Assignment 8 Vol 1

Assignment 8 History History of of design design (I).

(I).

Greece Greece & & Rome Rome

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History of design i Greece and Rome

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index •

4……………………………………….…………..Minoan art

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8……………………………….….….……….Mycenaean art

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11…………………………….…….….……………Greek art

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32……………………………….……..….……….Roman art

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54…..…………………………………………….References

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MINOAN ART

• The Minoans formed on the island of Crete, sustained and shielded by the sea, a wonderful early civilization.

3000 – 1100 BC

• The Minoans traded in Egypt and Mesopotamia. They also inherited ideas and technology that they would have adapted for their own culture.

• This civilization was developing on the island of Crete (Bibi Saint Paul(2006), see Fig 1) while Egypt and Mesopotamia were flourishing

• The Minoans were the seed of the first Greek civilization.

• This civilization was named after legendary King Minos, whose father was said to be Zeus

• Wooden roof palace , gypsum plaster walls elegantly and richly painted.

Wide throne room with light indoor pools, family apartments in the palace..

• Culture disappears due to some natural disaster, Fig, 2 ,Brewminate (n.d.) Knossos Palace [photograph]

The most well known and excavated architectural buildings of the Minoans were the administrative palace centers.(Brewminate , 2019, see Fig.2)

Tabla 1

• They were organized as with the Egyptians in a complicated caste scheme: nobles, traders, craftsmen, bureaucrats and workers.

Fig. 1 Bibi Saint-Paul (2006), Map of minoan Crete [map].

• Their heritage was the masters of the sea and the great shipbuilders.

• Minoans sailed across the Mediterranean and Black Seas to trade their products because of their location. The products included honey, olive oil, wine, gold and grain goods.

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• Life for Minoans was unusually peaceful…very few weapons found at archeological sites.

(Ancient Greece.org. 2019.)

Fig, 3 Mela Corral (2019) Minoan octopus vessel illustration]

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Fragments of frescoes found at Knossos provide us with glimpses into Minoan culture and rituals . A fresco found on an upper story of the palace has come to be known as Bull Leaping.

The image depicts a bull in flying gallop with one person at his horns, another at his feet, and a third, whose skin color is brown instead of white, inverted in a handstand leaping over the bull. (Mela Corral, 2019, see Fig. 4) (Wikipedia, 2019)

Fig. 4 Mela Corral (2019) Bullfighting Fresco [illustration]

The Complex at Knossos The complex at Knossos  provides an example of the monumental architecture built by the Minoans. The most prominent feature on the plan is the palace’s large, central courtyard. This courtyard may have been the location of large ritual events, including bull leaping, and a similar courtyard is found in every Minoan palace center. (Ancient Greece.org. 2019. )

Fig. 5 Mela Corral (2019) Knossos Palace [illustration]

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Fig. 6 Brewminate (2018), Knossos Palace plan [ONLINE]

Minoan palatial architecture

Several small tripartite shrines surround the courtyard. The numerous corridors and rooms of the palace center create multiple areas for storage, meeting rooms, shrines, and workshops.

The absence of a central room and living chambers suggest the absence of a king and, instead, the presence and rule of a strong, centralized government.

The palaces also have multiple entrances that often take long paths to reach the central courtyard or a set of rooms. There are no fortification walls, although the multitude of rooms creates a protective, continuous façade. While this provides some level of fortification, it also provides structural stability for earthquakes. Even without a wall, the rocky and mountainous landscape of Crete and its location as an island creates a high level of natural protection. (Lumen Boundless Art History. 2019) 5

Fig. 9 Szรกsz, I. (2002) Cephalia: late Minoan [illustration]

Fig. 10 Szรกsz, I. (2002) Dwellings and villas [illustration]

During the Neopalatial period large residencies were built along the rural landscape of Crete. These villas resembled in small scale the grand architecture of the palaces period, and they were built with storage magazines, workshops, places of worship, and multi storied homes. (McIntosh, M.A, 2017) Fig. 8 Szรกsz, I. Megaron dwellings at mainland (Tyrnis) [illustration]

Fig. 11 Brewminate (2018) Ruins of Gournia [photograph]

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Fig. 12 Szรกsz, I (2002) Knossos ceramic plates [illustration]

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Tradition marks Crete as the birthplace of Zeus.

The Minoans were devout worshippers of Zeus, but, according to their religious tradition, Zeus was a mortal being. This mortal state of divinity was explicitly rejected by the Greeks, who found it senselessly irrational.

Despite this, Minoan beliefs greatly influenced the thought, language, social organization, and economic activities of the Greeks. (Lumen Boundless Art History. 2019.)

The Minoans developed writing, creating two alphabets over a 700-year period.

1. Linear A from 1800 B.C. to approximately 1400 B.C. 2. Linear B from 1400 to 1100.

Fig. 14 Met Museum Fifth Avenue (n.d.) Agate Lentoid,ca. 1450–1400 B.C.

Fig. 15 Peter Bull, (2013), Minoan mother goddess figurine from around 1600BC [photograph]

Fig. 16 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, (2016) Terracota pixys [photograph]

The Minoan way of life evidences have reached our days through its liturgical practices and art.

(Studylib. 2002.)

Fig. 13 Apotheon, (n.d.), Zeus [illustration]

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Fig. 17 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, (2016), Linear B wrtiting [ONLINE]

Fig. 18 Proel, (2013), Linear A wrtiting [ONLINE].

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MYCENAEAN ART

1900—1100 BC

• The civilization named by archaeologists in honor of the fortress city, Mycenae, lies in the lowest and steepest region of the Greek peninsula, the Peloponnese.

• The Mycenaeans were a warlike people, probably from Mesopotamia or the Caucasus. They were settled in the region around 1900 B.C. and by 1500 their influence in that area was total, expanding throughout the Hellenic Peninsula and Crete.

• Their military power led them to rule the Aegean from around 1400 B.C. to 1200 B.C. and they traded with Sicily, Italy, Egypt and Mesopotamia, which influenced their culture and were transmitted to the Greeks • The fall of Mycenae marked the beginning of the Greek Middle Ages 1100 - 800 B.C. ( Studylib. 2002.)

Fig. 19 the Map Archive, (2012), Mycenaean kingdom 1300BC [map]

Fig. 20 Andreas Trepte, (2008), Grave in Mykene [photograph].

