Eco-Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living FINAL REPORT

Eco-­‐Structure Barbados, 2012

Presented by: Stephanie Blakely, Michael Conover, Evangelynn Fortuna, and France Hahn In collaboration with Fraser Young, founder of Eco-­‐Structure Barbados Presented to: Professor Inteaz Alli (BFSS Program Director) and Susan Mahon (Internship Coordinator)

McGill University, Bellairs Research Institute, Holetown, St. James, Barbados November 30th, 2012

Table of Contents Thank You Note..................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. 3 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................. 4 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 5 Vision........................................................................................................................................................ 7 Goal ........................................................................................................................................................... 9 Objectives ............................................................................................................................................... 9 Definitions ............................................................................................................................................10 Permaculture Gardening........................................................................................................................................... 10 Aquaponics...................................................................................................................................................................... 10 Approach...............................................................................................................................................11 Objective 1: Permaculture Garden........................................................................................................................ 11 Objective 2: Aquaponics System............................................................................................................................ 11 Objective 3: Economic Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 12 Results....................................................................................................................................................13 Objective 1 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Objective 2 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 19 Objective 3 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 28 Discussion.............................................................................................................................................51 Objective 1 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 51 Objective 2 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 53 Objective 3 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 55 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................57 References ............................................................................................................................................58 Appendix ...............................................................................................................................................60

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Thank You Note The Bellairs Eco-­‐Structure Team

Mr. Fraser Young Bellairs Research Institute

Tree House Holetown, St. James

St. Bernard’s Village, St. Joseph Barbados

Barbados

November 30, 2012

Dear Fraser,

We would like to sincerely thank you for giving us the opportunity to work with you on the Eco-­‐ Structure Project. With your guidance, we were able to make a great deal of progress on the aquaponics system, chicken coop and permaculture garden. We really appreciate you sharing your knowledge, wisdom, and aspirations with us, which have genuinely inspired us to continue to work towards sustainability in our own lives and in choosing our future career paths.

Thank you for welcoming us into your home, driving us back and forth from Bellairs every

internship day, and for showing us your favorite parts of the island. We will cherish our experiences of both getting our hands dirty in the garden and of exploring the beauty of Barbados with you.

This project was an excellent, unique and once in a lifetime learning experience for us, and we

hope you took something from it as well. We look forward to keeping in touch with you about the progress of not only your home projects, but also in regards to Apes Hill and the whole off-­‐grid community. We also hope that all your knowledge of living self sufficiently will spread throughout Barbados and throughout the world, and will inspire others to learn more about how to incorporate aquaponics, permaculture gardening or other methods of living more sustainably into their everyday lives.

Best regards,

________________ Evangelynn Fortuna

________________ France Hahn

________________ Michael Conover

________________ Dr. Inteaz Alli Program Director

________________ Stephanie Blakely

________________ Susan Mahon Internship Coordinator

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Acknowledgements

We would first like to thank Mr. Fraser Young, our mentor for the project, for his

guidance, wisdom and support throughout the semester. Fraser provided our daily transportation and welcomed us into his home. Not only did he provide us with the materials and tools for the aquaponics system, chicken coop and permaculture garden, but he also shared with us his knowledge, ideas and plans for the completion of the projects. We would also like to thank Richard and his assistant, Jessica, for installing the solar panels, batteries and pumps for the aquaponics system, and for showing us how solar power functions.

We would also like to thank Mrs. Susan Mahon, our internship coordinator, for her

assistance, advice and support throughout the semester. Susan provided us with transport while Fraser was out of town and provided helpful feedback and endless enthusiasm for our project.

Another thank you goes to Jill Parlee for helping us with our research for the cost-­‐

benefit analysis. Without Jill’s assistance, we would never have found the information required to assess the applicability of aquaponics and permaculture gardening to Barbados.

Thank you to Sharon and Anya of the Bellairs staff, who accommodated their schedules

in order to have lunches ready for our early departures on internship days. Those lunches were not only tasty but gave us the energy and stamina to work throughout the day.

Finally, thank you to Carley Rice and Allan Conover for assisting us with the construction

of the chicken coop. Not only did it help to have an extra set of hands, but we also had a great time working with both of you and showing you the ins and outs of the Eco-­‐Structure project.

Allan’s experience with construction was crucial in the completion of the chicken coop in time.

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Executive Summary Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

Prepared by Stephanie Blakely, Michael Conover, Evangelynn Fortuna and France Hahn

Prepared for Dr. Inteaz Alli and Ms. Susan Mahon Bellairs Research Institute, McGill University

The purpose of this internship was to contribute to our mentor’s Eco-­‐Structure project, bringing it closer to self-­‐sufficiency through the creation of a permaculture garden and a solar powered aquaponics system.

Barbados currently imports a large majority of its food, which has led to a variety of problems. It has left the island vulnerable to political and economic exogenous shocks and in more recent terms, this has meant coping with increasing food prices. The country has also seen an increase in non-­‐communicable diseases such as obesity and diabetes, a trend partly attributable to the lack of availability of healthier options. As such, Eco-­‐Structure represents a viable option to help Barbados increase its food sovereignty and alleviate these issues.

This project was comprised of three separate objectives. The first two involved hands on work at the Eco-­‐Structure, while the third was research based.

1. The first objective was geared towards contributing to Eco-­‐Structure’s permaculture garden.

Permaculture is a holistic ecological design system that aims to integrate ecology, landscape and organic gardening for the purpose of creating a sustainable way of living. For this objective we prepared a garden bed, planted a fruit orchard and built a chicken coop.

2. The second objective was focused on creating a solar powered aquaponics system. Aquaponics unifies both aquaculture, the breeding of fish in an enclosed environment, and hydroponics, the growing of plants in water, into a single harmonious system. Aside from having to feed the fish, aquaponics systems are essentially self-­‐sustaining due to the symbiotic relationship between the fish and plants selected.

3. The third objective aimed to analyze how the projects in the first two objectives can be applied to and benefit the wider Barbadian community. A cost-­‐benefit analysis of each was conducted in order to determine their economic feasibility to the island. The key findings were that: a. Permaculture is extremely low cost and should be implemented gradually in both urban and rural settings. b. Aquaponics systems have larger start up costs but are still economically feasible for the average household as well as hotels and restaurants. c. The main challenge to their actualization is a lack of public awareness.

Mentor Mr. Fraser Young Eco-­‐Structure St Bernard’s Village, St Joseph Barbados

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Introduction

Barbados’ food security is currently subject to and undermined by a growing population,

a stagnating economy and the instability of world’s markets, political systems, and environment. As such, any efforts towards securing the island’s access to food should be seen as important steps towards improving the well being of its inhabitants. The Eco-­‐Structure project is one such effort, which has the long-­‐term vision of creating a more independent and sustainable Barbados through the creation of an off-­‐grid, self-­‐sustaining home unit comprised of a permaculture garden, an aquaponics system, a rainwater catchment system and, finally, solar power. While this project goes beyond food security and advocates self-­‐sufficiency, it should be seen as an ideal goal, an end point, and thus should be used as a guide for intermediary steps to be taken. The advantages of increased food security, and ideally of self-­‐ sufficiency, are manifold though not all quantifiable.

The island currently relies heavily on international trade to supply its people with food

(Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, 2003). Therefore, whether on a household, community or island-­‐wide basis, an increase in food production would directly correlate to a decrease in food imports and would have significant opportunity cost implications. Money that would have been spent on food imports and sent out of the country could instead be invested within the country into more productive areas. Furthermore, due to a general shift in the quality of food consumed, Barbadians have been experiencing increasing rates of obesity and chronic non-­‐communicable diseases (Sheehy & Sharma, 2010). These facts help highlight the benefits of healthy eating habits and the importance of knowing where food comes from, both of which are an important part of the Eco-­‐Structure project. Additionally, Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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Eco-­‐Structure advocates the growing of inherently healthy foods and would thus work as a natural force against the increasing trend of high-­‐fat and high-­‐sugar diets.

The increasing vulnerability of aquatic ecosystems through overexploitation, ecosystem

degradation and climate change are problems not only faced by Barbados but the wider Caribbean and global communities. The Eco-­‐Structure project has the goal of working towards alleviating these issues and their severe repercussions. By proposing a self-­‐sustaining system characterized by clean and renewable energy as well as organic and green practices, this project looks to minimize human impact on nature. For Barbados, the aquaponics and permaculture components would reduce over-­‐fishing and pesticide run-­‐off, both of which are key issues in the continued sustainability of its ocean ecosystems. Furthermore, maintaining healthy coral reefs and aquatic life systems will have a direct impact on the continuation and possible growth of its largest income-­‐generating sector, the tourism industry. A focus on clean and locally supplied energy will lead to a reduction in energy imports, which will further reduce CO2 emissions.

Finally, an increase in food security and self-­‐sufficiency will create a strong sense of

empowerment within Barbadian society. The ability for a household or a community to provide its own source of food, water and energy can have major positive social implications. The time and money of individuals could then be spent on education, development and community building rather than provision of basic needs. Overall, Eco-­‐Structure represents a holistic project aimed at long-­‐term sustainability and health living.

