ProAgri Zambia 46

ProAgri technology for the farmer

Z a m b i a No 46

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Herdbook shines at farmer’s day

United Fertilizers recommends potash

takes leadership in agriculture

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armers and mines don’t have to be in conflict with each other. If we think about it, they actually need each other. Mines need a lot of fresh food for their permanent and contract workers and can provide a very lucrative market for farmers’ produce. The time has arrived for agriculture and the mining industry to take hands and establish high level cooperation agreements.

Kalumbila Minerals recently set up a horticulture bulking centre in partnership with the Private Enterprise Programme Zambia (PEPZ). The operation is 150 kilometres west of the town of Solwezi in the North Western Province of Zambia.

This bulking centre will offer farmers a centralised market location for their products, while technical assistance on the introduction of advanced agricultural technologies will enable farmers to participate in commercial value chains. But most important is that this project will allow the mine to source all their plant-based food locally. Importing horticultural products will be a

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thing of the past as soon as the centre is in full production.

This is fantastic news, but mines have a huge social responsibility budget to spend on their local communities and there are numerous of these projects all over the country. Basically, the mines are taking the initiative and calling the shots, while the power of food supply lies in the hands of our farmers.

The farmers and local communities are always those who suffer when mines expand or pollute the air or water supplies. The time has come for farmers to turn this imbalance around and to establish food supply co-operations around every mine in this country. Powerful interest groups driven by thousands of farmers is the best way to fight for their concerns, while they can deliver quality, fresh and the most affordable food to the mines. It is much better when farmers hold the mines to account to stick to the correct mining practices, than foreign activists, because they normally create a much bigger mess.

The Zambian mining industry employs about 80 000 people and many of them are expats from Western countries who demand high quality food, but they are willing to pay the price. Our farmers have all the power to supply in that demand and it is on their doorstep. How about rising to the occasion?

In this edition, United Fertilizers enlighten us about potash utilisation and Danatrack tells us more about themselves and their New Holland tractors. The current ban on livestock movement due to foot-and-mouth disease compelled Herdbook to present a farmers information day instead of their annual auction.

Farm smartly!

Du Preez de Villiers dupreez@proagri.co.za

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26

3.

AFGRI Equipment will excel under strong leadership

4.

Herdbook replaces auction with information day

7.

Advice from Tiger Feeds: Use all your senses to produce bright broilers

9.

Novatek asks: Did I receive dead or alive fingerlings...?

10.

Create the perfect environment for your dairy cattle: Part 3

14.

United Fertilizers: Do your crops lack potash?

15.

DANATRAC: Mechanise agriculture with New Holland Tractors

16.

AGCO offers a quick guide to fertiliser management and crop nutrition

18.

The operation and application of medium and big square balers: Part 2

22.

Make more from your crops: Processing of oil seeds Part 21

26.

Soil water sensors reveal subsoil conditions Part 4

ProAgri Zambia 46

Cover

Letter from the Editor

AFGRI appointed a new Country Manager in September, and his strategy to pull the company and agriculture forward will put a big smile on their employees’ and farmer’s faces. Read on page 3 about Rayno van Niekerk’s fresh outlook on Zambian agriculture.

ProAgri technology for the farmer

Z a m b i a

Nangwenya House No. 7352 Nangwenya Road Rhodespark +26 (0)97-769-9786 www.proagri.co.za Copyright © 2019. All rights r­ eserved. No m ­ aterial, text or p ­ hoto­graphs may be r­ eproduced, copied or in any other way t­ ransmitted without the written consent of the publisher. O ­ pinions ­expressed are not n ­ ecessarily those of the publisher or of the e ­ ditor. We recognise all trademarks and logos as the sole property of their r­ espective o ­ wners.

ProAgri shall not be liable for any errors or for any actions in reliance thereon.

ProAgri Zambia Editor Du Preez de Villiers > +27 82-598-7329 dupreez@proagri.co.za Reporters Annemarie Bremner > +27 82-320-3642 annemarie@proagri.co.za Benine Ackermann > +27 73-105-6938 benine@proagri.co.za Jaco Cilliers > +27 71-893-6477 jaco@proagri.co.za Senior Production Manager: Zainab Pandor > +26 (0)97-769-9786 zainab@proagri.co.za Marketing Manager Diane Grobler > +27 82-555-6866 diane@proagri.co.za Marketing Xander Pieterse > +27 79-524-0934 xander@proagri.co.za Tiny Smith > +27 82-698-3353 tiny@proagri.co.za Anelda Strauss > +27 74-424-0055 anelda@proagri.co.za Johan Swartz > +27 71-599-9417 johan@proagri.co.za Gerhard Potgieter > +27 74-694-4422 gerhard@proagri.co.za Design Christiaan Joubert Enquiries Engela Botha > +27 12-803-0782 engela@proagri.co.za Accounts Ronel Schluter > +27 12-803-0782 accounts@proagri.co.za Business Manager George Grobler

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AFGRI Equipment Zambia’s new Country Manager, Rayno Van Niekerk, is fresh and ready for the job at hand.

AFGRI Equipment’s new, strong leader is eager to please

by Salim Dawood

T

he job is tough, the competition stiff, but he is equal to the task and all he wants is to put smiles on his clients' faces.

Over the years, AFGRI Equipment turned into a popular stop for commercial and small-scale farmers, looking for farming equipment. They steadily spread their wings and today, the company has three branches in Zambia, with about 50 employees.

One of the prerequisites for a steady operation is good leadership, and AFGRI Equipment appointed a new Country Manager with the right credentials and attitude in September.

The rightfull choice fell on Rayno van Niekerk, who came out of the ranks of AFGRI Equipment in South Africa.

Rayno has a very strong focus as the new Country Manager: "AFGRI Equipment has been a market leader in agricultural, golf and turf equipment in Africa. This experience will help us in assisting our farmers with the sales and after service capabilities to ensure that they have the equipment and ability to live out their passion and drive food security in Africa." He attributes the thriving popularity of AFGRI Equipment to the premium agricultural equipment in stock from world renowned brands like JCB, John Deere, Falcon, RovicLeers, LEMKEN and Orthman.

He is already settling down in his new position, having moved to Lusaka with

his wife, Marike. "This is the first time I came to Lusaka, but I am already settling down and looking forward to a good and long stay here," Rayno says.

While many find the early-morning Lusaka traffic hectic, it doesn't seem to bother Rayno that much. "Coming from a small town in the Free State province of South Africa, the traffic is different in Lusaka, but having lived in Mozambique for six years, I am used to it," he says.

Rayno regards the Zambian econ-

omy and the drought as some of the challenges to the business. "The only real challenge at the moment is the economy of Zambia. But as a business we are doing well," he notes.

On his readiness for the job, Rayno responds: "I am definitely up to the task, just pleasing the clients and delivering a service. That's the key part of the business, and I enjoy seeing happy and satisfied customers."

While the Lusaka office has most of the stock on display, other equipment is kept in Mpongwe in the Copperbelt Province and Mukushi in Central Province. Rayno says AFGRI is looking to expand its footprint into other areas of the country in the near future.

Rayno was very sincere when he said AFGRI is willing to walk the road with the farmer long after the machine is sold. “AFGRI Equipment has quality parts and qualified service technicians to make sure our aftermarket service is always available and ready.”

"I don’t believe looking back at the past but rather at possibilities that lie ahead of us… I feel that providing good service and having steady relationships with clients are two of the key factors in any business, and this will be one of my focus points in Zambia."