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• • • • • •

Fig. 21 History hub (2002) Treasury of Atreus [illustration]

Fig. 23 The History Hub, (2002), Treasury of Atreus Mycenae [photograph]

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Treasury of Atreus

Mycenaean culture spread through Greece and the Ionian islands Kings of Mycenae held broad hegemony They claimed tribute from subjects Had an efficient bureaucratic service Engaged in overseas trade, especially metals Had a form of writing, Linear B

•

It was Mycenaeans who tried to topple Troy. The long siege weakened the civilization and inspired Homer’s later Iliad and Odyssey

•

It was the Mycenaeans who gave the Greeks many of their ideals and inspired the age of heroes established by Homer (Studylib, 2002)

Fig. 24 jauntingjen.com, (2013), Mask of Agamemnon [photograph]

Fig. 22 Met Museum, (2008), 3 Terracotta female figures, [photograph]

Fig. 25 Lions gate (2019), Mela Corral ,[illustration] 9

• • • • • • • •

• •

Highly skilled in war and administration Had dynastic rulers Wealthy and powerful Early shaft graves held many gold objects, martial objects (1600-1500 BCE) Wealth based on control of trade and agriculture Royal, centralized burocracy Artisans and peasants under royal control Class structure: – serfs, slaves, – lords and councilmen, – retainers and agents – the great king, the wanax Kings were powerful in war and trade They achieved their power through violence, as artifacts suggest

Fig. 28 AncientGreece.org Mycenaean Octopus Vessel [photograph]

Fig. 26 Ancient Greece Org (2012) Lion Rython [photograph]

Fig. 27 Ancient Greece Org (2012) Bull Rython [photograph]

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Fig. 29 Szász, I. (2002) Mycenaean fortress plan [illustration]

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GREEK ART 750 BC-147 BC

The Greek civilization flourished in the Hellenic peninsula and its surrounding regions, having its roots in the city-states of the continental zone and the Aegean islands, and expanding in the later period (Hellenistic period) to other distant places, including areas of Italy, Asia Minor and North Africa.

Fig. 30 Getty Images (2008) Ancient Greece [illustration]

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• Polis (city-states) had their own form of government, legislation and tax system (Corinth, Thebes, Athens, Sparta). They reached their full democratic development at the time of Pericles, coinciding with the Athenian domination of the political and cultural scene, highlighting the building for the Parthenon and the Acropolis during this period.

• Classical Greece has given us a great artistic legacy: literature, poetry, philosophy, drama, and arts.

• • • • •

Monarchy and Kings The rise to power of the aristocracy and oligarchy Hoplites c. 675-650 B.C. Age of tyranny The Statesmen Solon and Cleisthenes laid the foundation for a democratic Greece, based on the Council of the 500, the Assembly and the Courts.

• As mentioned by Blackwell, (2002) in “An Introduction to Classical Athenian Democracy “, Athens lived under a democratic government from 508 to 322 B.C. The people governed themselves, debating and voting individually on relevant and trivial issues.

• Ancient Athens is often referred to as the cradle of democracy • Democracy flourished during the Golden Age of Athens (4th Century BCE) under Pericles Direct Democracy= All the male citizens would gather, discussed the issues, and then voted on them.

• “Only male citizens were allowed to take part in running the government (made up approx. 10% of population). Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from public affairs. The policy of ostracism also created some instability as the Assembly could exile a speaker / leader by vote if they feel they are too powerful “ (Loflin, L. , 2018), Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

Fig. 32 ancient.eu, (2011), Greek alphabet [ONLINE]

The Greek alphabet is the writing system first appeared in the archaeological record during the 8th century BCE, when the Greeks adapted the Phoenician writing system.

Fig. 31 Met Museum, (2008), Ancient Marble statue of a kouros (youth),ca. 590–580 B.C. [photograph] 12

Anthropocentrism was the great Hellenic contribution to universal culture. Everything revolves around man (including stars and architecture), the gods were human in nature. The gods were men who lacked perfect beauty, immortality and power. Man becomes the measure of all things. (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) The characteristics of Greek culture are mainly the reflection of anthropocentrism, becoming a culminating point in its construction; as is the human scale, that is, man is the measure of all things and architecture is at his service.

They give great importance to aesthetics and proportion. The concept of human scale: Insistent concern for aesthetics as if it were a sculpture. Use of order as a modulation system.

Fig. 33 Ancient Egypt Online (2010), Akhenathon [photograph].

Fig. 34 Peter Bull, (2013), Minoan mother goddess figurine from around 1600BC [photograph]

Fig. 34 Artehistoria (2011), Dame de Auxerre [photograph].

Fig. 35 MARQ (2009), Discobolus of Myron [photograph].

Faith in human reason gave rise to rationalism. The idea that man could "order the world" led them to seek in their creations an order that could be captured by the mind through the senses. The basic principles of this rational plan were symmetry, proportion and unity based on the interrelation of the parts with each other and with the whole. Therefore, they conceived the arts as sisters. The architecture, to be complete, had to depend on sculpture and painting for decoration; the sculpture and the painting had to look for the suitable and convenient architectural means. The virtues of balance, clarity and simplicity were set as a norm of excellence. Thus, if they were to impose an order on any mass of raw material, such as rock or clay in its natural state, in the process of giving them shape, they sought balance and harmony.

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Fig. 37 Canva, (2009), The golden ratio [vector].

The Golden Ratio The concept was first promoted by the Greek geometer Euclid.

(Wikimedia Contributors, 2019).

It is based on the Fibonacci Sequence {1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,etc.} Like Pi, it is an irrational number {1.618033988‌} We just call it 1.618.

Mathematics and the visual arts are prevalent. Aspects of both form and function. One such relationship is being explored as the Golden Ratio. ( See Fig. 37 Canva,2009) Although Greeks defined and formulated the Golden Proportion in ancient times, the celebration and use of this mathematical phenomenon in art and architecture extends to the present day. Examples of the Golden section can be seen throughout nature, such as in shells, plants, etc. (Wikimedia Contributors, 2019) Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

Fig. 36 Canva, (2016), Hellicoidal staircase [photograph]

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government

religion and mythology

literature

monarchy 2000-1200 BC

polytheism

Homer

oligarchy 1200-600 BC

mythology to explain the world

Hesiod

tyranny 600-500 BC democracy 500 BC>>

Sappho

science

Pindar

mathemathics

society

philosophy

physics

Plato

astronomy

citizens (male)

Aristotle

medicine

traders

Anaximenes

women

Socrates

olympic games

children

Thales of Miletus

religious character

slaves

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Fig. 38 Weebly, (n.d.), Ancient greece timeline [infography].

•

Archaic Period (750 - 500 BC) • The Greeks developed a new political form called city states, which are ruled as independent nations • Renewal interest in overseas trading contact

• • •

Classical period (500 - 323 BC) The period started with the Greek city states coming into conflict with the rising Persian Empire .

