Arte Sacra: Roman Catholic Art from Portuguese India

Roman Catholic Art from Portuguese India

Arte Sacra Roman Catholic Art from Portuguese India

Arte Sacra

Robert J. Del Bontà

Robert J. Del Bontà

New Orleans Museum of Art

Arte Sacra Roman Catholic Art from Portuguese India

Robert J. Del Bontà

FRONT COVER

INSIDE FRONT COVER

Detail, Saint John de Britto 18th –19th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 43 in.

Angel 18th –19th century Wood, paint, and gilt 30 x 12 x 15 in.

BACK COVER

Madonna and Child 17th –18th century Ivory, h. 4 ¾ in.

INSIDE BACK COVER

Angel 18th –19tth century Wood, paint, and gilt 28 x 8 x 14 in.

This catalog has been published in conjunction with the exhibition Arte Sacra: Roman Catholic Art from Portuguese India. © 2021 New Orleans Museum of Art ISBN 978-0-89494-128-3 EXHIBITION CURATOR Lisa Rotondo-McCord PUBLISHER New Orleans Museum of Art GRAPHIC DESIGNER Mary Degnan COPY EDITOR David Johnson PHOTOGRAPHY Sesthasak Boonchai PRINTER Pel Hughes Printing, New Orleans, Louisiana

Table of Contents Director’s Foreword | Susan M. Taylor................................................................ 5 Preface | Robert J. Del Bontà............................................................................... 6 Indo-Portuguese Art from the Bhansali Collection | Robert J. Del Bontà............ 8 Endnotes.............................................................................................................. 39 Resources and References................................................................................... 42

Saint Francis of Assisi 17th century Ivory, h. 6 in.

Director’s Foreword Shortly after my arrival in New Orleans over a decade ago, it was with surprise and delight that I encountered the remarkable collection of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, a New Orleanian who not only has a world-class collection of Jain bronzes, but also a highly engaging and less well-known collection of small ivories and larger-scale wooden sculptures that once adorned the homes of the Catholic faithful and the interiors of churches in what was once called Portuguese India.

This catalog and the exhibition it accompanies are the first scholarly review of this collection.

The majority of works were acquired in London more than fifty years ago, and in the subsequent decades have served to decorate Bhansali’s homes in New Orleans and Mississippi.

Although a Jain himself, Bhansali found resonance and beauty in these works, created for the promotion of a belief system far different from his own.

We are grateful to independent scholar Dr. Robert J. Del Bontà for his work on the collection.

Consolidating existing scholarship with new research, Del Bontà has provided context for the creation of these works and their iconography, as well as providing parallels with Hindu religious practices, the faith tradition of most of the objects’ creators.

The complexities of presenting art created during a colonial era are many. The absence of artists’ names and individual identities is not unusual in the realm of ecclesiastical art nor in any art created during occupation by a colonial power. Similarly, the original context for the works has been lost, as many of the churches built during the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries have been closed or otherwise lost to time. The small ivories, by their nature, were portable devotional objects, and many have moved over time to locations far from the site of their creation.

NOMA’s talented exhibitions and publications team have ensured the success of the exhibition and catalog. Jennifer Ickes, Head Registrar, has ably led the team of art handlers and registrars; Roman Alokhin and Sesthasak Boonchai created the beautiful images; and Mary Degnan and David Johnson ensured the catalog design and editing were flawless. My thanks, in particular, extend to Lisa Rotondo-McCord, Deputy Director for Curatorial Affairs, for proposing this project. The success of this undertaking is due to her thoughtful interpretation and presentation of the material with a sure curatorial hand guiding it from concept to completion. Her determination to present it to our public in a thorough, contextual manner has ensured a beautiful, engaging outcome.

Of course, my greatest thanks is to Sid Bhansali, without whose prescient collecting and generosity in sharing his collections with the public, this project would not have been possible.

Susan M. Taylor The Montine McDaniel Director, New Orleans Museum of Art 5

Preface Arte Sacra: Roman Catholic Art from Portuguese India is an exhibition and publication project aimed at introducing this seldom-recognized and little understood material to a broader public. This catalog illustrates a selection of work from the collection of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, including sculptures of various sizes, materials, and iconographies representing saints, angels, and the Holy Family (Jesus, Mary, and Joseph). These works of art provide a lens through which to briefly explore the history of Christianity in India, as well as the material legacy of the evangelization efforts that went hand-in-hand with the Portuguese colonialist enterprise in the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries. When possible, the subjects of the sculptures have been identified and their significance in Portuguese India provided. Unfortunately, the names of the artists who created these works have been lost, as have their original locations. Also unknown, with one possible exception (Plate 6), are the names of those who commissioned them.

Only relatively recently has the study of Roman Catholic art from Portuguese India become the purview of specialist scholars, many of whom have focused on devotional sculptures carved from ivory, and their embodiment of cross-cultural influences.1 Much of this material may be found in the collections of institutions dedicated to the arts of the Iberian colonial empires, such as the Museu de Arte Sacra de São Paulo and the Museu Histórico Nacional in Rio de Janeiro, both in Brazil, the Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian in Lisbon, Portugal, and The Museum of Christian Art at Velha Goa (Old Goa) in India.2 In 2020, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (formerly the Prince of Wales Museum) in Mumbai displayed Indo-Portuguese material from their collection for the first time.3 Similarly, museums in both the U.S. and abroad have begun to embrace this complex and at times problematic material, recognizing its significance and importance to a broader, more global approach to art history.

