machine The issue of architectural fashion is critical in the argument of this dissertation. As well as the decline of social housing generally, the architectural language of Gleadless has also become unpopular.

Gleadless’ architecture represents what can be described as contemporary modernism, individual buildings on the estate convey a language that has become synonymous with post-war social housing that are now in many cases seen as ‘generic’. However, it is the Picturesque element of the estate’s composition in the context of its rural environment that ultimately makes Gleadless so remarkable architecturally. Gleadless has clear associations with the AR’s Townscape campaign, this never established itself as a ‘movement’ per se, however the significance of the promotion arguably aided the general acceptance of modernism in Britain.

In simple terms, the magazine was at the forefront of the architectural realm in the 20th century. The publications were used as vehicles to promote architectural ideas and ultimately aimed to influence the built environment.7 The magazine aimed to isolate specific groups in order to widen their sphere of influence.8 Education, practice and institutional bodies were all guided by various post-war campaigns.9 Gleadless valley’s Picturesque composition can be seen as an example of the AR’s Townscape campaign influencing post-war architecture. This connection is explored in detail in section 2.1.

7 BiennaleChannel, Biennale Architettura 2012 - Steve Parnell (2012), <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5_jcZIGWDg> [accessed 4 December 2019].

8 Nikolaus Pevsner et al. The AR’s editorial team of 1947 on the culture of creative criticism (republished 2015), <https://www.architectural-review.com/archive/the-ars-editorial-teamof-1947-on-the-culture-of-creative-criticism/8687357.article> [accessed 4 December 2019].

9 Steve Parnell, Architectural Design, 1954-1972, The architectural magazine’s contribution to the writing of architectural history (Sheffield: University of Sheffield, 2011), p.XI.

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1.1 Townscape, Visual Planning and the Picturesque

Townscape was an architectural campaign run by the AR that promoted a post-war urban design concept. This section will set out the principles of the early Townscape in order to explain how Townscape’s modernist propositions feature heavily in Gleadless Valley’s design.

Despite being a modernist campaign, Townscape is often associated with a preservationist and faux historical stance due to the campaigns change in focus towards the start of the 1970s.

Townscape played a role in architectural media from the 1940s for 30 years, over this time the AR produced approximately 1400 publications by about 200 different authors, this has resulted in several interpretations regarding the core value of the manifesto.10 The unconventional Hubert de Cronin Hastings was the proprietor and editor of the magazine at the time, and initiated much of the campaign.11 Also known for his contribution to Townscape was Nikolaus Pevsner. The German-British historian was an establishment figure within the realm of influential architectural writing, best known for his county guides, Pevsner worked closely with Hastings at the AR, as a member of its editorial board.12 It is the earlier form of Townscape which is relevant to the Sheffield post-war reconstruction project. This interpretation relates

10 Nikolaus Pevsner and Mathew Aitchison, Visual Planning and the Picturesque (Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2010), p.16.

11 Erdem Erten, Shaping “The Second Half Century”: The Architectural Review 1947-1971 (Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1998), p.17.

12 Susie Harries, Nikolaus Pevsner: The Life (London: Chatto and Windus, 2011), p.8.

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closely to Nikolaus Pevsner’s enquiry into visual planning and the Picturesque. The focus of this theory revolves around designing in the sense of “human engagement in sequence of views” rather than in terms of the static viewer.13 This approach to design was intended to be applied in a modernist context. At the very start of the campaign, in 1944, Hastings stated, “what we really need to do now […] is to resurrect the true theory of picturesque and apply a point of view already existing to a field in which it has not been consciously applied before: the city”.14 Pevsner and Hastings wanted to apply modernist principles to more historical ideas of planning. This form of modernism evolved from Pevsner’s attempts to promote the acceptance of modernist architecture in England.

Towards the end of 1955, he gave the annual Reith Lectures on BBC radio. In The Englishness of English Art, Pevsner argued that there was a fundamental English perspective to architecture and that this involved the modernist movement. “England seems predestined to play a role in modern architecture”.15 Within this exploration of Englishness and its relationship with modern architecture, the Picturesque tradition of planning was reclaimed and promoted by the AR.16 Mathew Aitchison, a Professor of Architecture at Monash University, has carried out extensive research into Townscape and its significance. In 2008 Aitchison published Visual Planning and Exterior Furnishing, this thesis provides new insight into the original theoretical intentions of Townscape and “its influence and legacy in the practice and discourses of today”.17 Aitchison also argues that the conservative principles of the British Townscape movement have

13 Pevsner and Aitchison, p.20.

14 The Editor [Hubert de Cronin Hastings], Exterior Furnishing or Sharawaggi: The Art of Making Urban Landscape, Architectural Review (London: Architectural Press, 1944), p.3.

15 Nikolaus Pevsner, The Englishness of English Art (London: Architectural Press, 1956) p.182.

16 William Whyte, The Englishness of English Architecture: Modernism and the Making of a National International Style, Journal of British Studies, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), p.459.

17 Mathew Aitchison, Visual Planning and Exterior Furnishing: A Critical History of the Early Townscape Movement, 1930 to 1949 (Queensland: The University of Queensland, 2008), p.8.

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overshadowed the earlier and “forgotten” Townscape that was ultimately modernist.18 Aitchison’s research has also focused closely on the work of Pevsner and his contribution to Townscape. Aitchison became aware of an unpublished document entitled Visual Planning and the Picturesque, this unfinished manuscript was most likely a commission by Hastings that endeavoured to compliment the Townscape movement.19 As a result of Aitchison’s research, the book was finally published in 2010 and provides further understanding as to the origins of Townscape and its relationship to the principle of visual planning as well as the Picturesque. In simple terms, Hastings and Pevsner believed that contemporary modernist urbanism was methodical and regular, and ultimately incomplete without reference to traditional practices. In 1949, under the pseudonym Ivor de Wolfe, Hasting wrote, “the full implications of the modern movement […] can only be brought out by reference to the eighteenth century”.20 This alludes to the relationship between (early) Townscape and landscape design techniques that Pevsner emphasised in Visual Planning and the Picturesque. Pevsner speaks of numerous historical landscape gardeners, including Batty Langley, who focused on the value of variation. Langley declared, “{but} afterwards…all the remaining Parts should consist of regular irregularities” and that ultimately “nothing is more ridiculous, and forbidding, than a Garden which is regular.”21 This outlines the magazines interest in incongruity, Hastings believed that the composition of the whole and unity of the entire plan is what truly matters. The individual elements can be conflicting.

18 Ibid.

19 Pevsner and Aitchison, p.9.

20 Ivor de Wolfe [Hubert de Cronin Hastings], Townscape: A Plea for an English Visual Philosophy Founded on the True Rock of Sir Uvedale Price, The Architectural Review, Vol. 106 (London: Architectural Press, 1949), p.360.

21 Batty Langley, New Principles of Gardening (London: Printed for A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, 1728), p.198.

Townscape

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Figure 2 - Plan for a Serpentine Garden from Batty Langley’s New Principles of Gardening (1728)

This isn’t to say that Townscape was simply about asymmetry, the fundamental approach was to use the principles of the past in a modern context. Pevsner outlines this in Visual Planning.

[Picturesque] does not mean arranging buildings asymmetrically and leaving all the rest to accident […] if, however, you take the principles which were formulated a hundred and fifty years ago, the principle of variety, of intricacy, of the connection of the building with nature, of advance and recess, swelling and sicking, and of contrasts of texture, you will find that a great many of these principles are principles that you would apply to [Townscape].22

This approach substantiates the intention that a city should be a mechanism for a peripatetic subject. If a design utilises the principles stated above, the composition will ultimately create sequences of views. The AR campaign argued that this proposition would engage with people as the human mind responds and reacts to

22 Pevsner and Aitchison, p.177.

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contrast.23 The value of variation was reflected in the presentation of the AR magazine itself, using serif and sans-serif fonts within a single document, a “very clean layout contrasted with Victorian typefaces and floral typefaces, or ornamented captions and icons”.