Rayno wishes all farmers good luck and blessings with the upcoming season. "We trust that the rain will be sufficient and that the upcoming crops will yield positive results. Drought has come in the past, but it has always been broken at the end. ‘Let us not become weary in doing well; for at the proper time we will reap a harvest - if we do not give up.’ Galatians 6: 9" AFGRI caters for every farmer in Zambia, including you. Contact Katuna Sinyangwe at +260-762172-412 or sales@afgri.com.zm for more information.

Rayno Van Niekerk is still very proud of the JCB dealership, and he is eager to carry on promoting the JCB Agricultural series under AFGRI Zambia.

ProAgri Zambia 46

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Herdbook replaces auction with information day

by Dawood Salim

The stands at the Cattle & Small Stock Management Information Day were bustling with displays where farmers and sellers could talk business.

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ctober is Herdbook auction month, but this year the crippling foot-andmouth disease currently ravaging Zambia derailed this popular public sale of animals. The government has banned livestock movement and placed restrictions in some areas to curb the disease which farmers have been grappling with since the beginning of the year.

But livestock farmers from all corners of the country gathered at the Lusaka Showgrounds nonetheless. By trying to keep the tradition of the yearly gathering, the organisers of the event, the Herdbook Society of Zambia still found a way to get farmers together – not for a public animal sale, but to present a Cattle & Small Stock Management Information Day on 16 October.

Herdbook Society of Zambia Chairman, Cipo Mbozi, said the event drew more than 200 livestock farmers ranging from fully fledged commercial farmers to emerging farmers. Livestock experts from neighbouring South Africa were rounded up and flown into Lusaka to speak at the gathering.

Cipo explained the objectives of the gathering in an interview. "At the end of the day, we wanted people to be better informed about cattle and livestock management. We also wanted people to appreciate what Herdbook is all about. Furthermore we wanted to encourage emerging farmers and allow people to interact, to share ideas, and 4

the objective is to enlighten everyone with cattle and small-scale livestock management knowledge. When they go back to their farms, they are better informed than before and they can practice what they’ve learnt. They will most definitely manage their farms and their cattle better than they did before."

Cipo also explained that another objective of the symposium was to draw

the attention of farmers to buy quality and good breeding animals through Herdbook Society of Zambia breeders. He says the Society believes that efficient management of livestock and farms based on knowledge are critical to run a profitable and cost-effective business. He also holds that such symposiums are important in equipping farmers with knowledge on how to deal

Wiehan Visagie from Novatek informed cattle farmers on good feeding practices and their exquisite products.

ProAgri Zambia 46

Farmers from all over attended the Cattle & Small Stock Management Information Day organised by Herdbook Society.

Zambian Minister of Livestock and Fisheries, Professor Nkandu Luo, officially opened the Cattle & Small Stock Management Information Day. with livestock diseases such as footand-mouth. He hopes that Herdbook will host similar meetings in different parts of Zambia should the foot-andmouth disease continue.

Zambian Minister of Livestock and Fisheries, Professor Nkandu Luo, officially opened and praised Herdbook for organising the event. She encouraged farmers to learn as much as they possibly could and later put the knowledge to practice. "Take advantage of the knowledge from those who know," Professor Luo told the gathering. “When you have the right knowledge and continue interacting with those who know, you will get there," she told small-scale farmers.

The Minister urged the farmers to adhere to the animal movement ban on illegal movement of livestock. "Illegal movement of animals has hampered the curbing of foot-and-mouth disease," the Minister stated.

After officially opening the symposium, Professor Nkandu and Cipo stepped out of the spacious hall and toured the stands of various businesses that exhibited their livestock products and services.

The Zambia National Farmers Union (ZNFU) welcomed the symposium.

ZNFU spokesperson Calvin Kaleyi said a gathering such as Cattle & Small Livestock Management was "a very good development, especially with the increase in livestock diseases. You need to have symposia and meetings that will educate farmers on what to do and what not to do. It's very important for farmers to be knowledgeable, otherwise how do you grow your industry if you don't know what to do? How do you expand your business or expand the number of animals if you do not know what to do and what not to do?”

Himubali Muzyamba, a young and upcoming farmer who attended the symposium, found it educational and beneficial. Although he is based in Lusaka, Himubali has a farm in Lufwanyama district on the Copperbelt where he is rearing 39 Boer goats. "These are really good platforms for education and information on how to manage a profitable herd. And they also provide

Dr Catherine Mutalefrom Livestock Services had her hands full with farmers eager to purchase their products.

ProAgri Zambia 46

networking with other farmers. I am impressed with the level of participation and calibre of speakers," Himubali said.

The Herdbook Society of Zambia partnered with Stanbic Bank and Lusaka Agriculture Show Society to put the event together.

Mwansa Mutati, Head of Personal Business Banking at Stanbic, spoke at the event. She said Stanbic Bank was proud of the fruitful relationship it enjoyed with the Herdbook Society over the years. "One of the notable results of this partnership has been the hosting of the annual Stanbic Livestock Auction, which not only brings the country’s top livestock farmers together in one place, but also serves as a useful tool in widening stakeholder knowledge of herd genetics within the country’s livestock sector," she noted.

Mwansa observed that livestock farming and agriculture as a whole played an important role in poverty reduction, household food security and nutrition, increased economic growth and exports.

She says: "Despite Stanbic’s unwavering commitment to growing agriculture in Zambia, stimulating significant growth in the livestock sector cannot be achieved by a single entity, which is why we are pleased to partner with Herdbook Society of Zambia in hosting this year’s Cattle & Small Stock Management Information Day. We have sponsored this event because of the strong belief we have in the potential of the agriculture sector in general – and the livestock sector in particular – to turn around the fortunes of this country as we go through a rough economic patch.”

Mwansa also said: "The objectives of the event – to bring together smallscale farmers, commercial farmers, livestock professionals and leaders in an interactive platform where knowledge exchange and various exhibitions will take place – are in line with Stanbic’s strategy to facilitate tangible growth in the sector through stakeholder engagement.”

Contact Gilbert Mwango at Herdbook Society of Zambia on herdbookzambia@gmail.com or +260-977-666-417 for more information on Herdbook Zambia.

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Advice from Tiger Feeds:

Use all your senses to produce bright broilers

by Given Hamanungu - Tiger Technical Advisor

Photo: amhtxy.com

T

he primary objective of broiler management is to achieve the required bird performance in terms of its live weight, feed conversion, uniformity and meat yield, within the existing economic constraints.

True broiler farming requires positive and constant human interaction with the broiler and its environment. The broiler farmer must be constantly ‘in tune’ with, and aware of the birds’ behaviour and their environment, which is known as stock sense.

For maximum performance to be attained, the bird’s behavioural characteristics and the conditions within the poultry house must be closely observed. Each condition must be assessed critically and improvements made whenever required.

Practical broiler management monitoring is very useful and can be enhanced if all five human senses are used as follows: Smell: Be aware of smells in the environment such as ammonia levels. Is the air stale or stuffy?

A chicken farmer has to employ all his senses inside his chicken house when he wants to be successful. Image: ercare24.com

Feel: Air: How does the air feel on your face?

Is it stuffy (humid), cold, hot, windy or is there no noticeable air movement?

These factors, either in combination or separately, can indicate specific environmental conditions such as insufficient minimum ventilation.