A seaborne expedition by the Persians to Athens was defeated at Marathon in 490 BC

•

Hellenistic period (323 - 147 BC) Alexander • When Alexander died, he did not have a heir to inherit him • The Greek empire split into smaller states with Alexander’s generals as their rulers

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Fig. 43 Met Museum, (2016), Terracotta stirrup jar with octopus,ca. 1200–1100 B.C. [photograph]

Fig. 39 Met Museum, (2016), Terracotta funerary plaque,ca. 520–510 B.C. [photograph]

Fig. 42 Met Museum, (2016), Terracotta oinochoe (jug),mid-4th century B.C. [photograph]

Fig. 40 Met Museum, (2016), Terracotta Panathenaic prize amphora,ca. 530 B.C. [photograph]

Fig. 41 Met Museum, (2016), Terracotta situla (bucket),ca. 360–340 B.C. Attributed to the LycurgusPainter [photograph]

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Fig. 44 Met Museum, (2016), Terracotta dinos (mixing bowl),ca.

630–615 B.C. Attributed to the Polyteleia Painter [photograph].

Greek pottery from 1000 B.C. to 400 B.C. (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) not only provides some of the most distinctive forms of ancient vessels, but is also one of the oldest and best resources for understanding the beliefs and traditional and cultural practices. Thanks to its durability (even once broken) and the little interest it awakened in looters, pottery is a very significant tool for archaeologists and historians to date the sites and their place in the chronology of art history.

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1 2

3

4

5 Tabla 1

1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 50 ancient.eu (2015), Dionisos from the Parthenon [photograph].

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Fig. 45 Pinterest, (2010), Moschophoros [photograph].

Fig 51 Pinterest (2019) Pan [photograph] Fig. 46 Arteinternacional (2010), Dame de Auxerre [photograph] Fig. 48 Portal MitologĂ­a, (1996), Aphrodite [photograph].

Fig. 47 Stephen Stookey, (2015), Winged Victory of Samothrace [photograph].

Greek sculpture, 800 to 300 B.C. (WIkipedia Contributors, 2019) Its early influences are in Egyptian sculpture and Near East influences (Assyria and Mesopotamia). It has progressed into a aesthetic of its own over the centuries.

Greek artists also achieved artistic excellence, copying human figure to perfection in a manner never seen before. Proportion, balance and idealized perfection of the human body, and total mastery of bronze and stone.

Fig. 49 Drew Angerer for the NY Times, (2015), Dancing faun [photograph].

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Geography, climate and light The mainland and the Greek islands are rocky, with a deeply jagged shoreline and rugged mountain ranges with few big woodland areas. The most common building material is named limestone and marble, which were simple to collect and to work with. The quality of the stone has substantially led to the quality of the architectural and decorative features. There were also reserves of high quality clay, which was used to create ceramic vessels, architectural decoration and tiles.

The climate of Greece is maritime, softened by the cold of winter and the heat of summer by the sea breeze. Thanks to this mild climate, most of the ancient Greeks' activities took place in public spaces and outdoors. The temples were at the top of the hills, their exteriors caught the eye during meetings and processions, while the theatres were simple structures, taking advantage of the natural slopes of the terrain as the place where viewers should sit, rather than a structure containing them.

The colonnades surrounding the buildings or surrounding courtyards provided protection from the summer sun and winter storms.

“The light of Greece may be another important factor in the development of the particular character of Ancient Greek architecture. The light is often extremely bright, with both the sky and the sea vividly blue. In this characteristic environment, the Ancient Greek architects constructed buildings that were marked by precision of detail. The gleaming marble surfaces were smooth, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the sun, cast graded shadows and change in colour with the ever-changing light of day.” ( Wikipedia Contributors, 2019).

The Greek temple was based on the Aegean Megaron, where the palace was the dwelling place of the gods.

Although at the start the temples were made of wood, we can see how in VI BC the stone became the primary material, both because of its durability and, as John F. Pile and Judith Gura in “A History of Interior Design" (2013) proposed, because of the very likely Egyptian heritage and its concept of eternity and permanence.

Fig. 51 Mela Corral (2019) Parthenon [illustration]

The following terms refer to the number of columns on the entrance front of a Greek temple:

• Henostyle: one column • Distyle: two columns • Tristyle: three columns • Tetrastyle: four columns • Pentastyle: five columns • Hexastyle: six columns • Heptastyle: seven columns • Octastyle: eight columns • Enneastyle: nine columns • Decastyle: ten columns Fig. 52 Pinterest (2008), Temple plans [vector].

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Stilistically speaking, the architecture of ancient Greece is divided into three "orders": the Doric Order, the Ionian Order and the Corinthian Order, These names reflect the geographical origin. The orders also regulated the shape, proportions, details, and ratios of the columns, entablature, and fronton.

The individual orders applied to the entire range of structures and monuments.

- The Doric Order developed in continental Greece and spread to Italy.

- The Ionic order coexisted with the Doric, being promoted by the Greek cities of Ionia, Asia Minor and the Aegean islands.

-

The Corinthian Order was a highly decorative variant which did not develop until the Hellenistic period and which preserved many features of the Ionian. Romans made it a very popular style.

Fig. 53 Mela Corral, 2019, Greek orders ,[illustration]

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As we can read in Wikipedia article related to Ancient Greek Architectur, Ancient Greece´s building method is of a trabeated or "post and lintel" form, i.e. it is composed of upright posts supporting horizontal lintels.

Although the existent buildings of the era are constructed in stone, it is clear that the origin of the style lies in simple wooden structures.

According to Prabhanjanskanda, (2017), determining factor in the mathematics of any notable work of architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for perspective, for the optical illusions that make edges of objects appear concave and for the fact that columns that are viewed against the sky look different from those adjacent that are viewed against a shadowed wall. Because of these factors, the architects adjusted the plans so that the major lines of any significant building are rarely straight. The most obvious adjustment is to the profile of columns, which narrow from base to top. However, the narrowing is not regular, but gently curved so that each columns appears to have a slight swelling in the middle.

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/f9/3c/4b/f93c4b443327c82e77948e0ecb1e1f99.jpg

Fig. 54 Pinterest, (2014), Greek orders [illustration].

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Fig. 56 Mela Corral (2019) Corinthian temple detail [illustration]

Fig. 55 Mela Corral (2019) Temple of Hera in Paestum [illustration]

Fig. 57 Mela Corral (2019) Erectheion [illustration]

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Fig. 58 Mela Corral (2019) Bronze horse [illustration]

Fig. 59 Mela Corral (2019) Ionic temple detail [illustration] 22

As mentioned by Werner (2019) in Wikipedia´s List of Ancient greek Temples article the Heraion of Samos( Fig .61) was a large sanctuary to the goddess Hera, in the southern region of Samos, Greece, 6 km southwest of the ancient city, in a low, marshy river basin near the sea.The Late Archaic Heraion of Samos was one of the first colossal self-standing Ionic temples, although its records at this place predate to the Geometric Period of the 8th century BC or sooner. The site of the remains of the temple, with the only standing tower, was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with the neighboring Pythagorheion in 1992.