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Vision

One does not need to be studying environmental science to understand that the world

is currently facing serious problems regarding the overconsumption of resources and the lack of food security in many developing countries. The Eco-­‐Structure project is an experiment in living completely self-­‐sufficiently, which in today’s increasingly globalized world is extremely rare but an incredible achievement that carries great potential for worldwide change. To be self sufficient in one’s food, energy, and water use means completely detaching oneself from the global industrial food system, a dependence on diminishing fossil fuels, and our general overconsumption of water, all which carry with them serious social and environmental costs.

Our vision thus begins with Fraser Young’s Eco-­‐Structure and ends with worldwide sustainability. Obviously all aspects of the Eco-­‐Structure will not work in every geographical and social context, but it is this initial intention of living self sufficiently that has powerful implications. In envisioning the end goal of our project, we have imagined what it will look like at every level and with every sense, from the household to the international level: We see a fully functional aquaponics system in Fraser’s backyard.

We see a permaculture garden that works with nature as opposed to against it, which is largely the case in conventional agriculture.

We see aquaponics systems and permaculture gardens providing healthy, low impact fruit, vegetables and fish to people in Barbados and all over the world.

We see more and more people becoming self sufficient in terms of their energy needs as a result of solar power, and a large scale shift away from fossil fuel energy to affordable, practical, and clean solar energy.

We see people increasingly growing their own food and relying less and less on imported food heavily laden with chemical fertilizers and pesticides and wrapped up in a system of industrial agriculture.

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We will taste the freshest fruits and vegetables imaginable because they were picked that day, and not only us, but also everyone who eats this food or grows it themselves.

As renewable resources such as solar energy replace fossil fuels, we will breathe clean air free of car exhaust as we enjoy the silence that comes with gas-­‐free cars.

We feel hopeful, knowing that as more and more people raise their own animals for meat, dairy and eggs, and realize the importance of understanding where food comes from, the horrors of factory farming will one day be a thing of the past.

We will feel dirt; lots of dirt.

We will feel exhilarated, having challenged our bodies and minds to the fullest extent in learning what it takes to live self sufficiently and what it will take for Barbados to operate in a more sustainable way.

If we incorporate these methods of living self sufficiently into our own lives in the future, we will feel secure knowing that we are in complete control of where our vegetables, fruit, protein, water and energy comes from.

At the completion of this project, which is as much a project for the four of us here at Bellairs as it is a project for the entire world to undertake, we will feel empowered knowing what it takes to live self sufficiently and in harmony with our society and environment.

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Goal

Our short-­‐term goal is to contribute to Fraser’s Eco-­‐Structure experiment, bringing it

closer to self-­‐sufficiency through the completion of a permaculture garden and an aquaponics system. Our long-­‐term goal is that the Eco-­‐Structure will be used as a model for the wider Barbadian, Caribbean, and global community. People seeking a method of living self sufficiently will look to the Eco-­‐Structure as a prime example of how a person can live in a sustainable way.

Objectives

1. Contribute to a permaculture garden, which will include clearing a garden bed, planting a fruit orchard, and building a chicken coop.

2. Complete a fully functional solar powered aquaponics system. Within the Eco-­‐Structure, this system will produce edible plants as well as fish (tilapia), which will further ensure the owner’s self-­‐sufficiency.

3. Analyze how the projects in the first two objectives can be applied to and benefit the wider Barbadian community through a basic economic analysis.

4. Fulfill the requirements of the BFSS program, AGRI 519/CIVE 519/URBP 519: Sustainable Development Plans, in the allotted time period, culminating in the Final Project Report and Presentation.

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Definitions Permaculture Gardening

Permaculture gardening is based on a holistic ideology of working with the land and

finding plants that are able to work together in an interconnected relationship. Rather than traditional gardening, which employs the use of pesticides and herbicides, permaculture gardening focuses on natural and organic methods (Burnett, 2000).

Aquaponics

Aquaponics unifies both aquaculture, the breeding of fish in an enclosed environment, and hydroponics, the growing of plants in nutrient enriched water into a single harmonious system. Aside from having to feed the fish, aquaponics systems are essentially self-­‐sustaining due to the symbiotic relationship between the fish and plants selected. The basic process involves cycling the water between the fish tank and the grow beds. As a byproduct of metabolic processes, fish produce ammonia, which would be toxic to them if it became too concentrated. However, bacteria living on the growth media convert this ammonia into nitrites and then into nitrates, which the plants are able to absorb as nutrients. The plants thus filter the water and the water returns to the fish tank clean and free of toxins (Malcolm & Arcaro, 2011).

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Approach Objective 1: Permaculture Garden We began by doing initial research on permaculture gardening and on crops resistant to pests such as monkeys and African snails. We then cleared, tilled and prepared a plot of land for a future permaculture garden. Rather than construct a chicken tractor for employing chickens to fertilize the soil, we assisted in the construction of three spinning compost bins. This compost will be used as fertilizer in the garden as it is in accordance with permaculture principles to avoid using chemical fertilizers and/or pesticides. We then selected and planted various fruit trees in the area surrounding the future permaculture garden. Finally, we constructed a chicken coop in our mentor’s existing garden.

Objective 2: Aquaponics System We started by researching the various components and processes involved in an aquaponics system to gain an understanding of how they work. Our attempt to construct a tank cover was unsuccessful, so Fraser decided to construct a structure that will cover the entirety of the system. We then worked with Fraser to finish installing the plumbing from the fish tank to the grow beds and from the water reservoirs underneath the system back to the fish tank. This also involved creating the 18 bell siphons out of PVC pipe for the grow beds. With the guidance and help of Fraser’s electrician Richard, we then installed the water pumps, solar panels, batteries, and wiring for the system, after which we tested it all out and made sure the system worked properly. In our absence, Fraser then filled the grow bins with the grow medium (clay hydroton), switched the pumps on, and planted a few of the vegetable and herb seedlings. Now Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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that the system is running smoothly, the final steps that we will unfortunately not be able to take part in will be the introduction of fish into the system and to regularly monitor the pH, nitrogen content and temperature of the water.

Objective 3: Economic Analysis The third objective consisted of researching and analyzing the applicability of the first two objectives to Barbados by performing a simple cost-­‐benefit analysis. The scope of implementing permaculture gardens was focused on both rural and urban residential areas, in addition to hotels, while the applicability of aquaponics systems was considered at both the household level and in the tourism industry. In order to determine their applicability, we considered a variety of components, including household economics, the various social, economic and environmental costs and benefits of each, challenges to their implementation and several case studies. Finally, we synthesized all of the information in order to determine the economic practicality of applying these systems to the greater Barbadian community.

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Results Objective 1 Contribute to a permaculture garden, which will include clearing a garden bed, planting a fruit orchard, and building a chicken coop

As Fraser had already decided where he wanted the garden to be, we started off by clearing the land where he had demarcated the garden. This entailed weeding, removing large scraps of plant material, and digging up large roots. We used shovels, pickaxes, hoes, and rakes to aid us in this task. We then formed a border around the garden with large pieces of tree trunks to delineate the garden. Next we measured out where the four trenches would go and using shovels and pickaxes dug out the trenches. As the soil was largely comprised of clay, which is extremely dense and heavy, this was no easy task.

To improve the quality of the clay soil and the growing conditions for plants, we filled the trenches with pieces of coconut

Figure 1: Clearing the land (S. Blakely, 2012)

husks and shells. Eventually, when these break down and decompose they will give the soil a much lighter, looser quality, full of nutrients. However, while the initial plan was to line these trenches with coconuts, fill them in with soil, and plant on top of the mounds created, Fraser came to the realization that the soil in the garden would need a great deal of time to dry out before anything could be planted. The clay soil was extremely wet and dense, and it would probably take upwards of a year or two of Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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sitting in the sun along with the addition of a large amount of compost before it could be ready to be planted in. Fraser therefore decided that we would change our plans a bit and instead focus our efforts on planting a fruit orchard and on improving the existing permaculture garden. We then cleared the land of the majority of weeds, roots, and decomposing plant matter. We used pieces of tree trunks to line the orchard area and separate it from the dense jungle surrounding Fraser’s property.

To provide the future garden and orchard with soil enriching compost, we assembled a composter to go with the other two composters that Fraser had previously built. This will increase the supply of compost that Fraser will continuously work into the soil and improve its quality and structure. The following week we spent a day completing the fruit orchard. The process was significantly more complicated than we had imagined. First, Fraser had us dig holes that were about a foot in diameter and a foot Figure 2: Assembling the composters (S. Blakely, 2012)

deep. As previously mentioned, the soil is very thick and mostly made of clay and so the holes were very difficult to dig. Furthermore, there was a bit of confusion as to where the holes should go since the trees can not be too close to each other or beneath bigger trees, because branches could fall and hurt anything below them. To make additional space for the younger plants, six banana trees were dug up and transplanted closer to the fence.