Exhibitions such as those at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in 2013, and at the Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide, in 2016 have included similar works in their presentation of Iberian colonial art.4 Museums in the U.S. are beginning to bring these works into their permanent collections, as can be seen in a recent gift of ivories to the Minneapolis Institute of Art in 2019.5 It is hoped that this publication, and the exhibition it accompanies, will spur further study and engagement with this material, and open new avenues of discovery for the general visitor and scholar alike.

6

The Immaculate Conception 18th –19th century Ivory, h. 7 ¼ in.

7

Indo-Portuguese Art from the Bhansali Collection Early Christianity in India According to tradition, Saint Thomas the Apostle traveled to the Indian subcontinent and spread the new faith there during the first century of the Common Era (Plate 1). Although no textual or archaeological evidence survives of the apostle’s journey, it is clear that Christianity has a long history in India, and that the group referred to first as Syrian Christians and later as Saint Thomas Christians arose from early evangelization efforts.

Saint Thomas Christians believe that Thomas arrived in 52 CE in Cranganore (Kodungallur) in Kerala, and that he was martyred at Mylapore (modern day Chennai) in 72 CE. Today, there are still Saint Thomas Christian communities along the west coast of India (the Malabar Coast) that practice the older religion. Their churches tend to have no statues, in accordance with early Christian and Judaic traditions.

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The arrival of European missionaries in the sixteenth century and the establishment of Goa as the administrative and religious center for the Portuguese colonial empire brought a different kind of Christianity to India, one informed by the CounterReformation. Art, too, had a new role. Missionaries, some of them trained artists, others carrying with them prints and other works of ecclesiastical art, introduced local populations to the Baroque style, then prevalent in Europe. The painting, sculpture, architecture, and other arts created in this style were intended to dramatically and clearly communicate the teachings of the Church. These newly arrived Europeans sought to establish links to Christianity’s earlier history in India, and images of Saint Thomas the Apostle became quite popular (Plate 1).6

PLATE 1

Saint Thomas the Apostle 17th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 34 in.

Vasco da Gama and the Portuguese The Portuguese explorer and navigator Vasco da Gama (1460 –1524) arrived in Calicut (now Kohzikonde) in Kerala in 1498, changing the course of Indian and European history (Figure 1).

Da Gama’s successful circumnavigation was the first step in the Portuguese effort to wrest control of the lucrative spice trade from Muslim traders, and led, ultimately, to the creation of a monopoly on these commodities that lasted until the end of the century. Da Gama’s fleet left Lisbon in 1497 and rounded the tip of Africa hugging that continent’s east coast, until they reached Malindi in what is now Kenya (Figure 2).

FIGURE 1 Vasco da Gama at Cananor

Liebig trade card, 1939

FIGURE 2 Vasco da Gama’s first voyage

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After obtaining a pilot, likely a Hindu merchant, from the sultan of that city, he arrived in Kerala on the Malabar Coast ten months after leaving Portugal. Da Gama’s meeting with the Zamorin (ruler) of Calicut has been the subject of many paintings and engravings (Figure 3).

Based on stories that had circulated in Europe, including the Venetian Marco Polo’s report of Saint Thomas’s tomb on the eastern Coromandel Coast, da Gama expected to find Christian communities in India.

Unfamiliar with Indian religions, da Gama mistook a Hindu temple for a Christian church, and reported this as evidence of a Christian population.7 Later Portuguese missionaries discovered his error.

Shortly after da Gama’s voyage, Francisco de Almeida (1450–1510) was appointed the first Portuguese viceroy of the State of India (Estado da India). He created a series of fortresses along the entire edge of the Indian Ocean that facilitated Portuguese trade and marked the end of Arabian dominance in exporting spices to Europe. The extension of Portuguese holdings in Asia eventually led to the establishment of commercial ports farther east such as Macau (Macao, established in 1557), situated at the eastern side of the entrance to the Pearl River opposite Hong Kong (only ceded to the British in 1842).

FIGURE 3

Vasco da Gama meets the Zamorin From: Moore, A New and Complete Collection of Voyages and Travels, 1778

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Even more important for the history of the Portuguese colonial empire was Afonso (also called Alfonzo) de Albuquerque (1453 –1515) (Figure 4). He made his first expedition to Kerala in 1503 and helped establish the king of Cochin (Kochi) securely on his throne.

The king in turn gave permission to Albuquerque to build a fort there. After a number of voyages and exploits in the Indian Ocean, Albuquerque replaced de Almeida as governor of the Portuguese holdings in India. In 1510 he failed in an attempt to take Calicut, but succeeded in taking Goa, a city then ruled by the Muslim Bijapur Sultanate that had earlier been a port for Hindu dynasties (Figure 5). Albuquerque established the city as a permanent base for sheltering troops, merchants, and the growing missionary

FIGURE 4

Afonso de Albuquerque, from: Vrais pourtraits et vies des hommes illustres, Andre Thevet (1502 –1590), Paris, July 4, 1584

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FIGURE 5

Map of Goa, Linschoten, Itinerario, 1596

presence. It later became the main seat of the Catholic Church, directing activities that stretched eastward as far as Japan. At Goa, churches were built and a mint and hospital established. The Portuguese ruled their eastern colonial empire from Goa and its environs up until the modern period. The city itself was not a healthy environment and after being ravaged by malaria and cholera, the capital was moved, first to Mormugão (now Marmagao) and then in 1759 to Panaji, formerly Panjim, closer to the coast.

Between 1695 and 1775 the population of the old city of Goa dwindled from 20,000 to 1,600; essentially only priests, monks, and nuns remained. The old city, now known as Velha Goa (Old Goa), consists almost solely of religious buildings. Goa did not become part of modern India, which was created in 1947, until India invaded the territory in 1961. Along with the Portuguese dominions of Daman and Diu farther up the coast, it formed a union territory, but separately became India’s twenty-fifth state in 1987.

