ProAgri BNZ 52

ProAgri B otswa n a / N am i b ia/ ia / Zi m b ab w e No 52

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Botswana page 13

Namibia page 19

Zimbabwe page 23

Organic vegetable production – what you should know

2024 prospects for African farmers

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www.proagri.co.za

Cover

W

e are standing before a new year, 365 days, each with a new opportunity of doing something that will inch you closer towards a better tomorrow.

Where do you see yourself within a years’ time?

I grew up on a farm, so I know each new year always brings hopeful optimism for those in agriculture. The year 2023 was a dynamic one, to say the least. Undoubtedly, we will be entering 2024 with a lot of issues creating uncertainty which will require the undivided attention of the whole of organised agriculture. It remains the duty and privilege of everybody involved in the agricultural industry to promote the positive characteristics of the sector.

While several African countries’ agricultural outputs are severely threatened by drought, the challenges of food prices for both the consumers and producers remains a concern. Temperatures are sweltering and rain in many parts remain absent. There will always be new challenges, but our farmers need to constantly adapt to the challenges and rise above them. During these challenging times we would like to encourage our farmers to keep their chins up despite battling against the harsh forces of nature.

The ProAgri team would like to wish all our readers, advertisers, and contribu-

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tors a successful, prosperous, and profitable year ahead. As we step into the promising fields of 2024, our agricultural community continues to sow the seeds of innovation, resilience, and sustainable practices.

The ProAgri vision goes beyond just a media company that prints and distributes articles and advertisements.

We are committed to keeping you up to date with the latest trends, technologies, and best practices across the agricultural industry.

With an ever-increasing audience and team, heading into 2024 we are even more committed to providing insightful content across all our platforms.

We look forward to a new year, covering some exciting stories and sharing the latest agricultural news with you. I wish every farmer and organisation in Africa a productive and bountiful year ahead - may you have good yields, stable input prices and ultimately viable prices for produce and livestock.

Keep an eye on our websites and platforms to stay up to date with the latest agricultural news and trends.

ProAgri greetings Bianca Henning bianca@proagri.co.za

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Agrico solves SKS Boerdery's irrigation needs Ahead of elections across Africa, agriculture demands its place in the sun What organic vegetable production really means Banana Production in Africa Women, youth look to the future of Africa's agriculture Africa's agriculture influencers keep hope alive How to choose if tilling or no-till cultivation is the way to go The future of Africa's agriculture trends Climate change hits Africa hardest

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

Too many farmers with centre pivot irrigation systems do not sleep well. They are lying awake because they are afraid of criminals targeting their machines to steal cables and other components. Now, however, with the new Agrico G4 centre pivot system, farmers can sleep soundly because thieves have been thwarted by the G4 – it is strong, tough, dependable, and specifically designed to withstand cable and component theft.

ProAgri B ot s wa n a/ a / N a m i b i a/ a/Zimbabwe

577 Rossouw Street, Die Wilgers, Pretoria +27 (0)79 515 8708 www.proagri.co.za Copyright © 2024. All rights reserved. No material, text or photographs may be reproduced, copied or in any other way transmitted without the written consent of the publisher. Opinions expressed are not necessarily those of the publisher or of the editor. We recognise all trademarks and logos as the sole property of their respective owners.

ProAgri shall not be liable for any errors or for any actions in reliance thereon.

ProAgri BNZ Editor Bianca Henning Reporters Benine Ackermann Maryna Steyn

> +27 82-326-2572 bianca@proagri.co.za > +27 73-105-6938 benine@proagri.co.za > +27 82-261-9177 maryna@proagri.co.za

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Agrico’s Web Control enables you to manage various pumps and the pivots, GPS system manages the pump’s speed and therefore the pressure to lower your energy usage. You can change the pivot's direction and keep an eye on energy use, everything from your cell phone or computer.

According to Polla this system is more efficient and in the end the goal is to run your business as efficiently as possible.

“I had a very good experience working with Willie and his team of engineer’s from Bellville. I only have praise for them. I do not think there ever was a problem and I hope this goes both ways.”

Agrico solves SKS Boerdery’s irrigation needs

by Natasha Pretorius

S

earching for an irrigation system that delivers maximum production and uses the least amount of energy, the Steenkamp brothers from SKS Boerdery in Ermelo did not have to look further than the industry leader in irrigation, Agrico.

Through collaboration with the company, they managed to find a costeffective and reliable solution that caters to all their irrigation needs.

SKS Boerdery was established in the nineties and over the years all three of the Steenkamp brothers joined the family farm. They mainly farm with grains and have a feedlot for their commercial livestock.

Polla Steenkamp explains that they first did their homework, because they were looking for a modern irrigation system. They realised that Agrico is the current leaders in terms of technology and design. Their modern systems coupled with antitheft properties, convinced them that this was the best solution for them.

“In the end there was no other choice for us than Agrico,” says Polla.

Willie Cilliers, Branch Manager of Agrico Ermelo, explained that Polla reached out to them for an irrigation system because they could not accomplish optimal crop yields with dry-land production in their area.

Africo G4 irrigation system thwarts theft!

The Agrico team suggested the G4 pivot and a new pump system for the farm.

Head of Mechanical Development at Agrico, Gerrie Herbst, was involved in the design of this pivot. The elegant design of the G4 tower allows span ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

widths of up to 70 m.

He explains that the three-legged centre of the G4 pivot system is unique.

“The G4’s centre is designed to safeguard your property against theft. All the cables and components, including the tension cable, are hidden in the tress structure. A panel cover hides the main panel and ensures that it is tamperproof.”

Apart from theft, load shedding is also one of this farm’s main challenges, with stage six load shedding sometimes leaving the farm without electricity for a long time.

Irrigation depends on power supply and that is why they decided to take this project on by excluding Eskom and running it by using generators and solar power. The solar power is used to move the pivots when they are not in use, this means they also do not have to start the generators for this.

Willie Cilliers, Agrico Ermelo Branch Manager; Johan Myburgh, Head Mechanical Engineer at Agrico; Gerrie Herbst, Head of Mechanical Development at Agrico; and Polla Steenkamp of SKS Boerdery.

Agrico has the irrigation solution for you

Although SKS Boerdery has a standard G4 pivot, adjustments had to be made to the system and pump room to meet the farm’s needs, and at times the team had to deviate from the original design. Polla says: “Every time when a challenge came up, the Agrico team analysed the situation and responded with positive feedback and solutions.”

They decided to also install a LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application) system to run the system at low pressure with little losses and high effectiveness. The crops planted on this farm also work well with the LEPA system.

And to crown it all, this system can be run from your phone to keep a watchful eye on your irrigation system.

The submersible pump that helps to support the pump station’s water needs.

For your optimal irrigation system talk to Agrico. Find contact details for your nearest branch on their website, www.agrico.co.za or learn about the different solutions they have for you.

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ProAgri BNZ 52

Ahead of elections across Africa, agriculture demands its place in the sun

by Marko Phiri

M

ore than a dozen African countries will hold elections in the year 2024, and on a continent plagued by a range of issues – from the high import bill of agriculture products to inflation to conflicts – sitting and aspiring political leaders have their plates full.