Feed: You can also feel the physical quality of the feed. Are the crumbs very dusty and do the pellets break down very easily in the hand and in the feeder?

Litter: Pick up and feel the condition of the litter. If the litter stays together after compressing, (does not spring apart) it indicates excessive moisture and this may suggest inadequate ventilation.

Birds: Handle the birds to assess crop fill and check the birds’ general condition.

Temperature: Take notice of air movement on your skin. Is there a draft? What does the temperature of the house feel like?

right height? Is there feed in the feeders and water in the drinkers and are the drinkers leaking? What is the feed quality like?

Hearing: The birds: Are the birds snickering/ sneezing or making respiratory noises?

What are their vocalisations like?

Often this observation is best done in the evening when ventilation noise is reduced.

A profitable chicken farm is one where a close eye is kept on the birds. Just by using your senses, you can easily recognise the problem or challenging areas in your chicken shed.

Taste: A true chicken farmer can taste the water and feed quality.

Sight: Distribution: Look at the bird distribution over the floor area. Are specific areas being avoided suggesting an environmental issue (draft, cold, light)?

Bird respiration: Are the birds panting?

Is the panting specific to one area of the house, suggesting an airflow or temperature problem?

Behaviour: How do the birds behave in terms of feeding, drinking, and resting?

Normally, broilers will be evenly split up between these behaviours.

Litter condition: Are birds avoiding certain areas due to wetness caused by leaking drinkers or excess water from cooling cells? Is cold air entering the house and falling to the floor?

Feeders and drinkers: Are they the

ProAgri Zambia 46

In a normal chicken distribution over the floor, a third of the birds should be eating, a third should be drinking and a third should be resting. Photo: teamagre.com

For exquisite and professional advice and service in the chicken industry, contact Rowena Blanco at +260 96 7991 847 or +260 96 7790 404 or e-mail rowena@tigerfeeds.com.zm. You can also visit their user friendly website at www.tigerfeeds.com.

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Did I receive dead or alive fingerlings...?

by Robert Kanyembo, Aquaculture Manager, Novatek Animal Feeds Zambia

Fingerlings received, being observed before restocking.

Robert Kanyembo shows outstanding fish.

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fter winter, perfect conditions for fish stocking arises, often referred to as summer stocking. The period between September and May is characterised by massive stocking and restocking. Every hatchery is producing fingerlings and the fish farmer is buying and restocking his fish ponds, cages or tanks.

In this hype of great aquaculture activity, I came across a fish farmer at a workshop who asked me a question: “Did I receive dead or alive fingerlings?”

My response was to ask who stocked the fingerlings, you or somebody else?

He responded to say, he did. So if he stocked the fingerlings himself, did he receive dead or alive fingerlings? Further in the discourse, I asked him whether he had issues with the fingerlings received.

He stated that he lost 40,000 fingerlings days after stocking. He followed all the prerequisites of stocking, yet his fish still died. Did he do something wrong?

One fact is clear; the fingerlings were received alive but maybe they were not in good health. If fingerlings are weak and sluggish once released into the water, it is a sign the fingerlings are unhealthy and will eventually start dying.

The dying of these fingerlings might not be necessarily the fault of the fish farmer, but could be due to prior mishandling at the hatchery during conditioning, counting, packaging and transportation.

Conditioning Before fingerlings are transported to the fish farmers, they are starved for a few days (48 hrs) in order to remove the excess food out of the fish’s stomach/ intestines. This is essential in reducing the amount of faecal matter produced by the fish during transportation. The less faecal matter in the packaging material, the less ammonia is produced. Ammonia is toxic to fish, so conditioning helps in reducing the ammonia levels.

Counting The exact number of fingerlings ordered must be received. The only way you will know is to count the fingerlings in samples and get the average body weight.

The fingerlings are counted in the packaging material.

Transport The fingerlings are usually transported in plastic bags with oxygen in it. When transporting the fingerlings, please ensure the plastics are not exposed to high temperatures. Exposure to high temperatures in the plastic will cause oxygen to deplete as temperature is inversely proportional to dissolved oxygen.

The processes mentioned above are all physical procedures. Physical mishandling of fingerlings may result in stress.

Wrong ways of adding oxygen into plastic packaging material for fingerling transportation.

ProAgri Zambia 46

Stress reduces the immune system of the fish. The fish’s defence mechanism is weakened, thereby making it susceptible to disease. When you receive your fish, the fingerlings have undergone several handling procedures. The prior handling of fingerlings may cause fingerlings to become diseased or stressed. The effects may show immediately after stocking, but usually a few days afterwards. This is the case of farmer X who lost 40,000 fingerlings a few days after he stocked them. It is not necessarily the fish farmers’ purported negligence or lack of stocking knowledge. Sometimes the suppliers or transporters tend to fail in the essential procedures of handling fingerlings in a cool environment and away from direct scorching sun – we have already learnt that temperature is inversely proportional to dissolved oxygen.

If the fish were not well conditioned, or mishandled during counting, packaging and transportation, it may result in mortalities. It is imperative for fish farmers to observe the fingerlings upon delivery for lesions, punctures in the transport plastic and more importantly, the activity of the fish. If the fingerlings are not swimming freely, it is a sign they have been stressed in one or many of the procedures we have discussed. Although the fish may be received alive, they are as good as dead.

The introduction of the fingerlings in another environment affects them, especially stressed fish whose immune system is weakened already. Such fingerlings must be rejected, unless the supplier accepts compensation in the event that the fingerlings fail to recover and begin to die off significantly, as was the case of farmer X who lost 40 000 fingerlings within a matter of days.

To learn more about fish and their requirements, contact Wiehan Visagie at wiehan.visagie@ novatek.co.zm or Marné Meyer at nutritionist@novatek.co.zm.

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Create the perfect environment for your dairy cattle Part 3: Environmental requirements Eksteen Lindeque and Petrus Britz (Pr. Eng.)

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ProAgri Zambia 46

T

he purpose of the intensive housing system for dairy cows is mainly the provision of an environment in which the stress factors which accompany milk production, as well as the adverse effects of unfavourable environmental conditions, are limited to such an extent that dairy cows can produce optimally.

An extensive housing system must comply with the following requirements: • The micro-climate within the system must not be so warm, cold or windy that production is influenced and/or causes continuous discomfort to the cows.

• Available walking areas and lying room, as well as surfaces of floors and walls must not cause the cows discomfort or injuries. The lying room must be clean and dry.

• The design of a housing system must limit stress factors, that can decrease the cow’s production performance and general resistance to diseases.

• Air within the system must be fresh and free from any excessive amounts of carbon dioxide (as a result of breathing and some heating systems) and ammonia (resulting from manure and urine).

• Physical conditions in a housing system must be suitable for dairy cows to maintain a normal behavioural pattern at all times.

• With the design of an intensive housing system with optimal environmental conditions, biological characteristics of dairy cows, as well as general climatic conditions prevailing in a certain area should be considered.

Biological characteristics of dairy cows and the influence on them Dairy cows are warm-blooded animals and have the ability to maintain a constant body temperature – within limits

– (approximately 38,5 °C), despite varying environmental temperatures.

A dairy cow continuously produces body heat, of which the measure is mainly determined by the following factors: • Basal metabolic speed • Internal heat resulting from digestion of fodder and metabolism • External heat as a result of air temperatures, relative humidity, air movement and radiated heat from the sun and roof or walls of the building According to Finch (1984), metabolic heat makes up about 40% to 50% of the total heat burden of animals.

