Rebranding Chinese Laundry: Strengthening the Brand In Its Current Market @ York St John University

Rebranding Chinese Laundry: strengthening the brand in its current market.

Brand Director Milena Jakubonyte Contributors Catherine Dickson Sarah Cooper

2023

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 1.0 Introduction

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1.1 About the Brand 1.2 Brand Audit 1.2.1 Emotional Branding 1.2.2 Internal Branding 1.2.3 Self-Identity

2.0 Rationale

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2.1 Branding Defined 2.2 Addressing the Findings

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3.0 Recommendations

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4.0 Appendices

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5.0 Bibliography

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Executive Summary

‘You are who you wear’ Comunale, 2003.

As consumers grow more and more aware of their shopping habits, and the unpleasant truths on fashion industry’s supply chain impacts on the planet, there has been a growing demand for transparency, reliability and emotional connection from fashion brands.

Current and upcoming consumer trends indicate that businesses that are not able to provide value and credibility are at risk of decline. As it has been decided to permanently close Chinese Laundry in Hull, factors such as consumer trends and current Chinese Laundry’s position in the market have been considered while justifying the need for a rebrand. This report will discuss the brand’s current customer and position in the introduction, analyse elements that suggest the brand is declining in the rationale, and propose changes to current practices to rectify and heal the brand, in order to live up to its potential.

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1.0 Introduction 1.1 About the Brand Chinese Laundry has been catering to vintage-lovers since 2004, with three successful brick and mortar stores across Leeds and York. Unfortunately, the original Chinese Laundry location in Hull, where the journey of the brand began, has closed its door on 31 December 2023. Nevertheless, the company has named itself as ‘premier’ and ‘the best place’ when shopping for vintage and re-worked apparel (Chinese Laundry, ND). With youthful and urban visuals in stores, as well as on the website, it is only an assumption the brand is meant to attract young adults with experiential and unique taste for clothing, with consideration for upcycling and minimising modern rate of consumption. Based on Aaker’s brand personality model (1997), Chinese Laundry falls under Excitement and Sincerity brand personalities (see appendix 1). This report will address the need for a rebrand, following the closure of one of the stores.

Key visible elements about the brand: CURATED VINTAGE CLOTHING FOR STYLE AND INDIVIDUALITY UPCYCLING WHILE SUPPORTING SMALL BUSINESSES AFFORDABLE UNIQUE GARMENTS

@Chinese Laundry York

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1.2 brand audit Brand audit is a framework used to examine the main sources of brand equity strengths (Padmaja and Srivastava, 2017; Rajagopal, 2019, p. 252). Therefore, brand audit also allows to identify areas that are lacking and could be improved. Most importantly, the execution of brand audit and highlighting the areas of strengths and weaknesses is to allow room for a lasting relationship with a customer. Firstly, to identify Chinese Laundry’s customer a survey has been conducted where it was found that 29 out of 37 participants between ages 18-30 regularly shop at their local Chinese Laundry shop. Those 29 customers all have interest in shopping small, local and second-hand, and 27 of the 29 were full-time students (see appendix 2). Having the knowledge on the age, occupation, location and lifestyle of your consumer is great advantage, as it allows to conduct sensible analysis of the brand and where it could be improved.

the customer: students aged 18-30 strong values around sustainable consumption and supporting small businesses

Comunale (2009) states that the way to attract and retain customers is through branding that relates to the core values of a consumer, therefore a brand must focus on its primary target market in order to avoid marketing myopia (focusing on product/sales rather than the customer).

Comunale’s framework involves strategies for emotional branding, internal branding and self-identity.

(ChineseLaundryClothing@Instagram).

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1.2 brand audit

1.2.1 Emotional Branding In case of Chinese Laundry, the elements strengthening the ability to bond with a customer are the tone of voice used in communication – friendly, inviting, non-authoritative and helpful. This includes imagery across the website as well as social media accounts – photos of staff with their names included, staff picks and prices of garments pictured (see appendix 3). This is hugely helpful to the existing and potential customer online – they get a sneak peek into what is available as well as the price points – it contributes to customer decision making and encourages a visit to the store. In addition to Chinese Laundry’s emotional branding, the element of ‘vintage and reworked’ clothing aligns with needs and wants of today’s consumer (Sarial-Abi et al., 2017). The trend of being eco-friendly, supporting local businesses and not feeding into over-consumption reflects today’s consumer, making Chinese Laundry their ally in the current climate of global sustainable development (Huang et al., 2012). The website also visually personifies the product, as they are styled on diversity of young models, with clear individuality and own style (see appendix 4).