In general terms this is what the AR were proposing in the context of contemporary urban design.24 The evolution of the campaign relates to the integration of modernism in England. In the 1930s modernism was often seen as a foreign concept, described by one contemporary as “a weed choking the English Garden”.25 The AR presented modernism in a way that framed the architecture as a moment to evolve English tradition, rather than break from the past. The magazine attempted to establish modernism using the demand of “cultural continuity”.26 The embodiment of ‘Englishness’ was also used by the AR, the magazine recognised “Modern architecture’s need to communicate with the “common man’”.27 Consider the fact that the AR’s promotion took place around the time of World War II, it was important that the urban design campaign took notice of patriotic feeling among the general public. The Picturesque had great association with English tradition, and ultimately proved popular in terms of influence on the built environment28 - as can be seen in the case of Gleadless Valley.

23 Gordon Cullen, Townscape (London: The Architectural Press, 1961), p.9.

24 The Getty Research Institute, Reconstructing Nikolaus Pevsner’s Townscape: An Interview with Mathew Aitchison (n.d.), <https://www.getty.edu/research/publications/ pevsner/index.html> [accessed 25 November 2019].

25 Whyte, p.449.

26 Erten, p.29.

27 Ibid., p.62.

28 The Getty Research Institute.

Townscape

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2 Gleadless Valley: On Top of the World in the South Yorkshire Hills

Figure 3 - ‘Football on the Valley’, taken by James Leslie Frederick Kellie (c.1960)

Fundamentally, this is a story of hope. In 1962 the Sheffield Council published a document entitled Ten Years of Housing in Sheffield, the book records the housing schemes developed by the council and city architect John Lewis Womersley. Harold Lambert, chairman of the Housing Committee at the time, confidently proclaimed that Sheffield’s housing development made impact not only “upon the people of Sheffield but upon the country as a whole”,29 this book isn’t a self-declaration of success but a celebration of the city’s achievements. Extraordinarily, presumably targeting an international audience, Ten Years was published in English, French and Russian. The book is now a somewhat depressing object, since 29 Harold Lambert et al., Ten Years of Housing in Sheffield (Sheffield: The Housing Development Committee Sheffield, 1962), p.3.

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many of the projects so hopefully described by the architects are now no longer recognisable or simply cease to exist. However, the book demonstrates the impact of Sheffield’s incredible architectural contribution in the post-war years.

Above all, this is an account of Gleadless Valley. However, in order to contextualise the estate’s origins and to provide insight into Gleadless’ perceived ‘decline’, the significance of the Park Hill development will also be referenced. This section will demonstrate that Gleadless was once considered as significant as Park Hill. The Gleadless Valley estate is a breath-taking collection of wide-ranging dwellings that sit proudly upon the South Yorkshire hills. Winding footpaths reveal houses that look at home, as if they’ve always been there. Gleadless Valley was described at the time as “Mediterranean in appearance”, perhaps due to the way the sun reflects off the valley.30 The mixed development, which began in 1955, can be described as a marriage of architecture and good landscaping and was somewhat different to Sheffield’s existing stable of social housing. As mentioned, the visual variation of the estate, and thoughtful response to natural environment is arguably a consequence of a Picturesque revival, promoted by the AR throughout the mid-20th century.

Historically, Gleadless had been farmland and the estate responds to this context. A green belt divides Gleadless Valley into three neighbourhoods: Hemsworth, Herdings, and Rollestone (see Figure 4). These names all come from historic associations; the city architects department made a conscious effort to reference local context. Previously, such land was deemed too hilly for housing, but it is these slopes that make the development so unique.

Womersley recognised that this was a remarkable approach, “never before have houses been built on such steep terrain, which has set us many problems, and given us an interesting time in landscape planning”.31 30 The Sheffield Telegraph, Houses with Continental Patio Gardens (c.1960).

31 The Sheffield Star, New Trees in Valley as Gleadless Estate is Developed (7 December 1956), p.7.

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Figure 4 - Gleadless Valley Map. Taken from ‘Ten Years of Housing in Sheffield’

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The terraces climb up the hills like giant steps and provide great views across the city. Depending on the characteristics of each area, the houses were designed either ‘along the contours’, or ‘across the contours’.32 The former resulting in dwellings with reversed plans, with living rooms on upper levels. ‘Across the contours’ dwellings tend to have a narrower front in order to produce a minimum dimension across the slope.33 This was state of the art technology, the maisonettes for example used prefabricated elements and bridges in order to overcome the sloping site34 (see Figure 6). Womersely told The Sheffield Star, “the maisonettes will be economical to build because the design avoids the need for lifts and a steel framework”.35 Local press also proclaimed that the approaches used by Womersley and his team were invaluable in terms of developing possible future sites with similar terrain.36 The scale of Gleadless is also an important aspect of its architecture and historic significance. These reconstruction projects ultimately came about to rebuild the war damaged homes of the north but also to replace the slums that once stained the city. A significant amount of the city’s population lived at Gleadless, by the end of 1962, the estate had a population of around 17,000.37 In order to provide for such a large number of people, each neighbourhood had its own junior and infant school as well a shopping centre. These were all connected by footpaths, independent of the vehicle routes38 (Figure 7). The design was extremely significant in the context of Sheffield’s post-war reconstruction programme. In the Sheffield Star, one reviewer described Gleadless as the “symbol of an emerging city”.39 In 1964, the Lord Mayor Albert Smith chose a photograph of Gleadless Valley to feature on his annual Christmas Card a rather wonderful object. In today’s context Gleadless would never be celebrated in this way. A depressing thought.

32 Lambert et al., p.15.

33 Ibid.

34 Sid Fletcher and Ian McInnes, unpublished paper delivered at the Sheffield C20 Annual General Meeting (2012), p.6.

35 The Sheffield Star, Solving a Steep Snag (5 January 1956), p.21.

36 Ibid., p.27.

37 Lambert et al., p.27 38 Ibid., p.14.

39 The Sheffield Star, A Privilege to live at Gleadless (c.1960).

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Figure 5 - View of the Rollestone Neighbourhood in Gleadless Valley

Figure 6 - Bridges were used throughout the estate in order to overcome the sloping site

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Figure 7 - The estate has many delightful footpaths that are independent of vehicle routes

Figure 8 - â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Children playing at Gleadless Valleyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, taken by James Leslie Frederick Kellie (c.1960). Each neighbourhood originally had its own junior and infant schools

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Figure 9 - Gleadless Valley on the front of the Lord Mayor Albert Smith’s Christmas Card (1964). Inside the card, the Lord Mayor notes the success of Sheffield’s new housing, “the city can be proud to be numbered among the most progressive authorities in the provision of Municipal Housing”

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For clarity, it is perhaps wise to classify the reception of the estate in two categories, coverage within the architectural realm, and the more general population. In general terms, an evaluation of local Sheffield press reveals an overwhelmingly positive reception to the new housing development. There are numerous reports from older residents who still recall a time when “bus-loads of visitors would travel to Gleadless to view the unique design”.40 This suggests that the estate was well-known nationally and even internationally. A Sheffield Telegraph article from 1961 corroborates these anecdotes.

This small cutting (see Figure 11) is an account from a Mr Cottam, a visitor to the estate from Perth, Scotland. Mr Cottam describes the “beautiful” estate as having a “jolly community”.41 This is an almost utopian portrayal of Gleadless Valley; a sharp contrast to the degrading press coverage the estate receives today.

There is a large collection of historic local newspaper articles that mention the Gleadless Valley estate, not surprising considering the scale of the development. Whilst sorting through Sheffield Star and Telegraph headlines at the Local Studies Library I was genuinely taken aback by what I was reading. As mentioned, the perceptions of Gleadless are now depressingly low.42 Nearly everything I found at the archive heaped praise on the modernist estate, a remarkable contrast. The contemporary press discussed both the people of Gleadless as well as the unique architecture. “Gleadless Valley Imports Happiness” read the Sheffield Telegraph in October 1957, the article discusses the “bubbling enthusiastic happiness” of new residents and reveals that many would proudly show visitors round their new homes.43 One can infer that socially the estate was initially deemed a success by residents, but also by onlookers. Simply put, this shows that the perception of Gleadless was once positive.

40 URBED, Gleadless Valley Masterplan (2019), <http://urbed.coop/projects/gleadless-valley-masterplan> [accessed 29 November 2019].