In order to keep body temperature constant, body heat must be regulated.

Dairy cows however have a weak heat regulating mechanism and can, as mentioned, only regulate their body temperature slightly.

This takes place by means of the following mechanisms: • Speeding up or slowing down breathing • Regulating blood supply to the skin • Radiation from or to the environment • Radiation to the floor and/or fellow animals • Evaporation of moisture from the skin surface – evaporation cooling • Fodder intake Body temperature is therefore largely the result of a dynamic balance between produced body heat, together with heat taken from the environment, against body heat radiated into the environment.

Dairy cows perform at their best between environmental temperatures of 4 to 21 °C. This is known as the comfort zone. Within the comfort zone, they can get rid of their excess body heat without detriment to production.

Outside the comfort zone, the dairy cow must however make certain adaptations regarding heat production, in order to

A housing system with ample air flow is desired in a warmer climate area.

ProAgri Zambia 46

keep body temperatures constant.

The influence of different environmental conditions, like high and low temperatures, radiant heat, wind and relative humidity on the heat production of the animal is discussed in the following paragraphs: High temperatures During high temperatures the following physiological actions take place in dairy cows: • Blood vessels in the skin are opened wider so that more blood can flow to the body surface. The skin temperature rises subsequently, so that faster radiation of body heat from the skin surface can take place to the surrounding air.

• Sweat glands in the skin begin excreting sweat. The evaporation thereof on the skin surface decreases the temperature so that more body heat can be conducted to the skin. The efficiency of heat loss that takes place in this manner largely depends on the relative humidity of the air and the speed of the wind that blows over the animal.

• The tempo of respiration increases and a large volume of cool air is inhaled. The air is heated in the lungs and saturated with water vapour before it is exhaled. A high respiration tempo in dairy cows is an efficient mechanism in getting rid of heat, however only for a short period.

• Fodder intake decreases in an attempt to decrease the production of metabolic body heat.

Reduced fodder intake is one of the mechanisms to regulate body temperature.

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Low temperatures With a decrease in the environmental temperature lower than the lowest limit of the comfort zone (approximately 4 °C), heat release will be limited to the environment in order to keep the internal body temperature constant.

Limiting of the heat loss can take place as follows: • By making the hair stand up, a larger volume of air is trapped therein, so that the insulation capacity is increased.

• Blood vessels in the skin contract so that less blood flows to the body surface.

• Radiation of body heat from the skin surface to the environment is thus limited.

• With a higher fodder intake, the metabolic body heat is increased.

• Cows gather in groups to decrease their body surface which is exposed to the air.

specific type of animal’s resistance to cold (Young, 1981). Notwithstanding the obvious resistance of lactating cows against very low temperatures, these animals already experience clear production decreases at environmental temperatures, which are considerably higher than the predicted lowest critical temperature. The influence of rain and wind plays a clear and observable role.

Radiant heat Radiant heat can contribute significantly to the heat burden of a dairy cow. In an open camp, the cows are exposed to the following sources of radiant heat: • Direct sun radiation • Reflected radiant heat from the clouds and air particles • Radiant heat from the ground, surrounding objects and the horizon • Radiant heat from the skin surface of animals that are kept in great numbers on small surfaces.

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Relative humidity Relative humidity is a measure of how much moisture is present in the air, in comparison to the amount of moisture the air can contain at a specific temperature.

Heat loss as a result of respiratory evaporation and the evaporation of sweat from the skin surface is influenced to a great extent by the relative humidity levels of the air. This heatloss mechanism is hindered by high humidity levels, so that production is impaired. Relative humidity levels of between 40% and 70% are acceptable.

Next month we shall look at the influence of the thermal environment on dairy cows. Published with acknowledgement to the ARC Agricultural Engineering for the use of their manuals. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information.

Safety in numbers is one of nature’s rules for survival.

Cows use this principle to bundle together to stay warm.

With a further decrease in the environmental temperature, the animal will begin to produce additional body temperature at the lowest critical temperature, in order to prevent a decrease in body temperature. Heat production can be achieved by means of random muscle actions, such as exercise and muscle contraction (animal begins to shiver).

It must be kept in mind that the fodder level, production level and insulation capacity of the hide and hypodermic tissue will determine – to a great extent – the heat production and lowest critical temperature. With a further decrease in environmental temperature, the additional heat which is produced, cannot balance the heat radiated to the environment. The internal body temperature therefore begins to decrease and the animal can eventually die from the cold.

Some researchers are of the opinion that the determination of the lowest critical temperature of different animal species can be an indication of a

production, as the insulation capacity of the hide is destroyed by rain and wind. Heat loss from the skin surface is very high as a result of poor insulation and cold stress is thus created. A great quantity of body heat is therefore needed to dry the wet coat (Baxter, 1977).

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Direct sunlight contributes significantly to radiant heat.

Wind Wind can increase the heat loss from the skin surface and the evaporation of sweat as a result of the removal of warm air that surrounds the cow. At high temperatures (above 29 °C), a wind speed of more than 15 km per hour (so-called berg wind conditions) will however increase the heat burden on the cow.

A high wind speed, together with rain and low temperatures, can impair milk

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E-mail: info@neriainvestments.com

ProAgri Zambia 46

www.neriainvestments.com

13

Do your crops lack potash?

by Maksim Poltoradnev, Dr Sc Agr

I

rregular crop nutrition management can outweigh many growers’ efforts to establish greater output per unit of cultivated area. Therefore, it is crucial to correctly estimate the role of individual nutrients.

Nitrogen (N), for instance, has a vivid effect, which is observed right after its absorption by a plant. Plants grow faster, the number of leaves increases and their colour grows more intense.

However, when N inputs exceed physiological demand, crop starts to “grow fat”. Scientifically speaking, the vegetative phase extends in time, which rather leads to biomass accumulation (foliage growth) than formation of generative organs (flowers, fruits and seeds).

The role of potassium (K) is often underestimated. There is usually no rightaway effect after application of potash, but its availability is associated with vital processes like movement of water, nutrients and carbohydrates in plant tissue.

As a grower, one should keep in mind that the application of potash fertiliser is essential for high yields. Potassium positively influences root growth, improves

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resistance of a crop to various stress conditions (drought, pests, diseases, lodging), maintains turgor, reduces water loss and produces grain rich in starch and protein.

Demand in K by a crop is determined by total removal with yield. The greater the yield target, the more K is required. Part of the From left to right: NPK 10:20:20 +6S, NPK demand can be supplied 10:26:26 + 2S & Pink Granular muriate of potash from the soil; however, only relatively small In particular, K content is increased amounts of soil K are available for plant by 10% and 16%, respectively, which growth at any determined time. That is meets K needs of most crops. because nearly all soil K is locked in the In case of higher K requirements, the structural component of soil minerals. application of muriate of potash (MOP) Moreover, K uptake by crops is affected is advisable. MOP is the most concenby other soil factors like structure, trated among potash fertilisers. It delivphysical properties, moisture and temers readily available K straight to the perature. The chances of undersupply root zone. UFCL tests alternative fertiof K grows higher when applying low-K liser programmes together with Zambia fertilisers several seasons in a row. Soil Agriculture Research Institute (ZARI) supply is ceasing and the demand is not and shares the latest results in various replenished by fertiliser. promo materials, magazines, expos and High-concentrated NPKs – simply on its website – www.ufertilizers.com. more nutrients in each granule!