We then began the process of planting the trees, however, after a few seedlings were in the ground we decided that the clay soil wasn’t ideal to plant young trees in. So instead we

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decided to use soil that contained decomposed coconut shells. This was a lengthy process, as we had to transport both the clay we were digging up (to an area which needed to be filled) as well as bring the coconut soil to each individual hole. The coconut soil, however, was ideal and provided much better quality soil, which would provide the necessary nutrients for the seedlings. While the holes were being dug and trees planted, PVC pipes that would be used to protect the trees were also being cut and prepared. The PVC pipes were about a foot long and were cut so that they could fit around the small plants. The PVC pipes serve a few purposes. First of all, they are meant to protect the plants so that when Fraser cuts the grass in that area he knows to avoid them and, secondly, fertilizer can be added directly to them and allow for the majority of the nutrients to be absorbed by the plant. In the end we planted a total of 24

Figure 3: Sapling with PVC protection (E. Fortuna, 2012)

trees and put the two youngest ones, who were not ready to be planted, in the nursery next to Fraser’s house.

A second important change in plans that resulted from the abandonment of planting the permaculture garden was that we decided to not build the chicken tractor. Fraser explained that just as we could not till the garden neither could the chickens and since we had built the composting bins we did not need them to fertilize the garden. As such, the decision was made to begin constructing a chicken coop. Fraser told us that he had an idea of what he wanted the coop to look like and that we did not need to design it. On one of the internship afternoons, Fraser went and collected about two-­‐dozen pallets from an import company. We unloaded the Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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truckload and brought the pallets to where the chicken coop would be built – right next to the old coop and near one of the gardens to enable easy fertilizing. We began construction the following week and started by building the

Figure 5: Truck delivering the pallets (S. Blakely, 2012)

foundation. We dug eight holes, which formed a rectangle that was 4 feet wide and 9 feet long and placed cinder blocks in them in order to create an even surface. Fraser noted that it was of crucial importance that the cinder blocks be almost perfectly leveled, from his experience he

Figure 4: Coop base (S. Blakely, 2012)

said that the only thing you couldn’t skimp on is the foundation; otherwise, of course, the whole of the structure would be unstable. We then selected three of the sturdiest pallets and placed them on the cinder blocks and proceeded to frame them with 2x4s. When this was done we had a very solid base that stood almost perfectly level on the ground.

We then began working on the walls of the structure. Similar to what we had done with the floor, Fraser thought it would work to use the pallets for the walls. We had to tear the pallets apart though because they were otherwise too thick, which took significant effort and time since we had to pull out the nails and tear each individual plank apart. We then screwed three of these vertically to one side of the base and attached them at the top with scrap wood.

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As we continued to tear the pallets apart, we realized that the wall we were building was not very sturdy. As we took a step back to think of what we were doing, we came to the realization that the direction we were heading in would not end in a solid enough coop. Frustrated with all the work we had put in only to realize that it was not going to work, we stopped for the day to allow for some planning.

The following week we continued the chicken coop and because the pallets proved to be too unstable to be used for the sides of the coop, Fraser decided we would remove them and instead use 2x4s, which are much stronger and stable. We picked up around ten spare 2x4s from the Apes Hill construction site and with them, created a frame for the walls and four roof triangle trusses. We also extended the structure over the grass to create a small space outside of the main coop area, but still enclosed with chicken wire. This is because one of the biggest problems Fraser encountered with raising chickens was that predators such as mongoose often eat the majority of the young chicks and very few end up surviving. With the outdoor area, mother hens can raise their chicks and teach them to scratch in the dirt for food, while still being protected from predators. Fraser intends to keep the chickens in the coop 24/7 Figure 6: Basic chicken coop frame (S. Blakely, 2012)

while the chicks are juvenile, but once they reach certain

maturity level where they will not be easy prey, will let them out during the daytime to roam the yard and gardens, and then keep them in the coop at night to protect them. We therefore created a large locking door on the front of the coop to allow the chickens to enter and exit the

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coop and a small hatch in the back of the coop that can be opened when Fraser wants to gather eggs.

To cover the sides of the coop, we used thinner pieces of wood from the pallets. We used planks from the pallets to board up three sides of the chicken coop of which one side was a small door where Fraser will be able to retrieve eggs from the nests. For the large locking door on the opposite side of the nests we simply used chicken wire mesh. Finally, we installed the roof by drilling 2x4s onto the trusses and then nailing various sizes of wood shingles to them.

Figure 7: The completed chicken coop (M. Conover, 2012)

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Objective 2 Complete a fully functional solar powered aquaponics system

Our second objective was the completion of Fraser’s aquaponics system, and although we did not have enough time to introduce fish into the system, we were able to complete enough of it to see water running through it and plants thriving in the grow beds.

At the start of the project, before we did any real construction or assembly, we decided to research what aquaponics systems are. Through talking to Fraser and conducting research online, we learned about the basic features of aquaponic systems in terms of their design, construction, and function. In its most basic form, an aquaponics system involves creating a symbiotic relationship between fish and plant species, whereby the fish effluent is used to fertilize plants and in turn, the plants filter and detoxify the wastewater for the fish. If not for a process called nitrification, ammonia, which is a byproduct of metabolism, would otherwise build up and poison the fish, but is instead converted to nitrates by various types of bacteria.

Nitrosomonas in the water first convert the ammonia to nitrites, and Nitrobacter then convert these nitrites into nitrates, which are much more easily assimilated by plants than ammonia and beneficial for plant growth. The plants filter out these nitrates, cleaning and oxygenating the water, which then flows back into the fish tank (Malcolm & Arcaro, 2011; Fraser Young, Pers. Comm., 2012).

One particular aspect of aquaponics systems that required a bit of research and learning on our parts was that of the bell siphon. This feature causes the water level in the grow bed to continuously rise and fall, creating an ebb and flow effect. Otherwise, if the water level was Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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unchanging and the plant roots were constantly under water, they would rot. With the addition of bell siphons, the water level rises and falls to predetermined heights. The bell siphon is composed of three different sizes of PVC pipe that fit inside each other and allow the water to rise to a certain point in the grow beds and then drain to another point in the grow beds. These three different pipes are the stand pipe (3/4”), the bell pipe (3”) and the gravel guard (4”). The stand pipe runs through the bottom of the grow bed, extends to about 2 inches below the surface of the growing medium, and drains the water from the grow bed once the water level reaches the top of it. The bell pipe is capped and sealed at the top end and has a 2 inch high opening at the bottom to allow water to flow into it. The gravel guard has many holes drilled into it and functions to prevent the growing medium from Figure 8: Diagram of the grow bed (M. Conover, 2012)

entering the bell siphon while

still allowing water to pass through. The bell siphon functions as follows: as the main pump adds water to the grow bed, water saturates the growing medium until it reaches the opening of the stand pipe (about 2 inches below the surface of the growing medium), and begins to drain into it. Because the bell pipe that surrounds it is completely sealed, this creates a vacuum that siphons the water and begins to drain it from the bell siphon and in turn the entire grow bed. The water level then drops until it reaches the top of the opening in the bell pipe, at which

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point air flows into the bell pipe and the vacuum is disrupted. The water level begins to rise again until it reaches the top of the stand pipe and the cycle repeats itself. Figure 1 depicts a cross section of the grow bed, showing the design of the bell siphon.

When we began the project, Fraser had already built the frame upon which the system would rest, cut the barrels for the grow bins, and began to set up the piping from the fish tank to the grow bins. Our first task was thus to create the bell siphons for Figure 10: Completed bell pipes and gravel guards (M. Conover, 2012)

the system. This involved measuring, cutting and drilling the three different sizes of PVC

pipe. Because the systems includes 18 grow beds, we needed to create 18 different bell siphons, which meant measuring and sawing 18 ¾” pipes, 18 3” pipes, and 18 4” pipes. To allow water to flow into the system we had to cut out a 2“ high opening on both sides of the bottom of bell pipes using a drill and a saw. We also drilled holes in each gravel guard: about six or seven rows of 4-­‐5 holes in an alternating pattern. We capped the ends of the bell siphons and installed them in the grow beds. Following this, we installed the plumbing for the underside of the system, which meant connecting the receiving containers to each other by a series of pipes. To do this, we had

Figure 9: Drainage pipes beneath grow beds (S. Blakely, 2012)

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to drill two 1 ½ “ holes across from each other 3” above the bottom of the container, install bulk heads in these holes and measure and cut 1 ½ “ PVC pipe to run between them. To allow the grow beds to drain into the receiving containers, we also had to measure, cut, and install the ¾” PVC piping necessary to direct the water into the containers. To prevent Fraser’s dogs from running through the bottom of the system and possibly disrupting the plumbing, we cut large pieces of bamboo and arranged them along the side, supporting them with screws that were screwed into the side of the concrete blocks the system rests upon.

While this was not part of our original plan, Fraser asked us to create a rain cover for the fish tank, as a large influx of rain could disturb the systems pH balance and water level. Creating the rain cover involved measuring, cutting, and assembling a square frame of PVC pipe and with a clear plastic sheet secured to it with grommets. To allow for rain to drain off of it instead of forming puddles, we built a support on one end of it, creating an incline.

Figure 11: Assembling the rain cover (M. Conover, 2012)

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We also learned that the plastic grow beds bulge out when they are filled, but because most of them are all sitting next to each other on the wooden frame, they would not be able to deform. The four grow beds on the ends however could potentially deform due to the weight of the growing medium and water so we decided to add wooden braces to the aquaponics frame on both ends of the system to support the grow beds.

