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The Living Theory of Christopher Alexander Hiu Kit Brian Hui

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Disser tation submitted as par t of Bac helor of Ar ts Degree in Arc hitecture Ne wc astle Universit y Januar y 2020 Hiu Kit Br ian Hui

An investigation into the relationship b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n b o d y, a e s t h e t i c s a n d design through the eyes of Christopher Alexander

CO NT EN T S Introduction

1/ History of Human-centric Design

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2/ Christopher Alexander

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Chapter one : Design of Nature

1/ Touch and Orientation

2/ Sight and Aesthetics

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3/ Mental Maps and the Three Senses

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4/ The Embrace of Nature

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5/ Living Structures

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Chapter two : Concept of Life in Architecture

1/ The Battle against Mainstream Architecture

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2/ The Death of Modern Architecture

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3/ A New Philosophy of Design

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4/ The Sala House

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5/ The West Dean Visitor's Centre

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Conclusion

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List of Patterns

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List of Figures

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Bibliography

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INTRODUCTION

T H E LI V I NG T H EORY OF C H RIS TO P H ER A LEXAN DER

1 / H IS TO RY O F H UM A N - C EN T RI C DESI G N

The human scale has been an integral

part of the history of design. The consideration to the human body was and still is the driving force for architectural design and it has been noted by various architectural theorists throughout history. As with most parts of the history of Western civilization, one of the earliest theorists came from Ancient Rome. Vitruvius was an architect, engineer and most importantly the author to arguably most influential piece of architecture writing, De Architectura. In the treatise, Vitruvius broke down and explored the different elements of architecture, with the first book explaining what it means to be an architect, the fundamentals of architecture and the relationship between the human scale and architecture. He proposed that the role of an architect is similar to the role of a polymath, equipped with a wide branch of knowledge, but can be split into the mastery of practice and the mastery of theory1. Vitruvius suggested that as a master of theory, an architect must be well apprehended in the principles of proportions. Popularized by the celebrated polymath Leonardo da Vinci, the drawing of the Vitruvian Man is one of the most significant representations of human proportions; inspiring various contemporary scales of proportions such as the Modular Man

by Le Corbusier. Harmony has been a common theme in the topic of proportions, and Vitruvius likens it to the

F i gu re I The Vitruvian Man

aesthetically pleasantness of Classical architecture. He suggested that the symmetrical human body is designed by nature and every body part can be related with each other in certain proportions, as shown on the Vitruvian Man2. In the case of architecture, Vitruvius stated that classical buildings such as temples of the gods were designed to be aesthetically perfect3; as humans were seen to be designed by god, it would be obvious that the architecture itself would follow the proportions of the body. In the other books, Vitruvius analyses various aspects of architecture and theories of their time period; Book V briefly mentions the 8

I NT ROD UCT IO N

acoustics of Roman theatres, Book VIII mentions how the body is intrinsically related to the nature and their elements etc. This is a prime example of how people viewed architecture during

the Classical and Hellenistic period, that every part of a design is a clear consideration to human scale, and although unconsciously, a consideration to human behaviour as well.

1 / CH RIS TO P H ER A LEXA N D ER

Christopher

Alexander is an architectural theorist who became popular in the late 20th century for his human-centric line of ideology. He was born in 1936 in Vienna, Austria before moving to England early on in his life.

He went on to study chemistry, physics and mathematics at Cambridge University, and later a degree and a Ph.D. for Architecture in M.I.T. and Harvard respectively4. Since then, he had published a widely influential series of books such as A Pattern Language and The Nature of Order volumes as well as building a number of buildings around the world. A Pattern Language is a theory created by Alexander as a means to present patterns that possess a ‘quality without a name’5, a quality in which people being in the presence of the patterns can feel the whole. The quality, later known as ‘The Timeless Way’ would have a central and vital role in his ever-evolving theory. Patterns were defined by Alexander as elements and the relationship between elements, and that the connections make the concept of the whole stronger.

In the culmination of his life’s work and research, he had proposed a

strong polemic, a polemic against the ‘soulless’ aesthetic of the Modern and Post-Modern theory of architecture. In the 20th century, Alexander believed that we were living in a mechanistic world6, with the mechanistic paradigm of course being an allusion to the modernist movement. A world where “exclusive clubs of experts” govern every aspect of human experience and affairs7, where we were accustomed to accepting any sorts of advice from experts and people didn’t dare to make judgments of their own. Alexander stated that the mechanistic paradigm doesn’t refer to questions of value but instead refer to facts and that beauty being subjective is a necessary part of the movement. He suggests that beauty and wholeness cannot be a matter of personal opinion but rather facts of life which are real dimensions of our perceived experience8. A living structure is a phrase Alexander has coined to represent the product of the theory he was putting forward. The theory of a living structure states that all matter has life in them and the space within the structure becomes more or less alive according to its arrangement. Our perception of its 9

T H E LI V I NG T H EORY OF C H RIS TO P H ER A LEXAN DER

liveliness, or beauty in a certain way, does not come down to personal preferences but instead a natural part of evolution. The best architectural design allows people to be free, to not be restricted by the structure, to have the freedom of doing whatever they want9.

Alexander’s theory was not to squander

on the debate between Aesthetics vs.

Function but to instead push forward a new approach in design, a design that appeases the human body. In this dissertation, I will discover the relationship between the human body, aesthetics and design through the eyes of Christopher Alexander.

NOT ES

1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9:

Vitruvius (1960) ‘The Education of the Architect’, De Architectura. New York: Harvard University Press, p.5 ibid. 'On Symmetry: In Temples and in the Human Body', p.72 ibid. 'On Symmetry: In Temples and in the Human Body', p.73 Grabow S. (1983) 'Introduction', Christopher Alexander: the Search for a New Paradigm in Architecture.

Leeds: Routledge, p.7 Alexander C. (1979) 'The Quality without a Name', The Timeless Way of Building. New York: Oxford University Press, p.25 Alexander C. (1985) Interviewed by Greg Saatkemp for Progressive Architecture, Available at: https://archive.org/details/pra-AZ0895A (Accessed: 18 January 2020) ibid. ibid.

Alexander C. (2002) 'The Impact of Living Structure on Human Life', The Phenomenon of Life. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.380

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CHAPTER ONE

D E S I G N O F N AT U R E

T H E LI V I NG T H EORY OF C H RIS TO P H ER A LEXAN DER

1 / TO UCH A ND O RI EN TAT I O N

There are multiple aspects of exploring

movement of the organism in response to the stimuli; in this case, the stimuli of touching something. Although thigmotaxis is a well-documented strategy within the subconscious of nonhuman animals, the extent of its effect on humans, especially its role in navigation, is still largely unknown; Perhaps an observation into human behaviour would provide a purpose to the primitive trait.

a space; the navigation through one seems to provoke our senses the most.