Recently United Fertilizers Company Ltd (UFCL) started to market NPK E-mail Maksim Poltoradnev at 10:20:20+6S and NPK 10:26:26+2S in M.Poltoradnev@ufertilizers.com Zambia. These formulations contain if you need more advice on more nutrients per each granule than giving your crops the best historically consumed, low analysis possible treatment.

D-compound fertiliser (NPK 10:20:10).

ProAgri Zambia 46

DANATRAC...

Mechanising Agriculture with New Holland Tractors

by Staff Writer

D

anatrac Limited is a wholly Zambian owned company specialising in agricultural equipment and currently representing the New Holland Agriculture brand in Zambia.

Incorporated in the year 2000, Danatrac is one of the eight subsidiaries under the Dana Group of Companies. Danatrac is popularly known for introducing the Valtra tractor brand to the Zambian market. Danatrac quickly gained leadership in the distribution of tractors with unbeatable after-sale service and technical support for their clients.

Now running the New Holland Agriculture franchise in Zambia, they specialise

Chris Mwamba, Sales Manager, discusses the benefits of a New Holland tractor with a client.

Shining New Holland tractors at Mulungushi International Conference ZNFU Annual Congress in Lusaka. in a wide range of tractors and command leadership in the 33,5 kW (45 hp) segment, commonly used by small and emerging farmers. They also offer finance solutions and flexible payment terms through their co-operating partners such as the Public Service Micro-Finance Company (PSMFC) and Agleaseco.

The original New Holland Machine Company was founded in 1895 in New Holland, Pennsylvania, through the integration of four agricultural brands that converged and merged: Ford, Fiat Trattori, Claeys and New Holland. New Holland is a global brand of agricultural machinery produced by CNH Industrial.

New Holland agricultural products include tractors, combine harvesters, balers, forage harvesters, self-propelled sprayers, haymaking equipment, seeding equipment, hobby tractors, utility vehicles and implements, and grape harvesters.

New Holland equipment is manufactured all around the world; the current

administrative headquarters is in Turin, Italy, with New Holland, Pennsylvania serving as the brand's headquarters in North America, home of the largest hay tools production facility in the world.

With 18 plants spread globally, as well as 6 joint ventures in the Americas, Asia, and Middle East, the corporation is present in 170 countries worldwide.

New Holland is known for their longstanding commitment to efficiency, productivity and sustainability – a fact supported by many awards obtained in many innovations such as active promotion of renewable fuels, emissions reduction systems and sustainable agricultural technology.

Danatrac has won 1st prize under "Best Agriculture Equipment" 5 times at the annual Agricultural and Commercial Show in Lusaka. 4 of those were consecutive.

Visit the Danatrac offices situated near the corner of Kafue Road and Lumumba Road, opposite Carousel Shopping Complex in Lusaka and learn more about their tailored services and many free delivery services on offer.

Seasonal offer!!

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$ 30 000.00 Now

$ 27 500.00 Also in stock: TT45 4WD (47hp) TT75 4WD (75hp) TT4.90 4WD (90hp) New Holland tractors at unbeatable prices with plenty of spare parts and technical backup.

Authorized dealers for

Contact us for more details on many of our surprise packages: Patrick Mulenga

+26 097 789 777 / +26 096 785 2713 patrick.mulenga@danagroup.co.zm

Chris Mwamba

ProAgri Zambia 46

+26 096 710 0244 chris.mwamba@danagroup.co.zm

15

The science of feeding crops:

A quick guide in fertiliser management and crop nutrition Opinion piece by Dr Ben Ngwene, AGCO

E

ach seed we plant in the soil must receive adequate nutrition to reach its full potential. It is up to the farmer to ensure that his field meets basic nutritional requirements to achieve optimal yields. If he neglects this important step, he risks weak growth and a crop more susceptible to diseases with a diminished ability to produce successfully.

While we are waiting for the rains, here are some pointers on how to ensure crops absorb enough minerals essential for their survival.

To get a good harvest, a field needs two categories of plant nutrients, namely macronutrients and micronutrients.

Macronutrients are required in relatively large amounts while micronutrients are required in far lesser amounts.

Macronutrients are further divided into primary and secondary groups based on their importance. Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) are some of the main primary nutrients which are readily available in mineral fertiliser.

The most commonly used secondary nutrients are magnesium, calcium and sulphur. Now, the reason why most smallholder farmers yield weak harvests is because they do not have access to these secondary nutrients.

Micronutrients on the other hand are only required in small amounts, and are less likely to result in crops displaying deficiencies if they are not available in the soil. These include iron, manganese, boron, copper, zinc and molybdenum. All these nutrients are absorbed through the roots as dissolved ions in the soil solution. Therefore, soil moisture is very important for plant nutrition and we must take moisture conservation seriously.

How to assess crop requirements for nutrients Crop requirements for nutrients are mainly influenced by crop type and yield expectation. For example, if we are expecting our maize yield at about 6 t/ha, we need about 140 kg/ha of N. This will come in the form of mineral fertiliser, manure and soil supply. A local agriculture extension service can help with these calculations.

It is also imperative to know what is in our soil. A certified institution can conduct soil testing and provide full analysis on the soil type so the farmer can plan the best nutrient management for his field. The sandier the soil is, the less it can hold water and nutrients and the more the farmer needs to split fertiliser application to minimise loses.

The analysis will also reveal the soil pH level. The ideal pH for most arable soils is about 6 to 7,5; however, if a field has acidic soil (pH above 7,5) it can be corrected through a process called liming.

Liming is the application of calcium and magnesium rich materials such as chalk and limestone to soil which react as a base which neutralises soil acidity. Liming also promotes the activity of earthworms and the breakdown of organic material that releases nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and micro-elements.

The rate, timing and application is very important in nutrient management. Plants need various nutrient rates and ratios at different growth stages.

The optimum timing for fertiliser application is therefore determined by the nutrient uptake pattern of the crop and has a significant effect on crop yields.

Furthermore, different nutrients must be applied at different timing as well.

Usually Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) are applied prior to crop establishment because they are less prone to leaching. Nitrogen (N) on the other hand should be split. This varies with different crops and should match the period of crop uptake during planting (starter), high vegetative growth (sidedress), and flowering (sidedress). For instance, legumes only need small amounts of basal N to boost growth prior to N-fixation.

And after a legume crop, there is more N in the soil which should be taken into account when calculating fertiliser requirements for the next crop!

Soil type also affects the timing and frequency of fertiliser application. Split application of fertiliser is recommended mostly for large-scale farmers whereas most smallholder farmers use the broadcasting application method. But this might not be as efficient as banding.

Simply put, broadcasting is spreading fertilisers uniformly all over the field while banding, either in rows or hill placement, ensures that the fertiliser is placed close to where it is needed reducing waste.

So in closing, if you take care of the nutrition of your soil, the soil will take care of your crop yield. For proper fertiliser management start with calculating the fertiliser rate according to crop type and yield expectation, know what is in the soil (soil test), then apply calculated amounts of mineral fertiliser and manure at the proper time to limit waste.

Dr Benard Ngwene is the Agricultural Advisory Manager for AGCO Africa. He is a highly enthusiastic and motivated agricultural scientist, with exceptional knowledge of rhizosphere processes, and involved in defining mechanisation solutions for smallholders and emerging farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa.