Because the aquaponics system will be completely powered by solar energy, Fraser scheduled a few appointments with his electrician Richard to come and set up the solar panels, batteries, and the pumps. Over the span of four separate occasions, we worked with Richard to set up and install the entire pump system. This system is essentially comprised of four 6-­‐volt batteries (each one being about the size of a golf cart battery), four 140 watt solar panels, and two pumps, along with several other small plumbing pieces and connections.

The first step was to assemble the pump system, which

meant

gathering

the

various components and cleaning the ends of the pipes so that the glue would properly adhere to them. We then constructed a wooden foundation for the pump

Figure 12: The pump system and base (S. Blakely, 2012)

system to rest on and be supported by. This involved measuring the dimensions of the pump system and cutting and nailing the wood to fit it. We attached a triangular support to each side of the base to give it strength, and we applied two coats of heavy-­‐duty varnish to protect it Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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from the rain. The base is an L shape and designed so that the two pumps could rest next to each other on the base and the switches could be mounted on the vertical section.

Fraser decided to use two pumps because even though one pump alone is powerful enough to pump the water back to the tank, if one failed for any reason, the second pump could be switched to while the other is fixed. So that this would happen automatically and instantly the moment one pump fails, Richard installed a flow detector into the system that would turn on the second pump if the flow from the first pump stops.

The following week Richard showed up in the afternoon and began what he called the ‘final stages’ of the process of building and wiring the solar powered aquaponics system.

We started by leveling the area where both the Figure 13: Solar powered batteries (S. Blakely, 2012)

pump base and the batteries would end up; Richard emphasized the importance of this. We then worked to install the charge controller to the back of the pump base, this device controls how much solar power goes into the batteries. This is very important as the batteries should never have too much power or be completely empty, as this would cause permanent damage to them. We then moved on to fabricating a fuse box. Richard explained that he had never done this type of project before and was, therefore, working ‘on the fly’ and making things up as he went. He had to use a hole-­‐saw to make holes in the box, which proved to be quite dangerous as the entire device went flying. The purpose of the holes was to allow for the wiring to go through to the charge controller. The fuse box performs a couple of functions. For one, it

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is made up of a main switch that allows the electricity supply to be shut off in an easy manner.

Secondly, it contains circuit breakers, which are automatic protection devices that switch off the circuit if they detect a fault and, thus, prevent large-­‐scale damages to happen.

Visual diagram of the electrical connections:

Solar panel

Fuse box

Charge controller

Batteries

Pump

We then had to disconnect the very heavy batteries from each other in order to move them separately to their final resting place. There they were reassembled and, finally, connected to the charge controller and the pump. At this point in time it was possible to turn the pumps on and with great relief we heard that the system did in fact work! We then turned our attention to wiring the solar panels, which had previously been brought to the roof. Richard emphasized repeatedly that the most important part of this task was consistency in the steps taken. We wired two of the panels in parallel and

Figure 14: Solar panels (S. Blakely, 2012)

two in series, taking special care to wrap

the wires in electrical wire ends and marking the positive wires with red tape. The electrical wire ends, Richard believes, distinguish his work from others as it assures that the contact between the copper wires and the rest of the system will be present and long lasting. Once the solar panels were connected to each other we lay them down in their frames and screwed Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living 25

them in. We lifted the solar panels and used a piece of wood to hold the frame upright and rechecked all of the wiring to ensure that every thing was done correctly and finally closed up the electrical boxes on the underside of the frames. We then took the time to zip-­‐tie the wires to the solar panels so that everything was very neat and organized. When all the wiring for the panels and pumps was complete, we turned the pumps on to test the system out and we were happy to find that the pumps, bell siphons, and water reservoir array all worked very well.

In our absence, Fraser then filled the grow beds with the hydroton growing medium and also planted a few plants in each grow bed, such as kale, eggplant, radicchio, beets, and various herbs. Our next work session involved removing the two grow bins that were at the end of the system. We did this because they were not receiving very much water flow and so the bins were filling and emptying very slowly. We transplanted the plants to different grow beds and sawed off the end of the wooden frame that was supporting them.

To increase the flow for the rest of the grow beds, we then installed Figure 15: Plants in the grow bed (M. Conover, 2012)

three more water reservoirs beneath the system, as Fraser found the flow rate of the whole system to be relatively low and reasoned that increasing the total amount of water in the system would increase the flow rate. This involved simply drilling the holes in the blue tanks with the hole-­‐saw and installing the bulkheads and other pieces necessary to connect them to

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the rest of the reservoir bins. With these small adjustments to the system, our work on the aquaponics system came to and end. The remaining steps that will be taken by Fraser will be to plant the rest of the plants in the grow beds, and after a period of a few months, once the plants and beneficial bacteria are well established, the fish will be introduced as small fingerlings. Aside from feeding the fish, maintaining the water level, and monitoring the system’s nitrogen and pH levels, once the system is fully completed it will function as a complete ecosystem and should require very little additional work.

Figure 16: The completed aquaponic system (M. Conover, 2012)

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Objective 3 Conduct a cost benefit analysis and determine the economic applicability of permaculture gardens and aquaponics systems to the greater Barbadian community

The third objective of this study entails analyzing how the projects in the first two

objectives can be applied to and benefit the wider Barbadian community. As mentioned in the introduction, Barbados has a lot to gain from decreasing its food imports and regaining control of its food production. Benefits include but are not limited to increasing overall health, alleviating environmental concerns of aquatic ecosystems, reducing the country’s vulnerability to exogenous shocks and creating a sense of empowerment throughout communities. Although it advocates for complete self-­‐sufficiency, Eco-­‐Structure should be seen as an ideal that strives to create a more independent and sustainable Barbados. As such, it represents a holistic and viable approach to increasing the island’s food sovereignty. The following sections will provide an economic analysis of the applicability of permaculture and aquaponics to Barbados and will provide brief recommendations as to how to overcome some of the main challenges.

Permaculture

As previously mentioned in the definitions section, permaculture is a holistic ecological

design system that aims to integrate ecology, landscape, organic gardening, architecture and agro-­‐forestry for the purpose of creating a sustainable way of living (Permaculture Institute, n.d.). The main concepts of permaculture can be summarized by six major principles, which reflect a way of thinking, rather than a specific manner of doing things. The first of these is that one should work with nature and not against it (Burnett, 2000). Traditional agriculture has always aimed to tame nature by changing its physical characteristics; doing so, however, is not

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only energy consuming, unsustainable and destructive, it is also unnecessary. Instead, permaculture calls for the direct utilization of natural systems to their advantages. This leads to the second principle, which has to do with a perspective of seeing problems as solutions (Burnett, 2000). Whenever an issue arises, it is best to see how this can solve another problem rather than see it as a hindering barrier.

The next two principles aim towards creating diversity within the garden. The first of

these says that every function, such as food or water, should be supported by many elements (Burnett, 2000). In other words, a garden should be diversified to avoid the downfalls of dependence on the success of one element, or one crop. Similarly, every element, such as a specific plant or tree, should serve multiple functions (Burnett, 2000). Again, this principle has to do with a certain mindset or perspective and allows for creativity in gardening. A tree, for example, may seem awkwardly placed, however, a closer inspection could show that it actually provides many benefits such as checks to erosion, addition of nitrogen to the soil, shade, raising of the water table, etc. Having elements with multiple functions enhances the system’s connections and increases efficiency of space.

The fifth principle has to do with applying a circular mode of thinking to gardening.

While there is a general understanding that nature works as a cycle, gardens are often treated linearly – something is planted and cultivated until it dies, at which point it becomes waste that must be removed. Contrastingly, thinking in cycles means seeing all waste as useful and, indeed, making use of this waste to promote the growth of something else. The sixth and final principle is the idea of rolling permaculture, which refers to the incremental implementation of a sustainable design over time (Burnett, 2000). Part of the permaculture mindset is not to just Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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tear down everything that is currently in place, but rather adapt what is already there to make it more sustainable. There is a strong need to replace the current system, or way of gardening in both urban and rural environments throughout Barbados, however immediate and complete change is not possible. Instead, there should be a gradual ‘rolling over’ into a more integrated and sustainable design.

The idea of a gradual shift to a permaculture design implies the economic feasibility of

its integration into Barbadian society. Implementation, therefore, becomes more an issue of scale and the speed at which it occurs, rather than whether it can or not. Furthermore, it becomes more a question of the cultural applicability or accessibility of the information of the benefits and the know-­‐how. As such, education and awareness becomes the most important factor towards enabling change towards this holistic and integrated mindset. The application of permaculture to Barbados, therefore, should be done in a piecemeal way that reflects the economic capability of those doing so. In the following sections there will be separate discussions of the economic feasibility of permaculture for both urban and rural areas, as well as a section dedicated to the applicability of rainwater catchment systems.

Urban Residential Permaculture

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2010), urban agriculture has many social, economic and environmental advantages. Social benefits of urban horticulture have been demonstrated in FAO funded projects, such as the empowerment of the urban poor and the contribution to their food security and nutrition. Urban gardening can also lead to the improvement of slums and urban waste management, in addition to engendering the creation of new jobs and community development. Economically speaking, peri-­‐urban and urban

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agriculture enhances the accessibility of food for the urban poor: households who produce fruits and vegetables experience a reduction of their food bills and the sale of surplus can provide an additional source of income (FAO, 2010). Also, households with their own gardens are less vulnerable to the fluctuations and hikes in food prices. Furthermore, the environmental benefits of urban agriculture include the stabilization of fragile urban lands such as hillsides and riverbanks, as well as the potential for the additional plants to act as carbon sinks (FAO, 2010).