41 The Sheffield Telegraph, A Happy Estate (c.1960).

42 Hatherley, New Ruins, p.109.

43 The Sheffield Telegraph, Gleadless Valley Imports Happiness (19 October 1957), p.8.

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Figure 10 - ‘Gleadless Valley Imports Happiness’ - This article is taken from the Sheffield Telegraph (1957)

Figure 11 - ‘A happy estate’ - a newspaper cutting from the Sheffield Telegraph (1961)

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As well as the initial social success of the estate, the architecture of Gleadless was also praised by local press. Before the estate had even been built, in 1954, the proposal was praised for its “near revolutionary methods of planning”.44 The estate was also seen as an opportunity to provide an “artery” to the centre of Sheffield from the outskirts. It can be concluded comprehensively that Gleadless Valley was once a respected piece of architecture. Gleadless was not only considered aesthetically unique but it was also seen as a place that made its residents happy. The success of Gleadless relates to the wider popularity of Sheffield’s post-war architecture. Womersley wanted to make use of the hills across the city. An outstanding townscape created visual relationships from one project to another, a triumph in forming connections across the city and exploiting the magnificent views of the surrounding countryside.45 Harold Lambert was proud of this approach to town planning, as stated in Ten Years.

Most of our projects feature as important additions to the total environment—the more so because the topographical characteristics of the city allow many of them, such as Park Hill, Woodside and Netherthorpe, to be topographically related to each other. The careful exploitation of this topography—the building up of hill-top architectural compositions—is gradually producing something of the fascination of Italian Hill-towns. It is stimulating, exciting!46

Contextually, Sheffield was at the forefront of post-war modernist reconstruction. Under Womersely, the Sheffield architect’s department designed numerous modernist estates - Greenhill, Netherthorpe, Woodside, Gleadless Valley as well as the infamous Park Hill flats. Primarily, it was the Gleadless Valley estate that contended with Park Hill as Sheffield’s greatest contribution to post-war public housing in Britain.47 The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) conference, held in Sheffield in 1963, 44 The Sheffield Star, New Estate Due – And It’s The Planner Answer (23 August 1954) p.9.

45 Harman et al., p.35.

46 Lambert et al., p.3.

47 Harman et al., p.243

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Figure 12 - The sloping valley provides great views across Sheffield

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best illustrates the success and popularity of the city and its architecture. This was the first time the city had held the event , the theme of the function was “The Architect and Productivity”.48 This related to the broader campaign of “National Productivity Year” and various seminars took place exploring these appropriate issues.

Naturally the conference also showed off Sheffield’s best examples of world class design. Members were able to visit many local attractions, including the Walker and Hall cutlery factory, David Mellor’s workshops, as well as Womersley’s modern masterpieces.49 RIBA president, Sir Robert Matthew, opened his speech at the inaugural conference meeting in Sheffield City Hall, referring to the city’s hospitality. …we must thank the Sheffield, South Yorkshire and District Society of Architects and Surveyors, who have excelled themselves in the efforts they have made to provide for our education and entertainment. We started off in an auspicious way by going in a helicopter yesterday afternoon!50

In a rather remarkable way, helicopter flights were indeed organised in order to showcase the architectural features of Sheffield.

The Architect and Building News illustrated the route of the aerial tour highlighting key developments both old and new – including Gleadless Valley. Not all tours were aerial of course, after a flying start, walking tours were arranged in July 1963. Various architecture was showcased; stately home Wentworth Woodhouse was a popular visit, naturally tours of the modernist developments were also sought after. A day trip around the Gleadless Valley and Park Hill estates would have set you back 6s 0d.51

48 Quality of Sheffield, RIBA Conference, Sheffield Shows Her Paces as a Conference Centre (1963), p.39.

49 Ibid.

50 RIBA Journal, The Architect and Productivity (September 1963), p.359.

51 The Architect and Building News, Sheffield 1963 (July 1963), p.3.

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Figure 13 - Flight map of Helicopter tour around Sheffield for the 1963 RIBA Conference, published in the Architect and Building News. The figure of eight was planned â&#x20AC;&#x153;to give passengers on both sides of the aircraft a series of varied and interesting viewsâ&#x20AC;?

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The mere fact that the conference was held in Sheffield demonstrates its prestige in the architectural realm, the organised tours of the new modernist developments also illustrate the impact of Womersley’s large scale projects. At the time of the conference, Sheffield received a large amount of architectural press coverage. The Architects’ Journal (AJ) published a Sheffield conference special in July 1963, this profiles key politicians, architects and academics who had influence on the development of Sheffield and speculates what the future may hold for the city. The special edition heaps praise on Womersley and the city architect’s department.

“Womersley’s the best thing that’s happened to Sheffield since the discovery of steel”, said the Reverend G. Stanley Whitby, who initially studied architecture before joining the ministry.52 The local minister referred heavily to the contribution that new housing had made in terms of providing a humane environment for the people of Sheffield. This is a running theme. Former deputy leader of the Labour Party Roy Hattersley, then the youngest member of an ambitious Sheffield council, discussed the “recreation” of the city.

Citing Gleadless and other schemes that “emphasise the pleasant aspects of Sheffield and in particular the countryside”,53 Hattersley believed that the post-war developments were reminding people to appreciate the stunning aesthetics of the city. Further to this, he added, “We are right behind him [Womersley] and want to see the full expansion of his ingenuity”.54 This not only demonstrates the positive impact of Sheffield’s modernist reconstruction on the perception of the city, but it also highlights the ambition that local Government had for future developments.

Nikolaus Pevsner praised Womersley in the original edition of Yorkshire: The West Riding. Pevsner confidently stated that in “pre-Womersley days Sheffield was architecturally a miserable disappointment” and that architectural tourists must visit the mid-20th century buildings.55 Pevsner clearly held the modernist 52 The Architects Journal, RIBA Conference Special Issue, Vol. 138 No.2 (London: Architectural Press, 10 July 1963), p.64.

53 Ibid.

54 Ibid.

55 Nikolaus Pevsner, Yorkshire: The West Riding (London: Penguin, 1967), p.4.

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Figure 14 - Gleadless Valley, shown alongside Hansworth Library in the AJ Sheffield special (1963). The AJ revealed that official visitors to Sheffield were shown around Gleadless in the 1960s

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developments in extremely high esteem.56 It is the provenance of these comments that offers great insight. As mentioned, Pevsner was an incredibly influential writer and received the Royal Gold Medal for architecture in 1967.57 There is no doubt that Pevsner was an esteemed figure within architectural discourse, the fact that he recognised the impressive development of Sheffield shows that the city’s architecture was indeed fashionable in the post-war era.

In addition to the AJ, the Architectural Design magazine (AD) also devoted an issue to Sheffield two years earlier, in 1961. The special number highlights Gleadless Valley and Park Hill.58 Whilst is has been shown that Gleadless was well received in local press, the scale of the architectural media coverage of Gleadless Valley is somewhat surprising in today’s context, in which it is now largely forgotten and rarely spoken about – especially when compared to the iconic Park Hill. The AD chose to cover the two estates as they represent contrasting approaches to developing new housing. Gleadless, an example of building on the last available free ground in the city, and Park Hill, a redevelopment of a slum-clearance zone. It has to be said that the issue covers Park Hill in more detail than Gleadless and places more weight on its significance, however, evidence that Gleadless was once spoken in the same vein as the Brutalist flats substantiates the argument that the suburban brother of Park Hill was once considered a radical edition to British post-war housing.

Ultimately, this is what separates Gleadless to other less known modernist estates; it was once an incredibly acclaimed piece of architecture. On Gleadless, the AD describes the estate as visually pleasant and acknowledges that it has been “carefully and sensitively” planned.59 The developments long walking distances to local amenities are criticised but Gleadless is generally portrayed in a positive light. This particular issue of the AD contained the most advertising pages that the AD ever published. 146 pages of the

56 Ibid., p.448.

57 Pevsner and Aitchison, Visual Planning, p.177.

58 Pat Crooke et al., Architectural Design, Sheffield, Vol. 31 No. 9 (London: SCC, 1961), p.380.

59 Ibid., p.389.

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magazine were all devoted to advertisements.60 There is no doubt that this advertising is linked to the prosperity and popularity of Sheffield, as well as the construction industry.61 The AD special was not the only architectural magazine to cover Gleadless in the 1960s, The Builder magazine, the AJ, and the RIBA Journal all refer to the periphery estate. A later AJ edition refers to the 1963 conference as an “outstanding success”.62 The 1960’s represent a period in history when Gleadless Valley was at its most fashionable.