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Saint Francis Xavier and the Early Missions During the sixteenth century, virtually all religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church who evangelized Asia established their headquarters in Velha Goa (Figure 5); not surprisingly, the works of art produced for their buildings often featured the founders and key saints of these orders. The Franciscans were the first order to arrive, in 1517. Their founder, Saint Francis of Assisi (1181/82–1226, canonized 1228), is presented in a small ivory carving wearing his order’s typical habit with a hooded robe and knotted cord around his waist (Plate 2).

Arriving in 1542, Francis Xavier, known as the Apostle of the Indies, became the most important missionary figure in the region (Plate 3).8 A founding member of the Society of Jesus (also known as the Jesuits), Francis and others members of the order quickly mobilized to spread Christianity throughout Asia. A sculpture in the Bhansali Collection depicts him standing in an authoritative pose, pointing to a Tamil translation of a verse from the Gospel of Matthew, chapter 16, verse 26 (also Mark 8:36): What does it profit a man who acquires the whole world, but loses his soul?

What price would he pay to redeem his soul?

This work illustrates the strategies by which Francis Xavier, his fellow Jesuits, and other early missionary orders prioritized the acquisition of local languages in their evangelization efforts. Essential to the success of the missionary enterprise was the ability of the missionaries to preach in local languages (often more than one), and access to translations of the Christian Bible.

Francis did not make Velha Goa his permanent base, but continued his evangelical efforts in southern India and Ceylon before traveling eastward in 1545, becoming the first Christian missionary to visit Japan. Intending to evangelize in China, Francis Xavier died of fever off its coast in 1552. Shortly thereafter, his body was taken back to Goa where it lies in an elaborate tomb in the Jesuit mother church, the Basilica of Bom Jesu. He was beatified and canonized quite quickly, becoming a saint in 1622. Locally significant figures, such as Francis, were venerated well before official beatification or canonization. There are many other sculptures of the saint throughout Portuguese India.

PLATE 2

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Saint Francis of Assisi 17th century Ivory, h. 6 in.

PLATE 3

Saint Francis Xavier 18th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 44 in.

15

The founder of the Dominicans, the Spanish Saint Dominic (1170–1221, canonized in 1234), is presented here in the easily identifiable habit of the order: a black cape and white robe (Plate 4). The Dominicans started building their monastery at Velha Goa in 1550. Illustrating their calling as the “Order of Preachers,” Dominic is shown in a naturalistic pose, caught midsermon, the Bible in one hand. The base is decorated with garlands and flowers.

PLATE 4

Saint Dominic 18th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 25 in.

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Each of the missionary orders built churches, schools, monasteries, and convents in Goa, some of which were elaborately decorated. A few of the early missionaries were artists themselves, others brought with them examples of European art for local artists to copy. Soon, the missionaries began to commission Indian craftsmen to create art for their ecclesiastical structures.

Indian artists first based their work on European prototypes, however, they quickly created original artworks that rivaled the realism of the Baroque style of Spain and Portugal, such as those seen in the Bhansali Collection. In addition to decorating newly established mission buildings, much of the art produced was for the homes of the newly converted. These converts, primarily from the Hindu population, would have been accustomed to having images of their gods in domestic shrines, thus the new Catholic art easily took its place in Indian homes. The dressing of sculpted images in elaborate textiles, jewelry, and flowers was also practiced in the Hindu tradition, as well as in the Iberian Catholic environment.

The furniture, religious sculpture and painting, and small-scale devotional objects created by Indian artists also became part of the larger trade with Europe.9 Many of the smaller works were made of highly valued ivory, which itself had been imported into India from the Portuguese colonies in Africa. African ivory was preferred by Indian artists, as it was less brittle and they could achieve greater detail in their work.10 Goa also served as a transfer point for the exportation of unworked African ivory; this raw material was sent to Portugal and its colonies, and transformed by local artists into works of art.11 Carved ivory sculptures recovered from the 1615 wreck of the Nossa Senhora de Luz, which sunk in the Azores on its way from Goa to Portugal, testify to the volume of this trade.12 A relatively small wooden sculpture, here identified as Saint Peter (Plate 5), illustrates the problem of identifying works taken out of their original context. Attired in a green tunic and red cloak, each decorated with gold florets in an Indian style, the figure lacks specific iconography or inscription.

Missing his right hand, his left clutches a book to his chest. As with the figures of Saint Francis Xavier and Saint Dominic on pages 15 and 16, the stance suggests that he is preaching. Due to its similarity to a work in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (CSMVS, formerly the Prince of Wales Museum) in Mumbai that has been identified as Saint Peter, the work is here given that identification as well.13

PLATE 5

Standing Figure, possibly Saint Peter 18th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 23 in.

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A standing saint (Plate 6) has little in the way of iconography to identify the figure.

It does, however have an inscription at the base, naming the donor, “the beggar Thomas,” likely referring to the individual who commissioned the statue. The Tamil word for “beggar” was used as a religious title suggesting his humble status as a devotee. Dressed similarly to the figure of Peter, his tunic has a loose neckline and the artist has naturalistically handled the flow of the drapery. Standing bolt upright, his right hand is lifted in a blessing and his left gathers his cloak, decorated with silver starbursts, to his waist.

PLATE 6

Standing Saint 18th –19th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 37 in.

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As noted above, missionary activities were not confined to Velha Goa, and the various orders established bases at a number of locations in India. In the early seventeenth century, Francesco Ricci (d. 1606) and Manoel da Veiga established a Jesuit mission at Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Later in the century, the Portuguese Jesuit missionary, John de Britto (1647–1693) (Plate 7) continued the missionary work at Madurai, building upon the work of Ricci, Veiga, and Roberto de Nobili (1577–1656) (Figure 6).