The concept of thigmotaxis1, or to “wall-hug” so to speak, have been observed as a phylogenetic trait within organisms as a means of exploration throughout a space2. Etymologically, the prefix Thigmo refers to the sensation when you come in contact with an object, and the suffix taxis refers to the

The life of a public square forms naturally around its edge. If the edge fails, then the space never becomes lively.

Pattern 124, Activity Pockets

In a series of patterns in A Pattern Language, Alexander analyses hierarchy of human activities in open spaces, he points out that people feel most natural being around edges and walls.

People don’t tend to linger out in the middle of public spaces; it is more often that the majority of interactions is scattered around the edges3. When an organism enters a novel space, they tend to stay in close contact with a wall as it provides a level of intimacy that the creature trusts; such anxious behaviour has been integrated into the human's nature as well, as a means to shun open spaces. The centrophobic impulse is an evolutionary trait developed to combat

the weakness in our visual blind spot, our back. Our species prefer to stick to walls as a means to protect our back, which can be linked to energy conservation in organisms. The theory of survival of the fittest is directly linked to energy conservation; the less energy consumed by an organism means that there are more activities the organism can perform, which leads to higher chance of survival4. We conserve energy by positioning ourselves against a wall, thus eliminating the need to watch our backs. The “wall-hugging” trait explains why little pockets of spaces are typically filled to the brim full of activities; Public spaces in the middle of a perceived boundary would be wasted if 12

D ES I GN OF NAT URE

F igure 1. 1 People feel most comfortable when their backs are protected and a vista can be seen. It will naturally become a social space

F i gu re 1 . 2 As spaces in the shape of alcoves tend to gather people, social activities could take place in a series of scalloped space around a centre

not for the existence points of interest such as trees, fountains, monuments, etc. something to protect our backs with5. Alexander proposes that a good strategy to avoid “social dead spaces” is to create scalloped zones where pockets of activities could take place in semi-enclosed areas, accommodating to the human tendency of wanting to hug to walls6; although, it is also important to provide a view out onto a larger opening to satisfy our needs to watch

our fronts too7. Like how stomach folds stretch outwards to hasten nutrient absorption during digestion, the increase of “surface area” in a scalloped edge diminishes anti-social behaviour by maximizing social activities within a space.

There is an obvious relation between the touch stimulus and designing for the human scale but our connection with senses could go deeper than one might think.

2 / S IGH T A ND A EST H ET I C S

We have discussed that people subcon-

cedure in perception. It plays an important role in human behavioural responses within a space as it is our preferred method to detect imminent danger. Some inconspicuous optical evolutionary traits can affect our day to day lives, For Example: there is a natural tilt of 10 degrees downwards when we walk9. This habit of ours helps us scan for obstacles effectively in the path in front of us as our field is vision is wider below eye-level.

sciously protect their backs by hugging walls, but it is not to overshadow the fact that an emphasis is also put on us to face forwards. Cephalization is an evolutionary trait where the mouths, nervous clusters and the sense organs are all centralized towards the front of an organism8.

In a world that is visually dominant, with more than half of sensory information going into the brain being visual, seeing is our first automatic pro13

T H E LI V I NG T H EORY OF C H RIS TO P H ER A LEXAN DER

Wherever there is action in a place, the spots which are the most inviting, are those enough to give people a vantage point, and low enough to put them in action.

Pattern 125, Stair Seats

In a series of patterns that discusses the details of spaces in between buildings, Alexander reinstates the importance of visual depth and complexity in living architecture.

Multiple participants and bystanders can exist in a moment of action within a space. People who stroll past sustains the option to either be part of the action or just to observe. Those who chooses to observe generally prefer to look from a vantage point10; they are able to take in more visual information than those who are not in an elevated position. Our field of view allows us to perceive information better below the horizon than those that are above due to the aforementioned evolutionary trait.

Vantage points are the focus of several patterns; Pattern 62 HIGH PLACES, for example, describes the significance of elevated positions. They allow visitors to get a sense of the area around them when they are atop. On the other hand, it can also double as a landmark, concreting individuality in smaller towns11.

People tend to enjoy watching other people. It is in our nature to enjoy watching people, or in particular,

watching faces. Such observation can be seen in infants of just 30 minutes of age, where they could track a moving face with far more attention than a moving object with similar complexity12; this result is seen as crucial as infant behaviour is often regarded to be innate rather than taught. Martha Farah, in The Cognitive Neuroscience of Vision, theorises that the first types of shapes that the human brain had evolved to process were faces13 and there is no doubt that our visual perception system prioritises faces over anything else. To relate it to Alexander's school of thought, at least two people must be visible to each other within a given space in order for it to have life. A public space should have its shortest diameter to be under 23 metres wide, as a person is only recognisable within that parameter14. Alexander addressed this observation in Pattern 61 SMALL PUBLIC SQUARES by suggesting a minimum width to a public square; if they are too far apart, the occupants would not feel a familiarity with other pedestrians and instead a disconnection, the space ends up feeling deserted and barren15.

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D ES I GN OF NAT URE

F i g ure 1 .3 Helsinki University Library: people tend to gather around the edges of atria as they enjoy being able to look down below them

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Facial recognition is also a prime example of how we, as a species, value visual variance and complexity.

Faces are typically symmetrical and curved, two factors of aesthetics that humans had evolved to favour.

Most things in nature are symmetrical, as there are no reason for asymmetry to occur unless there is an external stimulus. Organisms are often bilaterally symmetrical as it opened the way for the development of cognition and locomotion during evolution16.

Symmetry acts as our primary factor for attractiveness; we prefer shapes that are vertically symmetrical, as we are able to process them quicker than any other types of repetition17. Symmetry has had a major significance throughout archi-

tectural history. It originally had a religious and structural aspect to it, but it soon evolved alongside the political and social reasonings into a display of wealth and power, especially on buildings at a grandiose scale.

Curved edges often represent a gentle smoothness, in contrast to the harsher shift of the orthogonal, straight line. In our ancestor's minds, straight edges are seen to be repulsive as dangers are regularly represented by sharp edges such as teeth, thorns and barbs18. Curvilinear elements in architecture are often more approachable and seem more organic, especially if it resembles the curvatures found in nature.

F igure 1. 4 Gwalior Fort: symmetry of the faรงade reinforces the strong and powerful impression it gives. The repetition of the round towers is aesthetically pleasing as it enhances the visual complexity of the fort.

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D ES I GN OF NAT URE

3 / MENTA L M A P S A ND T H E T H REE SEN SES

Hearing, smell and taste are not senses

the whole atmosphere . The low hum of background chatter, the rustle of car engines, etc. all could indicate a bustling street full of life and interactions.

On the contrary, the essence of silence can be used strategically. It is used extensively in museums and memorials to dramatize and signify a sombre atmosphere.

It only takes a small amount of substance for our sensitive noses to pick up smells21. It is not unusual to assign memories of places and objects with certain smells. With the smell of a freshly printed book or the distinctive smell of a hospital, we associate the scents to similar places or typologies. We could identify the smell of fresh bread and then assuming there is a bakery nearby, or the smell of petrol when close to a gas station, all in an attempt to orientate ourselves within a new environment. In an architectural sense, the smell of different materials could evoke certain emotions. For example, the presence of timber could remind someone of warmth and hominess.