Sat in the South Yorkshire countryside, Gleadless was once on top of the world.

Figure 15 - Sheffield specials. The front covers of the Architects’ Journal (1963) and The Architectural Design magazine (1961) respectively

60 Parnell, p.217 61 Ibid.

62 The Architects Journal, Vol. 139 No.2 (London: Architectural Press, 8 August 1963), p.61.

On Top of the World

43

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44

2.1 Gleadless Valley and Townscape It is now appropriate to explain how Gleadless Valley and Townscape have a very close relationship. As well as Mathew Aitchison, architectural historian Erdem Erten has also carried out extensive research into the AR’s editorial positions in the post-war period. In the thesis Shaping “The Second Half Century”: The Architectural Review, 1947-1971, Erten explores the wider manifesto that Townscape was a part of. The Second Half Century was published in 1947 and set out the AR’s position in terms of British reconstruction. Three years after this publication, Ivor de Wolfe (Hastings) wrote Townscape: A Plea for an English Visual Philosophy founded on the true rock of Sir Uvedale Price. This was an endeavour to express the AR’s attempt to readdress the ideas of the Picturesque in the form of a modernist campaign.63 This was several years after Hastings first attempt entitled Exterior Furnishing or Sharawaggi.

The AR were principally targeting architects, as well as national authorities - in order to influence the built environment.64 Gleadless Valley is an example of the campaign in full affect.

The Townscape campaign was framed in a manner that could convince modern architects. Hastings aimed to promote the campaign within “institutional bodies of modern architecture”.65 J.M Richards, a member of the AR’s editorial board, spoke on behalf of the Modern Architectural Research Group, who were closely related to the AR, at the 1947 CIAM conference. This was an opportunity to carefully promote the principles of Townscape

63 Erten, p.65.

64 Ibid., p.23.

65 Ibid., p.22.

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45

to a hugely influential international body. Erdem Erten notes that Richards managed to avoid any apprehension that Sharawaggi had caused among some modernists a few years earlier.66 The campaign managed to revive historic ideas in the context of modernist architecture. As described in section 1.1, the AR took a particular interest into the theory of the Picturesque, Pevsner discussed the practice of numerous 18th century landscape gardeners in Visual Planning. Sheffield city architect Womersley was also influenced by historic ideas. In a meeting held at the RIBA on the 8th of January 1963, Womersley introduced a film exploring Sheffield’s architecture to RIBA members. The minutes of this meeting detail the discussion that took place following the film. Womersley notes several approaches to design that are aligned with Pevsner’s ideas.

Firstly, he discusses the fact that the development of the city must respect historical context. “We are not just rehousing the people of Sheffield; we are making a contribution to the redevelopment of a city which was built a hundred years ago”.67 This relates to the AR’s promotion of variation among architectural styles.

Furthermore, regarding the planning of the city, Womersley references landscape gardener Capability Brown. “We had been trying to follow Capability Brown’s advice of planting the hills and flooding the valleys”.68 It is not just the aesthetics of Gleadless Valley that relate to the Townscape campaign, this shows that the design practice of the Sheffield architects department consciously shared the values of the AR’s campaign. On Capability Brown, in Visual Planning, Pevsner notes his use of “long undulating lines” and how the landscape designs of the late 18th century have since become “indigenous with nature herself”.69 It is evident that the architect of Gleadless, and the architect of Townscape both studied historical landscape design precedent.

66 Ibid.

67 RIBA Journal, Appraisal of Parkhill Redevelopment, Sheffield (London: RIBA, 1963), p.28.

68 Ibid.

69 Pevsner and Aitchison, p.122.

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In order to further demonstrate Gleadless Valleys relationship with Townscape, Pevsner’s ‘walking tours’ can be of use. Pevsner regularly used photo essays to guide readers through urban spaces – “visually and verbally”.70 This successful concept allowed several writers at the AR to further explain how design can accommodate a peripatetic viewer. The following walking tour shows the spatial significance of Gleadless Valley’s Picturesque composition.

70 The Getty Research Institute, An Interview with Mathew Aitchison (n.d.), <https://www. getty.edu/research/publications/pevsner/index.html> [accessed 25 November 2019].

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I have chosen to focus on the Hemsworth and Rollestone neighbourhoods of the estate. This will enable us to go through Rollestone Wood, an example of the estates natural surroundings. The tour will end at the Holy Cross Church which gives breathtaking views across the rest of the city.

Walking Tour Gleadless Valley, Sheffield

Architects: Sheffield City Architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department

12 11 9

10

8 7

6 1 2

Original Photographs (2019)

3

5 4

49

1.

Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve chosen to start the tour on Overend Way, off the main road, as this

best displays the variation of design in the mixed development.

50

2.

The winding road reveals a row of houses known as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;cluster blocksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Each

containing four houses the floor levels of each cluster subtly vary to suit the sloping site. Ahead, there appears to be a wall of trees with no clue of what awaits beyond.

3.

A gap between two blocks then gives us a glimpse of what to expect.

Sitting upon the rolling hills is the Holy Cross Church, triangular in shape the central concrete column rises to form a cross. This design involved several well-known collaborators, John Baker provided the striking stained glass window, with David Mellor designing the large interior silver cross.71 71 Fletcher and McInnes, p.6.

51

4.

At what first seemed to be overgrown forest leads us to a trail down

the side of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;cluster blockâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; row. The winding path steps down in unison with the sculptural handrail - a wholly different scene to the Picturesque landscape we just caught a glimpse of.

52

5.

Looking back across the row of houses, the change in floor levels becomes

even more apparent. The bespoke designs sit effortlessly on the slopes.

6.

Further down the path the surroundings open up, revealing a collec-

tion of garages. The Architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department estimated the amount of garage space that would be needed for the Gleadless population - this was misjudged.

Architecturally, the sloped roof across all the units is a feature throughout the estate, this approach was unusual and a contrast with traditional terrace design. The garages are now unused due to the fact they were designed for much smaller 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vehicles.

53

7.

Before we know it weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re in the woods. It is hard to describe how

different this feels to the previous scene. Surrounded by trees, the sound of Meers Brook dominates as it trickles through Rollestone wood.

8.

We can see the light. Crossing the bridge over Meers Brook we get the

our first glimpse of the Rollestone neighbourhood.

54

9.

The contrast between the woods and this view of the two storey â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;patio

housesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is powerful. The reflection in the windows is a reminder of the breathtaking environment that surrounds us. The houses were designed with the steeply sloping south facing site in mind, the living rooms were placed on the first floor of the properties to provide unobstructed views across the valley.72

72 Lambert et al., p.88.

55

10.

The steep hill forces the steps to wind around the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;patio housesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Ahead

the houses look as if they sit on top of each other. The stepped handrail imitates the building forms as it helps us up the mount.

56

11.

We approach the ‘summit’ of Spotswood Mount. The concrete cross of

the Holy Cross Church leans over the bricked houses, a glimpse of what awaits.

The houses are accessed by a series steps and ramps, there’s a sense of rhythm about the composition as the steel supports meander across the slope.

57

12.

Stood outside the church we’re blessed with a panoramic view of

Sheffield. The vast scale of the estate becomes truly apparent - Gleadless covers approximately 300 acres.73 The variation is also striking within the mixed development, a series of ‘cluster blocks’ sit immediately in front of us, more traditional houses sit beyond them, finally the tower blocks can be seen climbing out of the trees. This experience of sequences, and of Picturesque snapshots can be experienced throughout the estate.

73 Fletcher and McInnes, p.6.

58

59

60

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3 Decline and Fall

Figure 16 - Poor maintenance. Some areas of the estate have clearly been neglected (photograph taken in the Hemsworth neighbourhood)

This section will demonstrate that over past decades Gleadless Valley has been largely ignored architecturally. Furthermore, the estate has more recently been negatively represented by local press, that have focused on the social problems of the estateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inhabitants.74 Why has Gleadless been forgotten? The reasons for this are complex, this section will break down numerous factors including issues of maintenance and changes in political attitude. It must be said that while beautiful, the lack of facilities and poor connection within the valley itself have contributed to problems.

74 Otto Saumarez Smith, Lost Futures Review, (London: V&A, 2017).

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Despite the hope of The Sheffield Star in 1954, Gleadless failed to become an “artery” and did not connect the centre of Sheffield to the city’s suburbs. On the other hand, the renowned Park Hill looms on a hill in the city centre, it is therefore not only well connected but easily associated with Sheffield. Owen Hatherley is one of the few academics who has recognised the beauty of Gleadless Valley.