Experts are watching how this will influence the continent's food production sectors.

That agriculture is a big deal in Africa is stating the obvious, yet political candidates have preached economic rebirth without specific reference to which agriculture policies will spur that growth.

For example, in South Africa, where national polls are scheduled for later in the year, analysts have noted that persistent power outages have adversely affected agriculture production.

However, determined farmers are turning to their own resources to power their agriculture projects, and this is where investment in renewable energy infrastructure, such as solar energy, is making a difference. Yet, that has not been replicable on a wider scale as such infrastructure requires deep pockets.

Also of concern for South African farmers is broader agriculture infrastructure, such as dams and irrigation, with analysis from some banks noting that these issues have remained unresolved as the country approaches elections.

"Underlying infrastructure issues are unlikely to be addressed, as paralysis in an election year will mean limited progress," John Hudson wrote in a Nedbank analysis in November.

Neighbouring Botswana will also hold elections in the coming months, but the small Southern African country

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is not known for a vibrant agriculture sector, "due to the Kalahari Desert that occupies a large area of the country," as described by the United States Department of Agriculture.

The country relies instead on its famed tourism and diamond mining.

According to official statistics, Botswana's agriculture sector takes up three percent of the country's GDP and has attracted little attention during the campaign platforms of political parties.

However, the country is known for its animal husbandry and beef exports, and agriculture policies could have a bearing on its forex earnings and how locals are encouraged to upscale cattle ranching and poultry farming.

In Algeria, where polls are also scheduled for later in the year, agriculture accounts for about a third of the country's economic sector where onions, potatoes, watermelons, and wheat are among some of the biggest agricultural products.

Like many African countries, however, agriculture is not a major talking point, with contentious issues such as immigration hogging political campaigns. To highlight Algeria's reliance on food imports, Russia announced that it is eyeing USD 1,5 billion in agriculture exports to Algeria by 2030, at a time when the common sentiment across the global food production debate is that Africa should cut its food import bill and produce its own food.

In Ghana, where elections are also expected this year, local critics have commented that the country will continue seeking aid from institutions such as the International Monetary Fund until Ghana "prioritises agriculture".

From such sentiments, it is apparent that on the campaign trail, agriculture

is on the periphery of national political discourse. The World Bank says poor markets and transport are some of the issues that have stifled Ghana's agricultural growth. How political parties address this remains to be seen.

Mozambique, too, holds elections this year, and in a country ravaged by years of civil conflict, agencies say this has affected the agriculture sector where up to 36 million hectares of land is suitable for agriculture.

Despite that potential, only ten percent of that land is cultivated. The USAID says "Agriculture continues to be the mainstay of Mozambique's economy, contributing more than a quarter of its GDP and employing 80 percent of its labour force. The overwhelming majority of producers are subsistence farmers".

How elections will shape Mozambique's agriculture also remains to be seen, but what is clear is that subsistence farmers remain on the agenda for finance in a country where resources are scarce and must compete with reconstruction, public health, and defence among others.

In Rwanda, where economic stability and economic growth have been praised, the country heads to elections at a time when there are concerns that agriculture remains underfunded.

Last year there were calls to increase the sector's budget by 10 percent to ensure "that Rwandans have access to enough food" in line with the 2014 Malabo Agreement.

As African countries prepare for elections, observers will be watching how the agriculture sector is prioritised and how food production budgets are allocated in the hierarchy of needs.

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Food for Afric Africa:Sorghum a:Sorghum

by Tisha Steyn

Hand-winnowing is time-consuming hard labour but has been done for centuries since the crop was first harvested in Ethiopia a thousand years ago. (Source: Pixabay)

Although sorghum is more drought tolerant than maize, it thrives in warm tropical climates with adequate rainfall and in deep, well-drained sandy loam. (Source: Pixabay)

The grains can be winnowed by hand or machine before the dried grains are stored. (Source: Pixabay)

S

orghum (Sorghum bicolour), also known as great millet, durra and jowar, originated in North-Eastern Africa. It is a significant crop in SubSaharan Africa and millions of people around the world depend on it for food.

It is the fifth major staple cereal after wheat, rice, maize, and barley, and is cultivated worldwide in warmer climates in semi-arid tropical areas of Africa, Asia, and Central America. It can be cultivated in areas that are prone to drought and on marginal land that is not suitable for other grain crops.

It is a vital food and fodder cereal crop with the same nutritional value as maize. The leaves and stalks are also used as green or dry fodder, hay, or silage for livestock.

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Sorghum is the fifth major staple cereal after wheat, rice, maize, and barley, and is cultivated worldwide in warmer climates in semi-arid tropical areas of Africa, Asia, and Central America. (Source: Pixabay) Grains must be processed to break the waxy husk before being fed to cattle, otherwise most of the seeds will be swallowed whole, which may cause indigestion. It is also used to produce ethanol, grain alcohol, starch, adhesives, and paper.

Health benefits

Sorghum grains are richer in micronutrients than other grains. Half a cup provides 18% of the recommended daily dose of iron, 25% of vitamin B6, 37% of magnesium, and 30% of copper. It also contains significant amounts of phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and thiamine.

Half a cup (96 g) of raw sorghum

grains will provide one and a half cups of cooked sorghum. However, most people do not eat more than half a cup at one time, which will lower the calories and carbohydrates. Half a cup of raw grains (1,5 cups cooked) contains 316 calories, 69 g of carbohydrates, 7,5 g of fibre, 10 g of protein, 3 g of fat, 2 mg of sodium and 2,5 g of sugars.

Although sorghum provides these dietary benefits, it lacks sufficient vitamin A that is essential for preventing the risk of blindness and even death in children with a vitamin A deficiency.

According to a recent study, new sorghum varieties developed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) can help meet the nutritional needs of mothers and children in these mostly food insecure countries.

In these countries, diets are dominated by cereal grains high in carbohydrates, which may lead to obesity and nutrient deficiencies, especially vitamin A, iron, and zinc, which are among the leading causes of death for children under five years.

Many chronic diseases are caused by underlying inflammation. The antioxidants in sorghum can help combat cell damage, thereby reducing inflammation. It also improves blood glucose responses, which is good for people living with diabetes or prediabetes, preventing the latter from developing into diabetes.

Gluten-free sorghum is suitable for people who are allergic to gluten and suffer from celiac disease.

The high fibre content may help reduce the body fat percentage. The low sodium content is suitable for people on a low-sodium diet to control blood pressure, while sorghum increases the intake of potassium.

ProAgri BNZ 52

Cooked sorghum grains make a nutritious, high-protein addition to porridges, grain bowls, or pilaf that is usually made with rice.

Typically, one cup of raw sorghum is cooked in four cups of liquid. Rinse the grains before adding boiling water.

Bring back to boil and simmer uncovered on medium heat for about an hour.