De Nobili arrived in Goa in 1605 and quickly transferred to Madurai, where he adopted many Hindu practices that he felt were compatible with Catholic teachings. While many of the Portuguese Jesuits approached their missionary activity with an adherence to a strict interpretation of the faith in the manner of the Inquisition, others, like de Nobili and later, de Britto, followed the lead of Matteo Ricci, an Italian missionary to China who advocated for the adaptation and accommodation of local traditions to facilitate conversion of the elite classes.14

FIGURE 6

Roberto de Nobili dressed as a sannyasi from Alfred Hamy, Galerie illustrée de la Compagnie de Jésus, 1893

Like de Nobili, de Britto adopted the dress of a sannyasi, or Hindu holy man, and wore a thread made up of three strands signifying the Trinity akin to the sacred thread worn by Brahmans.

He also adopted other aspects of Hindu culture, including strict vegetarianism. De Britto learned the languages of the populace, took on the titles of a Brahman priest, and dressed according to local custom. Among his converts was a local ruler who had a number of wives. De Britto convinced him to renounce all but one, sending the others back to their families. One of the rejected wives was the daughter of another local ruler and her father had de Britto beheaded.

PLATE 7 Saint John de Britto 18th –19th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 43 in.

In this sculpture, de Britto is depicted holding the scimitar that killed him in one hand, and a palm frond, symbolic of martyrdom, in the other.

Although not canonized until the mid-twentieth century, the site of his martyrdom became a pilgrimage site shortly after his death, and de Britto became a figure of local veneration.15 19

The Holy Family The Virgin Mary The largest group of sculptures in the Bhansali Collection represents the Holy Family: Christ, the Virgin Mary, and Saint Joseph. The Virgin was particularly popular, both as an independent figure or holding the Christ Child. India was fertile ground for the introduction of the Church’s expansive iconography, particularly among a Hindu population accustomed to a rich constellation of goddesses: some are nurturing, while others have to be propitiated so that they do not inflict disease and other calamities. The concept of the nurturing Mother Goddess is an ancient one in India, found in Buddhism and Jainism as well as Hinduism. The image of the Christian mother and child had many parallels in traditional Indian faith traditions.

PLATE 8

Madonna and Child 17th–18th century Ivory, h. 4 ¾ in.

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A small exquisitely carved ivory Madonna and Child is one of the highlights of the Bhansali Collection (Plate 8).16 The artist skillfully articulated the folds of the dress and cloak that billows around Mary’s right arm. This Christ child is convincingly perched on her hand, and the beading at the edge of the cloak is delicately detailed. Faces of bodiless angels peer out from a billowing cloud upon which the figure stands.

A painted wooden sculpture bearing the inscription N. S. DO ROSARIO, for Nossa Senhora do Rosario, Our Lady of the Rosary (Plate 9), presents a popular incarnation of the Virgin.

This particular imagery and name for the Virgin references the sixteenth century victory of European forces over the Ottoman navy, a success attributed to the intercession of the Virgin, and the recitation of the rosary by the faithful throughout Europe.

She stands on a globe pierced by a crescent moon, appearing almost as horns at either side. Beneath this, the faces of winged angels gaze out at the viewer. The artist was either copying a European model—an engraving, painting, or sculpture—or following an earlier Indian work based on European prototypes. It is only in small details, like the patterns painted on the garments, and the slightly awkward positioning of the Christ child in the arms of the Virgin, that indicate the hand of an Indian artist.

PLATE 9

Our Lady of the Rosary 17th–18th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 36 in.

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PLATE 11

The Immaculate Conception 18th–19th century Ivory, h. 7 ¼ in.

Another representation of the Virgin and Child in the collection depicts Mary in a more static pose, attired in elaborate European-style robes. Her blue cloak is decorated with gilded stars and she wears it over her head in an Indian fashion (Plate 10). The Christ child, held in his mother’s embrace, appears to be teaching, his right hand lifted in exhortation, his left holding a book.

PLATE 10

Madonna and Child 18th–19th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 36 ½ in.

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Portrayals of the Virgin also can be directly associated with a specific narrative or theological concept. A particularly prevalent representation in the Bhansali Collection is that of Mary in the guise of the Immaculate Conception (Plates 11–14). This doctrine, that Mary was free from sin from the moment of her conception, had been debated since the Middle Ages, and declared as dogma by Pope Pius IX in 1854. Much earlier, however, in 1646, the Portuguese king João IV declared this form of the Virgin as the patroness of Portugal, making her image particularly popular in Portugal and throughout the Portuguese colonial empire from the mid-seventeenth century onward.

The iconography, followed to this day, was developed by the Portuguese artist Francesco Pacheco (1564 –1644) shortly after the king’s declaration.

The basis for this iconography is a passage in Revelation 12:1: And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars.

PLATE 12

The Immaculate Conception 18th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 47 in.

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This iconography also has conceptual connections to the New Eve, Virgin of the Apocalypse, or Woman Clothed in the Sun. It appeared fairly consistently throughout the global Iberian empire, and can be seen in a Cuzco-style painting from Peru in the collection of the New Orleans Museum of Art (Figure 7), as well as in a small ivory from Sri Lanka (Figure 8) in the collection of The Walters Art Museum.17 In each, Mary stands atop the crescent moon, her hands pressed together in prayer. In the Cuzco painting, angels float above her, holding a crown. In the ivory, the crown rests upon her head. Each also displays regional variation. In the painting, both Mary’s gown and robe are patterned with stamped gold-leaf designs. In the ivory, the Virgin’s robe drapes naturally, almost suggesting a cross between a European costume and an Indian sari with the material draped over the figure’s left shoulder.