Similarly, the sensation of taste could alter one’s impression of a space.

Although you cannot obtain sensory information through literally tasting architecture, it is said that “Certain colours and delicate details evoke oral sensations”22.

that one might associate with architecture, but they can very much play an inconspicuous role within the interactions between buildings and humans.

Mental Mapping is a term coined by Kevin Lynch in The Image of the City. It is used to describe a person’s individual approach for their orientation through a space, either through familiarity or situational awareness. A mental map becomes a personal representation of the space, often informing themselves to walk a certain path or act a certain way. The theory was suggested by Lynch to gain insight into the collective identity of an urban district. Lynch distinctively said, “At every instant, there is more than the eye, more than the ear can hear, a setting or a view waiting to be explored.”19 He makes it apparent that the “legibility” of the city could ultimately influence how designers would shape the city, and how they would rebuild it. Lynch condenses the image of a city into five physical elements. Paths, Edges, Districts, Nodes and Landmarks20.

Although the touch and sight stimulus is more commonly discussed on the topic of mental maps, hearing, smelling and tasting could influence one's experience through the space as well. In the instance of hearing, the ambient acoustics of the city could alter

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4 / T H E EM BRAC E O F NAT U RE

Biophilia

have areas of trees or copses, and to be near bodies of water, whether they are functional or not23. Stephen Kellert, a biophilia advocate, believe that the way forward is for humans to seek reconciliation if not harmonization with nature.

is the human tendency to connect with nature. We, as humans, unconsciously gravitate towards savanna-like environments as it is evident in modern society. People would pay huge prices to be at a height looking down, to

He states that there are 6 key elements that promotes the biophilic approach24: 1 E nv i ro n mental Feat u res - The presence of natural features, such as vegetation, water, sunlight 2 Na t ur a l S hap es and f or ms - The presence of naturally occurring forms and motifs, such as curvature from spirals, fractals from trees, patterns from camouflages 3 Na t ur a l p rocesses and p atter ns - The presence of similar forms at different patterns and scales 4 L i g h t a n d S p ace - The presence of natural light and outdoor spaces 5 P lac e- b a se d rel at i onshi p - The presence of historical and landscape context with the location 6 E vo l ved h u man rel at i onshi p s with n a t ure - The theory of Prospect and Refuge, to be able to observe without being seen - The presence of order and complexity

Some of Alexander's patterns and theories acknowledge the affiliation with nature and agree with Kellert's 6 key elements of biophilic design.

In Pattern 64 POOLS AND STREAMS, Alexander proposes that pools and streams of water should be interlocked within the planning of the urban townscape25. He believes that water is the basis of our psyche26 and maintaining a close relationship with water could have a positive effect on our

minds.

In Pattern 105 SOUTH FACING OUTDOORS, Alexander states that outdoor spaces are only used if the space is sunlit27, as people are naturally drawn to lights as a means of orientation. He suggests that all outdoor spaces should be south facing in order to receive the most sunlight during the day.

Although in Pattern 114 HIERARCHY OF OPEN SPACE Alexander 18

D ES I GN OF NAT URE

doesn't specifically refer to the theory of Prospect and Refuge, the pattern itself suggests the same principles.

People would try to find a spot to rest and protect their backs with whilst being able to look out onto a larger opening28.

In Pattern 168 CONNECTION TO THE EARTH, Alexander states that the site of a building must harmonise with the surrounding landscape. The

lack of integration with the context would make the house isolated from the nature around it29.

The fifteen fundamental properties of design, mentioned in the next section, offers many parallels with nature. Strong centres, alternating repetitions and local symmetries are examples of naturally occurring patterns that can affect the aesthetic properties in architectural designs30.

F i g ure 1 .5 African Savanna: the elements of a savanna evokes a raw and natural feeling in us that can effect us even when we are away from nature.

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5 / LIV I NG S T RU C T U RES

From the previous analysis, we can see

full of living beings, although that idea could carry some weight. For him, a living structure is where the building is the most profound functionally and can promote the greatest feeling in us32. We know a living structure when we are in its presence. We would feel the connection to the building, the intimacy, the effort the architect had made to invite us into the building. Alexander divided the theory of living architecture, which could also be applied to the design of nature, into fifteen core principles33.

that the very nature of our senses and behaviour can greatly influence Alexander’s design theory. In his view of the world, apart from the obvious relation to nature, everything has a degree of life31. As his books are a culmination of his life’s research, we are able to see that they are all intrinsically linked, and patterns emerge. The connection of these patterns result in living architecture.

Living architecture for Alexander doesn’t really mean a building

FIFTEEN FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

1 2 3 4 5

Levels of Scale Strong Centres Boundaries Alternating Repetition Positive Space

6 Good Shape 7 Local Symmetries 8 Deep Interlock and Ambiguity 9 Contrast 10 Gradients

To

Alexander, Principle 2 STRONG CENTRES, is pivotal to his whole philosophy as he believes that a building must have a main centre for it to have life34. STRONG CENTRES is the cornerstone to some of the other principles as they also build onto the idea of a centralised design. The strong centre implies the significance of orientation, where the object must be able to

11 12 13 14 15

Roughness Echoes The Void Simplicity and Inner Calm Not-Separateness

direct attention onto its centre to emphasize its importance. The existence of strong centres also indicates centres of action, where its boundaries are the outcome of said action; for example, in nature, ripples are the radii of the forces resulted from a drop of water. An example in architectural design would be a storage room being a consequence of a workshop.

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D ES I GN OF NAT URE

F i gure 1. 6 Malaga Cathedral: religious architecture often contains strong centres. In Western cathedral architecture, the semi-circular shape of the apse indicates the location of the main altar.

Principle 1 LEVELS OF SCALE complements and intensifies the collective centre; a small jump in scale between the different elements can make it easier to relate to the central pattern. It would be harder to see the connection if the jump between scales are too big or if all elements are equal size.

F i gure 1. 7 Romanesque column capital: the scale of the carvings increases as the level of detail increases

F i gu re 1 . 8 Lichtenberg figure: a fractal like pattern occurs when excess energies from the discharge dissipates around a centre.

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Principle 3 BOUNDARIES defines the space around the building and the centre. It allows the user to navigate spaces and thresholds through the context of the outside alone. The boundaries itself must be thick, if not as thick as the spaces they encompass, for it to be able to visually balance the centre. Similar to LEVELS OF SCALE, it touches on the aesthetics of beauty with proportions.

F igure 1. 9 Gothic door: the door surround serves as an anticipation towards the centre, the door.

The surround is designed to be as thick as the door due to the aesthetics of proportions

F i gu re 1 . 1 0 Plant Cells: the cell walls of the cell must be thick in order to hold in the chloroplasts

becomes crucial in order for the design to have life

Principle 6 GOOD SHAPE builds onto the idea of positive spaces . The principles depends on our natural standard of beauty; good shapes occur naturally. A good shape is generally made up of clear and concise elementary figures, no matter how complex the product becomes.