Most importantly, if the principles of permaculture are put into practice, there is no need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which can produce toxic agricultural runoff.

There are various types of urban agriculture that may be applied to could be applicable

to the Barbadian urban context. Most notably, community gardens, school gardens and private residential plots would be the most cost effective, as they are characterized by low start-­‐up costs, short production cycles, and high yields per unit of time, land and water (FAO, 2010). The advantage of having community and school gardens is that the costs would be covered by the government funding that runs these institutions (Simon Fraser University, n.d.). The social benefits mainly consist of providing education for the general public about nutrition and health.

School gardens, for example, are a proven method of promoting child nutrition as “they familiarize children with horticulture, provide fresh fruit and vegetables for healthy school meals, help teachers develop nutrition courses and, when replicated at home, improve family nutrition at home,” (FAO, 2010). There are already many private gardens in urban communities of Barbados that contribute to lowering the household food expenditure. These gardens, however, are solely financed by homeowners. It is fairly inexpensive to purchase seedlings and even grafted and budded plants from the Ministry of Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Nursery.

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Seedlings each cost $6BDS and grafted plants are between $8-­‐12BDS each. An economic incentive available for citizens with agricultural permits is a 5$ subsidy per plant or tree that is taken care of for an entire year (Fraser Young, Pers. Comm., 2012).

Permaculture in hotels There has been a steady decline of land used for agriculture, at the rate of 1,000 acres per year, in Barbados. Instead, there has been a shift towards converting vast expanses of land into hotels and golf courses for the tourism industry. In 2003, the tourism industry reported $1.465 billion USD in receipts which accounted for 15.7% of Barbados’ GDP, whereas the agricultural sector accounted for only 2% of the national GDP (Ward and Leach 2003).

Consequently, this economic shift towards tourism and away from agricultural production has led Barbados to become dependent on agro-­‐food imports worth more than $326.89 million USD (The World Bank). In light of the discussion of the viability of urban permaculture, it is important in the case of Barbados to discuss the opportunity for hotels to produce their own food as tourism is the most important economic activity on the island. Annually, there are more tourists who visit Barbados than there are residents on the island, which puts a great deal of pressure on local agricultural production and creates a greater demand for imported foods. As a result, if hotels were increasingly more self-­‐sufficient in their food production, they would be making a great contribution to the island’s food security.

Unlike the community, school and private gardens in residential urban areas, which have relatively low costs, hotels can invest in more expensive agricultural projects. Rooftop gardens and edible landscaping of golf courses require a greater initial investment as well as a lot more maintenance than a small urban garden. Besides lowering the hotels’ food purchases,

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rooftop gardens can provide many economic and environmental benefits. Most notably, green roofs decrease energy costs, reduce the urban heat island effect and improve air quality (Simon Fraser University, n.d.). Both rooftop gardens and edible landscaping can include permaculture principles such as the use of the hotels’ compost as fertilizer. The only disadvantage to the implementation of such projects would be the expensive maintenance costs.

Permaculture in Rural Areas

Rural permaculture in Barbados should strive to provide food, water and energy in the

most sustainable way possible. Two case studies will be used to analyze the economic costs and benefits of permaculture in rural Barbados. The first of these is Fraser Young’s Eco-­‐Structure, which makes full use of the holistic principles of permaculture previously described and is working towards a goal of complete self-­‐sufficiency. The second case study is of Rastafarian Michael Bradshaw’s farm, which will demonstrate the feasibility of permaculture for local farmers. A section will also be dedicated to the discussion of rainwater catchment systems.

Case Study: Fraser Young’s Eco-­‐Structure

Eco-­‐Structure serves as a pilot for small-­‐scale, household farming in Barbados. It

produces several goods, mainly food, water and energy through various elements, who themselves serve multiple functions. In terms of food, there is a fruit orchard, small garden beds, chickens and an aquaponics system. It should be noted that the latter of these is an integral part of a permaculture system, but as it will be discussed in much further detail in the following section and, as such, it will not be included here. The fruit orchard serves many functions beyond food such as helping to keep the rainforest from over-­‐growing, providing shade as well as crucial organic materials for composting purposes, such as coconut shells. The Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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small garden beds similarly help to keep the rainforest down and provide an array of healthy foods. The use of animals, and chickens in particular, also has a wide variety of benefits. Their eggs (and their meat) are a source of protein, their manure is ideal for soil fertility and their foraging of fallen fruits, weeds and garden pests is helpful for the management of gardens.

Capturing water in order to use it as efficiently as possible is also an essential part of permaculture, and at Eco-­‐Structure, a rainwater catchment system is used for this purpose. This system provides water for plants and limits runoff to maximize soil infiltration. In terms of energy, solar panels are used to provide electricity as well as energy to power the aquaponics system – a topic too large for this study to cover. Lastly, Eco-­‐Structure makes use of composting bins, which utilize organic material from land that has been cleared or fallen from trees to create fertilizer.

The largest issue with switching over to a permaculture concept is the inherent organic

aspect of it, which does not allow for the use of pesticides. For Barbados, the invasive African snail species represents the biggest problem as it eats over 500 types of fruits and vegetables and causes much damage to gardens (Simao, 2012). There are, however, several organic ways to guard against this rampant pest. In fact, the Limited Gardening Project of the Barbados Field Study Semester 2011 found that placing gravel or crushed eggshells around the perimeter of the garden was significant in reducing African snail damage (Fretts, et. al., 2011). It should be noted that this shows yet another benefit of having chickens as part of a permaculture way of thinking.

As previously mentioned, Barbados should use the principle of rolling permaculture and

thus implement small and gradual changes towards achieving a more sustainable garden.

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Having a few fruit trees or beginning a fruit orchard, for example, should therefore be done when one is financially capable to do so. A total of 26 fruit trees were purchased to make the fruit orchard at Eco-­‐Structure for the cost of $234BBD, for an average of $9BBD per tree. Rural farmers or persons looking to enhance their food sovereignty do not need to purchase 20+ fruit trees at a time, but instead should buy them little by little as their finances permit. Chickens are widespread in Barbados and can be acquired at little to no cost (Fraser Young, Pers. Comm., 2012). In order to accrue the benefits of having chickens, however, it will be necessary to build a coop. This will not only protect them from mongooses but also create a space for them to lay eggs that can then be recuperated. A large coop of 45 square feet was built at Eco-­‐Structure at the cost of about $250BBD. This price reflects the quality and size of the structure and while a coop could be constructed at a lower cost, the one built is very stable and will be so for years to come and, as such, represents a worthy investment. Finally, the implementation of composting in rural Barbados could not be easier. At Eco-­‐Structure, rotating bins that cost $125BBD each were used to facilitate decomposition and distribution of compost material. This, however, is an unnecessary cost to incur, as composting can be as simple as a pile of organic materials. The only thing required is a physical outdoor space allocated for composting.

Based on the 2012-­‐estimated GDP per capita in Barbados, the average household

income is approximately $32,600 BBD (IMF, 2012). Furthermore, based on a 1954 study, if one assumes household budgeting has remained relatively constant, the average household expenditure on miscellaneous spending, including garden expenses, represents 18%, or a total of $5,868 per year (Straw, 1954). In terms of implementing permaculture, therefore, it is absolutely feasible for rural parts of Barbados to do so. The largest upfront cost is the chicken Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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coop, however, when considering it in terms of the average household budget it is not a significant sum. In addition, the benefits that result from having chickens paralleled with almost no maintenance costs makes the $250 investment extremely worthwhile. By implementing rolling permaculture, rural populations of the island can slowly evolve to become more self-­‐ sustaining, for example, by investing in fruit trees and changing their habits to reflect a more integrated and connected approach to agriculture. It is important to note, however, that although permaculture is financially feasible there are other impediments to its actualization.

Permaculture is a mindset and a way of thinking and, as such, the main barriers to its proliferation are culture and a lack of awareness. As such, dissemination of the benefits of permaculture as well as education of how to implement it are of primary importance.

Case Study: Rastafarian Michael Bradshaw’s Permaculture Farm Beckford and Barker (2007) note that local knowledge in rural agriculture is often unique to a location, rooted in tradition and orally transmitted from generation to generation.

Local knowledge is “dynamic, adaptive and holistic in nature and is a significant part of the way of life and subsistence of rural peoples everywhere” (Beckford and Barker, 2007). The Rastafarian culture, which originated in Jamaica, encourages holistic and organic farming practices similar to those of permaculture based on traditional knowledge. A relevant case study in Barbados is Rasta Michael Bradshaw’s rural organic farm. Michael Bradshaw does not use any type of pesticides or chemical fertilizers. Instead, he operates in an ad hoc manner letting plants grow where they are: “If it does not bother me, I will not bother it” (Michael Bradshaw, Pers. Comm., 2012). Although he does not necessarily plan out his farm, he uses traditional knowledge of plants that work holistically together. For example, by planting a neem

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tree nearby the farm’s ground provisions, Michael effectively and organically wards off the destructive giant African snails and mosquitoes (Michael Bradshaw, Pers. Comm., 2012).