Hatherley, who is a strong advocate for social housing, was himself “amazed” by the estate, stating that “even the tweediest anti-Modernist would have to apply industrial strength blinkers to see this place as harsh or inhuman”.75 Hatherley recently discussed Gleadless’ issue of connection with Lynsey Hanley, on her Radio 4 programme, Streets Apart. Whilst visiting Gleadless, Hatherley highlights the fact this is a problem with many peripheral estates, “the tram here [in Gleadless], comes to a stop right outside the estate, as if it wouldn’t dare to come the whole way in”.76 Suburban estates like Gleadless can often feel a long way from the cities they’re supposed to be a part of. This disconnect is an issue with wider city infrastructure, but it also shows how people don’t necessarily see Gleadless as part of Sheffield. This lack of connection can cause social isolation and has impact on employment opportunities for residents. In simple terms, poor transport links with the city centre can result in many residents choosing to work in the close vicinity of the estate.77 People ultimately don’t associate Gleadless with the rest of the city, a sharp contrast to Park Hill that has become synonymous with Sheffield - a musical has even been written about the Brutalist flats.78 Conversely, residents of Gleadless Valley believe that the “rest of Sheffield turns its nose up” at the neighbourhood.79 The estate is seen as a place where people don’t have job prospects and the same opportunities as more affluent parts of the city.

75 Hatherley, New Ruins, p.109.

76 Lynsey Hanley et al., Streets Apart: A History of Social Housing, Dreams and Dystopia, BBC Radio 4, 5 September 2017, podcast, BBC Sounds, <https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/ play/b092m9vr> [accessed 27 November 2019].

77 David Page, Communities in the Balance: The Reality of Social Exclusion on Housing Estates (York: YPS, 2000), p.25.

78 Chris Wiegand, Richard Hawley writes musical about Sheffield’s Park Hill estate (Guardian, 2018).

79 Lynsey Hanley et al., Streets Apart.

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Figure 17 - Poster for the musical ‘Standing at the Sky’s Edge’. The Sheffield-born Richard Hawley chose to explore Park Hill in the musical to explore the “history of post-war Britain”. This is just one example of the city celebrating Park Hill - a sharp contrast to the forgotten Gleadless Valley

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65

This is all despite the physical beauty of Gleadless Valley. The architecture has been lost in the midst of social issues.

Many residents feel personally blamed for what are much wider social problems. A resident muttered to Hanley, “When you hear the horrible things, they say about it [Gleadless Valley], I really don’t enjoy hearing people tearing the estate down because it is a nice place”.80 What Lynsey Hanley’s programme truly demonstrates is that there is a stigma, a negative attitude towards Gleadless, and this is influencing residents. There are many reasons for this negative attitude, one being that it is a ‘sink estate’. Sink estates are generally distinguished by social and economic deprivation, and in turn high crime rates.81 It goes without saying that this is not a beneficial association for Gleadless Valley. Social housing estates are often therefore dismissed as places that attract crime and misuse, in some cases crime is indeed a serious problem but ultimately the issues of poverty and social isolation are often overlooked.82 Fundamentally this adds weight to the idea that the beautiful architecture of Gleadless has been forgotten - due to overwhelming negative perceptions that concern social issues.

It must be said that it is not just social problems that create this negative perception. The lack of maintenance not only influences buildings physically, it also affects the living standards of residents.

The importance of management and maintenance for any piece of architecture must not be overlooked.83 Gleadless like other post-war social housing struggles with these issues. Sally Dale, Chair of the Gleadless Valley Tenants and Residents Association, has spoken about the difficulties regarding repairs on the estate. Litter pickups are regularly organised to keep the estate clean; Dale has also noted the Decent Homes Programme (2010) that aimed to ensure all public housing was up to living standards, “the fact that they

80 Ibid.

81 Frank Wassenberg, Large Housing Estates: Ideas, Rise, Fall and Recovery (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2013), p.109.

82 Lynsey Hanley et al., Streets Apart.

83 Otto Saumarez Smith, Lost Futures Review, (London: V&A, 2017).

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had to do every home on the estate screams volumes”.84 The formation of Tenants Associations reflects the motivation of government policy to involve residents in the running of their own homes and wider environment.85 In a sense, this is a positive approach, and can assist in establishing permanence to often unstable communities. However, the Decent Homes Programme demonstrates that state involvement and enforcement of contractual tenancy conditions is frequently unsatisfactory. This general lack of maintenance degrades the estate and can create an atmosphere that people don’t care. Owen Hatherley summarises this in a rather blunt manner, “I think if people tell you you’re shit, it’s quite possible that you’ll start internalising that, and going alright if you say I’m shit I suppose I am”.86 When Gleadless has been maintained it has been done in an incredibly cheap manner, that ultimately undermines the architectural integrity of the buildings. It is rather unfortunate that it’s the poverty of the area that has ensured the survival of nearly all of Gleadless’ Picturesque beauty.87 Thankfully it is just the towers on the outskirts of the estate that have succumbed to some quite unsavoury upkeep (below).

Figure 18 - Poor maintenance. The towers north of Rollestone have been cheaply clad 84 Lynsey Hanley et al., Streets Apart.

85 Paul Reeves, An Introduction to Social Housing (Oxford: Elsevier, 2005), p.47.

86 Lynsey Hanley et al., Streets Apart.

87 Hatherley, New Ruins, p.108.

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Poor maintenance and social problems have arguably been aggravated by an alteration in political attitude, (as well as changes in architectural fashion explored in section 3.1). A change in attitude towards social housing led to many estates like Gleadless becoming unpopular. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s social housing was built on a massive scale, Gleadless Valley was a part of a nationwide post-war reconstruction policy. This was once well regarded as discussed in section 2. However, from the 1970s, there has been a withdrawal of government involvement in housing. Political and economic pressures have influenced the perception of municipal housing.88 There are many contributing factors as to why housing policy became dominated by a campaign to roll back state involvement. Tower block construction was prominent throughout the 1960s up until the collapse of Ronan Point. The tower block in East London partially collapsed in 1968, killing four people.89 This inevitably resulted in local authorities choosing not to build high rise housing. Opinion surveys taken from the late 1970s indicate that public perception of council housing was extremely low. Less than 20% of social housing tenants under the age of 55 stated that their “ideal choice of tenure in two years was the council sector”.90 Attitudes clearly changed in the 1970s and this reflected the views of influential government figures. A letter from Margaret Thatcher’s secretary in 1979 encapsulates the outlook of many regarding council housing.

I hope you will not think of me too blunt if I say that it may well be that your council accommodation is unsatisfactory, but considering the fact you have been unable to buy your own accommodation you are lucky to have been given something which the rest of us are paying for out of our taxes.91

The election campaign of 1974 was a turning point in terms of

88 Brian Lund, Housing Problems and Housing Policy (Harlow: Longman, 1996), p.9.

89 Ibid., p.44.

90 Ibid., p.49 91 Ibid., Quoted from the Times, 9 April 1979.

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Figure 19 - Majestic, but neglected. View of the Rollestone neighbourhood 1966 vs 2019. The estate remains architecturally integral despite poor maintenance

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69

government policy towards social housing. The Conservative Party proposed the “right to buy policy”, this was eventually passed within the 1980 Housing Act. Council tenants of three or more years were able to buy their property at a minimum discount of 33% below market value.92 Between 1980 and 1987, 745,977 council houses were sold in England and Wales.93 This reflected general public opinion, a Labour Party housing study revealed that “for most people, owning one’s house is a basic and natural desire”.94 This demonstrates the change in attitude towards social housing and how political and economic policy arguably altered the perception of state provided housing. Furthermore, this downfall shows how estates such as Gleadless Valley became unpopular from the late 1970s. The rise of private ownership and in turn decline of social housing contributed to the stigmatisation of estates like Gleadless as well as its residents.95 Over the last 60 years, the decline of social housing and poor maintenance have contributed to the downfall of Gleadless’ popularity as a place, architecturally and socially.