For more information on AGCO’s fine equipment and agricultural courses, send an e-mail to Benard.Ngwene@agcocorp.com

AGCO Future Farm in Lusaka, Zambia provides smart solutions for farmers, giving them access to tools that will allow them to use fewer resources more efficiently and creating a more sustainable food production system.

TRAINING INCLUDES: Agronomy Crop establishment Harvesting Crop nutrition Crop storage Crop protection Farm business management

Mechanisation Tractor fundamentals Tractor driving introduction Tractor maintenance & basic operation

For more information on training solutions offered at the AGCO Future Farm, please contact: Kalongo Chitengi | +260 979701936 | info_agcofuturefarm@agcocorp.com 16

ProAgri Zambia 46

www.reinke.com Patrick Ellis ProAgri Zambia 46

+27 (0)31 350 4525

patrickellis@reinke.com 17

The operation and application of medium and big square balers Part 2: The plunger, hay dogs, bale chamber, bale measuring wheel and needles

by GJ Stoltz (Reg Eng Tech)

18

ProAgri Zambia 46

T

he inside of a square baler is packed with intricate mechanisms. This implement should be able to produce a suitable animal feed source which is compacted sufficiently to not fall apart or allow air inside.

We thank the ARC Agricultural Engineering in South Africa who made the information on square balers available to the readers of ProAgri Zambia.

Hay dogs: The hay dogs engage the bale to keep the partly formed bale compressed when the plunger retracts (see Figures 4 and 5).

Plunger: A crank arm and pitman drive the plunger back and forth in the bale chamber at about 80 times per minute.

As the plunger moves down the bale chamber, the plunger knife moves past a stationary knife to slice off hay that is still outside the chamber. The plunger then compresses the hay in the bale chamber (see Figures 1, 2 and 3).

Figure 7: The bale density must be high enough so that the bale does not fall apart after ejection from the bale chamber.

Figure 4: The plunger compresses the hay in the bale chamber. The hay passes through the hay dogs and down the bale chamber.

Figure 1: The plunger with its guides or wear pads. The plunger knife is mounted on the side of the plunger.

Bale measuring wheel: The bale measuring wheel rotates as the bale moves through the bale chamber.

When the wheel completes a cycle, the tying mechanism is tripped. The bale length may be changed by adjusting the bale measuring cycle (see Figures 8 and 9).

Figure 5: The plunger retracts for the next stroke and the hay dogs keep the compressed hay in position.

Bale chamber: The process of feeding hay into the bale chamber and compressing it with the plunger is repeated until the bale is formed. The density of the bale is determined by adjusting the springloaded upper and lower tension bars on the bale chamber. On some models the tension bars are controlled hydraulically (see Figure 6).

Figure 8: The wheel rotates as the bale moves through the bale chamber.

Figure 2: Bottom view of the plunger.

Roller bearings are used at the bottom.

Figure 9: The bale length can be changed by changing the position of the stop on the cam.

Figure 3: The plunger knife moves past a stationary knife to slice off hay that is still outside the baling chamber.

Figure 6: When adjusting the tension bars closer to each other, the density of the bale becomes higher because more force is needed to push the bale through the chamber.

ProAgri Zambia 46

Needles: The tying mechanism is timed to synchronise with the plunger movement.

When the plunger is at the rear of the baler and the hay is fully compressed, needles deliver the wire or twine to the tying mechanism. As the wire or twine is grasped by the tying mechanism, the needles retract and the bale is tied (see Figure 10).

19

Figure 10: When the hay is fully compressed, and the measuring wheel activates the tying mechanism, the needles take the twine upwards to the knotters. Wires will be taken upwards to the wire twisters.

It is important to study the operator’s manual first before making any adjustments.

The process is repeated as each bale passes through the bale chamber and drops off the baler. Forming proper bales is useless unless the hay is tied properly by the tying mechanism (see Figures 11 and 12).

The needles do not penetrate the hay.

They go through slots in the plunger head. The needles are protected by spring action or a shear bolt. They will not enter the chamber if there is an obstruction in the chamber or if the plunger is not in position. There is a plunger safety stop to protect the needles from damage by the plunger if the needles enter the chamber too soon or if they remain in the chamber too long (see Figure 13).

The safety stop alternatively enters through the bottom of the bale chamber at the same time that the needles start to enter the bale chamber. The stop then remains in position until the needles are fully withdrawn to the home position. If the plunger should move at the wrong time, and is stopped by the safety stop, a shear bolt in the plunger drive is sheared to prevent damage to the baler (see Figure 14).

Figure 15: The plunger has two big slots in front for the needles to pass through.

The needles will then be in the bale chamber only for a fraction of a second while the plunger is at the end of its compressed stroke and the entire tying operation is performed in about 3 seconds. The twine knot, or twine twisting, takes less than a second and one must look very carefully to follow the entire process with the eye (see Figure 16).

Figure 13: The plunger cannot compress hay if the needles are not back in their “home” position because the safety stop is activated.

Figure 11: The top of a needle can be seen at the bottom of the bale chamber.

Figure 12: The operator’s manual will show how to thread the twine through the different eyes and the needle points from 1 to 4.

The measuring wheel cam, or bell crank, operates a trip rod which starts the tying mechanism. First the needles pass from the bottom of the bale chamber to the top of the bale chamber, carrying with them the wire or twine.

There the knotting, or twisting device ties the twine. Then the needles withdraw to their home position until the metering wheel hits the trip rod again.

20

Figure 14: If the plunger should move at the wrong time, and the safety stop is activated, a shear bolt is sheared.

Therefore, if the position of the plunger is properly timed, the hay will be compressed into a well formed bale and at the same time the needles will go through the plunger slots and through the bale chamber with the minimum needle-to-hay contact (see Figure 15).

Figure 16: This needle went through the slot in the plunger and ended up in the knotter where the tying process takes place in a few seconds.

Next month we shall discuss the knotter, wire twister, bale preparation and the wire-tie baler. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information.

ProAgri Zambia 46

ProAgri Zambia 46

21

Make more from your crops Processing of oil seeds Part 21: Sunflower seed snacks

by Theresa Siebert, Petrus Britz, Pr Eng and Agrelek

Photo: Esther Merbt from Pixabay

22

ProAgri Zambia 46

T

he last edition in our oil seed processing series is about the product, sunflower seed snacks. We hope you found this series very informative and useful in your quest to process, and make more from your crops.

Non-oilseed type sunflower seed can be processed to produce a snack item that can be included as an ingredient in various products, for example muesli mixtures, snack bars or granola products. Small cracked or partially

steady supply of properly stored seeds.

Separation of sunflower seeds The harvested seeds are contaminated with foreign matter that needs to be removed.

The foreign matter includes metals, sticks, straw, animal residues, dust and stones. Separation is performed using various apparatus and methods including: • Magnets to remove ferrous metals;

foreign seeds as well as damaged, shrunken and broken sunflower seeds on the basis of their length; • Aspirators remove light, air-borne particles.

Proper cleaning will not only increase the processing capacity and improve the oil cake quality, but will also reduce the maintenance of the processing equipment.

Sunflower seeds Harvesting & storage Separation Cleaning Size grading (Dehulling) Roasting / Toasting Cooling (Fortification) Metal detection Packaging Labelling

Dehulled sunflower seed snacks. Photo: nuts.com. dehulled sunflower seeds are used as bird feed.

Harvesting and storage of sunflower seed The seed is harvested when the moisture content is approximately 10%.