Michael Bradshaw has begun to employ modern farming techniques such as protected structures to prevent pests from ruining his crops, but his organic farm mainly employs natural methods. The only fertilizer used is his black bellied sheep’s droppings (Michael Bradshaw, Pers.

Comm., 2012). Thus, it can be said that the traditional knowledge of holistic farming employed

by Barbadian Rastafarian Michael Bradshaw puts into practice the strategies of permaculture.

Although small-­‐scale farmers like Michael Bradshaw can sell their surplus produce at local farmer’s markets, it is a challenge for organic farmers to obtain funding in the Caribbean.

Loans are mainly available for large-­‐scale producers of export crops (Beckford and Barker, 2007). With the implementation of permaculture on small-­‐scale farms, the start-­‐up costs are fairly low as it consists of working with what is already available on the land and investing in animals (goats, black bellied sheep or chickens) to fertilize the soil. Additional fruit trees, seedlings or grafted plants can also be purchased at low cost, as mentioned in the previous case study. Overall, Rastafarian permaculture in rural Barbados is economically feasible as, besides the initial purchase of land, it has low start-­‐up costs.

Rainwater Catchment System The water use for both urban and rural agriculture can also be greatly reduced by installing rainwater catchment systems. These can be linked to drip irrigation systems or to a hose for manual watering as these are the two recommended methods that waste the least amount of water possible. Manual watering with a soaker hose can reduce household water use by 33% (EPA). However, the installation of a rainwater harvesting system in Barbados can Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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be rather expensive. The following table from the “Handbook of Rainwater Harvesting in the Caribbean” prepared and funded by the Caribbean Environmental Health Institute and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) summarizes the costs of all the necessary parts and installation for a rainwater catchment system depending on the size required.

Table 1: Estimated unit costs for standard supplies used in RWH systems in the Caribbean (Caribbean Environmental Health Institute, n.d.)

Table 2: Typical cost of rainwater system installations (Caribbean Environmental Health Institute, n.d.)

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For a family of four, for example, the cost of the rainwater harvesting system’s cisterns can vary between $1,593 and $1,963 USD. In addition to the cost of $253.30 USD for the necessary pipes and a 400-­‐gallon reservoir tank, the total cost of a system for a Barbadian family is approximately $2,000 USD. Considering the previously mentioned household economics, which remark that approximately $2,500 USD of household income is spent on miscellaneous expenses including gardening, the installation of a rainwater catchment system at the cost of $2,000 USD is economically feasible for a typical Barbadian household. Although the system requires a significant portion of the miscellaneous household spending, the rainwater harvesting system will overall help to lower the consumption of water and thus lower the homeowner’s water bills.

Table 3: Benefits and Costs of Permaculture

Social Economic

Benefits -­‐ Community education and involvement -­‐ Improved nutrition

-­‐ Increased food security -­‐ Reduced food expenditure

Environmental -­‐ Use of natural fertilizers instead of chemical pesticides -­‐ Rainwater harvesting reduces water use

Costs -­‐ Government funded community garden projects -­‐ Low costs for plants/trees -­‐ Feasible, but expensive rainwater harvesting system -­‐Investments required for raising education

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Aquaponics

As previously described in the definition section, aquaponics is the incorporation of

aquaculture and hydroponics, which results in a self-­‐sustaining system based on the symbiotic relationship of plant and fish species. Internationally, aquaponics has been exponentially growing in popularity, with both household and commercial ventures, online discussion forums and conferences devoted to the topic, and even the development of the Aquaponics Journal (Rakocy et al., 2006). The costs of aquaponics systems are greatly outweighed by the monetary benefits, and there is additionally a wide range of social and environmental benefits. In Barbados, aquaponics remains in its early stages, but it is feasible to be applied to both the household level and the tourism industry through promotion and education.

Household Aquaponics

Aquaponics systems are currently being implemented in households around the world

and in the near future, have the opportunity to be applied to the Barbadian context. While a backyard aquaponics system does represent a significant investment, the monetary benefits outweigh the initial startup costs, and there are a multitude of social and environmental benefits that would contribute to both human and ecological health on the island. In order for household aquaponics to become a viable option for Barbados, it is first necessary to overcome the challenge of promotion and education.

In order to analyze the monetary costs and benefits of a household aquaponics system

in Barbados, we used calculations from a project performed in 2009 by four students as part of the Barbados Field Study Semester, in collaboration with Damian Hinkson, the founder of the Baird’s Village Aquaponic Association (BVAA). The BVAA was formed by a community of local

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farmers looking to design a simple aquaponics system that, at a relatively low cost, could be implemented in backyards of Barbadian households. The students’ project thus focused on testing out and perfecting the efficiency of the system by constructing one at Bellairs Research Institute, in addition to working out a simple cost-­‐benefit analysis. The materials used for the system itself are readily available on the island, including large PVC cylinders for the fish tank and grow beds, and then coconut husks for the grow medium. According to a tabulation of costs provided by the BVAA records, the students calculated a total startup cost of the system to be $1,582.40. Additionally, the predicted annual cost of electricity to pump water through the system and for fish feed was $875.17. Overall, the total inputs for the first year of system implementation came to a total of $2,358.51 (Bishop et. al., 2009). It should also be noted that some costs were excluded from the study, namely those that cover equipment used to test the quality of the water flowing in the system, such as pH, nitrates and dissolved oxygen. One could perhaps assume that if the system were perfected by the BVAA prior to its release on the market, such equipment would be unnecessary. A second excluded cost is that of an aeration system. While the group did not employ one in their experiment, it was recommended as to maintain a stable level of dissolved oxygen in the fish tank, which is important for fish health (Bishop et. al., 2009).

Next, to provide context for the costs of an aquaponics system, they must be compared

to the average Barbadian household income and budgeting. As previously mentioned, this paper has estimated that the average household spends $5,868 BBD per year on miscellaneous spending, including garden expenses. So while the first year start up cost of $2,358.51 does represent a significant investment, it is feasible for the average Barbadian household to afford if Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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the money is saved up throughout a year’s time. It is also important, however, to educate the public regarding the monetary benefits associated with backyard aquaponics, which greatly outweigh the costs.

The Baird’s Village Project calculated benefits based on both fish and vegetable

production and sale prices at local markets. Fish production was predicted to generate a monetary output of $950 annually and vegetable production was calculated to produce a monetary output of $1,927.8 and $226.8 for basil and okra, respectively, for a total of $2,104.60. Overall, the total inputs for the first year of system implementation had a total of $2,358.51 and total outputs totaling $3,104.60, for a net profit of $746.09. For the second year, when start up costs would be negligible, input was calculated as $775.57 and outputs as $3,104.60, with a net profit of $2329.03 (Bishop et. al., 2009). Therefore, according to these calculations, a backyard aquaponics system could theoretically pay for itself in less than one year and would be exceedingly beneficial in the years following.

Unfortunately, the BVAA has yet to finalize a system for retail sale in Barbados (Fraser

Young, pers. comm., 2012), however the possibility is still open for development. One example of a company who supplies complete, tested and perfected systems for sale to households is Nelson and Pade, Inc., based out of Wisconsin, USA. The company produces ‘Clear Flow Aquaponics Systems,’ with three total available for households, the most basic of which is the small but productive F5 system, capable of producing up to 100 lbs of fish and 900 to 1,440 heads of lettuce (or other leafy vegetables) per year. At $2,995 USD, or $5990 BBD, plus shipping and tax, the price is somewhat higher than the average Barbadian could afford, however they do also offer an incentive program whereas participants in their workshop

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receive a $100 discount on the F5 system (Nelson and Pade Inc., 2012). A similar packaged system and incentive program has great potential for being implemented in Barbados. For example, the government could provide a grant for a group or company to develop a system that would become readily available for retail sale and then create either a government or company incentive whereas a participant in an aquaponics how-­‐to workshop would receive a discount on a purchased system.

It is important to acknowledge benefits of household aquaponics other than those that

are monetary from either saving money spend on food or by selling produce at local markets, as there are a multitude of other qualitative benefits, including those that are social and environmental. In terms of social benefits, overall health can be improved by eating fresh, pesticide-­‐free produce and by reducing dependence on store bought, energy dense foods.

Additionally, there is a certain satisfaction of growing one’s own food that can contribute to overall mental health. In regards to the environment, aquaponics is indirectly beneficial to the island of Barbados in general. One such benefit is a reduction in water use; in fact, research has shown that aquaponics uses approximately 10% of the water required for conventional gardening (Malcolm & Arcaro, 2011). As Barbados is considered a water scarce nation (GEO Barbados, 2000), this is considered a large savings of water that can replenish the aquifer or be directed elsewhere. Furthermore, there are no fertilizers used in aquaponics, as the fish effluent provides all of the nutrients required for plant growth; nor are herbicides or pesticides used, which could have harmful effects on the fish in the system (Malcolm & Arcaro, 2011).

These practices are less detrimental to water quality and ecosystem health due to the lack of runoff that can be associated with conventional agriculture. A third environmental benefit of Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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household aquaponics is the reduction in dependence on local fisheries and associated fishery depletion that is currently an international issue. Finally, with less reliance on imported store bought foods, aquaponics can indirectly reduce fossil fuels used to transport food, thus minimizing contribution climate change. Table 4 summarizes all of the social, environmental and economic benefits and costs of household aquaponics, which also apply to the tourism industry, which will be discussed next.