Principle 7 LOCAL SYMMETRIES explains how symmetry is visually appealing, where symmetries of individual distinct centres can make itself standout from others.

Principle 4 ALTERNATING REPETITION utilises the combination of visual complexity and repetition to grab our attention towards a centre.

Similar to the patterns theory, a centre works best when accompanied with other centres; the repeating pattern itself alludes to centres of similar magnitude.

Principle 5 POSITIVE SPACE explains how living spaces itself will grow and expand until it meets another successful space, similar to the swelling of corn kernels on a ripening corn35.

The balance between the positive and negative spaces, the empty and the full 22

D ES I GN OF NAT URE

F igure 1. 11 Basilica Palladiana: an example of harmony between repetition and good shapes. The repetition of balusters is in balance with the space in between. The columns and openings are repeating. The arch itself is a positive space as every opening is deliberate; no spaces are in excess

F ig u re 1. 12 Chinese Pagoda: the pagoda can be split into separate good shapes. The roof resembles gentle curves found in nature. The balconies are in strong, orthogonal shapes.

F i gu re 1 . 1 3 Canal Houses: the houses are similar but still full of individuality. The local symmetry of the windows and the symmetry of the house makes the faรงade visually appealing. It is the individuality of the houses that makes it a whole

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Principle 8 DEEP INTERLOCK touches on the unification of structures. Through interlocking or overlapping elements, can strengthen the centre. An metaphor could be folded surfaces increases the surface area, which increases the rate of interactions.

Principle 9 CONTRAST and Principle 10 GRADIENT both refer back to the previous principles. Both properties are able to accentuate the unit of wholeness. The difference between opposites give birth to something, light-dark, yin-yang, active-passive , and the slow transition between elements secures the connection.

AND AMBIGUITY

F igure 1. 14 Chinese Pagoda: the interlocking detail of the timber structure physically strengthens the structure as a whole

F i gure 1 .1 5 German half-timbered house: the contrast of the patterns and the gradient of the increasing complex patterns is aesthetically pleasing

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D ES I GN OF NAT URE

Principle 11 ROUGHNESS engages on the vernacular approach to design. Signs of roughness within a design almost denotes the celebration of human error, where you are able to appreciate the effort and considerations of the designer.

Principle 12 ECHOES can again refer to the theme of repetition. A primary element that Alexander has indicated is the cohesion of angles within a family of centres, alongside the same balance of proportions.

Principle 13 THE VOID focuses on the importance of negative space, where it is crucial to not have endless clutter within the design.

F i gu re 1 . 1 6 Norwegian barn door: the centre of the door is surrounded and contrasted with the orthogonal shapes that ripples away

F igure 1. 17 English Tudor houses: the houses in this period were usually built in vernacular style, where the roughness of the building comes from the processes of construction and physical adaptations

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T H E LI V I NG T H EORY OF C H RIS TO P H ER A LEXAN DER

INNER CALM

Principle 14 SIMPLICITY AND the design needs to be simple in a profound sense, but not in the superficial geometric sense.

ARATENESS

Principle 15 NOT-SEPfinally touches upon the living whole as being at one with the world rather than being separated from it.

F igure 1. 18 The Lampoon Castle: the simplicity of the form evokes an inner calm. Perhaps the faรงade of the building resembles a face, which is an innate familiarity we have. The material of the building allows it to blend into its context, resulting in it not being separated from the whole of the city

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D ES I GN OF NAT URE

Although the principles seem to contradict each other, such as the promotion of visual complexity in Alternating Repetition compared to Simplicity and Inner Calm, in reality, these are just guidelines. In Alexanders mind, a perfect living structure would

be able to balance out all these principles, to utilise subtle details to draws us toward it. The design principles are a culmination of design elements that becomes an indulgence into the human senses.

NOT ES

1: Sussman A., Hollander J.B. (2015) 'Edges Matter', Cognitive Architecture. New York: Routledge, p.19 2: Schnörr S.J. (2011) Measuring Thigmotaxis in Larval Zebrafish. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51923481_Measuring_thigmotaxis_in_larval_zebrafish (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 3: Alexander C. (1977) 'Activity Pockets', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.600 4: Sussman A., Hollander J.B. (2015) ‘Edges Matter’, Cognitive Architecture. New York: Routledge, p.23 5: Alexander C. (1977) 'Something Roughly in the Middle', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.600 6: ibid. 'Activity Pockets', p.600 7: ibid. 'Hierarchy of Open Spaces', p.560 8: Dana J.D. (1863) 'Classification of Animals', The Classification of Animals based on the Principle of Cephalization. p.322 9: Gehl J. (2010) 'Senses and Scale', Cities for people. Washington: Island Press, p.41 10: Alexander C. (1977) 'Stair Seats', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.604 11: ibid. 'High Places', p.317 12: McKone E. (2012) 'A Critical Review of the Development of Face Recognition', Cognitive Neuropsychology, 29(1), p.177 27

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13: 14: 15: 16: 17: 18: 19: 20: 21: 22: 23: 24: 25: 26: 27: 28: 29: 30: 31: 32: 33: 34: 35:

Farah M. J. (2000) 'Face Recognition', The Cognitive Neuroscience of Vision. Blackwell Publishing Blumenfeld H. (1953) 'Scale in Civic Design', The Town Planning Review, 24(1), p.36 Alexander C. (1977) 'Small Public Squares', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.312 Prosser W. (2019) Animal Body Plans and Movement: Symmetry in Action. Available at: https://www.decodedscience.org/animal-body-plans-and-movement-symmetry-in-action-2/ (Accessed: 18 January 2020) Julesz B. (1971) 'Foundations of Cyclopean Perception', The American Journal of Psychology, 86(3), p.668 Sussman A., Hollander J.B. (2015) 'Shapes Carry Weight', Cognitive Architecture. New York: Routledge, p.126 Lynch K. (1990) ‘The Image of the Environment’, The Image of the City. Massachusetts: Joint Centre for Urban Studies, p.1 Ibid. ‘The City Image and its Elements’, p.46 Fox K. 'The Human Sense of Smell', The Smell Report. Available at: http://www.sirc.org/publik/smell.pdf (Accessed: 18 January 2020) Pallasmaa J. (2012) ‘The Taste of Stone’, The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, p.63 Kellert S., Heerwagen J., Mador M. (2008) 'The Nature of Human Nature', Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, p.23 Kellert S. (2012) 'Design', Birthright: People and nature in the Modern World. Connecticut: Yale University Press, p.166 Alexander C. (1977) 'Pools and Streams', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.326 Jung C. (1980) 'Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious', The Archetype and the Collective Unconscious.