Growing sorghum

Sorghum is a vital food and fodder cereal crop that is grown in Sub-Saharan Africa. (Source: Pixabay)

After harvesting, the grains are dried, which makes it shelf-stable so that it is available throughout the year. (Source: Pixabay)

Caution

It is, however, possible to be allergic to sorghum. Symptoms of an allergic reaction may include nausea, indigestion, vomiting, diarrhoea, and respiratory issues like coughing or wheezing. It is important to limit carbohydrate intake to prevent weight gain.

Preparing sorghum

After harvesting, the grains are dried, which makes it shelf-stable so that it is available throughout the year.

Dried grains should be stored in a resealable container with a tight-fitting lid. After cooking, it can be stored in the refrigerator for up to a week.

The different varieties of sorghum grains are defined by colour, including white, orange, tan, pink, red, and black. It is processed into many formats, including flour for bread and pastries, liquefied as syrup, pearled sorghum as a hot grain and popped as a snack. Popped sorghum and sorghum syrup are ready to eat. Sorghum flour can be used along with wheat flour for baking.

Sorghum is drought tolerant because of its deep root system. Although it performs better than maize in semiarid, drought-prone areas, it does not tolerate extended periods of drought.

It grows best at temperatures between 25 and 32 °C at seeding, and in day temperatures of 30 °C during growth.

It requires rainfall of about 400 to 750 mm per year but is sensitive to frost and sustained flooding.

If the crop is sown in the rainy season, it may require one to three irrigations depending upon the rains. For summer crops, six to seven irrigations may be carried out due to high temperature. Winter crops may need irrigation at 30 to 45 days (seedling elongation stage), at 60 to 65 days (reproductive or heading stages), 70 to 75 days (panicle emergence), and 90 to 95 days (grain development stage).

Sorghum grows well in different soils, but best in sandy loam with good drainage. A soil pH range of 5,5 to 7,5 is ideal. The soil should be ploughed and levelled with a fine tilth for weedfree sowing.

A seed rate of 35 to 40 kg per hectare is sufficient, and it should be carried out by drilling at a row-to-row distance of 25 cm and at a depth of no more than two to three cm. Seed broadcasting should be avoided.

Ten to fifteen tonnes of farmyard manure can be used on one hectare of land in preparation of sowing. Contact the agricultural extension officers in your area for more information on suitable weed, insect, and disease control.

The crop will be ready in single-cut varieties for harvesting at 65 to 75 days after sowing (50%, flowering stage), and in multi-cut varieties, the first cut should be done at 45 to 50 days, and subsequent cuts should be carried out at one-month intervals.

Sorghum is typically harvested in autumn, depending on the plant’s moisture content.

Depending on good farm management practices and a good variety, sorghum can yield up to 1 000 kg/ha.

Green matter yields are about 20 t/ha but may reach 75 t/ha under optimal growing conditions. Average yields of grain range from 0,5 to 0,9 t/ha in Africa.

Sorghum can be used in conservation farming. Planted in rotation with a legume crop, it will benefit from the nitrogen provided by the legumes.

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

Depending on good farm management practices and a good variety, sorghum can yield up to one tonne (1 000 kg) per hectare. (Source: Pixabay) After harvest, the stubble can be ploughed in to improve the organic status of the soil while limiting erosion.

Drought tolerant species improve water use efficiency.

Erramouspe, H. (2021) The Global significance of sorghum – Africa.

National Sorghum Producers https://sorghumgrowers.com/ magazine/the-global-signficanceof-sorghum-africa/ Heuzé, V. Tran, G. Lebas, F. (2015) Sorghum grain. Feedipedia, a programme by INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO https://www.feedipedia. org/node/224 Garone, S. (2021) Sorghum Nutrition Facts and Health Benefits.

Verywell Fit https://www.verywellfit.com/sorghum-nutrition-facts-and-healthbenefits-5093271 Paul, M. (2023) These new sorghum varieties might help subSaharan Africa’s nutritional needs.

Down to Earth https://www.downtoearth.org. in/news/world/these-new-sorghum-varieties-might-help-subsaharan-africa-meet-nutritionalneeds-91013

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What organic vegetable production really means (and is it worth considering)

by Maryna Steyn

O

rganic produce is a topic of interest for both consumers and growers across the globe. Owing to the low input costs of an organic approach to farming and the rising prices of fertiliser and seed, it has the potential to be a more lucrative venture. Additionally, it also has the benefit of producing healthier and sustainable food.

For smallholder farmers in African countries, the question arises: What does organic vegetable production really mean, and is it worth considering?

What is organic vegetable production?

Organic farming uses minimal intervention, by applying natural inputs and procedures to preserve soil health and fertility. The emphasis of organic farming is thus placed on using cultivation methods and input that do not use synthesised chemicals that break down the natural properties of the environment.

Growing vegetables organically has the benefits of improved water consumption, and helps farmers increase

their yields and profits in some cases.

Organic farmers use natural fertilisers such as compost or manure, and rely on crop rotation to further improve soil fertility. Pest management is also done without any harmful chemicals.

There is a risk of accidental poisoning or health deterioration associated with these chemicals and alternative, environmentally friendly methods lead to a healthier life and plant!

Inorganic vegetable farming, on the other hand, causes land and soil to degrade over time because of the use

Chickens roaming around a field can act as a natural pest control.

(Source: Pixabay)

Organic vegetable production doesn’t use synthetic fertilisers.

(Source: Markus Spiske on Pexels) 8

of artificial pesticides. The soil also becomes infertile due to exploitation.

Seeds that are genetically modified (GMOs) are also used. GMOs aren’t bad per se, as they are bred with the idea of giving farmers the strongest plants with the highest yields. The downside to this unnatural modification is that it breaks down the natural diversity and nutrition of the plant in question.

Furthermore, improvements in soil health also contribute to better carbon fixation which leads to enhancements in the environmental impact conventional farming has on climate change.

ProAgri BNZ 52

Organic farming in Africa To be an organic producer selling organic produce, the farm needs to be certified as organic by the local government or governing body for organic production. This is important because this official certification means that a farmer can place a higher asking price on organic produce, but this should not necessarily be the goal. Some of the challenges that Africa already faces concerning food security are access and affordability of food, therefore, asking for a higher price might not result in higher profits.

However, many African farmers already use organic farming practices, whether on purpose or not. The everincreasing cost of fertiliser to nourish specific vegetable crops is simply unrealistic for small-scale farmers.

Add to that the obstacles they face to get the fertiliser from the distributor when the infrastructure impedes their distribution. In Zimbabwe, for instance, farmers have chosen to rather plant crops from seeds that they kept from previous harvests to help ease the cost of seeds.

A recent study in Germany estimated that €4 billion can be saved if the agricultural industry employs more organic practices (organic livestock production included).

Key ways to adopt organic practices on your farm

Soil health:

Organic farming emphasises the importance of nurturing soil health through compost, cover crops, and crop rotation. Fermented manure from livestock can be used, ensuring that the manure has broken down and won't burn the roots of vegetables. You can also build your own composting heap to have a free supply of compost readily available. This is important because organic farming does not allow the burning of crop residue.