Fig. 61 Tomisti, (2014), Heraion of Samos [photograph]

In the same text we can find apollo Temple in Didyma (See fig. 60 & 62) The origins of the Temple of Apollo in Didyma are located within the archaic period, since several of the inscriptions found in the temple are written in archaic letters. Homer also in his poems, tells us the greatness of this temple, along with that of Delphi, during the sixth century BC. Mainly, the archaic temple consisted only of an altar, later the adyton, the pronaos, etc. were incorporated.

The Persian Empire, at the beginning of the V century BC, dominated Miletus and sacked cities burning several temples, as happened with the Temple of Apollo. Subsequently, the sanctuary ceased to be active for approximately 160 years.

The era of splendor for the great temple was undoubtedly during Hellenism, under the reign of Seleucus Nikator. The Sanctuary of Apolo was, even, under the Roman domination, time i n which it underwent several changes.

Fig. 60 Szász, I. (1999) Temple of Apollo in Didima [illustration] Fig. 62 Jaume Pons (2014), Temple of Apollo [photograph].

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The theatre of Epidaurus (Szรกsz, 1999, see Fig 63) represents the finest and best-preserved example of a classical Greek theatre. Even by today's standards, this monument stands out as a unique artistic achievement through its admirable integration into the landscape and above all the perfection of its proportions and incomparable acoustics. It was built in 330-20 BC and enlarged in the mid-2nd century AD. The overall 55 rows of seats rest on a natural slope and face the stage area set against a backdrop of lush landscape. The theatre is marvelled for its exceptional acoustics. Any sound on the open-air stage, whether a stentorian voice or a whisper, a deep breath or the sound of a match struck is perfectly audible to all spectators, even in the topmost row of seats, that is, nearly 60 m away. The answer to what makes the sound transmit so well comes from recent scientific studies: The arrangement of the stepped seating rows acts as an acoustic filter that deadens low-frequency background sounds, such as the murmurs of the audience, while amplifying the highfrequency sounds from the stage. Once again in use today, the ancient monument floods with theatre devotees during the annual summer Festival of Epidaurus. (Ace of Greece, 2014)

Fig. 63 Szรกsz, I. (1999) Theater of Epidauros [illustration]

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Fig. 64 Joanna Doe (n.d.), Reconstruction of Stoa of Attalos [illustration].

Fig. 65 Szรกsz, I. (1999) Greek polis buildings [illustration] 24

As mentioned in Wikipedia (2019), the monumental gateway to the Acropolis, the Propylaea, (Figs. 64 & 65) was one of several public works commissioned by the Athenian leader Pericles in order to rebuild the Acropolis at the conclusion of the Persian Wars. Pericles appointed his friend Phidias as the supervisor and lead architect of this massive project, which Pericles allegedly financed with funds appropriated from the treasury of the Delian League.

According to Plutarch, the Propylaea was designed by the architect Mnesicles, about whom nothing else is known. Construction began in 437 BC and was terminated in 432, when the building was still unfinished.

Fig. 66 , Joan Banjo (2016) Propileus [photograph]

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Fig. 67 , Edited by Joseph KĂźrschners (1891) Propileus [illustration] 25

“An acropolis (of akros or akron, "higher", "higher", "higher", "outermost" and polis, "city"; plural in English: acropoles, acropoleis or acropolis) is a settlement, especially a citadel, built over an area of elevated land.� (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019).

The most famous example is the Acropolis of Athens, which, due to its historical associations and the various famous buildings erected on it (the most notable being the Parthenon), is known simply as the Acropolis.

The Parthenon is an ancient temple of the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the goddess Athena, patron saint of the city.

The construction of the temple began in 447 B.C. when the Athenian Empire was in all its splendor. Construction was completed in 438 B.C.

Fig. 68, Mela Corral (2019) ,Parthenon illustration [illustration]

and is generally considered the zenith of the Doric order, and from the sculptural point of view its ornaments are considered some of the peaks of Greek art. The Parthenon is seen as an enduring symbol of ancient Greece, Athenian democracy and western civilization, and one of the world's greatest cultural landmarks.

Fig. 71 Paco Nadal (2017) Parthenon [photograph]

Fig. 70, Io Herodotus (2017) Parthenon plan [illustration]

Fig. 69 Mela Corral (2019) Acropolis [illustration]

Fig. 72 Pierre Gustave Joly, Frederick Martens (1839), Parthenon engraving after original daguerrotype [engraving].

The Parthenon is a Doric octastyle peripteral temple with Ionic architectonic features. It rises on a platform or stiletto with three steps. Like other Greek temples, it is made from posts and lintels and is surrounded by columns ("peripterals") with an entablature. There are eight columns at each end ("octastyle") and seventeen on the sides. There is a double row of columns at each end. The columnatta surrounds an interior masonry stonework structure, the cella, which is divided into two sections. At both ends of the building, the gable is topped by a triangular pediment originally covered with sculpted figures now in the British Museum. The columns are Doric, with single capitals, striated shafts and no bases. Above the entablature's arch is a frieze of carved pictorial panels (metopes) separated by formal triglyphs characteristic of the Doric order. Through the lintels of the interior columns runs a continuous frieze sculpted in bas-relief around the cell. This element of the architecture is Ionic rather than Doric in style.

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“Greek city houses of the 6th and 5th century b.c. were usually modest in scale and built of relatively inexpensive materials. They varied from two or three rooms clustered around a small court to a dozen or so rooms. City house exteriors presented a plain facade to the street, broken only by the door and a few small windows set high. In larger houses the main rooms included a kitchen, a small room for bathing, several bedrooms which usually occupied a second floor, the men's andron for dining, and perhaps a separate suite of rooms known as the gynaikonitis for the use of women.” (Penn Museum, 2002) “Greek furniture was typically constructed out of wood, though it might also be made of stone or metal, such as bronze, iron, gold and silver. Little wood survives from ancient Greece.