FIGURE 7

Cuzco School, Peru, Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, late 17th century Mixed media over silver leaf on linen, framed dimensions 81¼ x 54 ¾ in.

New Orleans Museum of Art: Museum purchase and gift of Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Q. Davis and the Stern Fund, 74.265

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Most Indian ivories of the Immaculate Conception, including those in the Bhansali Collection, do not include the crown (Plates 11–14). An exquisitely carved example (Plate 11) shows the Virgin standing in an unbending pose, her hands pressed together in prayer.

Her elegantly curled hair falls upon the elaborately patterned collar of the dress.

The tips of the crescent moon are visible at either side of her feet. Rather than standing upon a cloud with angels’ faces, as in the case of Our Lady of the Rosary, described previously, here the figure stands upon a plinth, decorated with acanthus leaves, a typically Goanese variation. Also typical of ivories carved in Goa are the small circles dotting the edge of Mary’s garment.

A gilded wooden sculpture (Plate 12) also represents the Immaculate Conception, in much grander scale. Likely intended for a church interior, Mary stands upon the crescent moon above a globe base, decorated with the face of an angel.

Notable for the dramatic treatment of the Virgin’s cloak, the garment extends far out from her body, both embracing and framing the Virgin.

FIGURE 8

Sri Lankan artist, Virgin of the Immaculate Conception, ca. 1690–1710 Ivory, carved, gilded, and painted, h. 10 ⅛ in., The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, MD, 71.341

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PLATE 13

PLATE 14

The Immaculate Conception 18th century Wood, ivory, paint, and gilt, h. 10 in.

The Immaculate Conception 19th century Ivory, h. 4 in.

A unique example within the Bhansali Collection is a version of the Immaculate Conception of both wood and ivory (Plate 13). The face of the Virgin is carved from ivory while the remainder of the sculpture is made of wood. The folds of her gown and the cloak gathered in her arms are deeply and dramatically carved, creating a distinctive outline to the whole.

Likely the most recent representation of the Immaculate Conception is this small ivory (Plate 14). Here, a young, lithe Mary stands upon a simple, unadorned base— no angels or clouds present, and only a hint of the crescent moon at the base.

Her attire, closely resembling a sari, clings to her slender body.

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Saint Joseph The Virgin is not the only figure depicted holding the Christ child. Also encountered are images of the Christ child being held by his step-father, Saint Joseph (Plates 15 –16).

In two works in the Bhansali Collection, each essentially following the same conventions, a standing Joseph holds the infant in one hand, the other hand now empty, but likely originally holding a staff. (The addition of elements made from other media— silver, wood, or textiles — was common in the art of the Iberian Peninsula as well as in India.)

PLATE 15

PLATE 16

Saint Joseph and the Christ Child 18th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 55 in.

Saint Joseph and the Christ Child 18th –19th century Wood, paint, and gilt, h. 42 ½ in.

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Jesus Christ A reclining figure of the sleeping Christ child was probably created as part of a larger grouping of sculptures, possibly for an elaborate crèche setting at Christmas time (Plate 17). The pose appears natural and the fleshy body has a great deal of appeal. The representation of Christ as a sleeping child can be compared to depictions of the popular Hindu god Krishna as a child.18 A devotee of Krishna often establishes a personal, loving relation with the god. In South India, parental love is a major focus in the worship of this deity, and devotees view Krishna as their child. In the North, the preferred image for worship is the adolescent, or mature Krishna, viewed as a lover. Both link the soul with the god, but in quite different ways.

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PLATE 17

PLATE 18

The Christ Child 17th–18th century Wood, 11½ x 3 ½ x 3 in.

Christ as the Good Shepherd 17th–18th century Wood, with traces of paint, h. 29 in.

FIGURE 9

India, Goa, Christ as the Good Shepherd, ca. 1660–1700 Ivory, 7½ x 2¼ x 1½ in.

Asian Art Museum of San Francisco: Acquisition made possible by Paul and Kathleen Bissinger, 2011.4.a-b

PLATE 19

Jesus Christ 18th–19th century Wood, h. 47 in.

Many sculptures were made of Christ as the Good Shepherd. Often portrayed as a young man, the Bhansali example (Plate 18) depicts him as an adult holding a lamb with grazing sheep along the base. The gentle sway of the drapery and the tilt of the head add great charm to the piece. As with the sculptures of Saint Joseph, he likely had a separate shepherd’s crook or crosier in his left hand. An example of the same subject, an ivory with Christ depicted as an adolescent is in the collection of the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco (Figure 9). Christ is seated atop a pillar-like mountain, with his hand to his head as if in meditative thought or sleep. Below the Christ figure is a fountain of life, from which two birds drink, with sheep further below. In this case, a figure lies at the bottom reading a book. She has been interpreted as a depiction of Mary Magdalene.19 This representation was very popular and, unlike the Portuguese source for the iconography for the Immaculate Conception previously discussed, it originated in Goa, underscoring the conversion of the populace. A recent study ties its elements to a text written in Konkani by the Jesuit missionary Miguel de Almeida in 1658.20

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FIGURE 10

PLATE 20

Sri Lanka, The Christ Child, ca. 1650 Ivory, painted and gilded on later wood base, h. 6½ in., Victoria and Albert Museum: Given by Dr. W.L. Hildburgh FSA in 1927, A62-1927, © Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Christ with Symbols of the Passion 17th century Ivory, h. 6½ in.

Again, this image would resonate with the Hindu population as Krishna is often depicted as a child surrounded by calves because he grew up among cow herders.