Soil moisture:

Planting cover crops when you have finished harvesting prevents erosion and helps the microbiome by promoting biodiversity. It assists with retaining soil moisture and adding nutrients to the soil.

Natural pest control:

Instead of relying on chemical pesticides, organic farmers use natural predators, companion planting, and other techniques to manage pests,

Whether you grow veggies in a greenhouse or open field, using organic practices is possible. (Sources: Vecteezy and Pixabay)

reducing the environmental impact.

Natural predators, for example, can be chickens grazing around the field and eating all the bugs that might damage your crops. A variety of strong-smelling plants can be intercropped to act as a natural repellent.

Polyculture: Organic farming encourages biodiversity, fostering a balanced ecosystem through planting a mixture of crops.

It also reduces the farmer's risk when pests or diseases occur, as these will not spread between crop types.

GMO-free:

Organic farming systems do not permit the use of genetically modified organisms. Ensure that the seeds planted for your vegetables are GMO-free, or consider planting heirloom seeds.

Remember, the transition to organic farming is often a gradual process.

Start by implementing changes on a small scale, monitor the results, and gradually expand your organic practices. Additionally, staying informed about organic farming principles and practices is crucial for success.

Sources: DeAndreis, P. (2023) Organic Farms produce less but are more cost-effective, study finds, Olive Oil Times. Available at: https:// www.oliveoiltimes.com/production/ organic-farms-produce-less-butare-more-cost-effective-studyfinds/117556#:~:text=Olive%20 Oil%20Times-,Organic%20 Farms%20Produce%20 Less%2C%20but%20Are%20 More%20Cost%20 Effective%2C%20Study,of%20 real%20costs%20and%20 yields.&text=A%20 decade%2Dlong%20study%20 in,double%20that%20of%20organic%20agriculture.

Farm conditions and solutions – zylem (no date) Zylem Plant and Soil Health. Available at: https:// zylemsa.co.za/farm-conditionssolutions/ Munthali, R. and et al (no date) 16 Factors Contributing to Adoption or Disadoption of Organic Agriculture in Zambia, CABI Digital Library. Available at: https:// www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/ pdf/10.1079/9781786399601.0209

Organic farming believes that you don’t feed the plant, you feed the soil.

Healthy soil produces healthy plants. (Source: Pixabay) ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

Organic farming practices (2018) Rodale Institute. Available at: https://rodaleinstitute.org/whyorganic/organic-farming-practices/

9

Banana Production in Africa part 1:

Nurturing a fruitful future Banana production in Africa has become a pivotal force in both local economies and global agriculture. This article explores the significance of banana cultivation on the continent, highlighting key aspects such as varieties grown, cultivation practices, economic impact, and challenges faced by farmers. The planning of banana production before the actual kick-off is the most crucial part of it all.

What actions to plan 1.

2.

Decide on a cultivar Identify where your bananas can be marketed 3. Decide on the size of land and spacing between plants 4. Obtain finance and buy inputs such as fertilisers and tissue culture plants 5. Buy land preparation equipment: tractors for ploughing, discing, et cetera 6. Plan labour 7. Buy and fetch planting material from a nursery 8. Plan how to get rid of weeds 9. Maintain and upgrade irrigation equipment and plan irrigation scheduling 10. Plan desuckering of the banana plants and selection of ratoon suckers. Removal of surplus and unwanted suckers from banana plants is known as desuckering. Ratooning is the number of bunches harvested by each banana stool by year.

11. Plan covering the bunches and propping the plants 12. Plan to harvest your bananas 13. Plan how to utilise the income 10

More on the spacing between plants:

Planning production and preparing the land

Plant spacing in cool areas at 1 666 plants/ha should be as follows: • 3 x 2 m if the highest gross margin is required.

• 5 x 3 x 1,5 m if mild tramline is preferred.

• 6 x 2 x 1,5 m if maximum accessibility and fruit quality is required.

How do you plan?

Use a calendar or a year planner to organise your actions.

Plant spacing in warm areas at 2 222 plants/ha should be as follows: • 3 x 1,5 m if wider rows are required for accessibility.

• 2,5 x 1,8 m if narrower rows are required for climatic protection.

(Source: Department of Agriculture SA)

Calendar/Year planner • Analyse the soil before planting – take soil samples to see if nematodes are present and which nutrients are lacking • Irrigate, rip, plough, ridge and disc the field. Apply lime, potash and phosphate with ploughing • Measure and start digging holes for planting • Plant, fertilise, irrigate the plants and hoe the weeds Diverse varieties Africa boasts a rich diversity of banana varieties. The most prominent is the East African Highland Banana, a staple food in many East African countries. Other varieties, including the Cavendish, plantains, and local cultivars, contribute to the continent's agricultural tapestry.

East African Highland banana The East African Highland banana is a starchy triploid banana cultivar ProAgri BNZ 52

originating from the African Great Lakes. The fruit is harvested green, carefully peeled, and then cooked and often mashed or pounded into a meal. In Uganda and Rwanda, the fruit is steam-cooked, and the mashed meal is considered a national dish in both countries.

Cavendish In Australia, Cavendish is the most common variety of banana. It grows on a more compact plant than earlier varieties and was developed to resist plant diseases, insects and wind storms. Cavendish is a mediumsized banana loved for its creamy, smooth texture and thin peel.

Plantain vs banana: What is the difference Plantain is usually larger than an average banana and has a much thicker, tougher skin. Plantains can be green, yellow, or dark brown when overripe. Green plantains contain much more starch than bananas and are not very sweet.

The darker the plantain's skin, the sweeter it gets. Cooking a ripe plantain intensifies its already sweet flavour.

Cultivation practices Banana cultivation in Africa is characterised by smallholder farmers utilising traditional farming methods alongside modern techniques. The crop is grown in diverse agriculturalecological zones, ranging from humid tropical regions to more arid landscapes. Sustainable farming prac-

tices, such as organic cultivation and agroforestry, are gaining traction.

Preparing the land Soil analysis for lime and phosphate is essential before planting. Add kraal manure or compost if available.

• Fertilise the soil using 4 bags of MAP fertiliser per hectare – add 2 bags of lime if the pH is low on soil analysis • Rip the field after fertilising to loosen the soil deep • Spray or disc if there are many weeds in the field • Measure the planting distance and dig holes for planting Economic impact Banana production plays a crucial role in African economies. It serves as a source of income for millions of smallholder farmers, providing employment opportunities and contributing to rural development. The export of bananas also enhances foreign exchange earnings for countries involved in international trade.

Research and innovation To address challenges in banana production, research and innovation are critical. Scientists and agricultural experts are working to develop disease-resistant varieties, improve cultivation techniques, and promote sustainable farming practices. Collaborative efforts between research institutions, governments, and farmers aim to build resilience within the banana industry.

Future prospects The future of banana production in Africa holds promise and potential.

Continued investment in research, technology adoption, and infrastructure development can bolster the resilience of this vital agricultural sector. Moreover, promoting sustainable practices and creating market linkages can ensure a more equitable distribution of benefits within the supply chain.