Customers are able to emotionally connect with the product and/or brand as this allows them to picture themselves wearing the product and being a part of a strong-valued community. In addition, Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs (1987) outlines different needs that humans seek out, consciously or not. Chinese Laundry’s branding allows customers to fulfil Belongingness, Love and Esteem needs (see appendix 5). This is highly relevant – if Chinese Laundry is a place where consumers’ needs can be met, the brand’s equity, perception and image of brand are reinforced and nourished.

Emotional branding is defined as a psychological bond between a consumer and a brand, formed by deep and intimate engagement (Akgun et al., 2013, p. 504).

However, while the tone of voice is appropriate for the target market, brand’s voice (the message) could be strengthened by expanding stated brand values. For example, the website does not include vision or mission statements, and a brand value being stated is ‘vintage styles and unique styles in great locations that feature awesome wall art and cool vibes’ (Chinese Laundry Clothing, ND). In addition, the core values of the brand were firstly assumed, and then later confirmed by primary research (the survey). Having a clear and comprehensive vision and mission statements, helps the potential and opinionated customer to instant-

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ly connect with your brand, at the same time allowing the brand to be seen as responsible and aware. The decision-making process of not only customer, but also potential employees would be influenced – V&M statements would help them realise if their values are reflected by the company, which would then affect internal branding.

For measured Chinese Laundry’s brand equity, based on Keller’s (1993), see appendix 6.

Chinese Laundry’s competitor, The Vintage Store, also doesn’t have coherent V&M statements and there is no product personification (no real people with individual style pictured). Therefore, the psychological brand equity and bonding with the consumer is affected, making the brand seem product centric (Keller, 1993) (see appendix 7).

1.2 brand audit

1.2.2 Internal Branding According to Comunale’s (2009) three pillar framework, employees must align with brand’s values in order to convey the brand’s message to the consumer. This is especially important for Chinese Laundry as most of the shopping by customers are done in-person. Customers are able to speak to staff and visually see their appearance in-store.

To excel at internal branding, the brand’s employees shall wear ‘uniform’ and showcase personal individual style (select in-store items to wear as uniform), discourage use of unsustainable materials in-store (such as plastic bags, plastic hangers, swing tickets) and personally be part of an eco-lifestyle. Based on primary research, Chinese Laundry excels at internal branding, as in-store staff is able to reflect brand’s values effectively (as seen in appendix 3).

Customers on social media and in-store are presented with an inclusive, friendly and stylish team – so much so the team resembles more of a group of friends, rather than just coworkers. Internal branding fuels emotional branding since a team of communicable staff can influence the customer and make them feel welcome. Chinese Laundry York Instagram account showcases a great example of emotional and internal branding done well – a collection of ‘Staff Picks’ and ‘Happy Customers’ photos where staff model in-store items, and where customers show off their unique vintage purchases (see appendix 8). This is in connection to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1987) and relevant research that suggests a sense of community and belonging creates a high-quality shopping environment (Francis et al., 2012).

EFFECTIVELY EXECUTED INTERNAL BRANDING MEANS EMPLOYEES REFLECT BRAND IMAGE AND VALUES, DELIVERING THE BRANDS ESSENCE TO THE CONSUMER COHERENTLY (BERGSTROM ET AL., 2002, P. 135)

Exemplary scenario: a vintage shop employee who quietly believes ‘vintage’ is just another word for second-hand, dirty and old, would most likely project internal beliefs and opinions while providing customer experience in-store.

This would result in off-putting, contradictory, unsatisfactory and unreliable image of that shop or even the brand.

This would make the customer question the brands commitment to its values and it's likely the company would appear profit centric.

@Chinese Laundry York

1.2 brand audit 1.2.2 self-identity

The brand’s emotional and internal branding combine to form self-identity that reflects the brand image perceived by customers. In case of Chinese Laundry, the brand aims to appear as a community that embraces and celebrated individuality and style – the internal branding emphasises the community aspect of it, while the emotional branding emphasises the personal uniqueness. The importance of executing self-identity well is due to the possible ‘hijacking’ (losing of control over brand perception) (Luoma-aho et al., 2018).