The refurbishment and part-privatisation of a section of Park Hill relates closely to the issues of maintenance and social housing. The project was received extremely well within the architectural realm and was shortlisted for the 2013 RIBA Stirling Prize.96 However, some tenants at Park Hill were ‘decanted’ without the promise of a ‘right to return’, just a third of the flats renovated were made available for social rent.97 Design consultancy URBED are currently developing a masterplan strategy for Gleadless Valley, “the masterplan vision will create a blueprint to guide the Council for the next

92 Ibid. p.48.

93 Reeves, p.47 94 Andy Beckett, The right to buy: the housing crisis that Thatcher built, The Guardian (2015), <https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/aug/26/right-to-buy-margaret-thatcherdavid-cameron-housing-crisis> [accessed 18 November 2019].

95 Kate Davies, The social housing stigma: how to fight the stereotyping of social tenants, The Guardian (2014), <https://www.theguardian.com/housing-network/2014/jun/10/socialhousing-stigma-stereotype-tenants Kate> [accessed 18 November 2019].

96 Owen Hatherley, To change Sheffield for the better, the answer might lie in anger and civic action (2018), <https://www.dezeen.com/2018/11/07/sheffield-architecture-owenhatherley-opinion-column/> [accessed 30 December 2019].

97 Catherine Ince et al., Simon Phipps: Finding Brutalism : a Photographic Survey of Postwar British Architecture (Zurich: Park Books, 2017), p.232.

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Figure 20 - Regeneration: The old and new blocks of Park Hill. The Urban Splash development saw much of the block privatised. Nonetheless the project was received well within the architectural realm

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10 to 20 years”.98 An interview I conducted with Lorenza Casini and Helen Berg on behalf of URBED can be found in the appendix of this document. Ultimately URBED view the Park Hill renovation as a negative precedent, the ‘decanting’ of tenants fundamentally undermines the momentous ambition of the Sheffield Architects department.99 Park Hill is now somewhat removed from its original utopian dreams. While Gleadless lacks funding for basic maintenance, it has become a target for local press. As noted, the negative connotations of post-war social housing have also contributed to Gleadless Valley’s remarkable architecture being forgotten. In 2008, The Sheffield Star ran a story asking whether Gleadless Valley was the worst estate in the country.100 This is in sharp contrast to the “Gleadless Valley Imports Happiness” headline of 1957. There are countless examples of local newspapers depicting Gleadless Valley as an abhorrent place. In 2012, The Yorkshire Post ran the headline, “Tesco says Sheffield estate ‘too dangerous’ for home deliveries”.101 All these stories focus, relentlessly, on the social problems of the estate’s inhabitants, and overlook the architecture of the estate.

This may be expected from local press tabloids. Nonetheless, as highlighted earlier, there is clear evidence that local press coverage of the mid-20th century portrayed the architecture as well as the residents of Gleadless Valley in a positive light.

Unlike local press coverage, the estate hasn’t been vilified in the architectural realm but has been largely ignored – or forgotten.

There is little evidence of Gleadless Valley in present day architectural publications. As mentioned, Owen Hatherley is one of the few academics who has written on the estate. In his book A Guide to the New Ruins of Great Britain, Hatherley visits Sheffield. The book is a critique of the architecture of postmodern Britain, in order to contextualise the more recent developments in the country, Hatherley visits the hopeful post-war projects of Sheffield. Appreciating that 98 Interview with URBED (26 November 2019), transcript can be found in appendix.

99 Ibid.

100 Hopkins, p.53.

101 The Yorkshire Post, Tesco says Sheffield estate ‘too dangerous’ for home deliveries (2012), <https://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/latest-news/tesco-says-sheffield-estate-toodangerous-for-home-deliveries-1-5240383> [accessed 1 December 2019].

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the city was once incredibly important architecturally, among other projects, he discusses the modernist developments of Gleadless Valley and Park Hill. Hatherley acknowledges the unique characteristic of Sheffield’s architecture and its consideration of landscape, noting visitors are “always conscious of being in the presence of both a big city and an abundant countryside.”102 On Gleadless Valley, Hatherley compares the “remarkable” estate to 1950’s “Southern California”,103 endorsing the influence of Nikolaus Pevsner and the Picturesque. Ultimately, Owen Hatherley’s account demonstrates that the perception of Gleadless isn’t necessarily negative among recent high-profile architectural writers. Hatherley himself recognises that difficulties often removed from the architecture of the estate, influence general perceptions of what is an extremely poor area.104 Fortunately, as mentioned, influential writers such as Owen Hatherley and Lynsey Hanley have evaluated Gleadless in an architectural sense, accepting that social issues are indeed problematic, but fundamentally considering Gleadless for what it is - a beautiful place.

Figure 21 - Our Favourite Places, a Sheffield culture group, organised architectural tours of Gleadless Valley in 2019, implying that some enthusiasts are also ignoring the negative perceptions of the estate

102 Hatherley, New Ruins, p.78.

103 Ibid., p.92.

104 Ibid., 109.

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Not all contemporary architectural writers have managed to achieve this level of thoughtful understanding regarding the Gleadless Valley estate. Owen Hopkins, a respected architectural writer and historian, produced a useful account of the “disappearing architecture of post-war Britain” in his book Lost Futures (2017). Briefly reviewing 35 buildings built between 1945 and 1979, Hopkins explores hopeful projects that have been unfortunate to succumb to alteration.105 While the concept of the book is rather fascinating it must be said that Gleadless Valley does not belong in this collection of buildings. Lost Futures supposedly documents buildings that have been “demolished or heavily altered”.106 As stated earlier, other than several towers on the outskirts of the development, the integrity of Gleadless’ Picturesque architecture is reasonably intact.

Hopkins also proceeds to describe Gleadless as “architecturally unremarkable”,107 ignoring the fact that the estate is so obviously unique in its response to a rolling landscape. Hopkins tirelessly focuses on the social problems of the estate, in a manner not too dissimilar to local press. In a sense, Hopkins account of Gleadless substantiates the argument that social issues can ultimately influence the perception of architecture. Rather reassuringly, a review of Lost Futures published in the V&A Magazine by Otto Saumarez Smith specifically highlights Gleadless’ account in the book. Smith states that Hopkins review of the estate is simply “not good enough”, taking issue with the social focus of the review and apparent lack of architectural criticism.108 In contrast to Hopkins, Smith discusses the spectacular and welcoming architecture, and notes that the estate is a place that “can’t be appreciated through photographs, but needs to be explored”.109 Ultimately, Hopkins account appears to be misguided, I would not be surprised if the historians problem may lie in the fact that he has never actually visited Gleadless. The location of Gleadless, maintenance issues, and the decline of social housing have all contributed to the estates perceived decline.

105 Hopkins, p.11.

106 Ibid.

107 Ibid., p.53 108 Otto Saumarez Smith, Lost Futures Review, (London: V&A, 2017).

109 Ibid.

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3.1 Guilty by Association: The Decline of Modernism

The stigmatisation of social housing over many decades and social issues surrounding Gleadless Valley have resulted in negative local press coverage. The decline of modernism has also led to many architectural and local media outlets ignoring the aesthetic qualities of the development.

Post-war modernism represents a point in history when Britain was at the forefront of architecture.110 This was a time when the optimism of architects and local authorities resulted in architectural utopian dreams. Gleadless Valley was full of hope that it could improve the lives of ordinary people and that was mirrored in the architecture it expressed.111 Many began to associate modernist architecture with prosperous times. The belief among many modernist architects was that there was a â&#x20AC;&#x153;strong sense of social responsibility in that architecture should raise the living conditions of the masses.â&#x20AC;?112 Many modernist estates utilised revolutionary prefabricated approaches to construction, as mentioned, Gleadless itself adopted partial prefabrication in the maisonette structures. This allowed for shorter and more economical construction for large scale projects and provided housing to people quicker.113 Further to my previous comments on the Ronan Point disaster, the event not only altered 110 Douglas Murphy and Stefi Orazi, Modernism in Britain: did it stand the test of time?, The Guardian (2015) <https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/sep/13/60shousing-dream-living-in-it> [accessed 2 December 2019].

111 Ibid.

112 Robert Levine, Modern Architecture & Ideology: Modernism as a Political Tool in Sweden and the Soviet Union (Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, 2018) p.5.