Challenges in banana farming Despite its economic significance, banana production faces several challenges. One of the primary concerns is the threat of diseases, such as Panama disease and Black Sigatoka. These diseases can devastate banana plantations, leading to substantial economic losses for farmers. Additionally, issues related to market access, infrastructure, and climate change impact the sustainability of banana farming.

In conclusion, banana production in Africa is a dynamic and integral component of the continent's agriculture. As African nations navigate the challenges and opportunities associated with banana cultivation, sustainable practices and collaborative efforts will be crucial in nurturing a fruitful future for both farmers and consumers.

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

This article is published with acknowledgement to the ARC-Institute for the use of their manuals.

For more information on banana production, visit the ARC’s website at www.arc.agric.za.

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Women, youth look to the future of Africa's agriculture

by Marko Phiri

s a new year begins, A young African farmers are expecting a change in fortune after what looked like a bleak 2023.

Even broader questions arise regarding how the continent will fare in the coming year, especially with numerous countries facing imminent drought conditions, calling for renewed efforts to ensure 2024 becomes a more productive agricultural year.

From poor access to financing their agriculture projects to climate change, young farmers had to deal with several frustrations that threatened ambitious projects.

Young farmers have not been shy to venture into new territory, moving away from traditional ways of doing business, away from growing only maize or tobacco, for example, and trying their hand at horticulture, fisheries, goats, piggery and rabbits.

Yet, in those ventures, they have been met with what looks like insurmountable odds, but the fighting spirit into 2024 remains evident.

While agencies and governments across the continent are promoting young farmers as the bedrock of Africa's food security efforts, these commitments have seen little progress according to researchers.

From multi-million dollar investments to driving the growth of African agriculture, young farmers still lack access to ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

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those funds, and it has been particularly worse for rural women where agencies continue to struggle with easing the burden of food insecurity for them.

For example, while agencies such as the African Development Bank (AFDB) have a comprehensive agenda to lure and finance women and youths in agriculture, the continental body has conceded the uphill task that remains in ensuring the realisation of that demographic dividend.

Agencies like the International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) emphasise the necessity of making the right investments to enable rural women, particularly, to contribute towards the eradication of hunger and to drive and scale up sustainable food production amidst such challenges as climate change.

According to the IFAD, smallholder farmers produce the bulk of food consumed globally, but with what has happened in previous years – with particular attention to last year – more investments will be required to support women and young farmers to realise their full potential.

Various sources state that Africa has 60 percent of the world's uncultivated arable land, exposing opportunities for young farmers as a new agricultural season beckons.

The agriculture sector accounts for 35 percent of Africa's GDP and employs more Africans than any other sector, and questions have been asked why the continent remains a major food importer.

For Joseph Kakoto, President of the Zimbabwe Young Farmers Association for Sustainable Development, issues such as delays in land preparation because of climate uncertainty can be addressed by having reliable meteorological stations across the country.

There must also be an adequate supply of input to forestall delays in land preparation, Joseph believes.

Joseph’s concerns remain urgent for the growth and promotion of youth and women in agriculture, especially considering the vast amount of uncultivated land highlighted by agencies.

Agricultural economists have already noted that African countries lack effective climate adaptation models, while mitigation efforts have also fallen short.

And for young farmers such as Joseph, this has led to little participation in the sector by youths.

It is within this context that the AFDB has stated what seems obvious, that "with better access to input, training, and finance, smallholder farmers could transform the sector".

Looking into the new year, questions will continue being asked about what has stopped or slowed the realisation of that ideal.

At the Africa Agri Investment Indaba held in Cape Town in November 2023, experts agreed that the high risks involved in supporting smallholder farmers are something that needs to be addressed urgently.

One delegate's remarks were particularly telling: If the new year is to present a change in the continent’s agriculture sector, everyone from

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

This is the narrative young farmers are expected to change and all hope is not lost. experts to smallholder farmers and governments keeps repeating the same thing about Africa's potential to feed itself and beyond, yet that potential has lingered for centuries.

Now with the active promotion of young farmers to contribute to Africa's food production, it means fresh challenges to already long-running issues that have stalled that growth.

Agencies such as the UN's Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) already have scores of youth-oriented farming initiatives with strict timelines under its Strategic Framework 2022-2031 seeking to boost youth participation in agriculture.

The new year could present new approaches and renewed determination to achieve what seems to be quite reachable yet elusive goals.

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Africa's agriculture influencers keep hope alive

by Marko Phiri

A

frica's agriculture influencers are not letting any bad energy, bad economy, or bad weather stand in the way of their drive to keep punching.

The continent has had its fair share of social, political and economic hardships, and added to that, the climate crisis has escalated the need for food production to secure livelihood.

However, this has not dampened the spirits of agriculture influencers – men and women who seek to take farming and agriculture to another level despite all the bad press the continent has hogged. Some of these influencers could well be said to be punching above their weight, but one thing is clear: They won't go down without a fight. High on the agenda is the drive to make the coming year an opportunity to prove that the past does not necessarily determine the future.

With a somewhat bleak and mixed bag 2023, the beckoning year offers a chance to regroup and make the best of the projects they have pursued with different outcomes. African governments and agriculture ministries are ever on the lookout for success stories from young farmers to market agriculture as the new business frontier for youthful entrepreneurs, but while such success stories do exist, the failures also exist alongside those triumphs.

It is such false steps that have seen a slow uptake of farming among youths, as influencers and agriculture ministry officials across the continent agree. However, influencers who have taken to various social media platforms

to showcase their projects have always stressed the same thing: agriculture or farming is not for get-rich-quick types, and this means slugging it out against heavy hitters backed by buckets full of agriculture finance.

Stories of failure and heartbreak became normal in 2023 – as is normal in any business endeavour – and a browse through social media feeds of young farmers tells stories of how difficult it has been to make things work.

Yet these young influencers agree that in agriculture things do not always work out as planned. Those who fared better were and remain at hand to offer how-to and how-not-to tips.

On Facebook, platforms such as Africa Farmers Club with more than 200 000 followers, have become a marketplace of ideas, transcending time and space to connect the continent's agri entrepreneurs. It is here where agriculture influencers have found their niche, and ahead of the new year, farming advice has become even more pertinent. African Farming. com has more than 141 000 followers on Facebook and is one of the premier places for young and old farmers to share their knowledge. Farm Africa has more than 20 000 Facebook followers, while Instagram boasts more than 4500 followers, establishing a network of influencers eager to contribute to the continent's food production efforts.

The Network of Asian and African Agriculture Professionals (NAAP) has over 12 000 Facebook members and its stated goal is to "synergise person-

to-person relationships between Asian and African professionals to promote entrepreneurship and crowdsource knowledge and technology dissemination in the agriculture sector in Africa".

While agriculture influencers have taken to Facebook in their numbers, they can also be found on X, formerly Twitter, sharing their activities amid the attendant hardships that have cowed both established and aspiring farmers.

Accounts such as Asante Veterinary Consultants which specialise in livestock farming, have thousands of interactions and have advised farmers about the need for vigilance in the coming year. Livestock is one of the most difficult enterprises as losses can lead to a total shutdown of operations.