Pieces were assembled using mortise-and- tenon joinery, held together with lashings, pegs, metal nails, and glue. Wood was shaped by carving, steam treatment, and the lathe, and furniture is known to have been decorated with ivory, tortoise shell, glass, gold or other precious materials.” (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019)

Fig 73 Penn Museum (2008), Greek pottery [photograph]

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Fig 74 Witold Rybczynski, (2017), Klismos chair [photograph]

Fig. 75 Szász, I. (1999) Mediterranean House [illustration] 27

“The determining factor in the mathematics of any notable work of architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for perspective, for the optical illusions that make edges of objects appear concave and for the fact that columns that are viewed against the sky look different from those adjacent that are viewed against a shadowed wall. Because of these factors, the architects adjusted the plans so that the major lines of any significant building are rarely straight. The most obvious adjustment is to the profile of columns, which narrow from base to top.(Palmer, 1975 .See Fig, 76) However, the narrowing is not regular, but gently curved so that each columns appears to have a slight swelling in the middle. “(Prabhanjanskanda, 2017,)

Fig .77 Mela Corral (2019),Optical illusions [illustration]

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Fig. 76 J.C. Palmer (1975), Diagram of optical corrections in Architecture [illustration].

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Cartwright, (2014) points out the importance of the period of construction of the Parthenon, which coincides largely with the government of Archon Pericles (443-429), during which the democratic system is consolidated and the city lives a few years of splendor, peace and prosperity. The Governor's contact with philosophers such as Anaxagoras is likely to explain the concern for proportions and order that we can see in the Parthenon. All this is expressed in the philosopher's phrase: "In the beginning was chaos, then came intelligence, which set everything in place".

The Parthenon frieze is a 160-meter-long frieze that encircled the upper part of the Parthenon cella in Athens. Masterpiece of classical Greek sculpture, is made in bas-relief with Pentelic marble in Ionic style, although in a Doric building. It probably represents the procession of the Great Panateneas, which took place every four years in honor of the goddess Athena. The construction works of the Parthenon were directed by the sculptor Phidias, in collaboration with the architects Kallikrathes and Icthinos Phidias is the author of the sculptural works that adorn the frieze and the creation of the figure of the Athena Parthenos that the building housed inside, as its main purpose.

Fig. 78 MAry Harrsch (2012) Athenea Parthenos [photograph]

Fig. 79 G. Nimatallah, (2018) Poseidon, Apollo and Artemis watching the Panathenaics parade. [photograph]

Fig 80 IES Son Ferrer(2018), A theoretical reconstruction od Parthenon¨s Pediments [Photograph].

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Fig 81 British Museum, (2015), Parthenon¨s East Pediment [photograph].

Fig 82 British Museum (2015) Panathenean Freeze [photograph] 29

Ionic85 Kellog archive, (1996), ionic chapitel [Photograph] Fig

Fig 83 Pinterest 2006), Greek decorative motives [Photograph].

Fig 83 Pinterest 2006), Greek decorative motives [Photograph].

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Fig 84 University of Pennsylvania Museum, (1996),Attic black amphora [photograph]

Fig 85 Kellog archive, (1996), ionic chapitel [Photograph] 30

“Meanders are common decorative elements in Greek and Roman art. In ancient Greece they appear in many architectural friezes, and in bands on the pottery of ancient Greece from the Geometric Period onwards. The design is common to the present-day in classicizing architecture.� (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) (Mendes, A. 1983, see Fig 89)

Fig 88 Jones, O (1910) The Grammar of ornament (Illustration]

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Fig 89 Anna Mendes (1993), Greek meander pattern and picture [Photograph].

Fig 90 Brunauer press (1907), Greek mouldings [Illustration].

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“Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117 CE), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. By 285 CE the empire had grown too vast to be ruled from the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar became the first emperor of Rome (31 BCE) and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (476 CE). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE.� (Mark, J.J. 2014)

After reading the Wikipedia article for Latin (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) we can say romans valued their language, Latin, as a tool for transmitting the Roman tradition and the unity of the Empire. Latin was the official language of government, literature and commerce, as well as the lingua franca for the soldiers of the entire empire, but it was never attempted to be imposed as an official language on the nations under Roman rule. Knowledge of Greek was also desirable among rulers and members of the ruling classes.

ROMAN ART Fig 94 ancient.eu (1998), Roman empire in 176 AC [Map]

Fig 91 Tataryn77, (2012), Caesar Tusculum [Illustration]

coinscoins [Photograph].

Fig 93 Dirty old coins, Roman (2008), old Roman

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Fig 92 Cartwright, (2013), Romulus Romulus and and RemoRemo [Photograph].

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Fig 96 Pinterest (2011), Rome infographics [Infograph].

Fig 95 Know the Romans, (2011), Ancient Rome Timeline [Infograph].

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ROMAN ARTS & CRAFTS Fig 97 Arraonaromana (1992), Roman jewelry [Photograph].

Fig. 99 Met Museum, Wallpainting fragment(2011), Wallpainting fragment [Photograph].

Saalburg roman shoe Fig. 103pale Phoenix Art, (2007), Roman pale blue glass amphora Roman blueAncient glass amphora [Photograph].

Fig. 100tableware Met Museum, (2011), Roman tableware [Photograph].

Roman

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/20.49.2-12/

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Fig.102 Jastrow, (2007), Portland vase, cameo Portland vase glass [Photograph].

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Roman_glass#/media/ File:Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.j pg

Fig. 101glassware Met Museum, (2011), Roman glassware [Photograph].

Roman

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/17.194.314/

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“Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Almost no substantial examples survive from before about 100 BC, and most of the major survivals are from the later empire, after about 100 AD. Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former empire for many centuries, and the style used in Western Europe beginning about 1000 is called Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms.

Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own.

The use of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. The Roman use of the arch and their improvements in the use of concrete and bricks along with the use of features such as domes, vaults, and arches facilitated liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional materials of stone.

Although the Romans developed and designed many of their own structures, their architects were heavily influenced by the Greek and Etruscan civilisations.�

(Wikipedia Contributors, 2019)

Fig.104 Unknown (n.d), Roman concrete [Photograph].

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Fig. 105 Tumblr (2010), Roman arch,materials and building methods [Photograph].

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There were many innovations that Roman art introduced into the world of architecture, but among all of them, the most characteristic were: Betting on monumentality, that is, each of its works seeks to be as great as possible, a way of indicating the power that the Roman people had over the entire world.

A utilitarian, practical and very functional architecture. This is why there was a great expansion of civil and military architecture.

It is also distinguished for being dynamic architecture through the use of some constructive elements such as the arch or the vault.

In the construction phase, it uses a vast range of materials, such as carved stone in ashlars, concrete, brick, wood... In order to give it a more attractive look, it was normal to cover it with marble to make it look much more luxurious.

Tuscan order is used, in addition to the Ionic and Corinthian, although the most eye-catching was the use of the stylish composite order.