113 Murphy and Orazi, Modernism in Britain.

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the perception of social housing but also post-war modernism.114 The opinion of high rise architecture had already begun to turn, with some questioning the capacity of architects and modern architecture.115 Symbolically, it represents a moment in which the political landscape changed - the construction of grand developments slowly diminished.116 Numerous modernist estates were found to have been “bodged by contractors”.117 Ronan Point was the beginning of the end in the sense it led to the uncovering of a mass scandal in the construction of architecture associated with modernism.

There are two main issues at hand here, the downfall and negative perception of the concept of social housing (section 3), and the decline of modernism. Modernist municipal housing estates, like Gleadless Valley, became unpopular architecturally, and socially.

Beyond the fact that there has been a quite ruthless attack on post-war modernism, the Townscape campaign also has a rather confused legacy.118 The campaign wasn’t focused in a way that several interpretations couldn’t be made. In the 1970s, Townscape takes on a much more preservationist stance. This is rather different to the work of Pevsner and Hastings in the 1940s. Matthew Aitchison describes these as ‘parallel legacies’.119 [Townscape] has aligned in recent times with things like the new urbanism in the United States, or with the faux-historical villages proposed by Prince Charles and others… this association is a curious twist of history because it couldn’t be further from the original intentions of people like Pevsner and Hastings.120

As Townscapes origins revolve around the use of historical ideas in a modern context, the criticism of the campaign in its early form 114 Tim Verlaan, The Downfall of British Modernist Architecture (2011), <https:// failedarchitecture.com/the-downfall-of-british-modernist-architecture/> [accessed 2 December 2019].

115 Hopkins, p.8.

116 Ibid.

117 Murphy and Orazi, Modernism in Britain.

118 The Getty Research Institute.

119 Ibid.

120 Ibid.

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was that it was advocating a revival of a formalistic Picturesque and therefore a manifestation of a historicism.121 The AR’s promotion endorsed architectural variation, their position was neither preservationist or ‘blank slate’ purist. AR’s compromised position is evident as early as 1945 in their City London Plan. “A timid preservationist attitude aiming at mere street improvement falls as short of what is required as the fantasies of the brave-new-worlders.

Constructive compromise is what genius loci calls for, not tabula rasa”.122 However, as modernism became increasingly unpopular around the start of the 1970s, the heritage aspects of the campaign became more prominent.123 This can be seen in the republishing of the book Townscape, originally written in 1961 by AR contributor Gordon Cullen. The original publication is similar in argument to Visual Planning.124 The Concise Townscape was published ten years later; this condensed version omits the modernist developments that underpinned the original proposition of the AR’s campaign.125 Crucially, this shows the ambiguous nature of the campaign and ultimately demonstrates that several readings of the promotion can be made. Townscape manifested itself in many forms, exploring the expansion of the rural environment, in the special issues Outrage and Counter Attack.126 Townscapes premises ultimately depreciated, Gleadless Valley is associated with modernism, and a campaign that has a rather mixed legacy. This has resulted in a place that many may deem ‘generic’ and unfashionable architecturally.

The decline of modernism and maintenance issues also led to a negative perception of Park Hill in the late 20th century.127 However, as well as the regeneration of the development, Park Hill’s association with Brutalism has arguably increased the popularity of the estate.

In recent years, Brutalism has become increasingly fashionable,

121 Erten, p.40.

122 The Architectural Review, A Programme for the City of London special (London Architectural Press, 1945), p.171.

123 Pevsner and Aitchison, p.28.

124 Cullen, p.11.

125 Pevsner and Aitchison, p.14.

126 Erten p.29.

127 Hopkins, p.88.

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among conventional media as well as on social platforms.128 Brutalist buildings tend to photograph beautifully, through Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr and the like, black and white photographs have been shared to an ever growing audience of Brutalist connoisseurs.

In recent years “Brutalism has become a sharable – and tradable – currency of cool”.129 Park Hill’s architecture is currently fashionable, and the estate is now well thought of in Sheffield. The Brutalist association of Park Hill may offer further insight as to why the flats have become an icon in the city.130 The popularity of Park Hill is a sharp contrast to the forgotten Gleadless. Whilst the Picturesque composition of Gleadless may be delightful, it is not ‘fashionable’ in the way Brutalism is.

128 Elser et al., p.15.

129 Hopkins, p.22.

130 The Design Museum, Park Hill Estate: an infamous Sheffield icon (n.d.), < https:// designmuseum.org/discover-design/all-stories/park-hill-estate-an-infamous-sheffield-icon> [accessed 5 January 2020].

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Conclusion A Forgotten Utopia

My research has shown that Gleadless Valley was once recognised by architectural and local mainstream media as a radical, transformative piece of architecture. Sheffield was proud of the estate to the extent that it contended with Park Hill as the city’s greatest contribution to British post-war reconstruction.131 It is clear that the AR’s Townscape campaign had great influence on John Lewis Womersely and the Sheffield Architects department. Gleadless Valley reflects the campaigns principles in architectural style and ambition, the result is extraordinary, breath taking yet homely. This hasn’t changed since the estate was built. Regardless, the estates reputation has. Why then has Gleadless Valley been forgotten? The decline of modernism in the 1970s saw the architectural language of Gleadless Valley become unpopular, this decline was exacerbated by the stigmatisation of social housing resulting in Gleadless being overlooked in the architectural realm and attacked in local press.

The significance of Gleadless blended into the landscape.

The reason Gleadless has been forgotten architecturally comes down to numerous factors including the notoriety of the architectural movement the development represents. Park Hill’s reputation was extremely low in the 1980’s, much like Gleadless Valley, poor maintenance and lack of funding contributed to the modernist giant’s decline.132 Unlike Gleadless Valley, Park Hill’s modernist style epitomises the increasingly popular Brutalist movement, in a sense this has validated the status of the flats.133 As well as 131 Harman et al., p.243.

132 Hopkins p.88.

133 Ibid.

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displaying revolutionary architectural concepts, Park Hill occupies a site in the centre of Sheffield. In contrast, Gleadless Valley is disconnected from the city, and has no association with a fashionable architectural movement. I think it is fair to say that Townscape was significant in the sense that it contributed to the acceptance of modernism in post-war Britain. Nevertheless, the campaign has a rather confused legacy and lacks a clear identity. Ultimately this relationship is a major factor as to why Gleadless is perceived as generic. Although the Picturesque beauty and utopian optimism of the estate is slowly being recognised by some modernist enthusiasts, the fact that there has been no previous in-depth research into the estate shows that Gleadless Valley isn’t valued in the way it once was.

Gleadless Valley is an example of a forgotten gem amongst postwar modernism, in a wider sense, this dissertation has showed how maintenance concerns and various social issues, often removed from design, can create negative perceptions of quite delightful architecture. ‘Regeneration’ projects can change the reputation of deprived developments, the upcoming masterplan for Gleadless Valley represents a new chapter in the history of the Picturesque masterpiece. Ultimately, Gleadless doesn’t need to become a ‘landmark’ for the city, but it should be recognised in terms of architectural value, its design needs to be celebrated, and its future fought for. For now - Gleadless Valley remains a forgotten utopia.

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List of Figures

Figure 1 - ‘A Boy Playing at Gleadless Valley’, photograph taken by James Leslie Frederick Kellie (c.1960), <https://www.picturesheffield.com/> [accessed 8 January 2020].

Figure 2 - Plan for a Serpentine Garden, Batty Langley’s New Principles of Gardening (London: Printed for A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, 1728), p.207.

Figure 3 - ‘Football on the Valley’, photograph taken by James Leslie Frederick Kellie (c.1960) <https://www.picturesheffield.com/> [accessed 8 January 2020].

Figure 4 - Gleadless Valley Map, Ten Years of Housing in Sheffield (Sheffield: The Housing Development Committee Sheffield, 1962), p.14.

Figure 5 - Original photograph, View of the Rollestone (2019).

Figure 6 - Original photograph, Bridges in Gleadless Valley (2019).

Figure 7 - Original photograph, Delightful Footpaths (2019).

Figure 8 - ‘Children Playing at Gleadless Valley’, photograph taken by James Leslie Frederick Kellie (c.1960), <https://www.picturesheffield. com/> [accessed 8 January 2020].

Figure 9 - The Lord Mayor Albert Smith’s Christmas Card (1964), found at the Sheffield Local Studies Library.

Figure 10 - Photograph of The Sheffield Telegraph, Gleadless Valley Imports Happiness (19 October 1957), p.8.