One of the issues that has been put forward as a challenge facing the application of

aquaponics systems to households in Barbados is a lack of space. This is based off of a general assumption, however, which can be overcome when one considers regulations on residential developments. According to the Town and Country Development Planning Office (2012), the ground floor of a residential structure cannot exceed 40% of the total land area. Furthermore, any residential development must leave a distance of at least six feet between the house and the property line (Fraser Young, pers. comm., 2012). These figures indicate that there is theoretically enough space in the average Barbadian plot for installing an aquaponics system.

Furthermore, even if a house is surrounded by cement rather than grass, this would not pose the same limitations as on a garden, as the system is above ground. If a house has much of their yard space filled, however, it is even possible to build a vertical system, rather than a horizontal one, with an average size of 3’ by 5’, or approximately 1m by 2m (Goodier, 2012). Overall, space should not pose a significant challenge to household aquaponics.

Another possible challenge for the future of household aquaponics in Barbados is a lack

of awareness. The Baird’s Village Aquaponics Project acknowledged that, “If aquaponics is to have a place in Barbados agriculture, the public must see that it is viable, sustainable, and

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simple enough for local Barbadians to operate,” (Bishop et al., 2009). Accordingly, the group promoted aquaponics at local agricultural fairs, in addition to producing informational pamphlets, posters, newsletters and business cards to increase publicity for the BVAA. In the end, they found that much of the general public they spoke to were interested in incorporating backyard aquaponics into their lifestyles (Bishop et al., 2009). Another opportunity for increasing awareness and inspiration of the public is to incorporate aquaponics into local school curricula as a learning tool. This is currently being done with a broad range of students in Canada, the United States and the Bahamas in the Caribbean, from elementary to high school ages, in addition to the general public, culinary schools and even correctional facilities. Students are able to learn about many different subjects through the construction and/or maintenance of aquaponics systems, including biology, chemistry, mathematics, botany, biotechnology, environmental engineering and sustainable food production (Nelson, 2007). Most importantly, learning about aquaponics in school has the possibility to inspire students to bring home what they have learned and to apply this knowledge to the construction of a system in their own backyard. It is extremely important to focus on younger generations when promoting new ideas, as they are the most likely and able to make changes and have the most potential for new innovations. In conclusion, aquaponics has major potential to be applied to the household level in Barbados, but it is necessary to promote it to the general public and even to incorporate it into local school curricula.

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Aquaponics and Tourism

Aquaponics systems should be of great interest to Barbados and especially its tourism industry, as they would benefit both hotels and restaurants, as well as reduce the amount of food that has to be imported into the country. While they are a non-­‐conventional method of producing food, there are many advantages associated with them over other food production systems and they could provide environmental as well as economic benefits to the tourism industry in Barbados.

Due to the high number of tourists that travel to Barbados and the huge importance of the tourism industry for Barbados’ economy, if hotels and restaurants could utilize aquaponics systems, Barbados would require significantly less food imports. As of now Barbados has to import 70 percent of its food (Skeete, 2010) and this has huge implications for food security on the island, as well as the environmental costs of the transportation of this food. The high volume of tourists that visit the island each year is a large cause for this huge amount of imports, as the country’s population is only about 274,000 people (World Bank, 2011), compared with over a million tourists (both stay over and cruise ship arrivals) that travel to Barbados per year (Business Barbados Data Library, 2012). In order to be as efficient as possible, many large hotels and restaurants deal with a single food supplier, which usually imports the majority of the food. Therefore, if hotels and restaurants began to grow their own food using aquaponics systems, the amount of food that needs to be shipped to the island could be substantially reduced, thus decreasing both the environmental and economic costs associated with food transportation.

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If hotels and restaurants on the island grew their own food, this would not only lead to a decrease in the amount of food that needs to be imported, but it would also form a niche market within the tourism industry that would potentially attract a large number of tourists.

Especially within the Caribbean, where there are many different islands to choose from when tourists are deciding where to spend a vacation, competiveness is a big factor in the tourism industry. Providing a unique experience in a niche market such as food tourism or ecotourism would allow hotels and restaurants to stand out among the rest, especially given the growing popularity of the environmental movement, as well as the increasing demand for local and organic food. Thus hotels and restaurants that could market their food as being 100% fresh, local, and organic would likely attract many people.

This is no new concept, as many hotels and restaurants around the world have begun to grow food on site, however few use aquaponics systems. The Anamaya Resort in Costa Rica is an example of a resort that does both, and is marketed towards people seeking a retreat with a focus on health and physical and spiritual well-­‐being. It strives to serve healthy and fresh foods and recently installed an aquaponics system to help accomplish this. The Vertical Restaurant is a concept for a new restaurant in California and describes itself as an “earth-­‐friendly, horticultural oasis” (Vertical Restaurant website, 2011), and plans to use an aquaponics system to supply all of the food needed for the restaurant.

A brief survey of a few of the hotels (Mango Bay, Sandy Lane, Coral Reef Club, and the Sandpiper) in Barbados found that the number of people staying in the hotels at a given time (in season) is from between 134 at Mango Bay and around 200 at Sandy Lane. Using Fraser Young’s estimate that it takes about 25 square feet of aquaponics system to feed one person Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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continuously (Fraser Young, Pers. Comm., 2012), and using the round number of 150 hotel guests, a hotel could offset almost all of its food requirements with an aquaponics system of about 3750 square feet. This means a system of 50 feet x 75 feet, and if the hotel had the space for it, would provide not only a continuous supply of fresh, organic produce and fish, but also a unique feature that would attract hotel guests interested in sustainable food production methods. For the entrepreneurial type of person, if someone began to grow organic food using aquaponics sytems or otherwise, they could sell it directly to hotels and restaurants that are interested in serving local, organic food but do not have the space for a whole system.

In terms of the cost of the system, we could not find very much information regarding the cost of a system of this size, but the system would eventually pay for itself regardless of the initial investment. For example Fraser Young is planning to build a 20,000 square foot system that would feed roughly 800 people, which he estimates will cost $500,000 – 600,000 (US $) of investment, but he predicts that it will pay for itself in only a year. Using these figures, one can draw a very rough estimate that a large-­‐scale system would cost around $700 (US $) per person that it will feed. In this line of thought, a system to feed 150 people continuously would cost about $105,000, which is a large amount of money but may be affordable for an upscale hotel.

Also, despite the fact that the initial investment of the system may be large, in a relatively short amount of time the food produced by the system would pay for the cost of the system, and eventually the hotel or restaurant would have a continuous supply of free produce and fish to serve to its guests.

In sum, aquaponics systems could greatly benefit the tourism industry in a multitude of ways; any hotel or restaurant that wants to offer a unique experience and provide its guests

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with fresh, organic, and local food would be interested in using these systems. However, even hotels and restaurants with no interest in accessing niche markets or promoting sustainable food production would be interested in an economic sense, as the systems pay for themselves and would quickly produce free fruit, vegetables and fish for the enterprise. Therefore, provided that they have the space available and can afford the initial investment, aquaponics systems would be extremely beneficial to any hotel or restaurant in Barbados.

Table 4: Costs and Benefits of Aquaponics

Benefits

Costs

Social

-­‐Improved health

Economic

-­‐Increases food security

-­‐Initial startup

-­‐Households: Market sales

-­‐Yearly maintenance

-­‐Tourism: Opportunity for niche marketing Environmental

-­‐Reduction in water use

-­‐Use of man made

-­‐No fertilizers, pesticides or

materials (versus

herbicides

conventional gardening)

-­‐Less dependence on fisheries -­‐Reduction of imports

Conclusion As it has been shown, permaculture techniques and aquaponics systems are economically feasible so as to be integrated into Barbadian society. Permaculture and, in particular, the concept of rolling permaculture is an extremely viable long-­‐term way of becoming more sustainable. Rather than heavy upfront investments, it requires a cultural shift Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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and a change in the way agriculture is thought of. This, however, requires investments towards educating the population of what permaculture is and what its benefits are. Only through this kind of raised awareness can a shift begin to happen. Aquaponics systems are also economically viable for the average Barbadian household even though they have higher initial costs. Their proliferation, however, similarly require Barbadians to become increasingly aware of its manifold benefits. Again, education must be the avenue that enables the dissemination of this information. Lastly, it has been shown that the tourism industry, in this case hotels and restaurants, has a lot to gain in private terms by investing in large-­‐scale aquaponics systems.

Though upfront costs are relatively high, returns would be seen in the short term and at exponential value. Furthermore, there are important implications in terms of creating an environmentally friendly tourism industry in Barbados, as it is something that could set it apart in this increasingly competitive market.

Objective 4 Fulfill the requirements of the BFSS program, AGRI 519/CIVE 519/URBP 519: Sustainable Development Plans

We have completed and submitted our first draft of the project proposal, given the first

two oral presentations, and submitted both progress reports. We have now submitted the final report.