Another influencer who goes by the handle @CTRIG.SOL declared in a recent post: "Farmers, start your engines. Season 3 is here and I'm more determined than ever."

It is one of many examples of how influencers are refusing to let a bad year decide the future of African agriculture. Individuals and stand-alone organisations are driven by a passion to make the best of the continent's vast arable land.

Even as African countries emerge from COP28 where influencers have also been vocal about rich countries remaining slow in meeting their financial obligations to poor developing countries, the new year does not promise any change of fortunes regarding the bleak climate forecasts.

Africa's agriculture influencers are driving interest among smallholders.

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How to choose

if tilling or no-till cultivation is the way to go

by Maryna Steyn

T

o till, or not to till? That is the question many small to medium-scale farmers may ask. In Africa, farmers understand the importance of regenerative agriculture more than ever before as they see the nutritional characteristics of the soil decline. For many, the choice is clear: There is no choice, only no-till cultivation.

Realistically speaking, choosing notill methods are not as clear-cut today.

Luckily, in the information age, farmers across Africa can feel empowered in their choice as they have access to information about the different methods and can reach specialists who can advise them on the best practices.

Tilling or no-till are still toiling to some degree Whether you choose the one or the other, many farmers can argue that the result is still the same: a completely prepared and planted soil bed, ready to sprout after the first rains.

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

Traditional tilling methods aim to form a fine, porous seedbed without any clods. It uses tools such as ploughs, harrows, tillers, cultivators and at the end of the process, rollers that break up the hard soil crust or hardpan layer and aerate it for roots to easily spread, incorporating organic matter, and enhance soil distribution.

No-till cultivation, however, means just what the description says. None of the above equipment is used. For this reason, it is necessary to consider because it involves minimal disturbance of the soil. Instead of turning over the entire field, this method leaves the previous crop residue on the soil surface.

No-tilling means that the residue acts as a natural mulch, reducing erosion, improving water retention, and promoting soil structure.

This method also assists in preserving beneficial micro-organisms and fungi in the soil, enhancing overall soil health. The downside, however, is

that weeds are harder to control and specialised equipment is used to drill seeds into the soil. These include seed drills, no-till planters and minimum tillage equipment.

The reason why no-till cultivation is often chosen is because traditional tilling comes with its downsides. One major drawback is the potential for soil erosion. When the soil is exposed, it becomes vulnerable to wind and water erosion, leading to the loss of valuable topsoil. Tilling also disrupts the soil structure, reducing water retention and increasing the risk of drought stress.

No-till cultivation has proven itself across Africa Africa's agricultural transformation largely depends on the widespread adoption of conservation agriculture and no-till practices, according to Saidi Mkomwa, Executive Director of the African Conservation Tillage Network 19

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(ACT). Over 25 African countries have embraced conservation agriculture as a fundamental element of community-supported farming, leading to a remarkable 210% increase in no-tilled acres since 2008-09. Notably, 99% of these new no-till practitioners are small-scale growers, each cultivating approximately 2½ acres.

In Kenya, no-till has shown potential for a 300% increase in yields, as shared by local farmers who have experienced improvements in crop yields, soil health, and community well-being.

Meanwhile, Zimbabwe aims to train nearly 2 million farmers in conservation agriculture, striving to climate-proof agricultural production for the majority of smallholder farmers, who constitute 80% of the farming population.

The history of no-till cultivation in South Africa can be traced back to Dr JB Mallet's research at Cedara in the 1970’s. His studies in the USA and the UK led to the adoption of no-till technology for South African conditions.

No-till involves minimal soil preparation, relying on chemicals for weed control and preserving a uniform mulch cover from the previous crop. Longterm commitment to no-till systems in South Africa has demonstrated profitability through various trials.

Farmers in Uganda, Algeria, Lesotho, and Zambia have reported environmental and economic benefits from adopting no-till, including improved crop emergence, reduced labour requirements, and enhanced soil structure. Despite its advantages, no-till farming requires specialised equipment such as disc seeders or agricultural drills, with some potential drawbacks, including an initial investment in machinery and a learning curve for farmers transitioning from conventional tillage.

Is no-till cultivation the better choice?

When deciding between tillage and notill practices for your farm, you must consider factors such as soil health, equipment availability, and costs. The specific characteristics of your soil determine what is the best practice to adopt. Sandy soils, for instance, benefit from tilling to improve water retention, while heavier clay soils may benefit from the structure-preserving aspects of no-tilling.

When it comes to the financial implications and available resources when making your decision, this can also influence the decision. While tilling equipment may require a substantial initial investment, ongoing costs for fuel and maintenance can add up.

No-tilling equipment, although initially pricier, may result in long-term savings and reduced environmental impact.

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

Minimal cultivation is also an option if you are not ready to completely switch to no-till cultivation.

This is a ripper with rollers that prepare the soil for the planter through minimal cultivation.

(Source: Ripper Tillage Equipment)

Sources:

No-till cultivation improves soil health and promotes the soil microbiome too. (Source: Pixabay)

Botha, P. (2021) Make the choice: No-till or a conventional tillage system? Grain SA. Available at: https://www.grainsa.co.za/makethe-choice-no-till-or-a-conventional-tillagesystem (Accessed: 15 December 2023).

Conservation AG Shining in Zimbabwe (2021) No-Till Farmer. Available at: https:// www.no-tillfarmer.com/articles/10714conservation-ag-shining-in-zimbabwe (Accessed: 15 December 2023).

The history of no-till in South Africa (no date) KZN Depart of Agricultural and Rural Development. Available at: https:// www.kzndard.gov.za/images/Documents/ researchandtechnologydevelopment/publications/technicalinformation/PROTECT_ YOUR_CABBAGE_CROP_FROM_APHIDS.pdf (Accessed: 15 December 2023).

No-till cultivation requires specialised planters like this Jumil Global planter.

Furthermore, assess your climate, water management needs, and crop rotation plan. Think about the size of your farm and whether you prefer a system that reduces soil erosion and promotes sustainability. It is wise to consult with local experts and weigh personal preferences and long-term goals. Keep in mind that transitioning to no-till may have a learning curve, so a trial period can help evaluate the practicality and benefits of each method in your specific farming context.

Ultimately, the choice between tilling and no-tilling should align with your long-term sustainability goals. Assess the impact of each method on soil health, water conservation, and overall farm resilience. No-tilling, with its focus on conservation and reduced environmental footprint, often aligns well with sustainable farming practices.

Mncube, N. (2021) No-till farming: The benefits and drawbacks, Food For Afrika. Available at: https://foodforafrika. com/2021/11/22/no-till-farming-the-benefits-and-drawbacks/ (Accessed: 15 December 2023).

No-till makes farming possible, profitable amid Africa’s changing climate (2022) Agri News Net. Available at: https://farmingportal.co.za/index.php/agri-index/68crops/7588-no-till-makes-farming-possibleprofitable-amid-africa-s-changing-climate (Accessed: 15 December 2023).