In order to avoid unwanted thoughts and feelings of the consumer attached to the brand, emotional and internal branding must be in unison and related to each other.

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2.0 rationale 2.1 Branding Defined Hameide (2011, p. 6) emphasises that a brand ‘is more than a name or a logo’. Similarly to Comunale’s theory (2009), there is psychological bonding involved between a consumer and the brand, meaning that the intangible entity that is a brand must be strategised while targeting the core audience.

According to a recent journal article (2022), consumers still prefer in-store shopping, as they are considerate of value and ability to physically sense the product. As a vintage clothing seller, Chinese Laundry holds great power in offering most of its product strictly in-store - Brand Touchpoint framework (2013) emphasises the importance of heightening sensory stimuli, perception, emotion and recall (during-purchase experience) (appendix 9).

Chinese Laundry York: • Customer reviews and staff picks – latest update was in October 2023.

• Approx. 2 story posts per day • Semi-active reel posting (number of shares and likes is unknown).

• Total number of posts: 1440 (last post on 8 December 2023).

POTENTIAL: HIGH CURRENT PERFORMANCE: LOW

Chinese Laundry Leeds: • •

2.2 Addressing the Findings As mentioned, brand audit allows to identify strengths and weaknesses of the current position of the brand. So far there has been several barriers that require attention and analysis.

•

Approx. 5 story posts per day.

No customer reviews or staff picks.

• No stated opening times.

Total number of posts: 236 (latest post on 8 April 2023).

POTENTIAL: HIGH CURRENT PERFORMANCE: POOR

1.

Chinese Laundry CLOTHING:

Brand Voice Section 1.2.1 (Emotional Branding) mentioned an appropriate tone of voice being used, however the brand’s voice, methods and strategies of communication should be strengthened. For example, Chinese Laundry currently have 3 different Instagram accounts (excluding Chinese Laundry Hull) Chinese Laundry Clothing, Chinese Laundry York, Chinese Laundry Leeds.

Summary of activity across Instagram accounts (as of 8 December 2023):

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•

• Mostly active in 2020-2021.

Total number of posts: 174 (last posted on 28 September 2023).

POTENTIAL: HIGH CURRENT PERFORMANCE: VERY POOR

Based on this Instagram activity overview, it is evident the platform is not being used to its full potential. Brand marketing and customer engagement via social media platforms are said to be one of the most effective and cost-efficient ways to spread brand awareness, therefore strengthening brand recall (Evans et al., 2021). Although story posts across Leeds and York accounts seem frequent and consistent, it provides no insight for the potential customer that is visiting the page for the first time. It provides no information on products that have been held in the past, which would allow the customer to gain an understanding on product style, product brand available and frequency of stock turnaround., This would initiate a more urgent and frequent visits in-store, in hopes to find one of a kind ‘gems’. Referring back to Hameide’s theory (2011), Chinese Laundry’s use of social media (owning an account for each store), allows the brand to position itself and focus on geolocal market, which allows to deliver more personalised communication. With a more strategised use of Instagram accounts, there is opportunity to attract new customers via the platform, and bond with existing followers.

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(for example, Urban Outfitters). This is based on long-standing and credible branding research stating V&M are key for branding (Chun and Davies, 2001, p. 318). Both early 2000s and recent research suggest V&M are hugely helpful tools in capturing consumers attention (which is short-spanned in today’s concentrated market) which is the reason for suggesting to produce V&M statements.

The brand’s voice should include additional words, such as: ‘QUALITY ASSURED’ ‘ECO-FRIENDLY’ ‘SUSTAINABLE’ ‘LIFECYCLE’ ‘SHOP SMALL’ ‘SHOP LOCAL’ ‘UPCYCLE’ @Chinese Laundry York

Brand VALUES After a review of communication channels (section 1.2.1), it was found that the brand leaves values and beliefs to be assumed by the customer, due to the nature of the business and its product. To reiterate more straightforwardly our values is to be transparent and honest. Our core customer is willing to switch brands, if that means they receive more in-depth information on values, integral strategies and supply chains (Mac Nab, 2023). Currently, we offer uniqueness of style through our products.

However, those assumed values (as well as a vision and mission statements) should also be stated straightforwardly, to strengthen the brand’s identity and differentiate it from other vintage retailers.