Fig 108 Pinterest, (1962), Tuscan order [Photograph].

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Fig. 107 Pinterest, (1965), Composite order [Infograph]].

Fig. 106 Pinterest (1991), Classical orders comparison [Infograph].

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Fig 109 Szasz, I. (1999) Column and arch as fundamental elements [Illustration] Column and arch as fundamental elements

Fig 110 Szasz, I. (1999) Public architecture, arch and columns [Illustration] Public architecture, arch and columns

Fig 111 Szasz, I. (1999) Free decoration and organization [illustration] Free decoration and organization

“Roman concrete (opus caementicium), was developed early in the 2nd c. BCE. The use of mortar as a bonding agent in ashlar masonry wasn’t new in the ancient world; mortar was a combination of sand, lime and water in proper proportions. The major contribution the Romans made to the mortar recipe was the introduction of volcanic Italian sand (also known as “pozzolana”). The Roman builders who used pozzolana rather than ordinary sand noticed that their mortar was incredibly strong and durable. It also had the ability to set underwater. Brick and tile were commonly plastered over the concrete since it was not considered very pretty on its own, but concrete’s structural possibilities were far more important. The invention of opus caementicium initiated the Roman architectural revolution, allowing for builders to be much more creative with their designs. Since concrete takes the shape of the mold or frame it is poured into, buildings began to take on ever more fluid and creative shapes.” (Ambler, J.L, 2015) Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

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Large investments were allocated to the improvement of public services, to try to contain the effects of the enormous demographic pressure that the city endured. Aqueducts, public baths as Caracalla´s (Szåsz, 1999, see Fig 114 below) fountains, sewage systems, markets, and buildings dedicated to leisure were built, such as the Circus Maximus, the Coliseum and the theaters, where there was a continuous offer of shows to keep entertained those mass of population that lived without access to comforts enjoyed by the ruling classes.

http://www.oocities.org/gorlik/Pics/baths.gif

FigRoman 112 Szasz, I. (1999) Roman Coliseum [Illustration] Coliseum

Fig 113theater Szasz, (Vitrubius I. (1999) Roman theater (Vitrubius template) [Illustration] Roman template)

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Fig 114ofSzasz, I. (1999) Baths of Caracalla [Illustration] Baths Caracalla

Fig 115market Szasz, I. (1999) Trajan market [Illustration] Trajan

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“Coliseum The Coliseum ( Fig 112 Szasz, I. , 1999) had a staggering capacity of 50,000 people and was the largest amphitheatre throughout the ancient world. Built using concrete and stone it is arguably the most iconic symbol of Roman architecture. The amphitheatre was built for the purpose of holding gladiatorial games and other public events. The building was originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre as it was commissioned during the Flavian dynasty.

Construction of the Coliseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian in 72AD. The site was a flat area on the basin of a low valley basin between the Caelian, Esquiline and the Palatine Hills. In 79AD, the year of Vespasian's death, the Coliseum had been completed up to the third tier; the building was completed in 80AD by Titus, Vespasian's son.

In 217AD, the Coliseum was badly damaged by a major fire, which was caused by lightning, which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240AD and underwent further repairs in 250AD. The Coliseum itself was 189 meters (615ft) long, and 156 meters (510ft) wide. The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157ft) and the perimeter originally measured at 545 meters (1,788ft).

Roads The Roman road system was a vital part of Roman success; it allowed Rome's armies to move quickly around the Empire, for easier trade and better communication between provinces. During a millennium of Roman expansion over 400,000 kilometres of road were laid. During the height of the Empire there were 29 highways going in and out of Rome.

Roman roads were a military responsibility; as the empire expanded the army would build more and more roads to allow better access in and out of the new territories. The financing of roads was a responsibility of the Roman senate. However, the maintenance of the roads was left to the province itself.

THE PROCESS They would dig a ditch and dump large amounts of rubble, gravel and stone or whatever fills was available. If possible a layer of sand was put down, to fill all of the gaps in between stones. The surface was covered with gravel and compressed down, using a process called pavire. It could either be left like this or additional layers could be constructed. For example, flat stones may be placed on top, they would be rounded to allow the water to run off to the side of a road.

Bridges The Romans were extraordinary at building bridges, and some stand today! They were built using stone, concrete and had a fantastic structure. What's unique in how the Romans built bridges compared to civilisations before them is that they used arches in their construction.

Mining and Water Power The use of water and fire in mining was a massive step forward; it would be used to clear away soil, waste rock and to create and break open cracks in the rock. The Romans would have built multiple aqueducts to bring water to the various sites. The Romans not only used water for mining purposes but also for powering mills, sawmills and many other buildings.�

(Know the Romans, 2016)

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Fig 116 Another Header (2013) Acueduct of Segovia [photograph]

Fig 117 Aviewoncities (2019) Scale model of Circus Máximus [3d model]

“Aqueducts Roman aqueducts were constructed to allow a constant flow of water to be brought into Roman cities and towns.(Fig 118 Szasz, I., 1999) This water would supply the Roman baths, public toilets, fountains and private households.

Roman aqueducts were also built for agriculture and mining purposes. In mining they would collect large volumes of water and then release it to clear away soil and waste material in order to get to valuable commodities. Many springs were used to source Rome's water supply, most of these were located in the Anio Valley. By the third century AD there were eleven aqueducts flowing into Rome, which predominantly sourced the city's many public baths. Aqueducts were used throughout the Roman Empire and many of their remains can still be seen today. (Fig 116 Another Header ,2013) Aqueducts required a comprehensive system of regular maintenance to repair damage and clear them of gravel and other loose debris. During the later stages of the Roman Empire many of the aqueducts were destroyed by invading barbarian hordes in order to cut off a city's water supply before attacking.

Circus Maximus The Circus Maximus (Fig 117 Aviewoncities ,2019) was an ancient Roman chariot racing stadium and mass entertainment venue located in Rome; in between the Aventine and the Palatine hills. It was the largest stadium in the Roman Empire and could accommodate a massive 150,000 spectators. The arena itself was 621m (2,037ft) in length and 118m (387ft) in width.

The venue would be used for multiple events including; horse and chariot racing, religious ceremonies, athletics, plays and recitals, beast-hunts and gladiator contests etc.”