Paukner, M. (2021a) Till key to Africa’s agricultural transformation, No-Till Farmer.

Available at: https://www.no-tillfarmer. com/articles/11066-no-till-key-to-africasagricultural-transformation (Accessed: 15 December 2023).

Paukner, M. (2021b) Till provides potential for 300% yield increases for Kenyan farmers, No-Till Farmer. Available at: https:// www.no-tillfarmer.com/articles/10914no-till-provides-potential-for-300-yieldincreases-for-kenyan-farmers (Accessed: 15 December 2023).

Paukner, M. (2021c) Till provides potential for 300% yield increases for Kenyan farmers, No-Till Farmer. Available at: https:// www.no-tillfarmer.com/articles/10914no-till-provides-potential-for-300-yieldincreases-for-kenyan-farmers (Accessed: 15 December 2023).

Till or no-till farming: Opening up the debate (2023) Climate Farmers. Available at: https://www.climatefarmers.org/blog/tillor-no-till-farming-opening-up-the-debate/ (Accessed: 15 December 2023).

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The future of Africa's agriculture trends

by Marko Phiri

T

rends to watch as Africa seeks to increase food production and climate-proof its agriculture sector will include new technologies and information sharing, researchers and agencies say.

One of the numerous factors that have hindered Africa's millions of strong smallholders and subsistence farmers is the lack of information, a point reiterated in multiple studies.

Moving forward from COP28, agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) predict that information and innovation will dominate agriculture in 2024.

Beyond the usual climate hot buttons such as emissions, mitigation, adaptation, loss and damage, FAO says artificial intelligence and the role of nuclear science are among some of the most urgent issues that will play an increasing role in the future of global food production.

Research and innovations are pivotal for African countries; they will drive and improve the sector despite years of struggling eff orts to secure financial support.

The continent is already dealing with electricity challenges that have had a negative impact on agriculture. New investments in nuclear and other clean energy projects will change the characteristics of Africa's food production.

The International Energy Agency forecasts that renewable energy “capacity will triple by 2030 led by solar and wind, complemented by growth in nuclear".

This is expected to further raise electricity generation from 71% in 2030 to 100% in 2050.

Experts say Africa should not be left behind in that ambitious growth if the continent's agriculture is also to grow.

In an era where Artificial Intelligence (AI) is dominating international conversations across various sectors, including health and daily interactions, the role of AI in shaping African agriculture has become a focal point in the continent's aspirations for food security.

At COP28, FAO said that there is a need to transform global food systems in the face of climate change and also ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 52

address gaps and challenges in food production efforts.

It is one of the issues discussed at several side events organised by FAO at COP28, emphasising new approaches to agriculture and climate resilience at a time when poor countries have been left behind by technological advances.

FAO organised the “Launch of the High-level Panel Investment Action Plan and Financing Dialogue” which focused "on identifying key finance, policy, innovation, and knowledge interventions that would enhance climate resilience and adaptation on the continent.

The World Food Programme (WFP) has also added its voice to the urgency of innovation, identifying this as one of the major responses to climate change.

At COP28, WFP organised the Innovation 4 Adaptation: Tackling the Climate and Hunger Emergencies, which invited "participants to engage with and support innovative solutions and

For perspective, the United States is reported to have hundreds of local weather stations that allow localised monitoring, but some African countries are lucky if they have more than five serving the whole country.

According to economist Michael Kremer's Innovation Commission for Climate Change (Food Security and Agriculture), some of the areas that need attention include: "Helping farmers and communities implement better rainwater harvesting, lowering the cost of digital agriculture that can help farmers use irrigation, fertiliser and pesticides most efficiently, encouraging production of alternative proteins to reduce demand for livestock, and providing insurance and other social protections to help farmers recover from extreme weather events."

The Innovation Commission's brief is to promote "innovation development and scaling at the intersection

Nuclear plant in South Africa.

Source: Online

Young farmers are expected to play an increased role in innovation and technology. Source: Online

approaches for reducing hunger and promoting climate-sensitive food security and climate adaptation measures".

This has become even more pertinent for African countries emerging from a cycle of climate-related weather changes that have upended food production.

One of the areas that have become a focal point is Africa's usually unreliable weather forecasts and early warning systems that have wreaked havoc on agriculture. It is one of the areas that emerged at COP28.

of climate change, food security, and agriculture". These are precisely the areas that have always lagged, as governments struggle to pool resources to meet those needs, and it is hoped that international agriculture finance will help meet these goals.

It is estimated that by 2050, one in four people in the world will be living on the African continent, highlighting the need for the continent to be able to feed itself, and also addressing the areas of concern raised by researchers and agencies.

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ProAgri BNZ 52

Climate change hits Africa hardest T

he 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference (UNFCCC), or Conference of the Parties (COP28) took place from 30 November until 12 December in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.

This conference was attended by 60 000 people and climate financing lobbyists tried hard to reach some measure of commitment to financing aimed at mitigating the current and looming challenges facing climate-vulnerable countries.

Sub-Saharan African countries rely on agriculture, which contributes up to 60% of some countries’ gross domestic product. Climatic change has an increasing impact on agriculture and therefore also the lives and well-being of millions of people on the continent.

Agriculture relies heavily on climatic factors and is therefore highly vulnerable to changes in rainfall, temperature, and extreme weather events. These factors have already been responsible for at least a thousand deaths and millions of people being seriously injured, homeless and hungry.

The slow rate of technological advancement, such as the lack of communication, little or no awareness of the occurrence and impact of climate change, unstable government policies

and political instability are also hindering aid programmes. Add to this international funding that is slow to reach those most severely affected.

The face of climate change in Sub-Saharan Africa

Global temperatures are increasingly rising at an unprecedented rate, and these are expected to accelerate despite the possible restraint of greenhouse gas emissions. An increasingly warm climate is expected to lead to more frequent droughts and desertification, while higher vapour pressure leads to hurricanes and tropical cyclones that cause devastating floods.

Climate change has led to increased temperatures in eastern, southern, and western African countries. Declining rainfall impacts western and southern Africa most, and in Madagascar, South Africa, Malawi, and Zimbabwe some provinces are rapidly drying out. The increasing number of droughts leads to the decline of surface water which is critical for farming, fishing, and hydroelectricity, especially in central Africa.

Prolonged heat and lack of rain cause droughts, which are taking the largest toll on lives and livelihoods, threatening

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by Tisha Steyn

to undo progress during the past three decades to reduce infant mortality and malnutrition and expanding life expectancy. Countries that are the worst affected include the Sahel and south eastern Africa, especially in Niger and further south in Eswatini and Lesotho.

On the other hand, some countries face a huge increase in rainfall, which equally impacts agricultural production.

Floods and storms are the most common natural disasters in Sub-Saharan Africa, where they destroy or seriously damage infrastructure, especially in countries like the Comoros, Madagascar, Malawi, and Mozambique that bear the brunt of tropical cyclones from the Indian Ocean. Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone are prone to storms from the Atlantic Ocean, while large coastal cities, including Abidjan, Accra, Dakar, Dar es Salaam and Lagos are vulnerable to floods from rising sea levels.