Some experts, such as Jeroen Kraaijenbrink from Forbes (2021), states that V&M statements aren’t always necessary to execute good brand positioning and values. Their experience shows that companies shouldn’t feel obliged to produce coherent V&M statements, as long as their product aligns perfectly with the intended market. For a locally founded business, strong brand identity is vital in an industry that giant retailers are expanding into

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3.

Brand ILLNESS

etrate the vintage market, however over the years, the position of the brand cannot be guaranteed to stay stable.

To support Edward and Day’s recommendation, journal article research (2010) also suggests strong identity results in strong reputation – it creates a ‘domino effect’ and consumers would follow in the direction of the brand (see appendix 12).

As Chinese Laundry sits in the ‘Value Market’ within the hierarchy of fashion (see appendix 10) , it has the advantage of tapping into neuroeconomics with incredible ease. Neuroeconomics is defined as a process of identifying a need, making a choice based of preference and the psychological factors that impact our desire and decision making when purchasing (Glimcher and Fehr, 2013, p. 17).

Comparing the pyramid of fashion hierarchy and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1987), Chinese Laundry is positioned at the bottom of each pyramid, while also fulfilling the needs of human connection and belonging. This showcases the potential of CL as a retailer and its present ability to connect with consumer on an emotional level. However, the neuroeconomics factor, and relationships with customers cannot develop to their fullest potential, due to lack of brand values, presence online and storytelling (D’Arienzo, 2016, NP).

William D’Arienzo’s book (2016) offers a framework which helps to build a ‘healthy’ brand, it offers solutions to any persisting flaws in branding, that may or may not be damaging the overall brand in the long-term. Based on closure of the Hull location of CL, there is enough sensible reasoning, that the brand requires review and changes in order to prevent further loss of customer and profits. Lack of presence online, brand values and storytelling, requires further development in marketing and stressing core competencies (see appendix 11) .

Chinese Laundry’s website does not offer any brand promise or influence over customer decisions, other than ‘this is a great place to shop’ - there seems to be a lack of firmness and identity expression. As mentioned earlier (section 1.2), brands shall avoid marketing myopia, and aim to be more customer centric. However this shall not be taken the wrong way - according to Edwards and Day (2005, p. 33), following customer footprints can cause brand malaise (discomfort), where it’s incredibly easy to lose focus and own identity. This is especially relevant in today’s market, where consumers have short attention span, due to rapidly shifting trends. Edwards and Day (2005) recommend developing firm beliefs, values and brand promises, which would attract the wandering consumer. In case of Chinese Laundry, there seems to be effort to pen-

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@Chinese Laundry York

3.0 rECOMMENDATIONS Mintel’s 2024 Global Consumer Trends report (2023), found that consumer’s are seeking a balance between technology and tradition. There is a trend of self-improvement, and holistic ways of health-betterment. In addition, the report’s future forecast suggests that brands shall adopt the mindset of facilitating personal growth, to improve the well-being of individuals in an uncertain world today. This is hugely relevant and important to Chinese Laundry, as the brand can aim to be associated with definitive words such as ‘tradition’ and ‘nostalgia’, due to the vintage product and primarily in-store browsing experience. *picture* This highlights the potential of the brand, and the fact that it is highly relevant and sought after by the consumers today. However, as outlined in section 2.0 (rationale), the brand must strengthen its current position, to survive the concentrated modern fashion market.

Chinese Laundry Clothing Instagram account shall post: -4x posts per day promoting own-brand products.

-Create Instagram Shop with all own-brand products for easy access.

-Be the platform to announce giveaways, and purchase e-gift cards.

-Post using hashtags #vintage #chineselaundry

1. strategised use of social media Section 2.2 reviewed activity of Chinese Laundry’s Instagram accounts, and found there is inconsistent activity levels and, at times, lack of activity. To utilise this immensely useful tool, there must be strategy in Instagram activity.

-Opening hours in each account’s bio, along with any ongoing giveaways.

Kuligowski (2023) at business.com states that consistent brand promotion on Instagram can lead to increased brand visibility, relatability and reliance, due to effective way of communication with the customer online. Based on this, the strategy for Instagram accounts, it is expected that number of followers, likes and shares would increase, fuelling word-of-mouth marketing. In addition, Chinese Laundry shall adopt use of TikTok. Currently, Chinese Laundry also lacks activity on the platform (last TikTok posted in August) and shares one account between the two locations. TikTok is a highly underappreciated platform by Chinese Laundry, as it offers videos to customers, based on their previous activity which is based on algorithm.