New York: Princeton University Press, paragraph 40 Alexander C. (1977) 'South Facing Outdoors', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.514 ibid. 'Hierarchy of Open Space', p.558 ibid. 'Connection to the Earth', p.787 Alexander C. (2002) 'Fifteen Fundamental Properties', The Phenomenon of Life. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.151-172 ibid. 'The Phenomenon of Life', p.32 Petrash P. (2013) Christohper Alexander – Patterns in Architecture. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98LdFA-_zfA&feature=youtu.be (Accessed: 18 January 2020) Alexander C. (2002) 'Fifteen Fundamental Properties', The Phenomenon of Life. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.144 ibid. p.151 ibid. p.173

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CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPT OF LIFE IN ARCHITECTURE

T H E LI V I NG T H EORY OF C H RIS TO P H ER A LEXAN DER

1 / T H E BAT T LE AGA I N ST M A I N ST REA M A RCH I T EC T U RE

So, what does it mean to Christopher

first presented it in front of a crowd of professionals. Architects were making fun of him for designing a building that looks like it could be built hundreds of years ago and not conforming to the image of architecture and architects in the 1980s. A particular critic of the design during the presentation went up to Alexander afterwards proclaimed that he felt necessary to ridicule his vernacular building due to the contemporary architecture climate, and deep down he wanted to design buildings like that himself2. After this encounter, Alexander realizes that his ideals relating humans and design is anchored deep down in every architect, no matter the prevalence of the image of architecture; thus the beginning of the battle against the mechanistic paradigm.

Alexander to design with a consideration to the human body and mind?

Before the success of A Pattern Language, Alexander had worked on a small project in Mexicali, Mexico.

The budget of the project was only $3500, and the design was the epitome of neo-vernacular architecture. The design process was incredibly simple, Alexander simply drew what a low-cost housing in Mexico should feel like; wooden windows, white walls, paint, all different according to the place where moments occur in combination with modern techniques such as lightweight concrete constructions1. It invoked the feeling of architecture without architects. However, the charming little house was not well received when he

F i g ure 2 .1 Low-cost housing, Mexicali, Mexico, 1976 30

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F i gure 2. 2 Vault construction: The construction systems were invented by the builders. Blocks were made from soil-cement instead of concrete. The vaults were woven baskets of lattice strips3.

2 / T H E D E AT H O F M O DERN A RC H I T EC T U RE

Perhaps, one of the most infamous ex-

idents who were leaving the city were replaced with low-income families5.

The political climate at the time also meant that the racial segregation was present, it was even integrated within the design of the complex. The complex followed various modernist standards implemented by Le Corbusier and the International Congress of Modern Architects6; an emphasis on the communal aspect were enforced heavily.

Despite the various ‘considerations’ to human interactions, the complex never reached 60% occupancy and was instead riddled with crime and poverty7.

amples of modernist architecture is a housing project called the Pruitt-Igoe.

The housing complex failed spectacularly and was hastily demolished after less than two decades of its establishment4. Although the project itself succumbed to severe political and social controversies, its blind following into the modernist ideals could also be to blame. During the 1950s, the city of St. Louis, Missouri was in desperate need of social change. A housing crisis was in play and the predominantly white, middle class res31

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F i g ure 2 .3 Pruitt-Igoe, St. Louis, Missouri, 1968

The sense of community was immediately removed as the residents were not able to identify with the grounds. Numerous modernist design faults could have contributed to its failure; for example, spaces between blocks were so wide that it evoked a sense of discontinuity through the lack of interactions.

The repeated and monotonous nature of the façade affects people in a negative way, in contrast to a complex and interesting façade, as discovered in a research conducted by Colin Ellard8. The project challenged the modernist idea of functionalism: the design expresses what it’s for, but you can’t use it. The demise of the complex was signaled ‘the death of Modern Architecture’9, as noted by Charles Jencks, a pioneer of Post-Modernism.

Corbusier once said, “A city should be treated by its planner as a blank piece of paper, a clean table-cloth,

upon which a single, integrated composition is imposed”10. It is hard not to draw parallels between Alexander and Corbusier as they were both adamant in one way of design. Corbusier’s modernist ideals were geared towards functionalism, where the function and purpose should have a greater weight than form in the design of a building.

In a way, Alexander’s principles could also be argued as functionalist. Alexander disregards the contemporary aesthetics in favour of practicality. The lack of collective living centres could be a main reason why he disagrees with modernist architecture. In order to design a living city, Alexander came up with the pattern theory as an alternative language for designers to follow.

The tree of patterns must connect with each other in order for it to work under a collective name, but after all, the root of the design comes from us, humans.

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3 / A NEW P H I LO S O P H Y O F D ESI G N

Alexander was very much the pioneer

application of local materials and crafts, but instead emphasizes on the broader topics of historical, spiritual and cultural issues. The style was later seen as a response against International Modernism, which, in the late 20th century, was led by various prominent architects such as Le Corbusier and Alvar Aalto. Technological improvements, economic booms, to name a few, stimulated the growth of modernism in architecture; however, amongst the relentless pursuit of aesthetics, the architects have also designed the most ‘dehumanizing’ spaces12. Alexander, as a critic of the movement, came up with his own architectural language which was referred to as ‘The Timeless Way’.

The movement is meant to be practical, to be ageless, and most importantly, to be human.

of the Neo-Vernacular style in the 20th century. Vernacular architecture is often described as architecture without architects, a very human and natural way of design. It is a reflection of local establishments and traditions, as it is also characterized as functional and purposeful. Being a utilitarian style with rustic beginnings, the vernacular style is regional and often uses local materials and building knowledge that are passed down through generations11.

Neo-Vernacular style is the revival of the vernacular style. As a representation of a contemporary take on the traditional architecture, the style is a combination of vernacular heritage and the technological language.

The usage of vernacular in the name, however, doesn’t necessarily mean the

"In order to create living structures, we must please ourselves"13

The concept of a ‘living structure’ could be interpreted as Alexander’s version of a human-centric design. He states that the designs that are the most profound and functional are the designs that evoke the greatest feeling in us14. Alexander recalls a visit to a review in the University of California, where the project designs were mainly multi-storeyed office buildings in modern or post-modern style. He

then asked if the students actually liked their own building. Although most students took offence, the question itself was deceptive in the sense that there are different interpretations of ‘liking’ something. Alexander declares that the students only like how their projects would follow contemporary trends of architecture, showing off their design proficiency, capabilities in professional architecture and competing with other 33

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students, instead of liking their projects in a sense that they would be pleased with themselves15. To like your own design, you have to please yourself with the design, and vice versa; consider the purpose, design for the human scale, make it personal.

The Timeless way of building was one of the earliest publications written by Alexander. It suggests that there is only one way to create a timeless design, to design the same way mankind has for the past thousands of years. Alexander believes that a man can truly feel more ‘at home’ when presented with traditional buildings, such as temples and villages16, rather than in the face of contemporary buildings.

He proposes that it is the discrepancy between vernacular and contemporary

architecture that appeals to the masses.

The impact of a traditional building comes from the nature and rationale of the design, where each part of a design is considered to a need, regardless of the need being physically or mentally.