(Know the Romans, 2016)

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“Trajan's Column is a Roman memorial of triumph in Rome, Italy, which commemorates the victory of Emperor Trajan in the Dacian Wars.” (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019)

Fig 118 Szasz, I. (1999) Acueducts and bridges [Illustration]

Fig 119 Jebulon (2013) Arch of Titus [photograph]

“The Arch of Titus is a 1st century AD ceremonial arch, situated on Via Sacra, Rome, just south-east of the Roman Forum. It was built in c. AD 82 by Emperor Domitian soon after the death of his elderly brother.” (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) Fig 120 Gaspar Alves (2015), Trajan Column [photograph]

“Roman Forum, Latin Forum Romanum, most important forum in ancient Rome, situated on low ground between the Palatine and Capitoline hills. The Roman Forum was the scene of public meetings, law courts, and gladiatorial combats in republican times and was lined with shops and open-air markets. Under the empire, when it primarily became a centre for religious and secular spectacles and ceremonies, it was the site of many of the city’s most imposing temples and monuments.” (Sheetz, K., 2019) Fig 121 Digitales Forum Romanum (2018) Roman Forum [illustration]

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Fig 122 Szasz, I. (1999) Types of Roman Basilicae [illustration]

Fig 123 Szasz, I. (1999) Sanctuaries [Illustration]

Fig 124 Szasz, I. (1999) Temples [Illustration]

Basilicas were large rectangular buildings whose bottom was reserved for the court, separated from the public outdoor patio by a balustrade. The interior was divided into three parts by the use of two rows of columns. These buildings were intended for commercial transactions, administration of justice or any other action related to civil life. (Fig 122 Szasz, I. 1999) Roman temples plan took the Etruscan rectangular shape model, with a single entrance area stood on a podium. (Fig 124 Szasz, I. 1999) We can find also round plan shapes, like the Pantheon. (p. 43, Fig 125, Fig 126) Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

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pantheon of agrippa late republic 50-40 bc

Fig 125 Szasz, I. (1999) Pantheon [Illustration]

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Fig 126 @spartanwarrior on Twitter (2018) Pantheon´s Oculus [photograph] 43

The primitive Roman house has its origins in the Iron Age dwellings, which are oval or circular in shape, built of stone, trunks, branches and straw. Some archaeological remains are preserved (tugurium Faustulum and Romuli house in Palatino, temple of Vesta in the forum) and descriptions of classical authors.

In the origins of Roman housing, the Etruscan hut seems to be closer to the image we have of the domus. Rectangular shape appears here, with an opening in the ceiling, precursor of the compluvium and impluvium of the atrium, where the family life is developed and where the space is distributed in different rooms.

The particular Roman house where a single family lives and which generally has only one floor, is called domus. Pompeii and Herculaneum offer remarkable examples of this type of housing, so it is also known as the "Pompeian type".

Lockey (2000) argues that, in the beginning, the domus was a dwelling in which each room had its specific use: the cubicle functioned as a bedroom, the triclinium as a dining room and the tablinum as a visiting room. They were both simple and cheap. A well-preserved example is Livia's house in the Palatinate. However, after the Punic Wars a trend emerged in wealthy families to use Hellenic style to extend them by adding other parts to the atrium, kitchen, alae, lararium and tablinum, whose names indicate their Greek origin, such as peristilo, triclinium, oecus, exedra, nimphaeum, bibliotheca... These houses are far comfortable, roomy, stylish, airy and sunny.

Plans are not homogeneous because they meet the needs, tastes and peculiarities of the region. (See pag 45, Fig. 127, pag. 46 Figs. 131 & 132) The insulae were born due to the strong demographic pressure on Roman cities, particularly in Rome and “ housed the lower echelons of society in hazardous and overcrowded conditions.” (Lockey, 2009) They began to be erected in the third century BC but they multiplied in the period of the Republic crisis and the rise of the Empire, when a large migration to the capital took place. ( See pag 45. Fig 128)

“The insulae were blocks of three, four or five floors that grew in height and internal compartmentation over time, causing smaller and smaller rooms, complicating access and leading to endless external staircases. It was not uncommon to have to pass through other apartments to get to your own. The openings were not glazed, so they had to be closed in several ways. They were refrigerators in the winter and ovens in the summer. There was no water supply or sanitation facilities at all, so if you needed water, go to the fountain, and if you had garbage or droppings, throw them out the window. Interior furnishings were basic and modest (with some colour in the walls), as were furniture and household items. Unlike domus, they were an unpleasant, unhealthy, dark and restricted place. These factors led the humble Romans to stay on the street most of the day and their leaders were "forced" to sponsor civil works projects in order to retain their support and prevent the population from rising up.” (Monteagut, 2015)

.

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Roman dwellings: Domus, insulae, villa and palace

Fig 127 Szasz, I. (1999) Atrium House [Illustration]

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FigInsulae 128 Szasz, I. (1999) insula [Illustration]

Fig 129 Szasz, I. (1999) Villa [Illustration] Villa

FigPalace 130 Szasz, I. (1999) Palace [Illustration] 45

Fig 131 The Culture Concept (2018) Roman Villa [Illustration]

Fig 132 pbs.twimg.com (2018) Roman villa [Illustration]

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marcus vitruvius pollion Commonly known as Vitruvius,

“Vitruvius was a Roman author, architect, civil engineer and military engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled "De architectura". His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing by Leonardo da Vinci of Vitruvian Man. He was also the one who, in 40 BCE, invented the idea that all buildings should have three atributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas, meaning: strength, utility, and beauty. These principles were later adopted by the Romans.

Fig 133 Vida Urbana (2016) Vitruvius portrait [Sculpture]

In recent years there has been a certain controversial about this figure. Spanish architect Carlos Sanchez-Montaña states that Vitruvio and Agrippa are the same person, since there are no records of the architectural work of Vitruvio, but on the other hand we find the work of Agrippa analyzed in great detail in the writings of Vitruvio. "It is not possible to imagine how, during the " Prodigious Decade " of the twenties of the first century B.C., two architects so outstanding as Vitruvius and Agrippa, in the very city of Rome and under Augustus' auspices, could not coincide, and while one wrote the best and most complete treatise on classical architecture, the other designed and executed the greatest building and urban planning works in the Roman world.“ (Sanchez-Montaña, C. 2005)

Vitruvius is famous for asserting in his book De architectura that a structure must exhibit the three qualities of firmitatis, utilitatis, venustatis – that is, stability, utility, beauty. These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or the Vitruvian Triad. According to Vitruvius, architecture is an imitation of nature. As birds and bees built their nests, so humans constructed housing from natural materials, that gave them shelter against the elements. When perfecting this art of building, the Greeks invented the architectural orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. It gave them a sense of proportion, culminating in understanding the proportions of the greatest work of art: the human body. This led Vitruvius in defining his Vitruvian Man, as drawn later by Leonardo da Vinci: the human body inscribed in the circle and the square (the fundamental geometric patterns of the cosmic order). In this book series, Vitruvius, also wrote about climate in relation to housing architecture and how to choose locations for cities.” (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) The acknowledged Vitruvian architectural work is: The Fanun Basilica and a Triumphal Arch dedicated to Augustus. He developed the quinarium module, extensively used in the construction of aqueducts, designed war machinery and many monuments.