This indicates that videos would find their way to the intended audience through algorithm, with very little effort. Staff from both locations shall post once a day minimum (this is in consideration to staff having to prioritise customer service in store) - staff to be given creative freedom, as they are likely to be knowledgeable of TikTok trends. Some of small business success stories using TikTok:

-Post using hashtags #vintage #chineselaundry

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Chinese Laundry York and Leeds Instagram accounts shall post: -2x photo posts per day (during opening hours).

-3 story posts per day minimum (during opening hours).

-All Instagram accounts to have a ‘highlights’ section of ‘Staff Pics’ and ‘Happy Customers’.

-Each post to include a link to the website.

Small online business Enchanted Scrunch went from 100 orders a week to 500 orders a week, after TikTok promotions.

Candy Funhouse now boasts 2.7 million followers on TikTok, after a video going viral.

Lala Hijabs says 60% of their brand awareness was a result of TikTok video sharing.

(Browne, 2022; Grome, 2022).

2. Website Rework As mentioned earlier, there is a lack of clear and definitive brand values on the brand’s website. The brand is recommended to include a brief statement fo their values on the website’s landing page, as well as a vision and mission statements. See appendix 13 for a revised landing page for the official website. Saddiqui et al. (2003) finds that website design plays a major role in customer engagement and brand perception – customers seek ease of navigation, clear policies and value. As seen in appendix , the current website offers ease of navigation, but lack of engagement and personal values.

Our Vision:

Bring back the timeless charm and unique style of vintage, while making it accessible and beloved by all.

Our Mission:

Our goal is to provide a collection of fine vintage apparel that encourages uniqueness, celebrates self-expression, and supports eco-friendly fashion choices.

We are a proud small business, advocating for minimised consumption, and making sustainable choices, small step at a time.

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Simple and straightforward statement would let the online customer instantly know if this is a brand they can relate to, if yes, then the emotional value of the brand is immediately heightened. In addition to V&M, transparency on supply chain is suggested as well. 2024 Mintel Global Consumer Trends Report, along with other sources (Goldstein, 2022), state supply chain transparency helps bring in new customers and increase customer loyalty.

Online searches for sustainable goods increased by 71% between 2016-2021 (Goldstein, 2022). Chinese Laundry shall include a Transparency section on their website, stating how their vintage products are sourced, and where own-branded clothing are produced.

3. collaboration Based on D’Arienzo’s framework (appendix 11), to help solve the issue of identity loss and ignorance of the brand, Chinese Laundry is recommended to partner up with local shops to create a marketing buzz and boost visits to store. A collaboration with other local businesses is proposed:

chinese laundry york

earworm FortyFive records Vinyl Cafe

Earworm Records, located near CL York, offers new and second-hand vinyl records, and based on the style of product and brand personality, the target audience and customer is commonly shared between Earworm Records and CL York.

FortyFive Vinyl Cafe is a cafe, offering vinyl records as well as record players, and experience of listening to records while staying at the cafe. The proposal is to offer 10% discount on the next purchase at one of the locations, discount to be supplied via a leaflet (see appendix 14). This increases brand value credibility of being a ‘proud small business’ that also supports and celebrates other small businesses. At the same time, encouraging customers to take advantage of the discount and visit the store.

chinese laundry Released OWT Records leeds Released Records is an independent vinyl records shop and OWT is an independent coffee shop, all located in Leeds Corn Exchange. This collaboration would also offer a 10% discount on the next purchase at either of these locations.

This promotes shopping small, supporting other local businesses and can contribute to experiential branding, customers can enjoy a day out – shopping and enjoying coffee, all at one location.

Both plans for collaboration are proposed to trial for 3 months, and upon success, can be repeated for an extended period of time.

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In relation to Mintel’s 2024 trends report, future plans for Chinese Laundry can include: Holistic body and mind well-being products – for example, sage burner kit, herbal teas, A4 posters with aspirational and motivational designs by local artists and many more.

To summarize, Chinese Laundry’s rebrand is vital for the brand’s survival. It is after Hull location’s closure, due to decreased sales (according to CL York staff), the brand must review current practices, in order to not only retain the current customer, but to attract new customers through consistent messaging, online presence and firm self-identity. Chinese Laundry, that celebrates unique style, local consumption and extending product lifecycle, can become a top-of-the-mind vintage brand, that induces nostalgic and traditional experiences of shopping for the modern young consumer.