To have seed available throughout the year, large quantities need to be stored. Proper storage is very important. Seeds may be spoiled as a result of mould, insect damage or overheating during storage. This may lead to damage ranging from a moderate increase in free fatty acid content in the oil, to seeds that are thoroughly spoilt and unfit for processing.

The moisture content is the single most important factor for storing seeds. The moisture content must be below 10% throughout the entire storage period. If the seeds are harvested at a moisture content above 10%, the seeds should first be dried and this adds to the processing cost.

The capital cost of proper storage may be substantial, but must be weighed against the overall investment costs. To make maximum use and profit from the capital invested in the processing machinery, processing needs to take place on a continuous basis and this is only possible with a

• •

•

Metal detectors to detect nonferrous metals; Destoners or a series of sieves (rotary or table sieves): coarse screens remove larger objects while fine screens remove particles smaller than the seed; Disc separators remove unwanted

Sunflower snack Figure 1: Process flow of sunflower seed snack production.

(Optional process) Cleaning of sunflower seeds Unwanted materials adhering to the separated seeds are removed by cleaning through a combination of scouring and aspiration.

Scouring Scouring is an abrasive treatment to remove dirt/soil and surface layers adhering to the surface of the seeds.

The seed is moved within a chamber by rotors to which beaters or pins are fixed, which rotates within a horizontal cylindrical wire mesh. Seeds enter one end and are thrown against the mesh. Cleaning is achieved by friction of seeds against each other or against the mesh. Dust and fine particles pass through the mesh screen and are collected separately.

Salted sunflower seed snacks.

Photo: diamondfoods.de.

ProAgri Zambia 46

Aspiration Aspiration removes particles loosened by scouring which are not removed from the seed during the scouring process. An air current is blown either through or over the seeds to lift off products which are lighter than the seeds.

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Size grading of sunflower seeds The sunflower seeds are separated into three size categories namely: • Large seeds (>8,7 mm diameter) – this group is usually roasted and used for in-shell purposes; • Medium seeds (between 7,1 and 8,7 mm diameter) – this product is dehulled, roasted and serves as a snack item; • Small seeds (<7,1 mm diameter) – small seeds are used as bird seed and in pet food.

Dehulling of sunflower seeds for processing Dehulling may be achieved in different

ways. One method involves passing the seeds through a number of drumshaped chambers with revolving plates that impel the seed against the walls by centrifugal force. The hulls are loosened by the friction created, and separated by a combination of forced air and gravity.

The rubber roll hullers are a pair of rolls equal in diameter, which turn in opposite directions at different speeds.

They must be replaced every 100 to 150 hours. The rough seeds are fed into the nip. The gap and the pressure exerted are adjustable to ensure best performance of the equipment. It is a highly effective method and more than

90% of the hull may be removed.

The disk sheller uses abrasion by a horizontal abrasive wheel covered with emery or carborundum, which rotates on a vertical axis below a stationary abrasive surface wheel. Rough seeds are added through an opening in the centre of the stationary top wheel.

Optimal hulling is achieved when the clearance between the discs is slightly more than half the grain length. The hulls are utilised in animal feeds as roughage, or for the manufacture of chemicals, or as a substrate for yeast cells.

Roasting of sunflower seed Two types of roasting methods can be used, namely oil roasting or dry roasting (toasting).

Oil roasting Oil roasting involves immersing the dehulled kernels in sunflower oil at 190 °C for a few minutes (until the kernels turn colour) followed by draining.

Large sunflower seeds are used for in-shell purposes.

Small sunflower seeds are used as bird seed.

24

Dry roasting / Toasting: The seeds are toasted at temperatures ranging from 240 to 350 °C for a period of 50 to 100 seconds, until the moisture content has been reduced to between 3 and 8%. The final moisture content depends on the use of the product. Fluid-bed dryers or rotary toasting ovens are used for the toasting of sunflower seed.

• Rotary toasting ovens ensure uniform drying and toasting by keeping the seeds suspended in heated air. The oven is heated by gas with ribbon style (drilled pipe) burners. The roasting oven consists of a rotating perforated drum of 1 to 1,5 metre in diameter and 3 to 6 metre in length, mounted and insulated in a contained unit. The size of perforations should be large enough to allow maximum airflow, but small enough to prevent the seeds from falling through or getting stuck in the holes. The rotating speed can be adapted to the production rate.

A rotary toasting oven.

Photo: seedoilpress.com.

ProAgri Zambia 46

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Fluid-bed dryers keep the product suspended in hot air during toasting by a force-convection process.

Hot air is forced through jet-tube nozzles into the dryer and dries the product uniformly. The air from jet-tubes is directed at a non-perforated belt or pan conveyor, which reflects the air, thus suspending and surrounding the product. The air is recirculated and maintained at a relative humidity level of 85 to 95%. Two or more ovens can be used in series, the last one being a cooler oven to prevent overcooking and burning.

necessary to protect the seeds from moisture, light and pests. Exclusion of oxygen by means of vacuum or nitrogen-flushed packages is required for properly packed seeds. Special laminated plastic and/or foil materials that are shaped into pouches or large bags may be used to accomplish the packaging requirements of the product. The packaged products should be kept at temperatures of between 0 and 5 °C for long term storage.

Legislation The processor should be familiar with and adhere to the laws and regulations that are applicable to the products manufactured, to ensure the safe and legal marketing of an oilseed product.

Next month we shall start a new series on the processing of condiments and seasonings. Published with acknowledgement to the ARC Agricultural Engineering for the use of their manuals.

Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information.

Chocolate covered sunflower seed snacks. Photo: timeinc.net.

Metal detection of toasted sunflower seeds The final product is passed over magnets to remove ferrous metals and metal detectors to detect nonferrous metals.

Packaging of sunflower seed snacks Packaging is defined as the containment of a food product in a protective barrier that prepares goods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and end-use. Sunflower seeds have a high polyunsaturated fatty acid content and are therefore susceptible to oxidation resulting in rancidity. Adequate packaging and storage conditions are

LITERATURE SOURCES 1. Anon. 1993. Oil Processing: Food Cycle Technology Source Books. Intermediate Technology Publications.

2. Catsberg, C.M.E. & Kempen van Dommelen, G.J.M. 1990.

Food Handbook. New York: Ellis Horwood.

3. Fellows, P. 1988. Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice. Chichester: Ellis Horwood, Ltd. 4. Gunstone, F. D. & Norris, F. A. 1983. Lipids in foods. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

5. Jooste, C. 1998. Oliesade: Veel groter wins met nuwe proses. Landbouweekblad.

6. Light, N. 1989. Longman Illustrated Dictionary of Food Science. New York: Longman

A fluid-bed dryer.

Photo: senieer.com.

Cooling of toasted sunflower seeds The seeds are cooled by blowing cool air over the product.

Fortification and salting of sunflower seeds (optional) The roasted seeds can be sprayed with a vitamin and mineral mixture, and may also be coated with sugar or candy (1 to 8% syrup). Alternatively, the seeds may be salted with 1,25% salt with or without additional antioxidants such as BHT or BHA.

Sunflower seed in neat sachets. Photo: Youtube.com.

ProAgri Zambia 46

25

Soil water sensors reveal subsoil conditions Part 4: Frequency delay measurements by means of capacitance and heat pulse measurements

by Frikkie Koegelenberg, Pr Eng and Hendrik Jordaan

26

ProAgri Zambia 46

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requency delay measurement is based on the measurement of the dielectrical constant of soil or materials. The frequency delay measurement is also called the radio frequency (RF) capacitance technique.