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Fig 134 Marco Vitruvius Polion, (2011), De architectura [Illustration].

Rome was a very visual society. With a large population of illiterate and unable to speak Latin circulating among the elite population, the visual arts function as a kind of access to mass literature, which confirms the ideologies and the diffusion of the image of personalities. eminent. In this context, sculpture enjoys a privileged position, occupying all public and private spaces and filling cities with innumerable examples of different techniques.

Sculpture: Main characteristics Utility. It has a narrative, descriptive or commemorative function.

More than as art, it is understood as a type of craftsmanship that is responsible for making certain types of pieces to fulfill a function.

Roman sculpture as a means of exaltation of the leader: it shows energy and movement to show the power of the generals and emperors.

Anonymous and extremely naturalistic work.

Portray common themes trying to achieve excellence in model identification.

Although most of the works are statues and sculpted monuments, we should also note the relieving of Roman columns and work on larger buildings where the story of military campaigns was told.

Fig 135 Encicloarte, (2005), Marco Aurelius [Sculpture]

Fig 137 Chris O. (2014), Calydonian hunt [Sculpture].

Fig 136 Encicloarte, (2005), Augustus [Sculpture]

Calydonian Hunt scene

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According to Ian Lockey´s conclussions, in his Essay "Roman housing" ( Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000) A decisive influence on Greek art will be made on Roman pictures, since the Greek works were removed from the walls and brought to Rome during the time of Caesar. This is one of the factors why Greek wall pictures are scarcely maintained. Like other arts, the practical aim of painting in Rome was to decorate buildings and mansions. The position of the artist was that of a craftsman, although those paintings on board were more famous.

The mural was painted using fresco techniques, although it is argued that sometimes mixed techniques have been used. The painting techniques on board used tempera and encaustic. The color range was wide as we added a few more colors in the Greek and Egyptian world. Black, white, red, and yellow, but green, blue, and purple are sometimes used as well. Mixed with water and sometimes glue, they are applied. From the paintings preserved in Pompeii, Roman painting is categorized into four 19th century styles.

Thanks to all these findings, after the excavation of mosaics and Roman paintings, several different styles have been acknowledged. The first style, known as the "incorporation style," dates from 150 BC to 90 BC. The imitation of marble blocks and other wealthy material is characteristic of this style, which gives you the feeling of fortune and allure. In addition, there are other ornamental motifs, such as capitals and arches. The second style, called "architectural style", is around 90-25 BC. Approximately, coinciding with the foundation of the city of Pompeii. It is characterised not only by the imitation of the architectural structure, but also by the search for greater depth and perspective, which gives the impression that the rooms are more spacious. In addition, they represented false windows painted with a background landscape.The third style, called "decorated style," is between 25 ° C and 40 ° C. approximately. It is characterized by a less detailed representation, all without perspective, of architectural details. It's a less realistic and more fantastic style, where the murals are divided by adjoining columns and refined (painted in an unrealistic way) with mythological themes. Colors are more intense and more often include animal elements, plants and objects such as chandeliers and other details. The fourth style, called "complex style" or "illusionist style," has been developed since 40 A.D. originally. The combination of the third and the second characterizes this style. It features mythological and historical scenes with excellent ornamental weight and increasing significance to the landscape, incorporating components such as curtains and curtains. The sensation it offers is as a fantasy which is unreal and ornamented, where the protagonists are often depicted with masks, ribbons and garlands. There is also a style called "Pompeian style" where beauty, style, grace, delicacy and fantasy of design predominate. The vegetable figures are stylized and, thanks to the use of bright and bright colors, reflects the turbulent, elegant, frivolous and voluptuous spirit that represented the spirit of society.

The floors were also decorated, often with marble (opus sectile) or tiles. Mosaics can be quite easy, displaying geometric forms, or extremely elaborate with complex graphic scenes. Mosaics produced in North Africa and Syria have made hunting scenes popular. Other themes typified in these mosaics are the pictures of philosophers, a broad range of animal or rural scenes, or scenes of deity and myth. Many of these mosaics were a combination of easy geometric shapes and figurative scenes, much like the instance of a museum depicting a lady with garlands surrounded by geometric shapes.

The decor of the mosaic was not confined to the floors of the Roman houses. Ceiling and wall mosaics, often made of glass, were sometimes used, mostly between columns or in vaulted niches. The most popular ceiling ornaments were stucco moldings and painted boards. The stucco panels represented architectural motifs or molded relief scenes and clad ceilings, in particular the vaulted ones. These Stucco panels can also be used as a decorative element beside top part of the walls. The painted panels and stucco decoration were the final part of an interrelated decorative scheme, encompassing the floor, walls, and ceiling. Archaeological remains show that similar colors frequently were used at least on the wall and ceiling panels to create a common aesthetic. (Lockey, I. ,2000)

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roman Cubiculum (bedroom) from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale late republic 50-40 bc

Fig 138 Met Museum, (2011), Cubiculum (bedroom) from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale [Photograph]

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Fig 139 Design Inspiration (2009), Herculaneum murals [Paintings].

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pompeii and herculaneum frescos late republic +-100 bc

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Roman mosaic Opus vermiculatum Opus sectile Opus tessallatum Opus musivum Opus sectile Opus scutulatum Fig 140 Wikimedia Commons (2008), Roman mosaics [Photograph]

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Fig 141 Met Museum, (2010), Marble and bronze table,1st century A.D. [Photograph].

Fig 143 Met Museum (2010)Couch and footstool with bone carvings and glass inlays, [photograph] Fig 142 sabelotodo.org (2010), Silla curul [Photograph].

Fig 144 The Culture Concept (2010), Tripod Brazier [Photograph]

The Romans of high status incorporated bronze into beds and tripods, while the popular classes took advantage of the wicker. The most well-known GrecoRoman furniture are those of a seat: scissor chair (eg dolls), chair with divergent legs (eg klismos), wickertype armchairs, etc. The Romans also had a specific type of seating furniture: the bisellium, advanced by a footstool where the feet rest. It offered a stately image of the master of the house. The lavish Roman marble tables were called cartibulum and rested on trapezophores of virtuous stature that recreated lion heads. The light bronze tables, the tripods, also had zoomorphic legs. Until the end of the Middle Ages there will be no lockers. The things were kept in coffers or chests of flat or curved cover (trunks).

(Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

Fig 145 Reenciso, (2011), Bench and Tricliniums [Photograph]

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