Figure 11 - Photograph of The Sheffield Telegraph, A Happy Estate (c.1960).

Figure 12 - Original photograph, View across Sheffield (2019).

Figure 13 - Flight map of Helicopter tour, The Architect and Building News, Sheffield 1963 (July 1963).

Figure 14 - The Architects’ Journal, RIBA Conference Special Issue, Vol. 138 No.2 (London: Architectural Press, 10 July 1963), p16.

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Figure 15 - Front covers of Architectural Design, Vol. 31 No. 9, 1961, and The Architects’ Journal, Vol. 138 No.2 (London: Architectural Press, 10 July 1963).

Figure 16 - Original photograph, The Hemsworth Neighbourhood (2019).

Figure 17 - Poster for the musical, ‘Standing at the Sky’s Edge, <https:// issuu.com/sheffield_theatres/docs/03232_st_season_brochure_ spring_201> [accessed 8 January 2020].

Figure 18 - Photograph of Gleadless Valley Towers, taken by Theo Simpson, < https://www.ourfaveplaces.co.uk/whats-on/gleadless-valley-nature-walk/>, [accessed 2 January 2020].

Figure 19 - Original photograph of Rollestone (2019) and photograph taken by James Leslie Frederick Kellie (1966), <https://www.picturesheffield.com/> [accessed 8 January 2020].

Figure 20 - The Old and New blocks of Park Hill, < https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/aug/14/park-hill-brutalist-sheffield-estate-controversial-renovation> [accessed 2 January 2020].

Figure 21 - Original photograph, Our Favourite Places Tour (2019).

Front cover - Original Photograph, Spotswood Mount (2019).

Advertisements sourced from the ProQuest Art and Architecture Archive.

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Appendix Gleadless Valley Masterplan with URBED Interview by Joseph Caden, 26 November 2019 Manchester based design consultancy URBED are currently working on a masterplan to improve Gleadless Valley. Via Email and over the phone I was able to speak to Lorenza Casini and Helen Berg on behalf of URBED. I would like to thank them for their detailed answers and enthusiasm for my project.

J C: Have URBED referenced the success and failures of the Park Hill ‘regeneration’?

URBED: Whilst the two projects have a similar context – both being constructed as innovative modernist council housing, built within a similar period, and subject to subsequent deterioration URBED were keen not to compare the Gleadless Valley masterplan to the Park Hill regeneration scheme. The tenants at Park Hill were ‘decanted’ without the promise of a ‘right to return’: the council and URBED were keen that this did not happen in Gleadless Valley.

The Park Hill regeneration was mentioned by a number of participants at the Design for Change Workshops, held in September 2018. It was largely seen as a negative precedent, with Gleadless Valley residents concerned that they would be forced out of their estate once it was regenerated.

J C: Are you familiar with the Townscape, Visual Planning and Picturesque movement of the 1960s, from which Gleadless was heavily influenced?

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URBED: I personally know very little about this - sorry! I know that the Gleadless Valley architect (John Lewis Womersley) wanted to create a park-like feeling to the estate.

J C: What do you believe are the most successful parts of Gleadless in its current state?

URBED: Rollestone Wood has both successes and failings – there are some really beautiful parts within where you feel like you are in the middle of the countryside. I think that this is one of the most successful elements of Gleadless Valley still – the retention of the natural surroundings. Currently the council is struggling to maintain this much green space though. There’s also some great community groups operating in the Valley, such as the Gleadless Valley Wildlife Trust and the GV Church.

In terms of the designed elements – the ‘Oxo houses’ or ‘cluster blocks’ (three bed townhouse design which can be found along Blackstock Road/ Overend Way) – is still one of the most popular and as each side presents a ‘face’ to the street, these offer a good amount of passive surveillance over nearby green space.

J C: And are there specific examples of ways in which original design intentions have been referenced in the proposal?

URBED: The current masterplan strategy and vision sees much of the original architecture and layout retained. The new architectural designs will continue to work with the striking topographies and aim to offer good views and retain the important green spaces such as the central woodlands, in order to maintain the parklike quality that was originally desired.

One thing that our work has repeatedly emphasized is that the design intentions were for an estate accommodating a maximum of 17,000 residents, based on an average maximum occupancy rate of 3.87 per dwelling. Changing household structure and family sizes A Forgotten Utopia

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within the past 60 years means that the Valleyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current population is at 55% of the maximum occupancy level. Introducing additional housing into the area could help to support better local retail and communal facilities, improve public transport services and make sure more open spaces are positively overlooked.

We are also aware that many of the original design intentions donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t serve more modern lifestyles. The original design occurred in a time when cars were less dominant, and parking has since become an issue. Connectivity is poor, with most streets designed as cul-desacs. The roads that do connect therefore have to take lots of cars and become very busy whilst others feel isolated.

J C: Do you think that the architecture of Gleadless has been overlooked due to social issues in the area? Has the architecture itself contributed to these issues?

URBED: Gleadless Valley is one of the few residential areas that still offer a large social housing stock which is largely owned by Sheffield City Council. This is now a rarity and something that the Council now sees as a positive asset but one that due to decades of low Council funding has been neglected overall and this now shows in the estate, both at building scale but also in the green spaces and the facilities within the Valley (shops etc).

The architecture and the management of the buildings and the spaces in between have contributed in part, but it is not the sole reason for some of the antisocial issues the Valley suffers from.

Lack of funding and therefore maintenance neglect has affected the buildings â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for example some more difficult units to manage have been left empty and boarded up, which has in turn reduced natural surveillance over the spaces in between buildings. Lack of maintenance has also meant that some of the housing units have been suffering from damp and other issues that lead to poor living conditions for some of the tenants.

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It is not the particular architecture of the time that has contributed to some of the antisocial behaviour, but as with all places it is about maintenance.

As mentioned in other answers, some of the original masterplan was also designed for a time where lifestyle was different – there were less cars, people walked more, there was less time spent in front of TVs or computers etc and so more people lived outdoor enabling a better use and presence in the streets, green spaces etc. So URBED’s vision for a strategic masterplan is to review the design strategy of the Valley so it can respond better to today’s modern needs while still embedding strongly principles of sustainable living – support more walking and less driving, support better public transport services etc, better amenities and green spaces, etc.

J C: Do you think that the negative perceptions of Gleadless can be changed by this project?

URBED: It is important to understand the difference between the external perception of the Valley which may be ‘negative’ and the perception and pride of those who live and have lived in the Valley for many years. Many of the residents remain proud of living in the Valley and what Gleadless Valley offer them. When outsiders define the Valley as ‘problematic’ or ‘negative image’ it really does hurt people’s feelings and puts them on the defensive, understandably so.

The aim of our work is for as aspirational project, which targets and resolves local problems, through building on the positives and thus create attractive assets within the Valley (such as woodland walks and wildlife spaces) to encourage people from outside the community to visit and for the Valley to become more accessible and therefore more open and better connected. All this can contribute to create once more an image of the Valley that the residents can feel proud of and positive about. We understand how the residents’ strong sense of identity and pride has been eroded over time, and it is hoped that some of these original feelings can be restored through this project.

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J C: Has this masterplan been inspired by the general regeneration of the city centre and the Heart of the City II project?

URBED: We are not familiar or aware of the direct connections with regard to this. The regeneration of the Gleadless Valley is supported by a city wide regeneration project for the Councilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own social housing assets, Gleadless Valley being one of the largest estates in the Councilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ownership. We hope that through this project, the vision for a community-led housing regeneration can become a pilot for future projects as well, and that can offer guidance to the Council on the strategies and approaches to large social housing stock.

J C: And the masterplan will be completed by 2020?

URBED: The delivery of our masterplan strategy is scheduled for 2020, the delivery of the regeneration programme is far longer than this as regeneration of this scale takes a lot longer, the masterplan vision helps create a blueprint to guide the Council for the next 10 to 20 years. The aim of the masterplan is to remain aspirational as well as deliverable with a high degree of flexibility so it can remain relevant and deliverable as the economy changes through peaks and troughs â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for example the ongoing uncertainty about Brexit and overall slowdown in the economic health of the nation do have an impact on the (lack of) certainty with regard to available funding.

We always deliver masterplan strategies that can cope with this, so the time and money spent remain worthwhile and lowers the risk of creating masterplans that become obsolete as soon as the current economic settings change.

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