Standing with a pronounced sway of the body, a large sculpture of Christ (Plate 19) provides a rare look at the material of these wooden sculptures, stripped of paint and gilding. The bare wood displays the technique used to peg the arms, as well as illuminates the ravages of time. The sensitive carving remains, however. The figure looks down, his right hand resting upon his chest, his fingers in a gesture of benediction.

The Passion of Christ, or the events leading to the crucifixion, is central to Christianity.

A small ivory of Christ as a young man attired in liturgical robes adorned with the symbols of that Passion (Plate 20) is one of the more unusual objects in the Bhansali Collection. A similar, more complete ivory of the same subject is in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London (Figure 10). In the Bhansali Collection’s Christ, only the torso and head of the sculpture remain. It is possible that his arms would have been positioned as in the London example. Although incomplete, the strict rigidity of the figure gives this small ivory a strong presence, and the youthful face and soft curls are delicately rendered.

Other works in the Bhansali Collection focus on the actual events of the Passion (Plates 20 –26), here, however, the use of the symbols of the Passion are more prophetic in nature, rather than illustrating the pain and suffering in actual terms. Reading from the top of the chasuble down, the symbols are: the crown of thorns, the veil of Veronica, the cross draped by the shroud with hammers to its side and spears below it. The Victoria and Albert ivory shares some of these elements. It includes the purple robe of Christ above the three nailheads with the pincers to remove them below, the bag containing the thirty pieces of silver, and the column—flanked by whips and surmounted by the rooster that crowed after Peter’s third denial of Jesus—at which Christ was flagellated.

It appears that the rooster is also suggested at the very bottom of the Bhansali piece.

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One of the most striking sculptures in the Bhansali Collection is a near life-size depiction of Christ after his capture by the Romans and his scourging and subsequent presentation to the people of Jerusalem by Pontius Pilate. Pilate’s exclamation, “Ecce Homo,” (Latin for “behold the man”) gives the name to this work.

Christ’s body is carefully carved and his face rendered quite realistically with his eyes downcast, convincingly resigned to his fate (Plate 21).21 Following a popular Iberian practice, the figure of Christ likely would have a real rope binding his hands and a crown of thorns atop his head, making the whole even more lifelike. A purple stole, indicating the Passion, may also have been placed over his shoulders.22

PLATE 21

Ecce Homo, Jesus before the Crucifixion 18th century Wood, h. 65 in.

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PLATE 22

FIGURE 11

Jesus Carrying the Cross 17th –18th century Paint on panel, 60 x 46 in.

Cuzco School, Peru Christ Carrying the Cross Late 17th century, mixed media on cotton, framed, 66 x 47 in.

New Orleans Museum of Art: Museum purchase, 74.258

The Stations of the Cross, or Way of the Cross, provided the faithful with an opportunity to contemplate and reflect upon the Passion. A large painting on panel in the Bhansali Collection, depicting Christ falling to his knees under the weight of the cross, likely formed one of these stations (Plate 22). A cluster of soldiers stand behind the figure, wearing European-style armor. The sheer size of the panel suggests that it was intended for either a church or monastic setting. A painting from Peru in the collection of the New Orleans Museum of Art in the Cuzco style illustrates the same subject (Figure 11). In this more ambitious and finished work of art, Christ engages directly with the viewer, sharing the knowledge of his fate. The more folkish Goanese example underscores the terrible nature and pain of the journey to Calvary.

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The depiction of the body of Christ on a crucifix represents the Redemption: Christ dying for the sins of mankind. A large wooden crucifix in the Bhansali Collection (Plate 23) must have been placed over an altar in a chapel or church, whereas the small, delicately carved ivory figure (Plate 24)23 was intended for a Catholic home where the crucifix is invariably found. In the ivory, the artist has taken special care with the loincloth draped at the figure’s waist; the handling of the twisting rope holding the garment and the folds of the cloth are masterfully rendered. Following an Iberian tradition, the body is heavily scarred; the evidence of the scourging of Christ is quite graphic. This is true of the large, wooden example in the collection as well.

Comparing the two figures of the Christ, the ivory carver has effectively portrayed the horrors of crucifixion more convincingly. The length and angle of the arms emphasizes the weight of the body, the legs appear lifeless, and the more pronounced tilt of the head instills pathos to the image. The position of the almost life-size figure is far less convincing as a symbol of a tortuous death, appearing instead to have complete control of his arms as he stretches them horizontally and his legs seem full of life.24

PLATE 23

Christ on the Cross 17th –18th century Wood, paint, 96 x 50 in.

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35

PLATE 24

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Christ on the Cross, 17th century, ivory and wood, h. 21 in.

The largest work in the collection is that of the Virgin Mary with the body of Christ draped across her knees— a Pietà (Plate 26). Mary throws her head back in grief and raises one hand imploring God. A close study of her face reveals that the model for the figure was most likely an Indian one. Although darkened with age, it is clear that her dress was decorated with an elaborate gold brocade pattern. Given its size, this sculpture was clearly intended for a church setting; however, a very small ivory of the same subject, also in the collection, was intended for personal devotion (Plate 25).

PLATE 25

The Pietà, 17th –18th century, ivory, h. 3 ½ in.

PLATE 26

The Pietà, 18th –19th century, wood and gilt, 34 x 44 in.

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The psychological impact of these very differently imagined and scaled works is very different. In the large Pietà, Mary’s gesture proclaims and projects her grief to the world and to the heavens. The pathos of the small Pietà is internalized; her gaze is locked upon her son, her intensely personal grief focused on Christ, his dead body in her lap.

Although just inches tall, this small ivory conveys tremendous psychological power.