Floods can also spread diseases by creating a breeding ground for mosquitoes, which carry different deadly diseases like malaria and dengue fever.

Floods also contaminate drinking water, especially in countries with poor water supply and nearly non-existent sanitation.

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Zimbabwe

Funding could help improve rural infrastructure that can promote economic growth, reduce poverty, and make rural communities more resilient.

Climatic change has an increasing impact on agriculture and therefore the lives and well-being of millions of people on the African continent.

Adaptation and mitigation

Efforts to adapt to and/or mitigate climate change in Sub-Saharan Africa include sustainable agricultural practices, reforestation, investment in renewable energy sources, improved water management, and the development of early warning systems for extreme weather events.

Yet, research has found that farmers are not using effective adaptation strategies. These strategies include planting drought-tolerant crops as well as cover crops to prevent soil from being exposed to the sun and to retain moisture in the soil.

Mitigation programmes, including water management, soil preservation, afforestation and reforestation, carbon pricing and recycling, are also designed to maximise water use and to preserve the soil.

Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees where there has been no recent tree cover. Trees fight climate concerns by improving the soil quality and organic carbon levels and preventing desertification.

Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests or woodlands that had been depleted by clearcutting for fields or harvesting of firewood.

Carbon pricing (or CO2 pricing) is another way to address climate change.

The cost is applied to greenhouse gas emissions to encourage polluters to reduce the burning of coal, oil and gas, which are regarded as the main drivers of climate change. A carbon price usually takes the form of a carbon tax or a Cap and Trade system usually via an emissions trading scheme (ETS), a requirement to purchase allowances to emit.

Adaptation is too slow, while mitigation measures have not yet been embraced by farmers in Africa.

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The increasing number of droughts leads to the decline of surface water which is critical for farming, fishing, and hydroelectricity, especially in central Africa.

An increasingly warm climate is expected to lead to more frequent droughts and desertification.

Consequences of climate change on agriculture and communities Climate change already has had and is projected to continue having significant impacts on agricultural activities in SubSaharan Africa. Some of these effects include: Increased temperatures: Rising temperatures contribute to heatwaves, exacerbating health issues and affecting agriculture, especially in already arid regions. This can lead to reduced crop yields, affecting food security.

Droughts and desertification: Irregular rainfall patterns and prolonged droughts have become more frequent, leading to water scarcity and desertification. This impacts agriculture, water availability, and livelihoods, causing food and economic crises.

Floods and heavy rains: Some areas experience increased rainfall and flooding. These events can destroy infrastructure, homes, and crops, leading to displacement, economic losses, and increased disease risks.

Rising sea levels: Coastal regions in Sub-Saharan Africa are particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels, which threaten homes, infrastructure, and vital ecosystems. This can lead to displacement and loss of livelihoods, especially for communities dependent on coastal resources.

Impact on biodiversity: Climate change threatens the unique biodiversity of Sub-Saharan Africa. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can disrupt ecosystems, leading to shifts in habitats, loss of species, and reduced availability of resources for both wildlife and humans.

Health risks: Climate change contributes to the spread of diseases like malaria and dengue fever as changing temperatures create more favourable conditions for disease-carrying vectors such as mosquitoes. Additionally, extreme weather events can result in injuries, mental health issues, and the spread of waterborne diseases.

Economic challenges: Agriculture is ProAgri BNZ 52

a significant sector in many Sub-Saharan African countries. Climate change impacts crop yields, leading to decreased agricultural productivity and income for farmers. This can exacerbate poverty and food insecurity.

Conflict and migration: Competition over dwindling resources like water and arable land, compounded by environmental stressors, can contribute to social tensions, conflicts, and migration within and across borders.

Adequate measures

International cooperation and financial support are crucial in helping these regions adapt to and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

Governments, international organisations, local communities, and other stakeholders need to develop strategies to help vulnerable farmers to adapt to prevent immense agricultural losses and ultimately food insecurity, which at present already impacts many people worldwide. Several programmes that are already in place are successful only to some extent.

The review of studies showed that

Sub-Saharan Africa could develop economically if rural farmers took more effective measures against climate change to improve farm productivity. In many instances, farmers need guidance and financial aid to assist with putting these measures in place.

Governments and other stakeholders must strengthen institutions for policy development and implementation.

Coordinating climate change adaptation efforts and sustainable agricultural practices can improve farm productivity, thereby increasing food security and better health.

Improving rural infrastructure could promote economic growth, reduce poverty, and make rural communities more resilient.

Initiating public welfare programmes would improve access to finance, markets, education, and climate information, thereby enhancing social protection.

Establishing more plantations and maintaining existing ones would help absorb the impact of climate change on agriculture and promote economic development. Afforestation and reforestation can also help absorb carbon and conserve biodiversity.

References Adapting to Climate Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. (n.d.) International Monetary Fund. African Dept. https://www.elibrary.imf.org/display/ book/9781513536835/ch02.xml Clarke, R.H., Wescombe, N.J., Huq, S., Khan, M., Kramer, B., Lombardi, D. (2023) Climate loss-and-damage funding: a mechanism to make it work. Nature https://www.nature.com/articles/ d41586-023-03578-2 Kuhl, L., Ahmed, I., Rahman, M.F., Shinn, J., Arango-Quiroga, J., Huq, S. (2023) Climate loss-and-damage funding: how to get money to where it’s needed fast. Nature https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-03605-2?utm_ source=Live+Audience&utm_ campaign=638290a729-briefing-dy20231123&utm_medium=email&utm_ term=0_b27a691814638290a729-50597452

Climate change has led to increased temperatures in eastern, southern, and western African countries.

Omotoso, A.B., Omotayo, A.O. (2023) Climate change and farming: economists warn more needs to be done to adapt in sub-Saharan Africa. The Conversation https://theconversation.com/ climate-change-and-farming-economists-warn-more-needs-to-be-done-toadapt-in-sub-saharan-africa-215631?utm_ medium=email&utm_campaign=Latest%20 from%20The%20Conversation%20for%20 November%2016%202023%20-%20 2796728302&utm_content=Latest%20 from%20The%20Conversation%20for%20 November%2016%202023%20-%20 2796728302+CID_7cf56b25f3889b9a7db c0ded2a99bfa1&utm_source=campaign_ monitor_africa&utm_term=Climate%20 change%20and%20farming%20economists%20warn%20more%20needs%20 to%20be%20done%20to%20adapt%20 in%20sub-Saharan%20Africa Omotoso, B., Lesoalo, S., Olagunju, K.O., Tshwene, C.S., Omotayo, A.O. (2023) Climate change and variability in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review of trends and impacts on agriculture. ScienceDirect https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/abs/pii/S0959652623016451 https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jclepro.2023.137487 The cost of the climate crisis? 20 million homeless every year. (2019) World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/12/extreme-weather-climatechange-displaced/

Developing countries in Africa pay the price of climate change that is not caused by them, but by industrialised nations that pollute air, water, and soil.

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What is COP28 and why is it important?

(2023) United Nations. https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/11/1144042

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