Alexander’s design philosophy is in many ways similar to his theory of patterns. Throughout history, the building elements of a structure had largely been the same around the world: roofs, walls, bricks, etc. They were shaped by different cultures and histories to create structures of similar purposes. In his theory of patterns, the patterns do not exist as a sole individual17; rather, they work best in conjunction with each other and he encourages the designers to adapt into their surroundings.

4 / T H E S A LA H O U SE

The Sala house was Alexander's first

and a “dining room” mean to them. The basis of the atmosphere for the house was based off of one of Andre’s specific memory of a farmhouse kitchen he visited in France as a little boy; the kitchen had a fireplace with a long table by it, a door leading into a garden, in which he could see from the kitchen18.

With a mutual design agreement between Alexander and the Salas to not have a separate living room, the kitchen, as the centre of the house, was designed to be a comfortable place for the family to cook, eat, relax in,

privately commissioned residence in America. Located on the Albany Hills, California, the house was built for Andre and Anna Sala, and their two children. As with a lot of designs he was commissioned with, Alexander was involved with the building process on top of the designing process. Determined to design the most wholesome house for Andre and Anna, Alexander asked them what they want for their house. When they replied with “a living room, a dining room”, Alexander began to question what does a “living room” 34

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F i g ure 2 .4 The Sala House, Albany Hills, California

The main design goals for Alexander were to design for the family’s privacy and comfort whilst preserving the harmony and connection to the surrounding context. The kitchen serves as both a dining room and a living room; as the main functioning area in the house, it follows Pattern 159 LIGHT ON TWO SIDES OF EVERY ROOM, which has the rooms to have openings coming from two different sides for maximum natural light to enter during the day.

It draws people into the kitchen, especially when paired with Pattern 135 TAPESTRY OF LIGHT AND DARK, which touches upon the contrast in lighting between dimly lit transitional spaces and brightly lit points of interest

can guide them to their desired, comfortable space. From the kitchen, you are able to see both the Golden Gate Bridge, and an outdoor garden, which was a particular detail Andre highlighted in his description of the farmhouse kitchen. The outdoor garden is south facing to maximise sunlight during the day and has deep-heighted walls; it was designed to be half-hidden in order to have a balance of privacy and exposure19. The outdoor spaces are tiered to accommodate the psychological comfort of covering your back whilst looking out onto a larger space simultaneously. The entrance to the house is also designed specifically for privacy.

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F igure 2. 5 The outdoor garden: there is an entrance onto the outdoor garden from the kitchen, as vividly imagined by Andre. There is also another window on the other side of this wall to allow light to come in from both sides.

To enter the residence, you must first walk down a set of stairs, then onto a bridged walkway towards the front door, only to face a wood-panelled wall upon entering. The long-winded nature of the path is a resolution to accommodate the levels of privacy the family wanted to have. In regard to Pattern 112 ENTRANCE TRANSITION, Alexander states that having a transitional space between the outside and the house could help visitors settle into the more intimate spirit of the house. The similar thing occurs once you enter the house; an entrance room is placed as a buffer into more intimate rooms of the house, as request specified by the family20. The house is designed to fit on the slope it resides on, to make it almost blend into the landscape and preserve its connection to the earth21.

F i gu re 2 . 6 Unconventional Entrance: the long winded path towards the entrance builds up an anticipation to enter the house.

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CONC EP T OF LI F E I N ARCH I T E CT URE

F igure 2.7 The recessed outdoor garden: the lower garden has higher walls for seclusion; it also allows us feel more comfortable to have a open-roofed, wall-off outdoor space.

F igure 2.8 Section onto the south entrance: the whole building follows the shape of the slope.

The entrance has a set of stairs to get down to the front door. The outdoor spaces are also tiered to provide a wider view towards the landscape.

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5 / T H E WES T D E A N V I SI TO R ' S C EN T RE

The

Alexander began designing for the centre after a couple of days’ worth of site visits. He first drew out a rough sketch of the building on site to work out the building's position23. From the sketch we are to see that he has considered the location of the building through the optimal access of paths and location of nearby points of interests, such as the Lake Lavant. What he also did unconsciously was that he mapped out the centre of the building, where the pen strokes were most condensed. This is strengthened by Pattern 99 MAIN BUILDING; He stated that the centre becomes the soul of the building24, as it is the hub of human interactions. Also following the ideas of Pattern 104 SITE REPAIR and Pattern 105 SOUTH FACING OUTDOORS, the

West Dean Visitors centre is a building designed by Alexander and The Centre of Environmental Structure (C.E.S.). The building was commissioned by the Edward James Foundation, and the site is also comprised of the West Dean College of Arts and Conservation 22. With a trust that is very much dedicated to the conversation of tradition and context, it was no surprise that Alexander was the perfect candidate to design their new visitors centre. Although most would assume the design process would mindlessly follow the orders of A Pattern Language, parallels would occur only as Alexander’s core design methods come naturally to him; many patterns would occur in Alexander's designs one way or the other.

F i g ure 2 .9 West Dean Visitor's Centre, Chichester, West Sussex 38

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building itself is located to the north of the lake; he maximises the usage of the south-facing open space by building away from the best piece of land, the lake, allowing people to enjoy the space especially when it gets sunny. In order to preserve the wholeness of the site, he also experimented with different materials, structures and colours by creating physically one to one sized mock-ups of walls and openings25. This allowed him to plan views and orientations out from the building as he believes that natural light and views that derive from delicate openings are important for intimacy and interaction. Alexander and few of his colleagues physically laid out the structure brick by brick in order to achieve the level of detail and life he wanted to put into the design26. The rest of the building does come to life after the level of detail Alexander put into the making of the building; he was to visualise the structures, the spaces, the interactions between people with such ease and would not withdraw until it has been physically achieved. An example of this is the design of an arch at a threshold. The final height of the arches was very low, with a lowest height of 1.7m to the highest height of 2.1m.

The character of the visitor’s centre in his mind was heavy and friendly, so initially when Alexander explored the form of the arches through life-sized models, he found out that only the low, almost in-your-face design were able to convey the intimacy seen throughout the building27.

F igure 2. 10 Initial sketch: mapping out the location of the building and the centre

F igure 2. 11 Mockup of a window: sitting on a mockup to judge the size and shape of a window

F igure 2. 12 Arched entrance: the arches are so low you could touch it and smell it

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The building also follows the fundamental properties introduced by Alexander in The Phenomenon of Life, as discussed in the previous chapter.

The façade of the building conforms to LOCAL SYMMETRY and LEVELS OF SCALE, which are able to grab our attentions through the complementation of our innate aesthetic ideals and visual complexity respectively. A strong centre can clearly be seen as the entrance of the building is heavily contrasted with the rest of the façade. The darkness from the depth of the entrance contrasts with the bright, repeating window and brickwork around it. The distinctive entrance, alongside the bright white pavement, directs the visitor’s attention towards it, helping them orientate towards the building.