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Discussion

Objective 1

The permaculture garden has had its share of challenges from which we have learned a

great deal. Due to the rainy weather that we experienced at the time when we were clearing the land and perhaps also due to a nearby underground spring, tilling the cleared land was intense physical labor. This was because the soil, which is primarily made up of clay, took on a muddy consistency. After spending some time trying to till the garden and prepare it for planting, we decided that the soil not only had inadequate nutrients but also insufficient aeration for our ground provisions (yams, sweet potatoes and eddoes) to be planted in. Fraser decided that instead he would apply compost to the soil for the next one to two years in order for it to become higher quality soil that could provide the proper nutrients. The decision not to plant in the garden has meant that a chicken tractor is also not necessary. This is because the consistency of the soil would have proved impossible for the chickens to till successfully and also because we set up enough composting bins and, therefore, do not need the chickens to fertilize the garden.

The abandonment of the original permaculture garden plan led to the decision to plant

a fruit orchard. We started off by clearing the land, a process that is physically intensive but extremely satisfying. With Fraser and the four of us working together on this we were able to get through much of the clearing in a relatively short time. When this was completed, Fraser instructed us to dig about 30 holes in the area that he had delineated to be the future fruit orchard. The space we were working with was relatively small considering the number of holes we needed to dig. We also had to make sure that the holes were spaced out enough so that the Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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seedlings had plenty of room to grow and also that they were not under any larger trees whose branches could fall off and injure them. Fraser gave us significant freedom in deciding where to dig the holes, however, after we had dug many of them he decided that some of them were not okay so many holes had to be re-­‐dug. Another issue that we had to overcome while planting the fruit orchard was the quality of the soil. The holes we were digging were primarily composed of very thick clay like soil and after planting a few of the trees we realized that they just did not look right, the plants did not look very happy. We therefore decided that we should use soil formed by decomposing coconuts to fill the holes and surround the plants. This was done to provide the correct nutrients for the seedlings as well as a soil loose enough to allow the plant to absorb water. To do this, however, we had to transport the clay soil to the forest to get it out of the way while also bringing the coconut soil to each individual hole. This process was tedious and long, but the end result was very happy looking plants!

Building the chicken coop was the most physically and mentally challenging of the

projects that we have worked on so far. The first issue that we were faced with was a lack of direction. Fraser had a vision in his mind of what he wanted the coop to look like, however, he did not have as much of a plan as would have been necessary to communicate to us this vision.

A part of the issue was the fact that none of us had any real experience with carpentry. This meant that it was hard for us to show much initiative and at the same time it was hard for Fraser to delegate work. These issues were compounded by the fact that we were very limited in the materials and tools that we had to use. For one, we were working with recycled pallets, which were of varying quality and some were not usable at all. We were also working with one hammer, one mallet, one chisel, one screwdriver, etc. Therefore, when one of these tools was

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being used and someone else also needed it, the process was stalled and unnecessarily dragged out. It should be noted that although working with the limited tools and materials was a frustrating aspect of this project, it reflected a permaculture and sustainable mindset of using what you have and reusing what you can. Although we did not use all of the pallets as we had hoped, we certainly used them for what we could and although we could have been more efficient with more tools, we saved on the cost of buying additional ones. These problems culminated in the first day when we realized that what we had built was not very sturdy and would not be good enough for the coop. Luckily this was only one wall and was easily taken down. When we returned the following week, Fraser’s plan was much clearer and we were equipped with additional materials (mainly more 2x4’s) and we were able to build a much nicer frame. The installation of the wooden roof shingles that Fraser acquired from the hardware store was made difficult by the limited tools available. Nevertheless, the coop structure was completed. Fraser will be making minor adjustments such as putting a roof on the enclosed area to protect the chickens and their chicks from mongooses.

Objective 2 Constructing the aquaponics system had its share of challenges as well. The first failure we experienced was in the assembling of a rain cover for the fish tank in order to allow air into the tank but to keep excess water out. Fraser asked us to construct a cover for the tank with some left over PVC pipes and a clear plastic tarp. We designed it on the spot, which consisted of a square design to fit over the cylindrical tank. We constructed it with a slope facing away from the house so rainwater would drain off in that direction. Unfortunately, after the first rainstorm, we realized that water still managed to form a puddle in the center of the tarp and Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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did not drain off away from the house as intended. Furthermore, the plastic tarp acted as a lens, focusing the sun’s rays, which warped the bottom of the tank. Thankfully, our mentor has another plan and will eventually construct a greenhouse to cover the entire aquaponics system, which will feature a sloped design that will hang from the roof of the house and attach it to the fence.

Another issue we had throughout the project was our lack of expertise surrounding the details of setting up the aquaponics system and the pump system. Consequently, we were at times almost completely dependent on Fraser’s electrician named Richard, who was often unable to attend our scheduled appointments. This meant that much of our work on the aquaponics system frequently had to be put on hold until Richard could come. While there was always other work to do, for example on the permaculture garden, it meant that we were able to complete less of the aquaponics system than we had initially intended. We were however able to witness water running through the system and the first round of plants planted in the grow beds, which was very satisfying to see.

Also, because of the difficulty of acquiring materials in Barbados, as opposed to the US for example where most anything is available, some of the materials we used such as the frame for the solar panels were not the ideal dimensions or made to perfectly fit the other materials.

This required creativity and flexibility on Richard’s part but because Richard was very tedious and careful with everything he did, errors and mistakes were minimized. He also repeatedly talked about the importance of consistency in a project and strived to make the system and wiring as neat and organized as possible.

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Perhaps the biggest challenge we faced throughout the project however was the fact that this was the first aquaponics system any of us had worked on and so we were all learning as went and having to make decisions on the fly. Because none of us had any expertise regarding aquaponics systems, we were constantly making adjustments and finding ways to improve various aspects of it. One example of this was when Fraser found that the two grow bins on the end were not receiving very much water flow and decided to completely remove them from the system. We therefore had to transplant the plants to other grow bins and saw off the section of the wooden frame that had been supporting them. Fraser then reasoned that increasing the total amount of water in the system would increase the flow rate through it. To do this, we installed three more water reservoirs beneath the system and added more water to the tank. Decisions like these had to be made on the fly, because without much prior experience creating an aquaponics system, it would be impossible to be able to know everything before hand. Since the system was essentially custom built, there was also no real plan or blueprint that we were following. This project therefore required a great deal of flexibility and even more important, the capacity to be critical and constantly looking for ways to make improvements.

Objective 3

As with the first two objectives, Objective 3 was not without its own difficulties,

however in the end, we were able to make a satisfactory cost benefit analysis. Due to a lack of both time and available information, the scope and focus of the objective was somewhat modified. Originally, we had planned to analyze the applicability of permaculture gardening, aquaponics systems, rainwater catchment and solar power to the greater Barbados, with a Eco-­‐Structure Barbados: A Project in Sustainable Living

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focus on households. However over the course of the semester, the majority of our internship days were spent working on the physical aspects of our first two objectives, thus not as much time was devoted to objective three. In the end, we chose to incorporate the discussion of rainwater catchment into permaculture gardening however we did not incorporate a discussion of solar power. Furthermore, after input from our mentor, we decided to shift our study of aquaponics to include both households and the tourism industry. In terms of permaculture gardening, we separated the analysis into rural and urban areas, and the main conclusion was that a gradual shift in practices is necessary, rather than a complete replacement of the status quo.

Another related challenge was the lack of available information regarding Barbadian

statistics on economics and household budgeting. The most recent related study was written in 1954, thus some of our reasoning was based on assumptions that household budget spending, such as percentages spent on miscellaneous items, has remained relatively constant. This lack of information also led to a shift in our objective’s focus to a more qualitative cost-­‐benefit analysis, rather than a purely quantitative one.

On a positive note, one of the things that went very well in regards to this objective was

that it provided a context for our team to accumulate everything that we have learned this semester into a single overarching analysis. We were able to incorporate knowledge that we gained from all three of our courses this semester, Globalization: Planning and Change; Water Resources in Barbados; and Planning and Infrastructure. Overall, we were very grateful for the opportunity to apply all of this knowledge to our final research project and are extremely proud of the final product.

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Conclusion

This project sprouted from the vision of a more sustainable Barbados in response to the

various issues currently progressing in the region, including dietary shifts to energy dense foods and associated non-­‐communicable diseases such as obesity and diabetes. Over the course of the semester, we assisted our mentor, Mr. Fraser Young, in his projects including a permaculture garden, which involved clearing a plot of land, planting a fruit orchard and building a chicken coop, as well as constructing a self-­‐sustaining aquaponics system powered by solar panels. Additionally, we created our own objective of analyzing the applicability of the first two objectives to the greater Barbadian community, which we determined to be economically feasible projects in both rural and urban Barbadian households as well as in the tourism industry.

Overall, the Eco-­‐Structure project was a once in a lifetime learning experience. While

the first two objectives consisted of hands on work and learning to use various tools and techniques, the third research-­‐based objective allowed us to apply the accumulated knowledge we have gained throughout this field semester to projects that we have become so passionate about. Essentially, living off the grid by providing one’s own food and energy is not only economically and environmentally beneficial, but it is most importantly one of the most rewarding endeavors that an individual can strive towards. Feeding yourself, your friends and your family with the fruits and ground provisions of your own labor is a proud moment which we can simply hope will become an integral part of Barbadian culture.

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