The Breadth of the Collection The Bhansali Collection offers works of art that span the history of the Portuguese presence in India. From the depiction of Saint Thomas through the representations of important founders of religious orders who evangelized in Asia and representations of some important Roman Catholic saints, including two saints specifically tied to the history of the missions in India, Saints Francis Xavier and John de Britto, the establishment of Roman Catholicism in India is outlined. The story of the Redemption is spelled out as well. It begins with the Incarnation itself, depicted by the Christ child sleeping in the crèche and then cradled in his mother’s arms and in those of Saint Joseph. It also includes depictions of him at later stages of his life, from his guise as the Good Shepherd through his Passion and death on the Cross, ending with the figure of his dead body in his mother’s arms, the Pietà.

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Endnotes 1 For a comparison of ivories from the Bhansali Collection and ivories carved in the rest of Asia, see: Robert J. Del Bontà, Lotus Leaves, “Roman Catholic Ivories from Asia,” Lotus Leaves, Society for Asian Art, San Francisco, Volume 23, Number 1 (Fall 2020), pp. 10–35. Figure 2-16 illustrates an Immaculate Conception from the collection not included in this catalog.

2 Catalogs of these collections include: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, A Expansão Portuguesa e a Arte do Marfim (Lisbon, Portugal, 1991); Francisco Faria Paulino and Susan Lowndes Marques, Portuguese Expansion Overseas and the Art of Ivory (Lisbon: Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 1991).

The Museum of Christian Art at Velha Goa is housed in the old convent of Saint Monica: https://goa-tourism.com/christian and http://www.goaholidayguide.com/ tourist-attractions/museum-of-christian-art-goa.php. The museum clearly holds a great deal of material, but does not yet have a robust online catalog.

3 Icons of Faith: Indo-Portuguese Art from the CSMVS Collection. December 10, 2019 through March 29, 2020.

4 Treasure Ships: Art in the Age of Spices, James Bennett and Russell Kelty, eds., Adelaide: Art Gallery of South Australia, 2015, at the Art Gallery of Western Australia, Perth, October 10, 2015–January 31, 2016 and Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide, June 13–August 30, 2016 and Journeys to New Worlds: Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Art from the Roberta and Richard Huber Collection, at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Suzanne L. Stratton-Pruitt, ed., February 16, 2013–May 19, 2013: https://www. philamuseum.org/exhibitions/777.html.

5 Their website has images of seventeen ivories: https://collections.artsmia.org/ search/goa. A number of these works are illustrated in Del Bontà, ibid. Figs. 2–6, 2–9, and 2–11 6 In time, the Roman Catholic Church came to terms with how to assimilate the earlier Christian traditions. For a discussion of the complexities of the accommodations, see João Teles e Cunha, “Confluence and Divergence: The Thomas Christians and the Padroado c. 1500-1607,” Journal of Eastern Christian Studies 63 (1-2), pp. 45–71.

7 For a discussion of his error, see: Alexander Henn, “Vasco da Gama’s Error: Conquest and Plurality,” in Hindu-Catholic Encounters in Goa: Religion, Colonialism, and Modernity (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2014), Chapter 1“Vasco da Gama’s Error: Conquest and Plurality,” pp. 19–39.

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8 Published in George Michel, ed., Living Wood: Sculptural Traditions of Southern India (Mumbai: Marg Publications, 1992), no. 67.

9 Some of this material was included in Bennett, op. cit. The exhibition included European art based on Asian material as well as Asian material that copied the art of the West. It highlighted similar sculpture to that of the Bhansali Collection, but also included furniture and decorative objects such as inlaid boxes made in India for the European market and the rest of Asia.

10 The differences between African and Asian ivory is discussed at: http://www. ivoryeducationinstitute.org/the-difference-between-african-and-asian-ivory/.

11 Most of the tusks came from East African ports via Portuguese and South Indian traders. The volume of tusks was tremendous; Celsa Pinto, Trade and Finance in Portuguese India: A Study of the Portuguese Country Trade, 1770 –1840 (New Delhi: Concept Publ. Co., 1994) estimates that 22,000 tusks were imported annually.

12 Ivory carving and sculpture recovered from the Nossa Senhora da Luz, which sank in 1615 while en route from Goa to Portugal, are evidence of this trade. See Nuno Vassalo e Silva, “A Missionary Industry. Ivories in Goa,” in Ivories in the Portuguese Empire, ed. Gauvin, Alexander, Jean Michel Massing, and Nuno Vassallo e Silva (Lisbon: Scribe Gauvin, 2013), p. 148.

13 CSMVS (formerly Prince of Wales Museum), acq. no. L/82.2.111.

14 De Britto was beatified in 1853 and canonized in 1947. A shrine honoring the saint still stands.

15 Many Catholic martyrs were venerated prior to their canonization, including Joan of Arc (ca. 1412–43), who was declared a martyr in 1456, beatified in 1909, and canonized in 1920.

16 For a discussion of similar ivories, see: Marsha G. Olson, “Mary on the Moon: Ivory Statuettes of the Virgin Mary from Goa and Sri Lanka,” in Rethinking Place in South Asian and Islamic Art, 1500–Present, Deborah S. Hutton and Rebecca Brown, eds.

(New York: Routledge, 2016), pp. 97–115.

17 Published in Olson, op cit., fig. 5.1.

18 For example see Bennett, op. cit, p. 66, cat. no. 195, Christ child standing naked.

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19 The iconography was quite popular and examples are found in many museums.

The Victoria and Albert Museum in London has some, for instance, acq. no. A.381921, and a more elaborate one, acq. no. A.58-1949. Other examples are in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, acq. no. M86.187, and The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, acq. no. 71.324.

20 Francesco Gusella, “New Jesuit sources on the iconography of the Good Shepherd Rockery from Portuguese India: The Garden of Shepherds of Miguel de Almeida (1658),” Journal of Jesuit Studies, Volume 6: Issue 4 (2019), pp. 577–597.