The emphasis on human interactions can be seen with the inclusions of window alcoves; similar to Pattern 124 ACTIVITY POCKETS, the addition of the window alcoves allows a group of individuals to have some sort of privacy without being completely left out in the room. As mentioned in Pattern 252 POOLS OF LIGHT, social spaces are defined by light, and they are most defined when they are in contrast with spaces of darkness. The window, now defined as a social space by Alexander, makes people feel more comfortable and more drawn to, as a well-lit space. Complementing features such as the gentle curve of the window negates the harsh feeling orthogonal geometry could bring.

F i gu re 2 . 1 3 Local Symmetry: individual elements of the façade: windows, entrance, roof, all have their own local symmetry. Together, they make a stronger whole

F i gu re 2 . 1 4 Levels of Scale: the roof can be approximately divided into 1/5, 3/5, 1/5. The façade can be approximately split in 7, with the entrance being twice the size than the windows

F i gu re 2 . 1 5 Strong Centres: the entrance arch itself is placed slightly forward from the wall. The entrance also stands out by having a path in front of it instead of grass 40

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F i gure 2. 1 6 Two people chatting in the dining room: the windows are designed to be deep to allow plenty of light into the room, as levels of light within a room often define social spaces.

For this building, Alexander truly went above and beyond to get everything right, to get the feeling right, to please himself with the design. He recalls as he was designing an outer wall, “I made subtle judgements of this kind – towards the thing which pleased me more, away from the thing which pleased me less.”28 He extensively redrew, retest and rebuilt that one wall: the proportions of brick and flint, the shape of the cornice, the rise of the arch above the window etc. With him being

in an active part of the building process and not just the being the designer, he is able to physically rework ideas at the site until it looks right to him29. He designs according to what looks and feels good in person rather than what looked good on pen and paper, that’s why his buildings are able to carry such emotional weight. Every element of the design has been considered individually; the centre, which now supports ten thousand people, finally becomes a living structure.

NOT ES

1: Alexander C. (2004) 'Pleasing Yourself ', The Luminous Ground. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.278 2: ibid. p.277 3: Mexico, The Mexicali Community (2006) Available at: https://www.livingneighborhoods.org/ht-0/mexicali.htm (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 41

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4:: Davies G. (2013) Is Failure Central to the Architectural Profession? Available at: https://failedarchitecture.com/pruitt-igoe-is-failed-architecture-central-to-the-architectural-profession/ (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 5: Marshall C. (2015) Pruitt-Igoe: The troubled high-rise that came to define urban America. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/apr/22/pruitt-igoe-high-rise-urban-america-history-cities (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 6: Newman O. (1996) ‘Overall view of Pruitt-Igoe in St. Louis’, Creating Defensible Space. Washington: Diane Publishing, p.10 7: Marshall C. (2015) Pruitt-Igoe: The troubled high-rise that came to define urban America. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/apr/22/pruitt-igoe-high-rise-urban-america-history-cities (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 8: Ellard C., Montgomery C. (2015) Testing, Testing! BMW Guggenheim Lab. Available at: http://www.bmwguggenheimlab.org/testing-testing-mumbai (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 9: Jencks C. (1977) ‘The Death of Modern Architecture’, The Language of Post-Modern Architecture. New York: Rizzoli, p.9 10: Tungare A. (2001) Le Corbusier’s principles of city planning and their application in virtual environments.

Available at: https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/MQ61319.pdf (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 11: Turkušić E. (2011) Neo-Vernacular Architecture – contribution to the research on revival of vernacular heritage through modern architectural design. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297469746_NEO-VERNACULAR_ARCHITECTURE_-_CONTRIBUTION_TO_THE_RESEARCH_ON_REVIVAL_OF_VERNACULAR_HERITAGE_THROUGH_ MODERN_ARCHITECTURAL_DESIGN (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 12: Dawes M., Ostwald M. (2017) Christopher Alexander's A Pattern Language: analysing, mapping and classifying the critical response. Available at: https://libguides.ioe.ac.uk/c.php?g=482485&p=3299839 (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 13: Alexander C. (2004) 'Pleasing Yourself ', The Luminous Ground. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.272 14: Petrash P. (2013) Christopher Alexander – Patterns in Architecture. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98LdFA-_zfA&feature=youtu.be (Accessed: 18 January 2020) 15: Alexander C. (2004) 'Pleasing Yourself ', The Luminous Ground. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.276 16: Alexander C. (1979) 'The Timeless Way', The Timeless Way of Building. New York: Oxford University Press, p.7 17: Alexander C. (1977) 'A Pattern Language', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.xiii 18: Gallagher N. (1986) ‘Coming Home: The Making of a House’, Image Magazine, April 27, p.30 19: Alexander C. (1977) 'Hierarchy of Open Space', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.558 20: Gallagher N. (1986) ‘Coming Home: The Making of a House’, Image Magazine, April 27, p.30 21: Alexander C. (1977) 'Connection to the Earth', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.787 22: Gonzalez D. (2004) Christopher Alexander: A Holistic Theory of Architecture. Available at: http://demetriusgonzalez.com/architecture/thesis/thesis.index.html (Accessed 18 January 2020) 23: Alexander C. (2004) 'The Practical Matter of Forging a Living Centre', The Luminous Ground. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.119 24: Alexander C. (1977) 'Main Building', A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, p.486 25: Alexander C. (2004) 'The Practical Matter of Forging a Living Centre', The Luminous Ground. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.119 26: ibid. p.120 27: ibid. p.126 28: ibid. 'Pleasing Yourself ', p.287 29: ibid.

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C O N C LU S I O N

T H E LI V I NG T H EORY OF C H RIS TO P H ER A LEXAN DER

CO NCLU SI O N "Making wholeness heals the maker"

The act of designing a living structure

demand hailing service and optimized routes. Of course, Alexander's solution to some of these patterns came by only because of being within the scope of possibilities and imagination in his time. It is this idealistic positivism from Alexander that could backfire on him.

Alexander's theory almost always seem to have a specific location in mind.

Where it is located somewhere in California, where it is always sunny, where nature always surrounds you. This idealism can, in a way, disconnect the reader from the theories. In a sense, Alexander could also be compared to Le Corbusier, where their respective theories could fail to engage with its content and instead become a generic, almost fascist, manifesto.

However, as stated many of times, Alexander suggests that the readers should accommodate his theories into their surroundings and situations rather than just blindly following what it states on the books. In the current climate, Alexander's stance on designing for the sense of community and the human body can still be relevant. Simple, unsuspecting housing projects such as Goldsmith Street and Marmalade Lane are able to win architectural prizes due to its consideration to the aspect of community and the interactions between people. In con-

can be healing for the architect. As long as the building evokes the feeling of wholeness in a person, the satisfaction, joy and accomplishment are healing to the architect; similar to the theory of POSITIVE SPACE, the pleasure and positivity that comes can further encourage the designer to design more.