We thank the ARC Agricultural Engineering in South Africa for making their manual on soil water sensors available to the readers of ProAgri Zambia.

Capacitance technique is usually referred to as it measures the soil’s capacitance. Two, three or four electrode probes are inserted in the soil. The probes are collectively connected to a test pin and the probes of some types (Delta-T-probe) can screw in if it has to be replaced. The soil acts as a dielectricum by completing the capacitance circuit, which forms part of the feedback circuit loop of the high frequency transistor-oscillator. Highfrequency radio waves of between 100 and 150 MHz are also pulsed through the capacitance circuit. A natural resonant frequency is thereby established, which is dependent on the capacitance of the soil. The soil’s capacitance is related to the dielectricum constant, which is created by the geometry of the electrical field around the electrodes. A number of commercial apparatus using this technique are available, namely: Netafim Flori; SDEC’s HMS 9 000, DeltaT’s ThetaProbe and the Aquaterr probe.

An Aquaterr probe and meter.

Photo: instrumentchoice.com.au.

The Sentek’s EnviroSCAN test probe.

Photo: sentechnologies.com.

Figure 1: Example of a capacitance test probe (Theta-Probe).

A Delta-T ThetaProbe.

Photo: delta-t.co.uk.

A ThetaProbe measuring kit.

Photo: harvestagri.co.uk.

These capacitance probes are installed in the same way as TDR wave conductors, in the side of a profile hole.

Some manufacturers arrange the electrodes around a cylindrical test probe (rod) at different distances. The test probe is then lowered into an uPVC access tube into the soil. Soil water contents are then determined at the different depths according to the electrode spacing. The depths vary in increments of 100 to 200 mm, which can be specified by the user at some types and installed during manufacturing.

With other types, such as the ADCON C-probe and Sentek’s EnviroSCAN, the user can change the spacing.

The Troxler Sentry 200-AP apparatus and the DIVINER 2 000 (Sentek) uses an uPVC access tube similar to that of a neutron moisture meter to determine the soil water content at different depths. The test probe of this type of

ProAgri Zambia 46

A Sentek probe reads the moisture content at different soil levels.

Photo: SentekTalks.Youtube.com. apparatus fits tightly into the access tube. It ensures that the electromagnetic signal is radiated effectively. In stony soils, a paste is made from the soil. The access tube is then installed in the paste in the soil so that no vacuum exists around the access tube.

The test probe takes readings while it is lowered into the soil. A natural resonant frequency or frequency movement between the radiated and received (reflected) frequency is measured by the test probe. The Diviner apparatus measures soil water content in volumetric units at preprogrammed depths while it is lowered into the soil.

The data is then shown and stored on a data logger. The data can also be downloaded onto a computer and various analyses can be executed thereon.

The apparatus must be calibrated for the different soils for each depth.

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The calibration can also be made against a calibrated neutron water meter. The change of gross density with depth also requires calibration at every depth where the soil water content is to be determined. The sphere of influence of measurements (in the absence of vacuum) is not influenced by soil water content and is approximately 100 mm vertical and 250 mm horizontal in diameter. The apparatus is very accurate if it is correctly installed and calibrated.

The PR2/4 from Delta-T devices can take moisture readings on four levels. Photo: delta-t.co.uk.

Picture 5: An example of a capacitance probe.

Benefits i) Readings can be taken easily and quickly. The soil water content can be determined simultaneously at different depths. A few milliseconds are necessary for the Diviner apparatus to take the readings while the probe is sinking into the soil. The apparatus takes sixteen readings at different depths in less than two minutes. ii) The capacitance technique is very accurate if it is correctly installed and calibrated. iii) Accurate readings can be taken near the surface. Readings can be taken as shallow as 100 mm from the surface in increments of 100 to 200 mm. iv) The use of the apparatus is not a health hazard. v) Continuous data logging of the soil water content at different depths is possible. The probes can be connected to any type of data logger.

Disadvantages i) Probes must be placed in the soil very carefully and good contact must be ensured over the entire length of the probe. Vacuum along the rods can result in incorrect readings.

ii) Installation procedures of access tubes are critical. Problems are experienced with vacuum around the tube in stony ground. A paste must then be made of the soil to ensure good contact. iii) A hand test probe must fit tightly into the access tube. Vacuum around the probe gives inaccurate readings. iv) Systems that work at low frequencies (<20 MHz) are influenced by the soilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s salt content. Frequencies of 100 MHz are therefore normally used. v) Capacitance probes or combination rods are expensive.

Heat pulse measurements Heat pulse sensors or Phene cells are made of porous blocks into which two electrodes are implanted. These blocks are connected to an instrument that determines the water content of the soil. Heat pulse sensors are also made of stainless steel rods of 15 cm long and 10 mm in diameter. The temperature in the sensors is read before and after a small heat pulse. The size of the heat pulse transmitted by the soil is proportional to the water content that forms in the block. In the case of the stainless steel rod, the size of the reflected heat pulse is an indication of the water content of the sensor. This means that a wetter soil or medium will warm slower than a dry one. The increase in temperature (or cooling) is read with an accurate temperature sensor. It is calibrated at soil water content for the specific soil or sensor.

Benefits i) The heat pulse sensors (blocks) are relatively cheap and can be read with a variety of commercial resistance meters.

ProAgri Zambia 46

The working of heat pulse sensors or Phene cells. Photo: sciencedirect.com. ii) The sensors work over the entire soil water spectrum (from wet to dry) but the accuracy is better in the dryer portion of the spectrum. iii) The soil water content can continuously be read on the same spot for different depths. The sensors can be buried at any depth. iv) Both temperature and soil water content can be determined by the apparatus. v) It can be connected to a data logger to store data.

Disadvantages i) Sensors have a high power requirement if readings must be taken very regularly. ii) Each block must be calibrated individually. A small difference in measurement and depth influence the readings. iii) The heat pulse sensor must have good contact with the soil, which is not always possible. Poor contact results in incorrect readings. iv) The thermal conduction or conductivity readings are also influenced by other soil characteristics than by the water content. Organic materials and humus content can influence the readings adversely.

The higher the humus in the soil, the higher the registered water content. v) The sensors can also not be installed near the soil surface.

A portion of the heat pulse will escape above the surface and a lower reading is then obtained.

Next month we shall discuss the calibration of instruments.

Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information.

29

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ProAgri Zambia 46

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The manufacturer, Piket Implements, says, "It is simple really, we uphold our international standards, but we manufacture in South Africa which is much more cost effective.

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We have since appointed Dauerhaft Pty Ltd to spread our message throughout the rest of Africa by expanding into various African countries for the first time."

This is clearly a winning combination for the 80 year old manufacturer. Farmers are excited to see what else Piketberg has in store for them in the near future.

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ProAgri Zambia 46

All types of hybrid maize seed | Agricultural chemicals | Horticulture chemicals | Veterinary products Agricultural tools | Hand tools | Protective equipment | Fumigation | All types of seed

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Lime Your Fields, Get Better Yields

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ABAMIX

ABAMIX is a very good product for controlling mites, Diptera, Homoptera, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera pests such as leafminer, spidermite, pieris rapae (linnaeus), other pests of tomato, vegetables, fruits, maize, peas and other crops.

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