21 There is a similar large 72-inch sculpture of Christ in dormition published in Bennett, op. cit., pp. 68–69, cat. no. 200.

22 The exhibition Icons of Faith held in Mumbai suggested that sculptures such as this would be described as “flexible” because they are used for certain rituals. According to this interpretation, a work such as this may have been brought out during the reenactment of the Passion on Good Friday.

23 For a discussion of crucifixes including a similar ivory corpus, see: Marilyn McCully, “The Indo-Portuguese Ivory Crucifix in the Yale University Art Gallery,” Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Nov., 1972), pp. 4–9.

24 Bennett, op. cit., p. 72, cat. no. 202, 1700–50, illustrates a crucifix from a church in Mumbai which is in between these two in feeling, halfway between limp and firm.

Christ also has a raised head suggesting his final words to God the Father.

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Resources MUSEUM COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITIONS Icons of Faith: Indo-Portuguese Art from the CSMVS Collection. December 10, 2019 through March 29, 2020. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (formerly the Prince of Wales Museum), Mumbai.

A Expansão Portuguesa e a Arte do Marfim. June 25 through September 15, 1991. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon.

Living Wood: Sculptural Traditions of Southern India. 1992. Whitechapel Gallery, Bradford Art Galleries and Museums, London.

Museum of Christian Art, Velha Goa. Housed in the old convent of Saint Monica.

References Bennett, James and Russell Kelty, eds. Treasure Ships: Art in the Age of Spices, Adelaide: Art Gallery of South Australia, 2015. Especially Bennett, James, “Portugal and the State of India.” pp. 56–79. For Christian sculpture from Asia, see the checklist pp. 310–12.

Chakravarti, Ananya. “The many faces of Baltasar da Costa: imitatio and accommodation in the seventeenth century Madurai mission.” Etnográfica, Vol. 18 (1) (2014). Miscelânea e dossiê “Mimetismos coloniais: história e teoria no império português,” pp. 136-58.

Cunha, João Teles E. “Confluence and Divergence: The Thomas Christians and the Padroado c. 1500–1607.” Journal of Eastern Christian Studies 63 (1–2), 45–71.

Del Bontà, Robert J. “Roman Catholic Ivories from Asia.” Lotus Leaves. Society for Asian Art. San Francisco. Vol. 23, No. 1 (Fall 2020). pp. 10–35.

Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. A Expansão Portuguesa e a Arte do Marfim, (exposition), Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. Lisboa, 25 de Junho a 15 de Setembro de 1991. Lisboa: Comissão nacional para as comemorações dos descobrimentos portugueses, 1991.

Gusella, Francesco. “New Jesuit sources on the iconography of the Good Shepherd Rockery from Portuguese India: The Garden of Shepherds of Miguel de Almeida (1658).” Journal of Jesuit Studies, Volume 6, Issue 4, 2019, pp. 577–597.

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Hamy, Alfred. Galerie illustrée de la Compagnie de Jésus. Paris: Hamy, 1893.

Henn, Alexander. Hindu-Catholic Encounters in Goa: Religion, Colonialism, and Modernity.

Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2014.

Marcos, Margarita M. Estella. “The Indo-Portuguese and Hispano-Philippine Schools of Ivory Sculpture.” In Suzanne L. Stratton-Pruitt, ed., Journeys to New Worlds: Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Art in the Roberta and Richard Huber Collection, pp. 86–131. Philadelphia Museum of Art, 2013.

McCully, Marilyn. “The Indo-Portuguese Ivory Crucifix in the Yale University Art Gallery.” Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin, Volume 34, No. 1 (Nov. 1972), pp. 4–9.

Michel, George. Living Wood: Sculptural Traditions of Southern India. Whitechapel Gallery, Bradford Art Galleries and Museums, Kuntzentrum Röperhof and Mumbai: Marg Publications, 1992.

Moore, John Hamilton. A New and Complete Collection of Voyages and Travels. London: A, Hogg, 1778.

Olson, Marsha G. “Mary on the Moon: Ivory Statuettes of the Virgin Mary from Goa and Sri Lanka.” Rethinking Place in South Asian and Islamic Art, 1500–Present. Deborah S. Hutton and Rebecca Brown, eds. New York: Routledge, 2016, pp. 97–115.

Paulino, Francisco Faria and Susan Lowndes Marques. Portuguese Expansion Overseas and the Art of Ivory. Lisbon: Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 1991.

Pinto, Celsa. Trade and Finance in Portuguese India. New Delhi: Concept Publ. Co., 1994.

Silva, Nuno Vassallo e. “A Missionary Industry. Ivories in Goa.” In Marfins no império português (Ivories in the Portuguese Empire), ed. Alexander Gauvin, Jean Michel Massing, and Nuno Vassallo e Silva, pp. 143–229. Lisbon: Scribe Gavin, 2013.

Stratton-Pruitt, Suzanne L., ed. Journeys to New Worlds: Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Art in the Roberta and Richard Huber Collection. Philadelphia Museum of Art, 2013.

Thevet, André. Vrais pourtraits et vies des hommes illustres. Paris: I. Keruert et Guillaume Chaudiere, 1584.

Valentijn, François. Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien. Dordrecht: Joannes van Braam and Amsterdam: Gerard Onder de Linden, 1724–1726.

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For works on churches of Goa de Azevedo, Carlos. “The Churches of Goa.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 15, No. 3. Portuguese Empire Issue (Oct. 1956), pp. 3–6.

Osswald, Christina. Written in Stone: Jesuit Buildings in Goa and Their Artistic and Architectural Features. Saligao: Co-published by Goa 1556 and Golden Heart Emporium & Book Shop, Margao, 2013.

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