4.0 APPENDICES 1.

2.

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Link to the survey: https://forms.gle/8Y6KTbi9RgGzdQTX6 3.

Price points Staff individual style

Friendly tone of voice

Introducing staff

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4.

5.

Contributing to eco-lifestyle, supporting small businesses, feeling of contribution and good deeds

Emotional connection, fulfillment

Clothing, warmth

6.

RESONANCE Expanding the brand nationally, and implementing customer retention strategies (for example, giveaways, loyalty schemes).

JUDGEMENT FEELINGS

After the success of the first store in Hull, the brand expanded to Leeds and York, where the brand launched ownbranded line. Proven to be highly popular as seen on social media reviews.

PERFORMANCE Affordable prices, products reflect consumers' internal values and desire for individuality.

Customers get a sense of a warm welcome, community that shares the same values.

Product reviews online as well as getting to know the staff personally. It is more than a business relationship – it is a feeling of belonging.

IMAGERY

Chinese lantern as part of brands logo, also seen on own-brand clothing.

Website and social media imagery pictures young adults, with cool and inclusive vibes.

SALIENCE

CL's identity is vintage shopping that’s dependant on in-store shopping. Customers are encouraged to visit stores to hunt for unique 'gems'. The in-store staff resemble a community of friends. The brand is remembered for its signature colours (orange and black), the in-store ambience and selection of products at affordable prices.

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7.

No models - doesn’t show brand personification; personality

Product centric – unlikely emotional connection with customers

8.

Emotional bonding

Showcases lifestyle Helpful reviews for future customers

9.

Extensive offering of various one-ofa-kind garments

Mannequins/window displays to draw inspiration from

Stylish staff; Ambience: music, lighting etc.; Brand is perceived positively Reworked clothing – ability to touch the clothing and assess condition

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10.

Fulfils the needs for fashion at cost effective prices

Takes up most of the pyramid – highly popular within consumers

Economy – affordable brand

11.

12.

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(Ingenhoff and Fuhrer, 2010, p. 86)

13.

Link: https://blog.yorksj.ac.uk/chineselaundryclothing/ 14.

DISCOUNT CAN BE REDEEMED AT ONE OF THE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS:

10% OFF YOUR NEXT PURCHASE! WITH THIS LEAFLET

earworm records

1 Powells Yard, Goodramgate, York YO1 7LS

Chinese Laundry

51 Goodramgate, York YO1 7LS

For tyFive V inyl C afe 29 Micklegate, York YO1 6JH

FLIP FOR MORE INFO

Duplication of this leaflet is prohibited.

One time use only.

Retailers retain the right to refuse to provide the discount without prior notice.

DISCOUNT CAN BE REDEEMED AT ONE OF THE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS:

10% OFF YOUR NEXT PURCHASE! WITH THIS LEAFLET

RELEASED RECORDS

Leeds Corn Exchange, Call Ln, Leeds LS1 7BR

Chinese Laundry

Leeds Corn Exchange, Call Ln, Leeds LS1 7BR

OWT

Leeds Corn Exchange, Call Ln, Leeds LS1 7BR FLIP FOR MORE INFO

Duplication of this leaflet is prohibited.

One time use only.

Retailers retain the right to refuse to provide the discount without prior notice.

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5.0 bibliography Aaker, L. J. (1997) ‘Dimensions of Brand Personaliy’, Journal of Marketing Research, 34 (3), pp. 347-356).

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Goldstein, K. (2022) ‘Suplly Chain Transparency: The Importance Of Provenance For Customer Trust’, Forbes, 10 October. Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesbusinesscouncil/2022/10/10/supply-chain-transparency-the-importance-of-provenance-for-customer-trust/?sh=2a77e434732f (Accessed: 18 December 2023).

Grome, J. (2022) ‘The Way Of TikTok and Marketing And Why It Works So Well’, Forbes, 13 April. Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesbusinesscouncil/2022/04/13/the-way-of-tiktok-marketing-and-whyit-works-so-well/?sh=4022396d498e (Accessed: 18 December 2023).

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Keller, K. L. (1993) ‘Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity’, Journal of Marketing, 57 (1), pp. 1-22. doi: 10.2307/1252054.

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