Alexander's holistic approach to design has shown the empirical connection between the environment and the human soul. It is hard not to draw parallels between Alexander and many great theorists, such as Vitruvius. Both theorists had conceived revolutionary theories, but we cannot ignore the fact that their declaration of motives are artifacts of their retrospective time period.

No matter how influential Vitruvius' De Architectura is, the construction of the forum or the basilica is simply not relevent in the current architectural period. Similarly, in Alexander's pattern theory, most of the patterns acknowledge the issue and problems but fail to engage with its content. For example, in Pattern 20 MINI-BUSES, addresses that public transport must be able to transport people to their desired places at any time within a metropolitan city. As a solution, a system of six passenger mini-buses could be established, with the structure of on44

CONC LUS IO N

A Pattern Language and The Nature of Order cannot be easily dismissed, but unless the solutions itself are updated to modern times, the content of the books would be viewed as another fad in architecture, only to fade away the same way Alexander wished modernism had.

temporary architecture, the dilemma isnt just function vs, aesthetics. Unlike the fifteen fundamental principles, designers now cannot design only to cater to humans, as environmental and sustainability issues are often the topics in contemporary architecture.

In conclusion, Alexander's theory in

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LIS T O F PAT T ERN S

Design in Nature 1/

Pattern 124

ACTIVITY POCKETS

2/

Pattern 125 Pattern 62 Pattern 61

STAIR SEATS

4/

Pattern 64 Pattern 105 Pattern 114 Pattern 168

POOLS AND STREAMS

HIGH PLACES SMALL PUBLIC SQUARES

SOUTH FACING OUTDOORS HIERARCHY OF OPEN SPACE CONNECTION TO THE EARTH

Concept of Life in Architecture 4/

Pattern 159 Pattern 135 Pattern 114 Pattern 112

LIGHT ON TWO SIDES OF EVERY ROOM

5/

Pattern 99 Pattern 104 Pattern 105 Pattern 124 Pattern 252

MAIN BUILDING

TAPESTRY OF LIGHT AND DARK HIERARCHY OF OPEN SPACE ENTRANCE TRANSITION

SITE REPAIR SOUTH FACING OUTDOORS ACTIVITY POCKETS POOLS OF LIGHT

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LI ST OF F I G URES

LIS T O F F I G U RES C over Alexander looking onto the West Dean Visitor's Centre - Alexander C. (2004) The Luminous Ground. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.129 Fig ure I Vitruvian Man - Da Vinci L. (1490) Available at: https://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/l/leonardo/10anatom/1vitruviu.html Fig ure 1.1 Own Interpretation of Pattern 114 Hierarchy of Open Space Fig ure 1.2 Own Interpretation of Pattern 124 Activity Pockets Fig ure 1.3 Helsinki University Library - Hui B. (2019) Fig ure 1.4 Gwalior Castle - Standage K. (2019) Available at: https://kevinstandagephotography.wordpress.com/2019/04/17/man-singh-manmandir-palace-gwalior-fort/ Fig ure 1.5 African Savanna - Izumi A. Available at: https://unsplash.com/photos/sCa07qU69sk Fig ure 1.6 Malaga Cathedral - Sol Turismo. Available at: http://www.solturismo.com/report/46/stories-of-the-unfinished-cathedral-of-malagathe-symbol-and-pride-of-the-city Fig ure 1.7 Romanesque column capital - Annie L. (2003) Available at: http://www.ipernity.com/doc/laurieannie/25621315 Fig ure 1.8 Lichtenberg Figure - Schmidt W. Available at: http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/Fractal%20Lictenberg%20Figure%20Wood%20 Burning%20with%20Electricity.html Fig ure 1.9 Gothic Door - Pascual M. Available at: https://pixabay.com/users/makamuki0-1102736/?tab=popular Fig ure 1.10 Microscopy of Plant Cells - SICA Science (2017) Available at: https://sicascienceclass.wordpress.com/2017/09/25/microscopy/ Fig ure 1.11 Faรงade of Basilica Palladiana - Web Gallery of Art. Available at: https://www.wga.hu/ art/p/palladio/2/basilice.jpg Fig ure 1.12 Chinese Pagoda - Liu C. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/technology/pagoda Fig ure 1.13 Canal Houses in Amsterdam - CampsG (2018) Available at: https://www.reddit.com/r/travel/comments/9eg0g7/the_dancing_houses_along_the_ damrak_canal_in/ Fig ure 1.14 Interlocking Timber Structure - Hui B. (2019) Fig ure 1.15 German half-timbered houses - Traynor K. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Timber_framing#/media/File:Half_timbered_houses,_Miltenberg_im_Odenwald.JPG Fig ure 1.16 Norwegian barn door - Alexander C. (2002) The Phenomenon of Life. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.221 Fig ure 1.17 Traditional English Tudor houses - Farbenfreude (2005) Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mill_Street,_Warwick.jpg Fig ure 1.18 The Lampoon Castle - Wolf J. (2009) Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/joebehr/3531689156/in/photostream/ Fig ure 2.1 Low-cost Housing in Mexicali - Alexander C. (2006) Available at: https://www.livingneighborhoods.org/ht-0/mexicali.htm Fig ure 2.2 Roof vaults under construction - CSAIL. Available at: http://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/users/rauch/misc/alexander/mexicali.html

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Fig ure 2.3 Aerial view of Pruitt-Igoe - USGS (1968) Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg Fig ure 2.4 The Sala House in California - Open Homes Photography. Available at: https://www.berkeleyside.com/2018/04/14/christopher-alexander-designed-housewith-dreamlike-qualities-for-sale-in-albany Fig ure 2.5 Outdoor garden of the Sala House - ibid.

Fig ure 2.6 Bridged entrance of the Sala House - ibid.

Fig ure 2.7 Recessed outdoor garden of the Sala House - Ekyono. Available at: https://www.buildinggreen.com/newsbrief/architecture-hands-search-beauty Fig ure 2.8 Own sketch of section of the Sala House Fig ure 2.9 West Dean Visitor's Centre in Chichester - Klyn D. (2016) Available at: https://medium.com/@danklyn/what-good-means-25cc8cd93a56 Fig ure 2.10 Initial sketch of the site - Alexander C. (2004) The Luminous Ground. California: The Center for Environmental Structure, p.119 Fig ure 2.11 Mockup brick build of a window - ibid. p.120 Fig ure 2.12 Arched entrance - ibid. 128 Fig ure 2.13 Own Interpretation of Local Symmetries in the faรงade - Gonzalez D. (2004) Available at: http://demetriusgonzalez.com/architecture/thesis/thesis.index.html Fig ure 2.14 Own Interpretation of Levels of Scales in the faรงade - ibid.

Fig ure 2.15 Own Interpretation of Strong Centres in the faรงade - ibid.

Fig ure 2.16 Two people chatting in the dining room of the West Dean Visitor's Centre - Alexander C. (2004) Available at: https://www.livingneighborhoods.org/ht-0/westdean.htm

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B I B LI O GRA P H Y

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